Saganuwan Alhaji Saganuwan

By Saganuwan Alhaji Saganuwan

Pharmacokinetics, the process that involves drug absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion (ADME) of antimicrobials, determines pharmacodynamic response, that is, what drugs do to the body. Therefore, of all the pharmacokinetic parameters, elimination half-life (T1/2β), volume of distribution (Vd), maximum plasma concentration (Cmax) and maximum time reached (Tmax) are the most important parameters. Hence, the parameters are unique in determining pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic response of antimicrobials. However, it is elimination half-life and minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) that determine the dosing interval of antimicrobials. The dose range of 2.5 mg/kg for gentamicin passing through 4 mg/kg (ciprofloxacin), 4.2 mg/kg (ampicillin L/A), 5 mg/kg (kanamycin, enrofloxacin, gatifloxacin and norfloxacin), 7 mg/kg (mequindox), 10 mg/kg (amikacin, enrofloxacin, lincomycin, pefloxacin, cefpirome, erythromycin and isoniazid), 20 mg/kg (oxytetracycline) and 30 mg/kg (metronidazole) have elimination half-life of 1.2–67.2 h, Cmax of 0.12–54.4 μg/ml, Tmax of 0.2–24 h, bioavailability of 16–99.8% and plasma protein binding of 0–>80% when administered intramuscularly, intravenously and orally. Human equivalent dose formula could be used to extrapolate human-goat therapeutic doses of antimicrobials. However, some antimicrobials such as sulfadimidine, tulathromycin, oxytetracycline and azithromycin may have high residues in the milk, kidneys, liver, intestines, brain and skeletal muscles and may portend high risk of antimicrobial resistance, hypersensitivity reaction, epidermal necrolysis, Stevens-Johnson syndrome and other adverse drug reactions.

Part of the book: Goats (Capra)

By Saganuwan Alhaji Saganuwan

A preponderance of therapeutic and toxic agents that affect erythrocytes is being used in preclinical and clinical settings. Such agents are responsible for wrong diagnosis of a myriad of diseases and poor prognosis of some therapeutic interventions. In view of this, literature search was carried out with a view to investigate morphometry of erythrocytes in various diseased conditions and species of animals. Findings have shown that erythrocyte size, area, and volume vary in different species of animals under different diseased conditions. Environmental factors, toxicants, toxins, therapeutics, and management system, among others, can cause erythrocyte deformation, leading to anemia. Erythrocyte-related diseases include but not limited to sickle cell anemia, malaria, cancer, psychiatric illness, and chronic inflammation. Hence the principal source of our survival is erythrocyte, because it transports oxygen needed for metabolism of cell nutrients.

Part of the book: Erythrocyte

By Saganuwan Alhaji Saganuwan

Toxicosis is a poisoning caused by venomous animals such as snake, scorpion, honeybee, spider, and wasp. Their poisons contain amino acids, peptides, proteins, enzymes, and metallic ions that are responsible for neurotoxicity, hemotoxicity, and myotoxicity. Because of in vivo therapeutic challenges posed by toxicosis, there is need for ideal therapeutic agents against envenomation caused by venomous animals. Findings have shown that toxicosis could be treated symptomatically. Snake and scorpion antivenins could be used for treatment of poisoning caused by snake, scorpion, honeybee, spider, and wasp. The amount of antivenin is dependent on the quantity of venom injected into the affected individuals. More so, symptomatic treatments are also done according to the systems affected. Hospitalization is necessary for assessment of therapeutic success.

Part of the book: Medical Toxicology

By Saganuwan Alhaji Saganuwan

Toxicosis is a poisoning caused by venomous animals such as snake, scorpion, honeybee, spider and wasp. Their poisons contain amino acids, peptides, proteins, enzymes and metallic ions that are responsible for neurotoxicity, hemotoxicity and myotoxicity. Because of in vivo therapeutic challenges posed by toxicosis, there is need for ideal therapeutic agents against envenomation caused by venomous animals. Findings have shown that toxicosis could be treated symptomatically. Snake and scorpion antivenins could be used for treatment of poisoning caused by snake, scorpion, honeybee, spider and wasp. The amount of antivenin is dependent on the quantity of venom injected into the affected individuals. Moreso, sympotomatic treatments are also done according to the systems affected. Hospitalization is necessary for assessment of therapeutic success.

Part of the book: Medical Toxicology

By Saganuwan Alhaji Saganuwan

Bullets from gunshots made of lead are used to kill and arrest criminals, as they are also used by criminals to intimidate or kill innocents for psychosocial gains. So the increased environmental pollution caused by lead from industries, firearms, gasoline, among others is a source of concern for environmental health specialists, clinical toxicologists, experimental toxicologists, industrial toxicologists and ecotoxicologists. Lead can get into body system accidentally via oral, inhalational, epidermal, dermal, intraperitoneal, and intravenous routes. The toxicokinetic data of lead disposition via various routes of administrations are quite inconsistent. Hence the set blood limit concentration has been considered to be incorrect. In view of this, toxicokinetic data analysis of lead was carried out with intent to determine toxic doses of lead in various organs, and its toxicological consequences. Findings have shown that at lower doses, kinetics of lead is linear (first order), and at higher doses the kinetics becomes non-linear (zero-order). Metabolic processes modulated by lead could be either rate limiting or non–rate-limiting causing induction and inhibition of a myriad of metabolizing enzymes in liver, brain, kidney, intestine and lung. The LD50 of lead bullet in human was 450 mg/kg, which caused death in 9.1 days, and penicillamine (18 mg/kg) can be used for treatment. Mean residence time (MRT) and elimination half-life (T12β) were 25.8 and 18 days, respectively.

Part of the book: The Toxicity of Environmental Pollutants

By Saganuwan Alhaji Saganuwan

The ability of lead to cause brain damage and reduce intelligence quotient has been established. However, transport of lead through brain capillary has not been elucidated. Hence, plasma and brain tissue kinetics of lead was studied mathematically. Literatures were searched for formulas that could be used for the determination of relationship between plasma and brain tissue kinetics of lead with an interest to discovering the residence time of lead residues in brain. Findings have shown that 5μg/dl of lead in plasma permeates the brain of human weighing 20 kg faster than that of 40 kg and 70 kg body weight, respectively. The surface area of permeability of brain cell is higher, in low body weight human than in high body weight human. Time of exposure and concentration of lead are higher in low body weight human as compared to high body weight human. Hence, neonates and children are more vulnerable to brain damage than adult human.

Part of the book: The Toxicity of Environmental Pollutants