Study sample (n = 80).
\r\n\tNearly 25% - 30% of the world population is affected by neurological diseases exerting a hard financial strain on the healthcare system. The costs are estimated at around $800 billion annualy, expected to exponentially increase as the elders, at high risk of debilitating neurological diseases, will double by 2050. A varied spectrum of neuroprotective strategies has been suggested, including combined antioxidative-anti-inflammatory treatments, ozone autohemotherapy, hypothermia, cell therapy, the administration of neurotrophic factors, hemofiltration, and others. Distressingly, none of the currently available neuroprotective approaches has so far proven to prolong either life span or the cardinal symptoms of the patients suffering from brain injury. Last but not least, translational studies are still lacking.
\r\n\r\n\tThe book aims to revisit, discuss, and compile some promising current approaches in neuroprotection along with the current goals and prospects.
",isbn:"978-1-83880-440-4",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-439-8",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"10acd587ca2c942616bfc09c4b79df39",bookSignature:"Dr. Matilde Otero-Losada, Dr. Francisco Capani and Dr. Santiago Perez Lloret",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8087.jpg",keywords:"IKKβ/NF-κB pathway, neuroendocrine studies, anti-inflammatory agents, Bipolar disorder, oxidative metabolism, metabolic syndrome, Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, neurotrophins, growth factors, ATP-mediated calcium signalling, glutathione peroxidase",numberOfDownloads:162,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 10th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 1st 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 30th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 18th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 18th 2020",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"193560",title:"Dr.",name:"Matilde",middleName:null,surname:"Otero-Losada",slug:"matilde-otero-losada",fullName:"Matilde Otero-Losada",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/193560/images/system/193560.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Matilde Otero-Losada graduated at the School of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, University of Buenos Aires (UBA) Argentina; pursued her studies in Neuropharmacology getting her Sci.D. in Neuropharmacology (UBA, Argentina); and completing her Ph.D. in Psychiatry at the Wolverhampton University, WLV, UK. \r\nHer following studies in Psychometrics and Statistical Methods, Radioisotopes and Radiochemistry, Signal Processing and Microcomputers, took her to the University of California San Diego (UCSD) for training in human Psychophysics. \r\nBack in Argentina, she carried on studying smell, taste and trigeminal perception at the Hospital de Clínicas, UBA. \r\nShe focused on the study of metabolic syndrome, soft drinks and cardiovascular-renal morbidity for the last ten years, and in the last two years she is back to her roots: Neurosciences. \r\nWith over 90 papers published in prestigious journals indexed in PubMed, Embase and Scopus and book chapters authored, as Senior Researcher of the National Research Council (Argentina), she customarily reviews manuscripts and is acknowledged for her scientific writing, and editing capacities.",institutionString:"University of Buenos Aires",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null}],coeditorOne:{id:"120703",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Capani",slug:"francisco-capani",fullName:"Francisco Capani",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/120703/images/system/120703.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Francisco Capani graduated at the School of Medicine, University of Buenos Aires, (UBA) Argentina and completed his doctoral studies in Neurosciences at the Institute of Cell Biology and Neuroscience Prof E. De Robertis, School of Medicine (UBA), Argentina. Then he moved abroad to perform his postdoctoral studies at the University of California San Diego (UCSD-NCMIR) and the Karolinska Institute, Department of Neuroscience. Over an eight-year period, his research focused on synaptic organization, combining electron tomography, 3-D reconstruction, and correlative light and electron microscopy techniques. Upon his return to Argentina in 2006, he devoted to study the mechanisms involved in the pathophysiology of the perinatal asphyxia supported by his broad experience in electron microscopy. He has published 101 papers in recognized journals and has been invited assisting in a speaker capacity to several international conferences.",institutionString:"University of Buenos Aires",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Buenos Aires",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"168475",title:"Dr.",name:"Santiago Perez",middleName:null,surname:"Lloret",slug:"santiago-perez-lloret",fullName:"Santiago Perez Lloret",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/168475/images/system/168475.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Santiago Perez Lloret is a leading expert in neurophysiology and neuropharmacology with more 90 papers published in international medical journals (H-index= 29). He has been recently awarded Top 1% reviewer in neurosciences (Publons.com). After obtaining his MD and PhD, he pursued master courses in pharmacoepidemiology, clinical pharmacology and biostatistics at the Universities of Bordeaux and Paris. Dr. Perez Lloret is Assistant professor of Neurophysiology at the Medicine School of the Buenos Aires University and Associate Researcher at the Cardiology Research Institute, University of Buenos Aires, National Research Council. He is member of the International Parkinson’s Disease and Movement Disorder Society (MDS), where he is Co-editor of the Webpage and collaborates in several committees, including the Educational and the Evidence-based Medicine Committees.",institutionString:"University of Buenos Aires",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Buenos Aires",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:[{id:"69122",title:"Lifestyle Factors, Mitochondrial Dynamics, and Neuroprotection",slug:"lifestyle-factors-mitochondrial-dynamics-and-neuroprotection",totalDownloads:83,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"69463",title:"Polyphenols as Potential Therapeutic Drugs in Neurodegeneration",slug:"polyphenols-as-potential-therapeutic-drugs-in-neurodegeneration",totalDownloads:36,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"69376",title:"Trends in Neuroprotective Strategies after Spinal Cord Injury: State of the Art",slug:"trends-in-neuroprotective-strategies-after-spinal-cord-injury-state-of-the-art",totalDownloads:35,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"70228",title:"Aptamers and Possible Effects on Neurodegeneration",slug:"aptamers-and-possible-effects-on-neurodegeneration",totalDownloads:10,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"301331",firstName:"Mia",lastName:"Vulovic",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/301331/images/8498_n.jpg",email:"mia.v@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. 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Chan and Manoj Kumar Tiwari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3794.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"252210",title:"Dr.",name:"Felix",surname:"Chan",slug:"felix-chan",fullName:"Felix Chan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3621",title:"Silver Nanoparticles",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"silver-nanoparticles",bookSignature:"David Pozo Perez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3621.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6667",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Pozo",slug:"david-pozo",fullName:"David Pozo"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"66435",title:"A Short Review on Al MMC with Reinforcement Addition Effect on Their Mechanical and Wear Behaviour",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83584",slug:"a-short-review-on-al-mmc-with-reinforcement-addition-effect-on-their-mechanical-and-wear-behaviour",body:'\nAluminium (Al) amongst several metals is attractive due to its ductility, malleability, good conductivity, light weight, good strength and availability in abundance (8% of earth crust is aluminium). It combines with hard materials like ceramic and offer promising metal matrix composites (MMCs) with improved properties and hence finding wide range of industrial and structural applications including aerospace, automotive, marine and military [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]. For developing aluminium-based metal matrix composites various methods are applied by various researchers in liquid metallurgy routes for mass production. Reinforcement in aluminium metal matrix composites can be in particulate, whisker, continuous or discontinuous fibres. Their addition to the base metal may vary in percentage resulting in improved properties. Composites having aluminium as base metal gives the following advantages: higher strength, improved stiffness, reduced density, survival at high temperature, high wear and corrosion resistance, improved damping capabilities [2].
\nFor developing aluminium-based metal matrix composites various methods like powder metallurgy, spray decomposition, liquid metal infiltration, squeeze casting, mechanical alloying and compo casting are applied by various researchers in liquid metallurgy routes for mass production. Most common method use for processing of aluminium MMCs by powder metallurgy (PM). Via PM route aluminium MMCs can be prepared either by direct metal oxidation (DIMOX) or by reinforcements of particles in the matrix so as to achieve high density, high hardness and strength. In MMCs generally matrix component is more in quantity and reinforcement is a contrasting phase distributed in the matrix in order to reinforce it. The reinforcement rather than making a solid solution with the base matrix, it gets distributed all around it. When three constituents are present, it is called a hybrid composite. The aim of the reinforcement particles is to give high strength and stiffness to the composite and the aim of the matrix is to bind the reinforced particles together by virtue of its adhesive and cohesive nature and to transfer the load to and between reinforcements. In case of particle reinforced composites significant improvement is obtained in the mechanical properties in terms of strength, hardness and stiffness [6, 7, 8]. As a continuous phase, the matrix controls the interlaminar strength, elevated-temperature strength and transverse properties of the composite. The matrix holds reinforcing particles in the proper orientation and position so that they can carry the intended loads and distributes the loads evenly among the reinforcements so in a way matrix allows the strength of the reinforcements to be used to their full potential. The matrix also provides a vital inelastic response so that stress concentration are reduced and internal stresses are redistributed from broken reinforcements, reinforcements increase strength, decrease the coefficient of thermal expansion, and improve the wear resistance at a cost of a reduction in ductility and in fracture toughness [9]. Amongst the various methods employed to synthesize metal matrix composites, stir casting method is preferred and used for bulk production. The particular advantages of this process lie in its simplicity, cost effectiveness, flexibility and applicability to larger size components and mass production [10]. Selection of optimum parameters of stirring speed, stirring time, uniform feed rate of particles preheating temperature of the mould results in homogenous mixing and wetting of reinforced particles with base metal. It is seen that the cost of manufacturing of composite materials using a conventional casting method is about one third to half as that of competitive methods and, for high volume production, this cost is expected to reach the level of one-tenth [11]. In MMC’s processing there are limitations with the conventional methods as conventionally produced composites are thermodynamically unstable when used at high temperature for longer time [12].
\nAs it is known that today aluminium metal matrix composites are considered the most potential material for structural and functional applications and are finding versatile application in industries due to their price including defence, aerospace, automotive and thermal management areas, as well as in sports and recreation because of their unique isotropic properties of high strength, high stiffness, reduced density (weight), high wear, abrasion and corrosion resistance and improved high temperature properties. These properties are limited in conventional alloys [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]. Some of the applications of Al MMCs are shown in Figure 1 [13]. It is reported that in aluminium-based metal matrix composites fabrication aluminium is reinforced with different reinforcing material like MgO, SiC, MnO, Al2O3 which give high mechanical properties to these composites like hardness, fracture toughness and reduced density (weight). Al MMCs consist of hard particles like SiC, WC, Al2O3, etc. and these particles make the aluminium matrix plastically constrained which improves its high temperature properties and they give superior mechanical and wear resistant properties [14].
\n(a) Piston, (b) engine with cylinder barrel, (c) piston connecting rod, (d) brake system made of aluminium (Al) metal matrix composites (MMCs) [13].
Researchers have reinforced Al matrix with different metallic, non-metallic and ceramic elements to have desired physical and mechanical properties. Stir casting given by Ray [15] is the best liquid state fabrication technique through which metal matrix composites can be successfully processed. In this method reinforcements are dispersed in molten metal matrix by mechanical stirring as shown in Figure 2. Al-Al2O3 (MnO2) hybrid MMCs were processed via stir casting technique by adding varying wt.% of Al2O3 and MnO2 particles to the Al melt at high temperature and stirred for uniform distribution of the particles in the melt. At high temperature MnO2 particles react with molten aluminium and get reduced to metallic manganese, and retain in the matrix of molten aluminium [15, 16] Al-Al2O3 composite were developed by direct metal oxidation (DIMOX) and hybrid composite by using both ex situ and in situ approaches together by a dispersing powder mixture of Al2O3 and MnO2 in a ratio of 1:1, through stir casting route in aluminium matrix [17]. Al-Al2O3 composites were synthesized successfully under ambient conditions and it was found that the particles increased as the holding time and the number of stirrings was increased resulting in improved mechanical properties. Hence, oxidation, which is known as a major problem in composite preparation by liquid metallurgy route, can be used for preparation of composites and for improving the properties. In hybrid composites the mechanical properties as well as particle distribution improved as Al2O3 + MnO2 were introduced and also with their increasing wt.%. It is reported that reinforcing with 60 vol% Al reinforcement elastic modulus of pure aluminium increase from 70 to 240 GPa and leads to decrease to the coefficient of expansion from 24 to 7 ppm/°C [18]. Jokhio et al. [19] found that the addition of 2.77 wt.% Mg contents in Al matrix increases wettability, reduces porosity and develops high bonding with Al2O3. Wahab et al. [20] in their work found an increase in hardness value (from 44 to 94 HV at 100 g load) of Al-Si alloy when reinforced with 0–10 increasing wt.% of AlN. Tzamtzis et al. [21] found that the addition of 1 wt.% of Mg in A356/SiCp composites increases wettability and its further increases results in agglomeration of particles which increases viscosity resulting in non-uniform distribution of particles in the matrix. Saheb [22] found that the addition of varying weight fraction of silicon carbide, graphite and alumina in Al matrix, the hardness value of Al MMCs increases, maximum hardness of 45.5 and 74 BHN have been obtained with addition of 25% weight fraction of SiC and at 4% weight fraction of graphite respectively. It is observed in mechanical and microstructural behaviour of Al-7075/B4C composites with constant weight of B4C processed at varying temperatures (450–540°C) that due to the formation of MgO at higher sintering temperature above 530°C led to decrease in hardness and bending strength [23]. Increase of 81 and 37% in yield strength and ultimate tensile strength is observed in nano-Al2O3/2024 composites fabricated by solid-liquid mixed casting combined with ultrasonic treatment [24]. The effect of graphite particle on Al6082 metal matrix composite is investigated by Sharma et al. [25]. Agglomerations of graphite particles at some points were found with presence of large impurities due to non-uniform distribution. Hardness is reduced to 11.1% with 12 wt.% Graphite due to brittle nature of Gr reinforcement particles. Summarising, addition of different reinforcement have resulted in different microstructural features leading to distinct physical and mechanical properties in aluminium-based metal matrix composites (Al MMCs).
\nStir casting set up schematic diagram.
Now a days, aluminium-based metal matrix composites (Al MMCs) are used in making of piston, connecting rod, contactors, where sliding is an important factor [26]. Excessive wear of the mating components sometimes leads to catastrophic failures [27]. So study of wear properties of Al MMCs has become the need of time. Wear tests are generally conducted on ball/pin wear tester, schematic diagram as represented in Figure 3. Wear properties of many MMCs having continuous and discontinuous reinforcements like Al2O3, MnO2, SiC, graphite, mica, glass, graphite and others have been reported [28, 29, 30].
\nSchematic diagram for sliding wear ball on disc tests.
There has been increasing interest in composites and many researchers contributing their work in the area of wear analysis of aluminium composites, cermets, ceramics [30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40]. Umanath et al. [30], examined the effect of SiC and Al2O3 on dry sliding wear behaviour of Al6061 hybrid composites prepared by stir casting method, results showed that with increase in the volume content, wear decreases due to the presence of hard oxide particles. Suresh et al. [39] investigated the wear behaviour of Al6061 reinforced with Al2O3 and graphite by keeping 2 wt.% graphite constant and Al2O3 content is varied 2–8 wt.%. The reinforcement of Al2O3 and graphite improved the tribological behaviour and caused reduction in the wear of Al6061 composites. The wear decreased with the increase of speed and aluminium oxide percentage. Basavarajappa and Chandramohan [40], worked on the dry sliding wear behaviour of Al2219 reinforced with SiC (0–15 wt.%). Results shows that 15% SiC reinforced composites have better wear resistance then other composites. Raghavendra and Ramamurthy [41], examined the influence of particle size and volume fraction on wear behaviour of Al7075 alloy reinforced with Al2O3 particles, size is varied 100–200 microns and the volume fraction is varied 3–12 wt.%. Results showed that hardness increased with decrease in particle size and the wear rate was reduced with reduction in particle size. Increase in volume fraction reduced the wear and coefficient of friction. Vivekanandan et al. [42], investigated the wear resistance by varying load on the fly ash reinforced composites. Fly ash was added to the aluminium alloy and fabricated by stir casting method. At varying load it was noticed that wear rate of composites was less than the pure alloy at all loads. Kumar et al. [43], worked on the mechanical and wear behaviour of aluminium-fly ash composites formed by stir casting method. It was found that the hardness of composites increased with increase in addition of fly ash. Addition of fly ash shows improvement in the strength of composites. Strengthening of composites is due to dispersion and reinforcement. Both the wear rate and frictional force decreased with the adding of fly ash in Al6063 alloy. The aforementioned literatures show that various researchers have attempted to improve the properties of Al alloy by adding different alloying elements.
\nAl2O3 alloy when reinforced with 20 wt.% of alumina gives better wear resistance properties [44]. Al6061-alumina fibre composites abrasive wear rate is reported to be very less than the matrix alloy and is reported to have better wear resistance almost six times the matrix alloy [44]. The reason attributes to it is due to the addition of hard ceramic particles. Wear rate of Al7091 alloy and Al7091-SiC composites have almost same wear rate at 1.2 m/s sliding velocity whereas at increasing sliding velocity composites show less wear than un reinforced matrix [45, 46, 47]. TiO2 as reinforcement in Al alloys give high mechanical properties as hardness and superior corrosion resistance [11]. Al6061 is considered as candidate material to prepare MMCs owing to its better formability characteristics and option of modification of the strength of composites by adopting optimal heat treatment [26]. Dinaharan et al. [48] fabricated aluminium alloy Al6061 reinforced with ZrB2 particles (10 wt.%) and found ZrB2 particles into the aluminium matrix improved tensile strength and wear resistance but reduced ductility and corrosion resistance. The wear resistance was measured using a pin-on-disc wear apparatus at room temperature according to ASTM G99-04 standard under dry sliding conditions. The polished surface of the pin of 6 × 6 × 50 mm was slide on a hardened chromium steel disc. The test was carried out at a sliding velocity of 15 m/s, normal force of 25 N and sliding distance of 2500 m. Wear resistance for Al6061 and Al6061/10 ZrB2 is found to be 182.48 and 377.51 m/mm3. The pitting corrosion rate was measured using potentiodynamic anodic polarisation technique as per ASTM G5 (ACM Gill-5500) at room temperature and found that 0.0230 and 0.1746 mm/year corrosion rate for Al6061 and Al6061/10 ZrB2. Lus et al. [49] investigated the wear properties of in situ A380-Mg2Si alloy squeeze cast composites. Wear tests were carried out on pin-on-drum type equipment where a rotating disk (34 rev min−1) with 120 grid sand paper. Samples were placed vertically with loads such as 20, 25, 30, 35 and 40 N. The travel distances were selected to be 20, 40, 60 and 80 m [49]. Wear tests were basically carried out in two folds. The conditions of the first set of experiments were constant load of 20 N with changing travel distances of 20, 40, 60 and 80 m. As seen in the volumetric loss was linear where the samples cast in die without any pressure had the lowest loss of 0.0565 cm3 and the casting with the highest pressure (i.e., 40 MPa) had the highest weight loss of 0.127 cm3 at 80 m sliding distance. In the second set of experiments, the travel distance was kept constant at 20 m and the load was increased from 20 to 40 N by 5 N increments. This time, the volumetric loss was exponential the parts cast under 40 MPa had the highest volumetric loss of 0.26 cm3 [49]. Volumetric loss and wear rate of in situ Mg2Si-A380 composite increases exponentially when the load is increased. The hardness measurements were carried out on the matrix of the samples by using Micro hardness tester (HV10) and the hardness values were 138, 108, 87 HV10 for 0, 30, and 40 MPa squeeze pressures, respectively [49].
\nThe effect of external ultrasonic treatment during solidification of a casted hypereutectic Al-Si (18% Si) alloy is studied by Unal et al. [50] and found that it has favourably affected the hardness and provided an increase of 15–20%. From the pin on disc wear tests performed under 67 N and with 1250 m sliding distance, it was revealed that the ultrasonic treated and non-treated samples exhibited similar amounts of weight loss [50]. Yamanoglu et al. [51] studied the effect of nickel (1–5 wt.%) on microstructure and pin on disc wear behaviour of pure aluminium against steel and alumina counter faces. The dry sliding wear response of the Al-xNi alloys against steel and alumina counter faces was investigated [51]. The results showed that the hardness of the alloys increases with increasing nickel content; it is 46.2 HV3 at 5% Ni.
\nSevere wear damage was observed at low and high nickel contents. Maximum wear resistance was obtained with the addition of 3 wt.% nickel to the pure aluminium under both loads and against both counter faces. The wear resistance of the alloys increased with increasing nickel content up to 3 wt.% Ni and tended to decrease >3 wt.% Ni. The wear rate of the Al-xNi alloys increased with increasing applied normal load [51]. One of the disadvantages with Al is that it leads to corrosion. It is preferentially in use in marine applications and to protect it from corrosion anti corrosive coatings are done on it like that of zinc chromate. The harmful effect of zinc chromate is that it is toxic in nature and is hazardous to the environment. Its replacement is done with cerium oxide which is available in nature abundantly and is less toxic. Wear study of Al2O3 and B4C reinforced with Al5083 alloy matrix processed by stir casting method shows that shows that at varying load increasing wt.% of B4C from 8 to 12% has increased the wear rate also [52]. Iacob et al. [53] observed the wear rate of Al/Al2O3/Gr hybrid composites and found low wear rate as Al2O3 and Gr acted as load bearing elements and solid lubricant. Also, there is increase in micro hardness due to Al2O3 particles. Ganesh et al. [54] studied the mechanical and wear behaviour of Al2219 alloy—SiC composites and found that higher wt.% of SiC (20%) and sintering temperature (600°C) resulted in high hardness and reduced wear at varying wear load and speed. Using Taguchi Technique Al-Al2O3 composites wear behaviour is studied and optimised by Baradeswaran et al. [55]. Taguchi analytical and graphical results shows minimum wear loss at 6 wt.% of Al2O3 at 10 N load and sliding distance of 400 m as optimum combination. Wear tests were conducted for 10, 20, 30, and 40 N load and sliding distance of 1200 m with regular interval of 200 m at 0.6 m/s sliding speed.
\nSummarising, literature survey shows that Al base MMCs are of huge need as they are used for various applications as for making different machine components as heavy duty pistons, aircraft generator housings, air cooled cylinder heads, engine crankcases, petrol and oil tanks, oil pans, water cooled cylinder heads, rear axle housings, flywheel housings, automotive transmission cases, oil pans, rear axle housings, brackets, water cooled cylinder blocks, various fittings and pump bodies, air brake castings, gear cases, air cooled cylinder heads, air brake castings, gear cases, air cooled cylinder heads, Internal combustion engine pistons and blocks, cylinder bodies for compressors, pumps and brakes which gets degraded with passage of time due to either wear (abrasive, adhesive) or corrosion so its becomes very essential to study their wear properties [56].
\nPresent industrial developments are associated with materials having advantageous physical, mechanical and wear characteristics that can achieve technological needs. Aluminium and its composites are best suited materials as have better properties than unreinforced materials. Beneficial properties with reduced prices have enlarged their applications. Al MMCs are used in defence, aerospace, automotive, aviation, thermal management areas in engine pistons, cylinders barrel, connection rods, elements of vehicles braking systems because of their unique properties of high hardness, high strength, high stiffness, high wear, abrasion and corrosion resistance.
\nRoad traffic accidents (RTAs) are associated with an estimated 1.25 million deaths globally each year with about 50 million others injured in the process [1]. The Ghanaian situation follows a similar trend. An estimated 1800 people are killed in road traffic accidents yearly with almost 14,500 others injured [2].
\nAccording to the WHO Global Burden of Disease project 2002, road traffic injuries (RTIs) are the 10th leading cause of death for all age groups globally, accounting for 1,183,492 deaths. More specifically, RTIs is the second and third leading cause of death for persons aged 5–29 years and 30–44 years, respectively [3, 4].
\nIn low- and middle-income countries, RTIs constitute the ninth leading cause of death and the tenth leading cause of disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) [4, 5]. A number of factors account for the high RTIs in these countries including poorly maintained vehicles, inadequate traffic enforcement, inefficient pre-hospital emergency medical response and overburdened healthcare infrastructure [6]. As a result, about 80% of the injury deaths in these countries are said to occur in the pre-hospital setting [7].
\nMany of these injury deaths could be prevented with the timely arrival of competent emergency pre-hospital medical services at the accident scene [8, 9]. Timely emergency pre-hospital care to traffic accident victims at the accident scene and subsequent transportation to the health facility may reduce the probability of injury severity and deaths. Regarding injury severity and death, trauma experts consider the first 60 minutes (termed the “golden hour”) after the injury occurred as the most important period to save lives. The risk of death or severe injury is believed to increase after this period [10].
\nRecently, the World Health Organisation has proposed training of layperson first responders as the first essential step in developing Emergency Medical Services systems in settings where the formal pre-hospital system is not available [6, 11]. This system has been found to be effective in reducing traffic accident-induced mortalities in most countries [5, 11, 12, 13]. A previous study revealed that about 51% of severely injured persons in Kumasi, Ghana died in a pre-hospital setting (cited in 7). This suggests that improving pre-hospital care to RTA victims is important to reduce “the mortality of critically injured roadway casualties” [7]. This stresses the urgency to establish layperson first responder care systems in Ghana (as proposed by the WHO) where formal pre-hospital care is inadequate. Pre-hospital care and post-crash intervention happen to be the focus of the fifth pillar of the UN Decade of Action of Road Safety 2011–2020 which aims to reduce the anticipated magnitude of RTAs and casualties [14].
\nGiven the important role of layperson first responders in the chances and quality of survival of RTA victims, this study explores the experiences of residents living along the Kasoa-Mankessim road network, an accident-prone road in Ghana, in administering emergency pre-hospital care to RTA victims. We explored their knowledge of pre-hospital first-aid and trauma care and the nature of the assistance they offer at accident scenes. The study results will expose the “pre-hospital trauma care knowledge and skill gaps” which can inform future training to facilitate safe handling and rescue of RTA victims in line with best practices. The remaining part of this paper proceeds as follows: Section 2 discusses the study methodology, while Sections 3–6 presents the study findings, discussion, study limitation and conclusion and implications for practice.
\nWe adopted a phenomenological research methodology [15] to explore and provide an in-depth description of participants’ experiences/encounters with pre-hospital care for road traffic accident victims on the Kasoa-Mankessim highway (Figure 1) in the central region of Ghana. This highway is a segment of the Accra-Cape Coast road network. The entire road network is classified as a national route 1 (N1) road and also forms part of the Trans-West African Highway network.
\nMap of the study areas and road network.
Variable | \n\n | N | \n% | \n
---|---|---|---|
Sex | \nMale | \n67 | \n83.7 | \n
Female | \n13 | \n16.3 | \n|
Age | \n18–25 years | \n17 | \n21.2 | \n
26–30 years | \n20 | \n25.0 | \n|
Above 30 years | \n43 | \n53.8 | \n|
Education (attained) | \nNon-formal | \n7 | \n8.7 | \n
Junior High | \n35 | \n43.7 | \n|
Senior High | \n27 | \n33.7 | \n|
Tertiary | \n11 | \n13.7 | \n|
Total | \n\n | 80 | \n100 | \n
Study sample (n = 80).
The Kasoa-Mankessim section is a single two-lane carriageway (31.1 km in length; 7.3 m wide with 2.5 m shoulders on both sides). The road’s posted speed is between 50 and 100 kph with a weighted average annual daily traffic volume of 9661 vehicles per day. The road links many settlements in the region to Accra, the national capital [16]. There are 11 ‘police-identified blackspots’ on the road network namely Brigade, Galilea, Amanfrom, Potsin Junction, Budumburam, Okyereko Junction, Adawuku, Bible College Area, Tipper Junction, Awutu Beraku and Gomoa Buduatta Junction. These black spots are characterised by dangerous curves, slippery steeps, narrow bridges and undulating surfaces. For the year 2014 alone, 631 RTAs (i.e., 90 fatal, 137 serious, 158 slight and 246 property-damage-only accidents)1 were recorded on the entire Accra-Cape Coast road network associated with 696 casualties (119 killed, 241 serious and 336 slight injuries). These figures translate into 4.5 accidents per kilometre and 4.9 casualties per kilometre [17].
\nPrior to data collection (interviews), we carried out a reconnaissance visit to the selected communities. Our aim was to introduce the study to the community stakeholders, familiarise ourselves with the terrain, and pre-select and schedule interview appointments with potential respondents. At the data collection stage, we employed a mix of non-probability sampling techniques (i.e., purposive, convenient and snowball sampling techniques) in selecting the study participants and communities. Our study comprised of 80 purposive samples from 12 conveniently sampled communities/settlements (mostly blackspots) along the Kasoa-Mankessim road network (the communities are indicated in Figure 1). To be eligible to participate in the study, a person ought to have first-hand-on-the-spot experience assisting RTA victims on this road segment. At some stages of the data collection, we employed the snowball sampling technique to sample other eligible participants from our initial contacts. On average, we interviewed six persons in each community lasting nearly 15 minutes from March to April 2017.
\nData coding and analysis were done in stages. At the first stage, we produced a transcript of each interview in English (participants gave consent to the audio recording of the interviews) and loaded into the Atlas.ti 7.0 software. At the second stage, we conducted inductive data coding and analysis using open and In Vivo coding (to ‘honour’ participant’s voice and to ground the analysis from their unique experiences and perspectives) [18]. Lastly, we conducted a thematic analysis of the data, resulting in two main themes namely, knowledge of pre-hospital care for road traffic accident victims and the nature of assistance offered to the accident victims.
\nOur sample was mainly males (83.7%) over 30 years old (53.8%) and mostly Junior High school graduates (43.7%) Table 1. Study sample characteristics (n = 80).
\nFrom our interviews, we gathered that at least an accident occurs every month on this road as evidenced by the quotes below. Interestingly, 2 days to the interviews, an accident occurred around Okyereko (one of the selected communities) as recounted by this respondent:
\nA sprinter bus had an accident just in front of our house 2 days ago (Male, 42 years, Okyereko).
\nYes, I have witnessed a number of road accidents on this highway. I can count about six of them and the last one I witnessed, 14 people died. This happened 2 weeks ago (Male, 29 years, Apam junction).
\nOn this road, almost every month we hear of road accidents. The last one I witnessed was about 3 weeks ago where everyone on board the vehicle died. I personally have witnessed more than seven accidents on this road and heard of uncountable others (Male, 33 years, Gomoa Mprumem).
\nThe accident-prone nature of this highway is depicted by the number of cautionary billboards planted close to previous accident spots. On each billboard, the number of people killed in a particular accident at a spot is indicated as shown in Figure 2.
\nBillboard indicating previous accidents on some spots on the highway.
Below, we present the study findings based on the themes and supported by relevant quotes from the transcript.
\nAs it is customary for residents along the highway to attend to RTA victims in the event of accidents, we sought to explore their knowledge of some basic pre-hospital emergency care for RTA victims. Generally, we assessed respondents’ knowledge of care for victims bleeding, recovery position for victims with fracture (broken bones) and basic airway control in unconscious persons.
\nGenerally, we noted that the majority of the participants have no practical training in pre-hospital care for RTA victims. For those who have received some training (n = 16 or 20%), they claimed it was just talk-based with a little demonstration. The rest acquired appreciable knowledge through years of rescue care for RTA victims.
\nYes. I remember one day, a group of people came here to talk to us about how we should handle accident victims. They said whenever we hear of a road accident, we should rush to the accident scene to help and try our best to call the Ambulance service and the Police. But it was mainly a talk show with little demonstration (Male, 32 years, Apam-junction).
\nRegarding victim recovery position(s) in the event of suspected fracture (broken bone), 20% of the participants (those with some training) rightly revealed that victim recovery position(s) depends on the nature of the injury sustained. They emphasised placing the victim on the ground as it is difficult to determine the nature of the injury sustained.
\nNot all victims who are involved in road accidents sustain serious or severe injuries. So those victims who are not hurt or injured, some of them could stand and others sit on the ground. But the severely injured victims should be placed on the floor with their backs to the ground (Male, 34 years, Apam-junction).
\nIf the victim has a broken leg or hand, let the victim lie with the back to the ground. Usually, the position of the victim depends on the form of injury I suspect might have occurred (Male, 32 years, Apam-junction).
\nI think the casualty should be made to lie down at the back to get enough air because the casualty may be suffering from a spinal problem or a dislocated waist or leg and so allowing such a victim to sit or squat may result in other injuries (Male, 30 years, Potsin).
\nYet, others, like this respondent, revealed:
\nI usually do not know the affected part of the victims, so my aim is to remove the victims from the car to be transported to the hospital (Male, 35 years, Gomoa Mprumem).
\nIn case the victim is bleeding, most respondents (86%) demonstrated adequate knowledge of pre-hospital care including applying pressure to the affected area by pressing hard with the hands and subsequently applying local herbs or leaves and bandage to the bleeding part in order to stop or reduce bleeding (external compression for haemorrhage control).
\nI tear the victim’s shirt and use it to bandage the affected part. This helps to reduce the bleeding to prevent loss of blood, even if there is a delay in transporting them to the hospital (Male, 34 years, Apam-junction).
\nI am a driver, so I usually use dusters from my car or the shirts of (male) victims to tie the bleeding part before I transport them to the hospital (Male, 37 years, Apam-junction).
\nIt is evident from the interviews that bandaging or tying the bleeding area (haemorrhage control) is the common first aid most residents know of. However, others revealed different indigenous methods to stop bleeding.
\nFor me, what I normally do is to look for leaves like “Acheampong” (a local herb) and I grind it on the road and apply it on the bleeding part to reduce the bleeding, or even at times I use plantain leaves, grind it and after that, I squeeze the water content on the bleeding part. Even though it hurts when the leaves are applied to injuries, but they help to reduce bleeding as soon as possible (Male, 35 years, Gomoa Mprumem).
\nLastly, we also quizzed respondents on their knowledge on how to assist unresponsive RTA victims. About 27% of the respondents rightly suggested checking the victim’s pulse and body movements to determine the chances of survival and shouting into the victim’s ear to determine if the victim responds or not. Other participants also think because most unresponsive victims become short of breath, the best way to assist them is by placing them on the ground with the head tilted backwards to open the airway in the throat to enable the victim to take in more air (basic airway control in unconscious persons).
\nIf the victim still breaths or the heart still beats, I put the victims in an open space to get more air. But if I cannot feel the heartbeat, I conclude that the victim is dead yet still we transport them to the hospital (Male, 35 years, Gomoa Mprumem).
\nIn sum, we realised that the study respondents were more adequate in their knowledge of pre-hospital care for bleeding accident victim(s) than in the case of the recovery position for the victim(s) who suffer fracture (broken bones) or are unresponsive.
\nVaried methods, mainly indigenous, are employed in saving RTA victims. Figures 3, 4, 5 depict the kind of assistance community residents provide at accident scenes. We observed that the “scoop and run” method of pre-hospital care (which involves providing basic care at the trauma site and rushing the victim to a hospital) was the common practice among the respondents. Some respondents also call on the National Fire Service and the Ambulance Service to help. The quotes below illustrate the kind of assistance provided at accident scenes.
\nResidents trying to rescue victims stacked in a vehicle.
RTA victims put at recovery position.
Some community residents assisting RTA victims.
We have not been trained on how to administer first aid and also do not have what it takes to treat the accident victims, and so we usually arrange with an oncoming vehicle to transport them to the nearest hospital (Female, 34 years, Kwabenata).
\nA taxi had an accident here 2 weeks ago and it caught fire. We all had to run to our homes to fetch water to quench the fire before we were able to remove the victims from the car (Male, 28 years, Kwabenata).
\nHowever, the situation was different for those who had ever received some first-aid training:
\nI have received some training in first aid. As a taxi driver, I usually carry a first aid box in my car with the basic supplies. Anytime I witness an accident and the victims bleed, I wash the bleeding part with water and apply methylated spirit to the affected part(s) and subsequently put cotton wool and plaster to stop the bleeding. Shortly after, I transport the victims in my taxi to the hospital (Male, 38 years, Okyereko).
\nNotwithstanding, we noted that the rescue efforts were often saddled with challenges. The major challenge we noted was the lack of proper tools to cut open vehicles in order to bring out trapped victims. There was also the difficulty of rescuing victims in burning vehicles. Some respondents revealed sustaining burns and deep cuts by the broken glasses of the crashed vehicles in the process of rescuing victims.
\nOur ability to rescue victims from crashed vehicles depend on the extent of damage to the vehicle. We lack the necessary equipment to cut open accident vehicles. Mostly, we use cutlass, axes and any available tool to cut the vehicle in order to get the victims out. We end up injuring ourselves in the process (Male, 35 years, Gomoa Mprumem).
\nWhenever an accident occurs here and the vehicle catches fire, removing the victims becomes very difficult but because we want to help, we persist and end up sustaining injuries in the process (Male, 29 years, Kwabenata).
\nIn this study, we sought to explore the experiences of residents of communities along the Kasoa-Mankessim highway in providing pre-hospital care to RTA victims. This knowledge is important to provide the basis for future training to ensure safe victim handling in line with international best practices. Recently, WHO has encouraged layperson first responder programmes as a basic step in the development of a functioning pre-hospital system [13]. Given that communities along accident-prone highways are normally the first people to come into contact with the RTA victims (first responders), the need to train them adequately cannot be overemphasised.
\nThe current study found that there is a natural inclination to help RTA victims among the study respondents, yet only a handful of them have received proper pre-hospital training to facilitate safe victim handling and pre-hospital care in line with best practices. Of the 80 participants, only 20% had received some form of pre-hospital first-aid training, howbeit inadequate. In view of this, most participants had little knowledge in first aid care processes. As a consequence of the lack of training, participants had devised various strategies to assist RTA victims, which is likely to result in further injuries or even the death of victims.
\nIt was also apparent that even though most of the respondents have not been trained in pre-hospital care to RTA victims, through continuous victim rescue efforts, they have gained some valuable experiences. However, respondents with some training exhibited appropriate knowledge of the pre-hospital procedures in the areas of our knowledge assessment consistent with previous findings [7, 12, 13].
\nAnother important finding was that the scoop and run method of pre-hospital care [19] was common among the study participants. This could be explained by their little or no clinical (pre-hospital) know-how and appropriate tools and supplies to cater for RTA victims. This notwithstanding, available evidence suggests that the scoop and run method is effective in increasing the chance of victim survival in the event of serious injuries [19, 20]. Any delay to transport victims for definitive care decrease the chance of victim survival (which is time-critical) [20].
\nThe study results further support the establishment of layperson first responder systems in pre-hospital deficient settings. Generally, the natural inclination to help RTA victims and the success of the programme in other countries, mostly in Africa makes this workable in our study areas [5, 11, 12, 13]. These studies demonstrate that trained layperson first responders retain and appropriately use their newly acquired knowledge and skills for societal good [7, 12].
\nIt is noteworthy that similar studies were either quantitative in design or at best evaluation of the impact of a pre-hospital care or first-aid training course or a systematic review of the literature. Unlike these studies, our study was mainly qualitative and exploratory in nature and unique in its approach to exploring the knowledge of pre-hospital care for RTA victims. As a qualitative, exploratory study, it suffers from concerns with generalisability of the study findings to the population, a supposed problem associated with qualitative studies in general. However, the study findings are significant in their own right and provide a valuable first view of the processes residents of the named highway goes through to assist RTA victims which is important for further studies and intervention programmes.
\nBased on the study findings, we conclude that there is a general enthusiasm to assist RTA victims among the respondents and the communities, yet there are gaps in their knowledge of, and skills in pre-hospital care for RTA victims. The study findings thus suggest several courses of action in line with best practices.
\nTo take advantage of community members’ eagerness to assist RTA victims, the relevant stakeholders and policy-makers (Ghana Red Cross Society, National Ambulance, Ghana National Fire Service, and Ministry of Health) could undertake a couple of policy and practical actions toward ensuring efficient pre-hospital care for RTA victims.
\nThe most obvious and immediate action involves implementing a functioning layperson first responder systems in the communities along the road network. As suggested in a previous study [7], persons (e.g., taxi drivers, community leaders) who are likely to chance upon and transport RTA victims could be the target of this layperson first responder training programmes. These persons should be equipped with the needed skills and first-aid kits/supplies to provide basic life support services pending definitive care as well as transport RTA victims to the nearest health facility. Periodic refresher training and incentives for the laypersons will ensure the sustainability of the system [6, 7]. As indicated earlier, this is an important and cost-effective step to developing formal emergency pre-hospital care systems [12]. Related to this is the urgent need to establish effective communication and transportation channels between the communities, the relevant stakeholders and health facilities.
\nIt is also possible to utilise modern information and communication technology to send out messages to the relevant stakeholders in the event of RTAs. By the use of a global positioning system (GPS)-enabled devices, exact coordinates of accident locations could be sent to the national ambulance and other stakeholders for immediate deployment and assistance. For instance, the request for emergency service feature of the recently launched “GhanaPost GPS App” could be a useful system in this regard. This, however, implies that both community members and the relevant stakeholders should be trained to use it.
\nLast but not least, given that the driving population (motorists) are probably more likely to chance upon accident scenes, first-aid training/course could be made mandatory for motorists when obtaining a driving licence. This will ensure a well-equipped driving population who could promptly assist RTA victims should they chance upon an accident scene in the course of their journeys [20].
\nWe are grateful to all persons who participated in the study. Without you, this study could not have come this far. We are also grateful to all stakeholders in the selected communities where we conducted interviews.
\nThe authors declare no conflict of interest.
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I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. 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