Effect of carbon sources on activity of amylase produced by isolates.
\r\n\tThe purpose of this book is to provide the readers with an understanding of the characteristics of the crisis itself, recognize the wide range and multi-layer of the crisis from a real situation, give ideas on how to minimize the damage, and find ways to increase resilience in the future. To adapt to the rapidly and diversely changing world, the necessary experience and appropriate management for all kinds of crisis issues will be discussed as well. At the same time, it is intended to suggest elements such as verified scientific and empirical knowledge and applicable technologies; more effective risk management operation; modeling of the risks, manuals, management plans, and strategies.
\r\n\t
\n
Beta-1,3-Glucanase activity in peanut seed is induced by infection with
According to Norton [17], carotenoids in endosperm may decrease the amount of aflatoxin produced by
Penicilli belongs to the taxonomic Division Eumycota, Subdivision Eumycotina, Class Ascomycetes, Order Eurotiales, Family Trichocomaceae [1]. Grape fruit green mold is caused by
Amylases are hydrolytic enzymes that catalyze the degradation of starch molecules and other carbohydrates to yield dextrins and progressively smaller polymers composed of glucose units [46, 47]. Based on their pattern of catalysis and yield of products, amylases can be categorized as: alpha (α) amylase (endoamylase) (α-1,4-glucan-4-glucanohydrolase, EC 3.2.1.1); beta (β) amylase (exoamylase) (1,4-α-D-glucan maltohydrolase, EC 3.2.1.2); glucoamylase (exohydrolase) (Glucan-1,4-α-glucosidase, EC 3.2.1.3); pullulanase (α-dextrin endo-1,6-α-glucosidase, EC 3.2.1.41); isoamylase (EC 3.2.1.68). Pullulanases and isoamylases are termed debranching enzymes [46, 48, 49]. They can be of plant and microbial sources [50, 51, 52].
\nα-Amylases are produced by bacteria and fungi [53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58]. The two types of amylases commonly encountered in microbial degradation of starch are α and β amylases.
\nDegradation of substrate is important in enzymatic hydrolysis [59]. Starch is the substrate used in microbial amylase assay [60]. The starch molecules are hydrolyzed into polymers of glucose units [47]. According to Vihinen and Mantsala [61], starch-degrading enzymes are widely distributed among microbes and several activities are required to hydrolyze the starch into glucose units.
Certain environmental (physical) factors affect amylase activity [48]. Lactic acid was found to be produced from
α-Amylase from
According to Mijts and Patel [72], the thermophilic, moderately halophilic anaerobic
Amylase from
\n
According to Lorentz [106], Protected 4-Nitrophenyl-1,4–1-D-maltoheptaoside can be used in routine amylase assay. A simple and rapid method using Remazol Brilliant Blue-starch as substrate which is non-destructive allows direct visualization and isolation of amylolytic microorganisms from the environment [107].
\nAlpha amylase can be used in improving anaerobic solid waste treatment [108]. Carbohydrate-hydrolyzing enzymes have long been used by industrial product markers as major catalysts to transform raw materials into end products in such areas as food processing, beverage production, animal nutrition, leather and textiles [109].
\nWith the advent of new frontiers in biotechnology, the spectrum of amylase application has widened in many fields such as clinical, medicinal and fine-chemical industries, as well as a widespread application of starch saccharification in the textile, food, brewing and distilling industries [110].
\nAccording to Mellon et al. [111], an aflatoxin B1 producer strain of
Rice (
This research was designed to examine the production and activity of α-amylases by some toxigenic aflatoxin B1-producing strains of
The present research will establish the presence of α-amylases in rice during mycotic spoilage by toxigenic strains of
Amylases are used in clinical chemistry most especially in diagnosis. Their combination with proteases and lipases are also employed industrially in the bioremediation of recalcitrants/organic pollutants and the hydrolytic digestion of the peptidoglycan layers of both gram positive and gram negative bacteria in wastewaters before chlorination [109].
\nThe isolates of aflatoxin B1-producing-toxigenic strains of
The isolates were subcultured and maintained on Potato Dextrose agar plates and slants. Each fungus was further subcultured into test tubes of the same medium and incubated at 25°C. A 96-hr-old culture of toxigenic strains of
Rice (Caprice) from Spain was bought at the main market, Bodija, Ibadan, Nigeria. The rice was added to distilled water (1% w/v) and autoclaved at 15Ib/in2 at 121°C. Experimental Conical flasks (250 ml) containing 100 ml of the rice medium was inoculated with 1 ml of an aqueous spore suspension containing approximately 6 × 104 spores per ml of each isolate. Control flasks contained sterilized rice medium not inoculated with aqueous spore suspension of the isolate. Experimental and control flasks was incubated without shaking at 25°C.
\nOn a daily basis, the contents of each flask was filtered through glass fiber filter paper (Whatman GF/A). The protein content of the filtrates was determined using the method of Lowry et al. [131]. The filtrates were analyzed for amylase activity using the modified methods of Pfueller and Elliott [132] and Xiao et al. [133]. The filtrates were used as crude preparation.
\nThe crude enzymes were treated with ammonium sulfate (analytical grade) within the limits of 40–90% saturation. Precipitation was allowed to continue at 4°C for 24 h. The mixtures were then centrifuged 10,000 g for 30 min at 4°C using a high speed cold centrifuge (Optima LE-80 K Ultracentrifuge, Beckman, USA). The supernatant was discarded. The precipitate was re-dissolved in 0.2 M citrate phosphate buffer, pH 6.0. The protein contents were determined using the Lowry et al. [131] method while amylase activity was determined using the modified methods of Pfueller and Elliott [132] and Xiao et al. [133].
\nUsing acetylated dialysis tubings (Visking dialysis tubings, Sigma) [134] and a multiple dialyser (Pope Scientific Inc. Model 220, USA), the enzyme preparations were dialysed under several changes of 0.2 M citrate phosphate buffer pH 6.0 at 4°C for 24 h. The protein contents of the dialysed enzymes were determined using the Lowry et al. [131] method while amylase activity was determined using the modified methods of Pfueller and Elliott [132] and Xiao et al. [133].
\nBoth experimental (fungal isolate inoculated) and control (un-inoculated) flasks were assayed for amylase activity.
\nα-Amylase activity was determined using the modified methods of Pfueller and Elliott [132] and Xiao et al. [133]. The reaction mixtures consisted 2 ml of 0.1% (w/v) starch (Sigma) in 0.2 M citrate phosphate buffer, pH 6.0 as substrate and 0.5 ml of enzyme. These were the experimentals in the assay procedure. The controls in the assay procedure consisted only 2 ml of the prepared substrate. The contents of both experimental and control tubes were incubated at 35°C for 30 min. The reactions were terminated with 3 ml of 1 N HCl. Enzyme (0.5 ml) was added to the contents of each control. About 2 ml of the mixture from each of the sets of experimentals and controls was transferred into new sets of clean test tubes. About 3 ml of 0.1 N HCl was added into the contents of each test tube after which 0.1 ml of iodine solution was added. Optical density readings were taken spectrophotometrically at 620 nm. Enzyme activity was defined in units and specific activity as enzyme units per mg protein.
\nOne unit of α-amylase activity was defined as the amount of enzyme which produced 0.1% reduction in the intensity of the blue color of starch-iodine complex under conditions of the assay.
\nToxigenic strains of
Using different carbon sources (rice, starch, maltose, sucrose, lactose, glucose and galactose) in the growth medium, amylase activity expressed by each isolate on the tenth day of incubation is shown in \nTable 1\n.
\nCarbon source | \nIsolate | \nAmylase activity (Units) | \n
---|---|---|
Rice | \n\n \n \n \n | \n0.54 ± 0.01 0.72 ± 0.04 0.43 ± 0.23 0.62 ± 0.06 | \n
Galactose | \n\n \n \n \n | \n0.06 ± 0.01 0.53 ± 0.13 0.36 ± 0.05 0.09 ± 0.04 | \n
Glucose | \n\n \n \n \n | \n0.50 ± 0.04 0.63 ± 0.08 0.44 ± 0.08 0.32 ± 0.11 | \n
Lactose | \n\n \n \n \n | \n0.10 ± 0.00 0.66 ± 0.10 0.40 ± 0.17 0.37 ± 0.08 | \n
Maltose | \n\n \n \n \n | \n0.52 ± 0.03 0.68 ± 0.04 0.75 ± 0.01 0.58 ± 0.12 | \n
Starch | \n\n \n \n \n | \n0.45 ± 0.04 0.57 ± 0.12 0.68 ± 0.03 0.60 ± 0.14 | \n
Sucrose | \n\n \n \n \n | \n0.46 ± 0.05 0.69 ± 0.03 0.59 ± 0.13 0.39 ± 0.06 | \n
Effect of carbon sources on activity of amylase produced by isolates.
Each value represents the mean of three replicates with standard error.
With different sources of nitrogen (NH4Cl, urea, KNO3, ammonium sulfate, glycine, sodium nitrate, tryptone and peptone) in the growth medium, amylase activity expressed varyingly by each isolate on the tenth day of incubation is shown in \nTable 2\n.
\nNitrogen source | \nIsolate | \nAmylase activity (Units) | \n
---|---|---|
Ammonium sulfate | \n\n \n \n \n | \n3.25 ± 0.15 0.05 ± 0.00 0.38 ± 0.13 0.13 ± 0.03 | \n
Glycine | \n\n \n \n \n | \n0.38 ± 0.13 2.48 ± 0.03 0.00 ± 0.00 1.53 ± 0.48 | \n
Potassium nitrate | \n\n \n \n \n | \n0.50 ± 0.00 1.30 ± 0.10 0.25 ± 0.25 0.68 ± 0.03 | \n
Ammonium chloride | \n\n \n \n \n | \n3.02 ± 0.18 0.05 ± 0.05 0.13 ± 0.13 0.13 ± 0.03 | \n
Peptone | \n\n \n \n \n | \n0.25 ± 0.00 1.50 ± 0.15 0.13 ± 0.13 2.48 ± 0.03 | \n
Sodium nitrate | \n\n \n \n \n | \n0.38 ± 0.13 1.48 ± 0.13 0.25 ± 0.00 0.93 ± 0.73 | \n
Tryptone | \n\n \n \n \n | \n0.25 ± 0.00 0.20 ± 0.05 0.38 ± 0.13 2.40 ± 0.10 | \n
Urea | \n\n \n \n \n | \n0.15 ± 0.00 2.32 ± 0.03 0.00 ± 0.00 2.33 ± 0.08 | \n
Effect of nitrogen sources on activity of amylase produced by isolates.
Each value represents the mean of three replicates with standard error.
Toxigenic
Toxigenic
The results of this investigation show that the toxigenic strains of
Aflatoxin B1-producing-toxigenic strains of
The genetic make-ups of these aflatoxin B1-producing-α-amylase-producing fungal strains are important in their ability to produce the enzyme α-amylase. Specific genes are necessary and important in the production of this enzyme. Mutant strains lacking the specific genes for α-amylase production will not be ideal in the exploration for production of the enzyme. More so, there seems to be a significant relationship between the ability to produce α-amylase and aflatoxin B1 production in mycotoxigenic fungi from literature.
\nThe toxigenic strains of
Authors are thankful to the British Mycology Society (BMS), United Kingdom for Grant supports.
\n\n
Visking dialysis tubings (Sigma- Aldrich).
\n\n
Aqueous ethanol (50% V/V)
Absolute ethanol
Diethyl ether
A mixture of benzene, acetic anhydride and pyridine in the ratio 5:4:2 (V/V)
10% KCl (10 g of KCl in 100 ml distilled water)
\n
The cellophane tubings were filled with distilled water and soaked in distilled water for 24 hours. The tubings were then soaked in turn, for 30 min each time in 50% ethanol, absolute ethanol and diethyl ether successively. The tubings were thereafter soaked in the mixture of benzene, acetic anhydride, and pyridine, prepared as described above, for 18 hours. Each tubing was then properly rinsed in distilled water and stored in 10% KCl solution at 4°C until required.
\n\n
Reagent A—2% Na2CO3 in 0.1 N NaOH
Reagent B—0.5% CuSO4.5H2O in 1% Sodium Potassium tartrate
Reagent C—50 ml of reagent A mixed with 1 ml of reagent B
Folin-Ciocalteu’s phenol reagent (Sigma-Aldrich Chemie GmbH, Fluka Biochemika) diluted with distilled water in the ratio 1:1(V/V). This is labeled reagent D.
\n
5 ml of reagent C was added to 1 ml of the test sample. This was thoroughly mixed and left at room temperature for 10 min. Thereafter, 0.5 ml of reagent D was added and allowed to remain at room temperature for 30 min. Absorbance was determined at 620 nm.
\nSerial dilutions of Bovine serum albumin (Sigma) were treated likewise and used to plot standard graph. The unknown protein value in each test sample is meant to be extrapolated from the standard graph.
\n(0.3% Iodine in 3% KI)
\n\n
Iodine
Potassium iodide (KI)
\n
3 g of KI was dissolved in 100 ml of warm distilled water. 0.3 g of Iodine was thereafter added and allowed to dissolve in the solution by mixing and warming.
\nThe art and science of orthodontics have certainly come a long way from the era of treatment using removable appliances, which mainly produced tipping movements of the teeth, to the fixed appliances that bring about bodily movements of the teeth to their desired destination. But this has not been a journey without hiccups. The quest for the perfect smile or the ideal occlusion has been marred by quite a few stories of botched-up cases, which, sometimes, could be the result of unscientific methods being utilized to achieve the promised results. But it also seems to be a story of due respect not being accorded to the most important structure in the treatment process—the periodontium. This chapter discusses the relationship that the periodontium (
The force applied to the teeth during orthodontic treatment results in remodeling of the alveolar bone. The exact mechanism of how this force is converted to biological activity has not been elicited till now. Various theories try to explain this phenomenon:
Bone-bending/biological electrical
Pressure-tension
Neurogenic inflammation
Fluid-flow sheer stress
Whatever be the mechanism, it seems obvious that it is the periodontium that plays a big role in achieving the treatment goals.
The periodontium has two main functions: protection and attachment. The former function is carried out by the gingiva and the latter by its three remaining parts, namely the cementum, periodontal ligaments, and the alveolar bone. It is only the gingiva that is visible in the oral cavity, the rest being covered and protected by it.
The primary function of the gingiva is protection, as stated earlier. Orthodontic treatment tends to be associated with gingivitis in many patients. As the presence of plaque is one of the main factors in the development of gingivitis, it could be the interference of the orthodontic brackets and elastics with effective removal of dental plaque, which might be resulting in gingivitis. However, it has been shown that because of orthodontic treatment a shift in the composition and type of bacteria can occur [1]. According to J. van Gastel, et al. [2], fixed orthodontic treatment may result in localized gingivitis, which rarely progresses to periodontitis. E. Bimstein and A. Becker [3] state that, following placement of a fixed appliance, a small amount of gingival inflammation will be visible, which could be transient in nature and does not lead to attachment loss, in the majority of the patients.
Gingival recession is considered to be one of the more common complications of orthodontic tooth movement (OTM). But in a study conducted among 205 orthodontic patients, Morris JW, et al. [4] found that “orthodontic treatment is not a major risk factor for the development of gingival recession.” They further state that “although greater amounts of maxillary expansion during treatment increase the risks of post-treatment recession, the effects are minimal.”
Any treatment procedure that a human being undergoes, whether surgical or medical, can have side effects or risks involved, and orthodontic treatment is no exception. Similar to other medical procedures, the aim in orthodontics is also to minimize the risks involved in the maximum number of patients possible.
Microscopic resorption of the cementum of erupted as well as unerupted teeth is a common phenomenon. This occurs without involving the underlying dentin in the majority of cases. The resorption may be caused by local or systemic factors or can be idiopathic. Trauma from occlusion, malaligned erupting teeth, periapical as well as periodontal infections, replanted or transplanted teeth, orthodontic movement, etc. are the local factors that may result in cementum resorption. According to some authors [5, 6, 7], root resorption is the most common side effect of orthodontic treatment and occurs within 6 months of commencement of the treatment. Anja Pejicic, et al. [8] have described three degrees of severity of orthodontically induced root resorption (OIRR): the first degree wherein there is only surface resorption of the cementum which will regenerate or remodel fully. The second degree shows deep resorption with cementum and outer dentin layers involved and this is usually repaired with cementum. In this, the original shape of the root may or may not be achieved following the repair. In their third degree, there is full resorption of the apical hard tissues evidenced by shortening of the root.
Biologic as well as mechanical factors have been highlighted as probable causes of OIRR, with tooth root morphology, abnormal root shape, previous history of trauma or root resorption, genetic and systemic factors, endodontic treatment, habits and oral health, etc. likely to be the biologic factors. Mechanical factors could be the amount of apical displacement, the magnitude of force applied, duration of treatment, whether it is continuous or intermittent force, type, extent and direction of tooth movement, etc., according to Anja Pejicic, et al. There are studies [9, 10, 11, 12] that suggest that it is the trauma due to over-compression of the periodontal ligament that causes OIRR. It seems to be an accepted fact that orthodontic movements are not entirely translatory due to mechanical laws. This results in the concentration of orthodontic forces at the apical region. During OTM, hyalinization does occur because it is virtually impossible to prevent the occlusion of blood vessels totally. Because of this, root resorption might begin at the hyalinized region of the necrotic periodontal ligament. As hyalinized necrotic tissue develops in almost 100% of patients during orthodontic treatment, some authors believe that root resorption occurs in almost every orthodontic patient [13, 14]. It is believed that the aggressiveness of the resorbing cells, the vulnerability and sensitivity of the tissues involved and individual variation and susceptibility will decide the extent of resorption [8].
The use of light orthodontic force has been shown to minimize the extent of root resorption, especially with horizontal and vertical displacement. This could be because the apical third of the root is covered with cellular cementum, whereas the coronal third is covered with acellular cementum. Because of the increased proliferation activity, cells of the cellular cementum might be easily damaged, whereas the slowly dividing cells of the acellular cementum might be more resistant to those forces [15, 16, 17].
Nitric oxide (NO), the intra- and the intercellular signal molecule, is synthesized by the activity of neuronal, endothelial, and inducible isoforms of NO synthases (NOSs). The primary sensor of NO is soluble guanylate cyclase (sGC). It plays a very important part in many physiological as well as pathological processes and conditions and also in NO signaling. The enzymatic activity of sGC is boosted when NO binds to it. In inflammation, sGC is oxidized and becomes insensitive to NO. Inflammation of the periodontium induces the resorption of cementum by cementoclasts and the resorption of the alveolar bone by osteoclasts. Korkmaz Y, et al. think that if medication can be used to activate sGC in periodontal tissues of patients suffering from periodontitis in nitric oxide and heme-independent manner, it could result in a novel treatment to stop cementum resorption for such patients. They reached this conclusion after studying the α1- and β1-subunits of sGC in cementoclasts of healthy and inflamed human periodontium using double immunostaining for CD68 and cathepsin K. They compared this with those of osteoclasts from the same sections and noticed that under inflammatory conditions, cementoclasts showed a decreased staining intensity for both the subunits [18].
Yufei Xie, Ning Zhao, and Gang Shen [19] investigated the anti-resorptive mechanisms of cementocytes during orthodontic tooth movement. They concluded that under fluid-flow sheer stress, cementocytes stimulate the differentiation of osteoblasts and inhibit the activation of osteoclasts, showing greater potential for bone protection than alveolar bone osteocytes. And according to them, “cementocytes might play an important role in preventing one of the most common complications of orthodontic treatment – root resorption.”
According to Alberto Consolaro [20], teeth with OIRR do not need:
restraints, as they do not become mobile or painful. If either of these symptoms is present, he suggests that other etiological factors like recently removed orthodontic braces, trauma from occlusion, bruxism, cervical bone loss, bone loss due to periodontitis, etc. should be looked for.
endodontic treatment as the dental pulp does not undergo ischemia, infarction, or necrosis during the orthodontic movements.
replacement with dental implants, as the cervical third of the root is responsible for 60% of periodontal support.
The alveolar bone is a mineralized connective tissue and is made up of around 67% inorganic material by weight. The inorganic content is primarily calcium and phosphate, with the mineral content being typically in the form of hydroxyapatite crystals. Around 20% of the alveolar bone consists of organic material, containing both collagen and non-collagenous materials. Water constitutes the rest of the weight of the alveolar bone- ~ 15% [21]. The inner wall of the tooth socket, known as the alveolar bone proper, contains many openings through which the periodontal ligament connects with the neurovascular bundles of the cancellous bone. The interdental bone or septum is made up of cancellous supporting bone within cortical walls.
Adjacent to the PDL space is a plate of compact bone called the lamina dura, whereas the majority of alveolar bone is trabecular in nature. The alveolar bone contains many different types of cells such as adipocytes, endothelial cells, macrophages, osteoclasts, osteoblasts and osteocytes. But the crucial detail of maintaining the function as well as homeostasis of the alveolar bone is carried out by the last three types of cells. There are some differences between the osteoblasts which form bone, and the osteoclasts, which resorb bone. The former (and the osteocytes) descend from mesenchymal cells, whereas the latter originates from the monocyte or hematopoietic cells. At the same time, the osteoclasts are formed by the fusion of multiple monocytes and thus are multinucleated while the osteoblasts are mononucleated. Type I collagen, which is the most abundant protein in vertebrates, can be made by both fibroblasts and osteoblasts and it is this collagen that forms the structural and mechanical matrix of the alveolar bone. The osteoblasts contain the master switch Runx2, which helps in the differentiation of osteoblasts from the progenitor mesenchymal cells [21]. As age advances, there is a disproportion between bone deposition and resorption and this is because the number of osteoblasts decreases as we age [22]. While apposition of bone is taking place, osteoblasts get enclosed in the mineralized bone and these cells are known as the osteocytes. A lacuna can form around such an osteocyte by deposition of minerals such as calcium carbonate, hydroxyapatite and calcium phosphate, during bone formation. The lacunae connect with each other through canaliculi, which are narrow channels through which the dendrites of osteocytes correspond using gap junctions. The bone-resorbing osteoclasts express various substances such as osteoprotegerin (OPG), chloride channel 7 (ClCN7), cathepsin K, and tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase (TRAP). Bone matrix proteins such as elastin, collagen, and gelatin are catabolized by the protease cathepsin K, whereas ClCN7 maintains osteoclast neutrality by shuffling chloride ions through the cell membrane. OPG, though a member of the TNF receptor family, is secreted and acts as a cytokine.
Among all the periodontal tissues, alveolar bone is the least stable because it is in a constant state of flux. Local factors that cause internal remodeling include age-related changes as well as functional requirements on the tooth. Mechanical strains caused by orthodontic movements are thought to be resulting in physiologic bone adaptation together with minor injuries to the periodontium, which are reversible [23]. The pressure-tension theory of tooth movement proposes that a tooth moves in the periodontal space by creating a pressure and tension side. According to this theory, the tooth shifts its position within the periodontal ligament (PDL) space, resulting in PDL compression in some areas and PDL tension in others within a few seconds of force loading and this is brought about by chemical, rather than electric, signals as the stimulus for cellular differentiation and ultimately tooth movement. Bone resorption occurs at the compression side and bone formation at the tension side, with blood flow being decreased on the compression side and is maintained or increased on the tension side. Within minutes of force being applied, the alteration in blood flow changes the oxygen tension and the chemical environment by releasing biologically active agents such as prostaglandins and cytokines [24]. This happens especially if there is sustained force. This alteration results in less oxygen levels on the pressure side due to compression of the periodontal ligament and vice versa. It has been observed that low oxygen tension causes decreased adenosine triphosphate (ATP) activity [25]. These changes act on cellular differentiation and activity, bringing about bone resorption at the compression side and bone formation at the tension side. Schwarz (1932) correlated the tissue response to the magnitude of force, with capillary blood pressure. If the force exceeds the pressure of ~20–25 g/cm2 of the root surface, tissue necrosis can occur due to the strangulated periodontium [26]. It has been shown that with the application of heavy force, blood flow tends to be cut off resulting in cell death under compression. According to Al Ansari et al., these cell deaths also include some osteocytes and osteoblasts in the adjacent alveolar bone. This causes acute inflammatory response with the release of chemokines that could attract other inflammatory and precursor cells into the extravascular space from the blood vessels. According to Taddei et al., during orthodontic movement, the chemokines known as monocyte chemo-attractant protein-1 (MCP-1) is released attracting the monocytes. These monocytes become either macrophages or osteoclasts once they exit the bloodstream and enter into the tissue. The release of other inflammatory mediators is also seen within the first few hours of tooth movement.
If the cessation of blood flow occurs because of heavy orthodontic force being applied, a delayed differentiation or recruitment of osteoclasts from adjacent bone marrow space also may occur resulting in “undermining resorption” that removes the lamina dura next to the compressed PDL. This is because no osteoclast differentiation occurs within the compressed PDL space. Under such a condition, tooth movement will take place only after this “undermining resorption” is completed, meaning only after a week or two. This also explains why tooth movement occurs within 2 to 3 days when light force is applied, because the light force will only reduce the blood flow permitting the quick recruitment of osteoclasts either from within the periodontal ligament space or from blood. This will result in the removal of the lamina dura by the process of “frontal resorption.” At the same time, it is a fact that tooth movement is a result of a combination of “undermining” as well as “frontal” resorption. This is because some degree of hyalinization almost always occurs as it is virtually impossible to clinically prevent the occlusion of blood vessels completely [24].
Yes, the force applied by the orthodontic appliance provides the impetus for the tooth to move. But without the PDL it would be impossible for the teeth to move through the bone and reach their intended destination, in an orderly manner. The PDL, like all ligaments in the body, connects the hard tissue structures, either the cementum of adjacent teeth to each other or the cementum of the tooth to the alveolar bone.
The PDL also connects with the neurovascular bundles of the cancellous bone through the alveolar bone proper
Some of the more frequent complications of orthodontic treatment are dehiscence or fenestration of the alveolar bone. These can result in root exposure, gingival recession, and relapse of the condition.
As discussed earlier, tooth loading, physiologic or otherwise, causes areas of compression and tension on the soft tissues surrounding the teeth also—the PDL, nerves, blood vessels, etc. In the PDL, there is an intimate relationship of the nerve endings with the blood vessels. Neurotransmitters such as calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) and substance P are released when the nerve endings get distorted and these cause vasodilation and increased permeability of the blood vessels resulting in plasma leakage [23, 26]. OTM is achieved by the remodeling of the PDL and alveolar bone. These remodeling activities and the movement of the teeth result in an aseptic inflammatory process with the consequent increase in mediators such as prostaglandins (PGs), interleukins (ILs. IL-6, IL-7 & IL-17), the tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α superfamily, and the receptor activator of nuclear factor (RANK)/RANK ligand (RANKL)/osteoprotegerin (OPG).
Current scientific literature suggests that arachidonic acid (AA) pathway plays a very important role in many human diseases such as cardiovascular problems, carcinogenesis as well as inflammatory conditions such as asthma, arthritis. Periodontists have been exploring the role of AA in periodontitis for some time, it being an inflammatory condition. AA can be metabolized by three specific enzyme systems, that is, cyclooxygenases, lipoxygenases, and cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes. One of the derivatives of the AA cascade—the prostaglandins (PGs) are produced within seconds of cell injury. PGE2 is the most abundantly seen PG in various tissues and is known for its all-around physiologic and pathological actions. It increases vascular permeability and chemotactic actions by acting as a vasodilator and at the same time, it increases bone resorption and osteoclast formation. An increase in PGs levels in the PDL and alveolar bone has been reported by Ngan, et al. [27], during orthodontic treatment. PGE2 levels in the gingival crevicular fluid (GCF) increased during OTM, according to Shetty et al. [28]. Leiker et al. [29] demonstrated that exogenous prostaglandins enhanced the rate of OTM in rats. The administration of PGE or prostaglandin receptor EP4 also enhanced the rate of tooth movement [30, 31]. It has also been demonstrated that indomethacin, a specific inhibitor of prostaglandin synthesis, reduces the rate of OTM in rats [31, 32]. As mentioned earlier, the cytokines also increase during OTM. IL-β in particular is involved with inflammation and stimulates bone resorption. It has been reported that IL-1β is produced by both macrophages and neutrophils, and is increased in inflamed gingival tissues. IL-6 is a multifunctional cytokine produced by immune cells and induces osteoclastic bone resorption. IL-17 is an inflammatory cytokine that is produced by activated T cells and it has been reported that IL-17 induces osteoclastogenesis from monocytes.
RANK ligand (RANKL) and its receptor RANK are present on osteoblasts and precursor osteoclasts, respectively. They are considered to be the key factors that stimulate osteoclast formation and osteoclastogenesis. RANKL is required for osteoclast formation with macrophage-colony-stimulating factor (MCSF) from precursor monocyte/macrophages. Osteoprotegerin (OPG) inhibits RANK–RANKL interactions [24]. It binds to RANKL and prevents RANK–RANKL ligation. Therefore, OPG prevents osteoclast differentiation and activation. Kanzaki et al. demonstrated that compression forces upregulate RANKL expression through induction of COX-2 in human PDL cells
All these studies suggest that these and other inflammatory cytokines may be intricately entwined with one another during OTM, and may play important roles in bone remodeling. But studies on OIRR seem to suggest that these mediators might also be the cause for the most common complication in orthodontics-root resorption.
A systematic review of prospective studies on the duration of orthodontic treatment suggests that the duration of orthodontic treatment varies widely but takes less than 2 years to complete, on average [34]. Most patients would like their treatment to be done in a much shorter period and in addition, longer treatment periods might increase the chances of root resorption, decalcification, etc. This has resulted in orthodontists as well as manufacturers trying to shorten the duration by using various methods to accelerate OTM (AOTM). Some of the techniques advocated in this quest to accelerate OTM are as follows:
Limited orthodontic treatment.
Self-ligating and varying bracket designs
Customized appliances
Medications such as corticosteroids, vitamin D3, parathyroid hormone, thyroxin, prostaglandins, platelet-rich plasma.
Micro-vibration
Low-intensity Laser
Photobiomodulation aka low-level light therapy
Electromagnetic fields
Direct electrical current
Micro-osteoperforations
Piezocision
Corticotomies
Osteotomies/PDL distraction
Surgery first
Miles P [35] reviewed the studies involving the aforesaid techniques and was of the opinion that the technique of photobiomodulation may be of benefit but suggested that since there is limited evidence to support it, more studies will be needed before it can be applied routinely. With regard to the use of corticotomy, also he says that only low-level evidence is available and he concludes his review by suggesting that rigorous, well-designed randomized controlled trials with longer follow-up periods are necessary for all the techniques before they can be recommended.
The effects of most of the above AOTM procedures on the periodontium do not seem to have been studied in detail. The more commonly performed and studied one seems to be the corticotomies,
In 2001, Wilcko, et al. [36] introduced the “periodontally accelerated osteogenic orthodontics” (PAOO) technique that they claimed shortened the duration of orthodontic treatment. This involved flap design, selective decortication, alveolar augmentation, membrane coverage, and closure using sutures. They radiographically assessed the presence of transient demineralization followed by remineralization at the corticotomy level. According to them, reversible osteopenia occurs both within the alveolar bone proper and on the surface and with this, the collagenous bony matrix also moves with the root in the same direction as the OTM. Once the OTM is completed and the teeth are retained in their predetermined position, remineralization of the matrix takes place. They claim that this demineralization-remineralization is complete in adolescents but not so much in adults and termed it the “regional acceleratory phenomenon” (RAP) of bone remodeling. They thought that this “bone matrix transportation” had made it possible to design a surgical approach, which permits extraction space closure in 3 to 4 weeks. The duration of RAP is claimed to last for 3–4 months by these authors and the amount of tooth movement during this period was double around 1 mm/month, in animal studies conducted by Iino S, et al. [37].
The use of techniques to speed up orthodontic tooth movement by utilizing alveolar surgery has a history dating back to more than a century. But it is Heinrich Kole [38] who has been credited with refining the process. He proposed the idea of accelerating orthodontic movements by displacing bone blocks, more than 6 decades ago. He hypothesized that it was the cortical bone that slowed the orthodontic movement of teeth and so why not weaken it by osteotomizing it? He advocated buccal and lingual interdental corticotomies together with supra-apical horizontal osteotomies connecting the two vertical cuts. Though accelerated orthodontic movements were achieved, he encountered quite a few complications like the non-vitality of teeth. It should be noted that Kole achieved the tooth movements using removable appliances fitted with adjustable screws. Others tried to build on this technique with Duker in 1975 [39] sparing the crestal bone in his corticotomies and Suya [40] replacing the supra-apical osteotomy with a corticotomy in 1991.
According to T. Gellee, et al. [41], PAOO also allows larger tooth displacements, a reduction in the risk of root resorption, and a gain in stability after the removal of orthodontic devices.
According to the American Association of Orthodontists, one in four orthodontic patients is an adult. Some studies suggest that almost 40% of the patients are adults. As more and more adult patients seek orthodontic treatment for various reasons, it can be challenging for the orthodontist to tailor his/her techniques to the specific patient. Many of these patients might have underlying periodontal problems that can affect the treatment process as well as its outcome. The periodontist can play an active role in ensuring the success of the orthodontic treatment—in adult patients or adolescents. This role can be before, during, or after the orthodontic treatment.
A thorough periodontal examination/charting is of utmost importance for every orthodontic patient, especially if skeletal growth has been completed. This is to identify and manage active conditions such as gingivitis and periodontitis as well as conditions that result in deficiency of soft or hard tissues or both. In ideal conditions, and with good oral hygiene, gingival health can be maintained with as little as 1–2 mm of keratinized gingiva. But soft tissue grafting might be indicated under the following circumstances:
when the buccal displacement of the roots is planned during the treatment or when treatment might result in thinning of the gingiva.
chronically inflamed areas of keratinized gingiva or no area of keratinized gingiva where the alveolar mucosa prevents optimal plaque control.
minimal areas of attached gingiva compromised by a shallow vestibule or frenum pull.
advancing gingival recession.
The techniques that are available to correct these conditions include the following:
Laterally or coronally advanced pedicle grafts.
Coronally advanced flaps alone or in conjunction with barrier membranes or enamel matrix proteins.
Free gingival grafts.
Subepithelial connective tissue autografts.
Allografts.
Every patient should undergo professional plaque removal and root debridement before the start of the treatment. Oral hygiene instructions should be reinforced because it has been shown that orthodontic bands, elastics, etc., tend to retain plaque, resulting in gingivitis, which may then proceed to periodontitis. Orthodontically induced remodeling process may have a positive effect on bone, so extensive osseous surgery is usually not indicated at this time. But sometimes osseous surgery might be indicated in the following conditions:
The American Academy of Periodontology’s systematic review on whether periodontal phenotype modification therapy (PhMT) involving hard tissue augmentation (PhMT-b) or soft tissue augmentation (PhMT-s) has clinical benefits for patients undergoing orthodontic treatment concluded that PhMT
The maintenance of oral hygiene during treatment is of paramount importance. During each visit reinforcement of oral hygiene instructions have to be carried out along with motivating the patient to do so. Periodontal evaluation every 6 months and radiographic examination once in a year would be ideal. Procedures like frenectomy might have to be carried out during the treatment period if the orthodontist feels that diastema closure, etc. are being hampered by an aberrant frenum.
Regular periodontal charting should be carried out in patients who have completed their treatment. Depending on the case, circumferential supracrestal fiberotomy (CSF) may have to be carried out during the end part of the treatment or after the treatment is over. This is expected to release the tension on the supra-alveolar fibers following tooth de-rotation, thereby reducing the relapse risk. Reham Al-Jasser, et al. [43] in their study found that “post-treatment rotational relapse of anterior teeth subjected to CSF was minimal and statistically insignificant after 1 year of follow-up.”
Most orthodontists may be worried about carrying out orthodontic treatment in periodontally compromised patients and with good reason. At the same time, studies show that a large percentage (~65%) of patients with moderate to severe periodontitis are interested in such treatment for esthetic and functional changes caused by pathologic tooth migration [44].
Many questions need to be answered in these periodontally compromised patients who opt for orthodontic treatment. Some of the findings of a comprehensive search on PubMed focusing on “ortho-perio treatments” are as follows [45]:
Best time to start orthodontic treatment following periodontal therapy.
According to the authors, in periodontally compromised cases that have undergone periodontal therapy, it is better to start orthodontic treatment as follows:
3 to 6 months after non-surgical/surgical periodontal treatment and
9 to 12 months after regenerative surgical procedures.
Acceptable periodontal status for orthodontic treatment
It is important to achieve low rates of full-mouth plaque and bleeding on probing after active periodontal treatment with scores <25% of previous ones. They recommend that these low scores (i.e., optimal plaque control without clinical gingival inflammation) be reached and maintained during the entire phase of orthodontic therapy and they think that without these conditions, orthodontic tooth movement should be discontinued.
Biologic efficacy of orthodontic treatment
A combined periodontist-orthodontist diagnostic and treatment endeavor in periodontally compromised patients can result in improved masticatory efficiency by a more balanced occlusion brought about by a realignment of the migrated teeth. The realignment may also result in the periodontal structures being better able to carry out their assigned functions.
According to Lindhe J and Ericsson I [46], a healthy periodontium with reduced height has a capacity similar to that of a normal periodontium to adapt to traumatizing occlusal forces. Wennström JL, et al. [47] state that sites with the horizontal bone loss after periodontal therapy will not be negatively influenced by the type of tooth movement once the individualized orthodontic mechanics are established (i.e., an appropriate ratio force/% remaining periodontal support). According to Polson A, et al., if teeth are moved through or into vertical bone defects, it can increase the rate of destruction of these periodontal structures. At the same time, if the OTM into infrabony pockets is done after successful elimination of subgingival infection, it will not result in adverse effects. They concluded that this movement/treatment will not bring about changes in the periodontal ligament attachment level; instead, the formation of a long junctional epithelium is what will be achieved [48].
According to Melsen B, et al. [49], “orthodontic intrusion at healthy sites can lead to new cementum formation and new collagen attachment, whereas for sites lacking proper oral hygiene, results vary from a moderate new attachment development to a worsening of the alveolar bone loss.” And in a subsequent study, Melsen B [50] recommends that “the intrusion movement should be carefully planned as it can increase the risk of other adverse effects not desired in patients with a reduced periodontium, such as alveolar process reduction and root resorption.”
Cassio Volponi Carvalho, et al. [51] studied the effects of orthodontic movement in the periodontal tissues of 10 adult patients with aggressive periodontitis and compared them with 10 patients with healthy periodontium. They evaluated the probing pocket depth, clinical attachment level, bleeding on probing, and dental plaque index before, during and 4 months after orthodontic treatment. They found improvement in all the above parameters, 4 months after orthodontic treatment.
Despite advances in therapeutics as well as our increased knowledge of the biological effects of orthodontic treatment, it might be better to avoid OTM in conditions such as uncontrolled infection/inflammation, inadequate anchorage, conditions where periodontal health might not improve despite periodontal therapy.
This chapter has attempted to portray the roles the periodontium, inflammation, and periodontal therapy play during the planning and execution of orthodontic treatment as well as once it is completed. It also discusses orthodontics in the periodontally compromised patient. There is a huge void in our knowledge about various aspects of the orthodontic movement of teeth and their effects on the periodontium. It is also evident that for the long-term success of orthodontic treatment, especially in the periodontally compromised patient, joining forces of the orthodontist and the periodontist would benefit patients as well as both the specialties.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Ove Odredbe i uvjeti ističu pravila i regulacije u svezi korištenja IntechOpenove stranice www.intechopen.com i svih poddomena u vlasništvu IntechOpena, tvrtke sa sjedištem u 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ, Ujedinjeno Kraljevstvo.
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\\n\\nMi koristimo kolačiće. Korištenjem IntechOpenove stranice slažete se s korištenjem kolačića u skladu s IntechOpenovom Politikom privatnosti. Većina modernih, interaktivnih stranica koristi kolačiće kako bi omogućila ponovno pronalaženje korisničkih detalja kod svakog posjeta. Na našoj stranici kolačići se uglavnom koriste kako bi omogućili funkcionalnost i olakšali posjetiteljima korištenje stranice.
\\n\\nIntechOpen ili njegovi suradnici niti u jednom slučaju neće biti odgovorni za štete (štete uključuju gubitak podataka ili profita, druge poslovne prekide, te sve ostale štete) koje nastanu zbog korištenja materijala na IntechOpenovoj stranici ili nemogućnosti da se iste koriste, čak i ako je IntechOpen ili njegov predstavnik o takvoj šteti obaviješten pismenim ili usmenim putem. Neke jurisdikcije ne dozvoljavaju ograničenja garancija ili ograničenja obveza za posljedične ili slučajne štete pa se u tom slučaju ova ograničenja možda ne odnose na vas.
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\n\nSljedeća terminologija odnosi se na Odredbe i uvjete, te na sve naše ugovore:
\n\nKlijent, stranka, vi, vaš odnosi se na vas, osobu koja pristupa ovoj stranici i prihvaća IntechOpenove Odredbe i uvjete;
\n\nKompanija, tvrtka, mi, naše odnosi se na tvrtku IntechOpen;
\n\nStranke, strane odnosi se na klijenta i na nas, ili samo na klijenta ili nas.
\n\nSve odredbe koje se odnose na ponudu, prihvat ili razmatranje plaćanja, a za koja mi pružamo asistenciju klijentu, bilo na ugovoreni ili fiksni način, a s ciljem da se ostvare potrebe i želje klijenta u svezi s našim uslugama, su podložne zakonskim odredbama Ujedinjenog Kraljevstva.
\n\nOsim ako nije suprotno navedeno, IntechOpen i/ili svi davatelji licence vlasnici su intelektualnog vlasništva nad svim materijalima na www.intechopen.com. Sva prava intelektualnog vlasništva su pridržana. Stranice sa www.intechopen.com možete gledati, preuzimati, dijeliti, dijeliti poveznice i printati za osobnu uporabu, a temeljem pravila sadržanih u ovim Odredbama i uvjetima.
\n\nMi koristimo kolačiće. Korištenjem IntechOpenove stranice slažete se s korištenjem kolačića u skladu s IntechOpenovom Politikom privatnosti. Većina modernih, interaktivnih stranica koristi kolačiće kako bi omogućila ponovno pronalaženje korisničkih detalja kod svakog posjeta. Na našoj stranici kolačići se uglavnom koriste kako bi omogućili funkcionalnost i olakšali posjetiteljima korištenje stranice.
\n\nIntechOpen ili njegovi suradnici niti u jednom slučaju neće biti odgovorni za štete (štete uključuju gubitak podataka ili profita, druge poslovne prekide, te sve ostale štete) koje nastanu zbog korištenja materijala na IntechOpenovoj stranici ili nemogućnosti da se iste koriste, čak i ako je IntechOpen ili njegov predstavnik o takvoj šteti obaviješten pismenim ili usmenim putem. Neke jurisdikcije ne dozvoljavaju ograničenja garancija ili ograničenja obveza za posljedične ili slučajne štete pa se u tom slučaju ova ograničenja možda ne odnose na vas.
\n\nMaterijali koji se pojavljuju na IntechOpenovoj stranici mogu sadržavati manje greške, tipfelere ili fotografske greške. IntechOpen može napraviti promjene na bilo kojem materijalu koji se nalazi na stranici u bilo koje vrijeme.
\n\nIntechOpen nije formalno povezan niti s jednom vanjskom stranicom čije poveznice vode na www.intechopen.com, osim ako to nije izravno navedeno. Iz tog razloga IntechOpen nije odgovoran za sadržaj koji se pojavljuje na takvim stranicama. Poveznica na IntechOpenovu stranicu ne implicira povezanost sa IntechOpenom. Korištenje takvih poveznica isključiva je odgovornost korisnika.
\n\nZadržavamo pravo vlasništva nad cjelokupnom stranicom www.intechopen.com i nad svim materijalom na toj stranici. Koristeći se našim uslugama, slažete se da maknete sve poveznice na našu stranicu odmah nakon što to od vas zatražimo. Također, zadržavamo pravo da ove Odredbe i uvjete, i politiku o poveznicama izmjenimo u bilo koje vrijeme. Koristeći se poveznicama na naše stranice slažete se s ovim Odredbama i uvjetima.
\n\nAko smatrate da je bilo koja poveznica na našoj stranici sumnjiva iz bilo kojeg razloga, molimo vas da nas kontaktirate. U tom slučaju razmotrit ćemo micanje poveznice s naše stranice, iako nismo obvezni to napraviti.
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\n\nIntechOpen može ove Odredbe izmijeniti u bilo koje vrijeme i bez prethodne obavijesti. Koristeći ovu stranicu vi se slažete s trenutnim Odredbama i uvjetima koje su na snazi.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. 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Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. 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Abu-Eishah"}]},{id:"13747",doi:"10.5772/14702",title:"Application of Room Temperature Ionic Liquids in Electrochemical Sensors and Biosensors",slug:"application-of-room-temperature-ionic-liquids-in-electrochemical-sensors-and-biosensors",totalDownloads:9795,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:31,abstract:null,book:{id:"1373",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",title:"Ionic Liquids",fullTitle:"Ionic Liquids: Applications and Perspectives"},signatures:"Farnoush Faridbod, Mohammad Reza Ganjali, Parviz Norouzi, Siavash Riahi, and Hamid Rashedi",authors:[{id:"18565",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Ganjali",slug:"mohammad-reza-ganjali",fullName:"Mohammad Reza Ganjali"},{id:"20605",title:"Dr.",name:"Parviz",middleName:null,surname:"Norouzi",slug:"parviz-norouzi",fullName:"Parviz Norouzi"},{id:"20606",title:"Dr.",name:"Farnoush",middleName:null,surname:"Faridbod",slug:"farnoush-faridbod",fullName:"Farnoush Faridbod"},{id:"20607",title:"Dr.",name:"Siavash",middleName:null,surname:"Riahi",slug:"siavash-riahi",fullName:"Siavash Riahi"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"20532",title:"1,2,3-Triazolium Salts as a Versatile New Class of Ionic Liquids",slug:"1-2-3-triazolium-salts-as-a-versatile-new-class-of-ionic-liquids",totalDownloads:6032,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:null,book:{id:"327",slug:"ionic-liquids-classes-and-properties",title:"Ionic Liquids",fullTitle:"Ionic Liquids - Classes and Properties"},signatures:"Zekarias Yacob and Jürgen Liebscher",authors:[{id:"52686",title:"Prof.",name:"Jürgen",middleName:null,surname:"Liebscher",slug:"jurgen-liebscher",fullName:"Jürgen Liebscher"},{id:"56807",title:"Prof.",name:"Zekarias Yacob",middleName:null,surname:"Fundusa",slug:"zekarias-yacob-fundusa",fullName:"Zekarias Yacob Fundusa"}]},{id:"72530",title:"Application of Vortex Control Principle at Pump Intake",slug:"application-of-vortex-control-principle-at-pump-intake",totalDownloads:1008,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Vortex flow in a pump intake could affect a pump operation significantly if not treated appropriately. Many researches have been conducted to determine the best control method for vortex flow in pump sumps so that the pump lifespan can be maximized. In this study, a vortex control principle designed to minimize the impact of submerged vortex flow in pump sump on major pump components is presented. This principle employs a device called the plate type floor splitter which serves the function of eliminating vortices formed on the sump floor and reduces the intensity of swirling motion in the intake flow. A pump sump model was built to carry out the study by installing a floor splitter plate sample under the pump suction inlet and the corresponding parameters used to quantify the swirl intensity known as the swirl angle was measured. Procedures for the measurement were conducted based on ANSI/HI 9.8-2018 standard. A numerical simulation was performed to study the flow in a full-scale pump sump. The results showed that the installation of floor splitter plate can eliminate vortices efficiently and reduce swirl angle significantly. However, optimization of floor splitter design is needed to achieve a reduction effect that can reduce swirl angles to an acceptable value of lower than 5° according to ANSI/HI 9.8-2018 standard.",book:{id:"10080",slug:"vortex-dynamics-theories-and-applications",title:"Vortex Dynamics Theories and Applications",fullTitle:"Vortex Dynamics Theories and Applications"},signatures:"Zambri Harun, Tajul Ariffin Norizan and Wan Hanna Melini Wan Mohtar",authors:[{id:"243152",title:"Dr.",name:"Zambri",middleName:null,surname:"Harun",slug:"zambri-harun",fullName:"Zambri Harun"},{id:"313310",title:"Mr.",name:"Tajul Ariffin",middleName:null,surname:"Norizan",slug:"tajul-ariffin-norizan",fullName:"Tajul Ariffin Norizan"},{id:"317421",title:"Dr.",name:"Wan Hanna Melini",middleName:null,surname:"Wan Mohtar",slug:"wan-hanna-melini-wan-mohtar",fullName:"Wan Hanna Melini Wan Mohtar"}]},{id:"20216",title:"Ionic Liquids in Separation Techniques",slug:"ionic-liquids-in-separation-techniques",totalDownloads:8523,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"1300",slug:"applications-of-ionic-liquids-in-science-and-technology",title:"Applications of Ionic Liquids in Science and Technology",fullTitle:"Applications of Ionic Liquids in Science and Technology"},signatures:"Jolanta Flieger and Anna Czajkowska-Żelazko",authors:[{id:"20797",title:"Dr.",name:"Jolanta",middleName:null,surname:"Flieger",slug:"jolanta-flieger",fullName:"Jolanta Flieger"},{id:"136020",title:"Prof.",name:"Czajkowska",middleName:null,surname:"Żelazko",slug:"czajkowska-zelazko",fullName:"Czajkowska Żelazko"}]},{id:"71403",title:"Supercritical-Fluids Thermophysical Properties and Heat Transfer in Power-Engineering Applications",slug:"supercritical-fluids-thermophysical-properties-and-heat-transfer-in-power-engineering-applications",totalDownloads:1135,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Researches on specifics of thermophysical properties and heat transfer at supercritical pressures (SCPs) started as early as the 1930s with the study on free-convection heat transfer to fluids at a near-critical point. In the 1950s, the concept of using SC “steam” to increase thermal efficiency of coal-fired thermal power plants became an attractive option. Germany, USA, the former USSR, and some other countries extensively studied heat transfer to SC fluids (SCFs) during the 1950s till the 1980s. This research was primarily focused on bare circular tubes cooled with SC water (SCW). However, some studies were performed with modeling fluids such as SC carbon dioxide and refrigerants instead of SCW. Currently, the use of SC “steam” in coal-fired thermal power plants is the largest industrial application of fluids at SCPs. Near the end of the 1950s and at the beginning of the 1960s, several studies were conducted to investigate a possibility of using SCW as a coolant in nuclear reactors with the objective to increase thermal efficiency of nuclear power plants (NPPs) equipped with water-cooled reactors. However, these research activities were abandoned for some time and regained momentum in the 1990s. In support of the development of SCW-cooled nuclear-power reactor (SCWR) concepts, first experiments have been started in annular and various bundle flow geometries. At the same time, more numerical and CFD studies have been performed in support of our limited knowledge on specifics of heat transfer at SCPs in various flow geometries. As the first step in this process, heat transfer to SCW in vertical bare tubes can be investigated as a conservative approach (in general, heat transfer in fuel bundles will be enhanced with various types of appendages, that is, grids, end plates, spacers, bearing pads, fins, ribs, etc.). New experiments in the 1990–2000s were triggered by several reasons: (1) thermophysical properties of SCW and other SCFs have been updated from the 1950s–1970s, for example, a peak in thermal conductivity in the critical/pseudocritical points was “officially” introduced in 1990s; (2) experimental techniques have been improved; (3) in SCWRs, various bundle flow geometries will be used instead of bare-tube geometry; (4) in SC “steam” generators of thermal power plants, larger diameter tubes/pipes (20–40 mm) are used, however in SCWRs hydraulic-equivalent diameters of proposed bundles will be within 5–12 mm; (5) with Research and Development (R&D) of next-generation or Generation-IV nuclear-power-reactor concepts, new areas of application for SCFs have appeared—for example, SCP helium was proposed to be used as a reactor coolant, SCP Brayton and Rankine cycles with SC carbon dioxide as a working fluid are being developed, etc. A comparison of thermophysical properties of SCFs with those of subcritical-pressure fluids showed that SCFs as single-phase fluids have unique properties, which are close to “liquid-like” behavior below critical or pseudocritical points and are quite similar to the behavior of “gas-like” substances above these points. A comparison of selected SCW heat transfer correlations has shown that their results may differ from one to another by more than 200%. Based on these comparisons, it became evident that there is a need for reliable, accurate, and wide-range SCW heat transfer correlation(s) to be developed and verified. Therefore, the objective of this chapter is to summarize in concise form specifics of supercritical-fluids thermophysical properties and heat transfer in power-engineering applications.",book:{id:"9201",slug:"advanced-supercritical-fluids-technologies",title:"Advanced Supercritical Fluids Technologies",fullTitle:"Advanced Supercritical Fluids Technologies"},signatures:"Igor L. 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He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). He was the head of the undergraduate program in Biomedical Engineering of the Federal University of Uberlândia (2015 - June/2019) and the head of the Centre for Innovation and Technology Assessment in Health (NIATS/UFU) since 2010. He is the head of the Postgraduate Program in Biomedical Engineering (UFU, July/2019 - to date). He was the secretary of the Parkinson's Disease Association of Uberlândia (2018-2019). Dr. Andrade's primary area of research is focused towards getting information from the neuromuscular system to understand its strategies of organization, adaptation and controlling in the context of motor neuron diseases. His research interests include Biomedical Signal Processing and Modelling, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation Engineering, Neuroengineering and Parkinson's Disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",slug:"luis-villarreal-gomez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",biography:"Dr. Luis Villarreal is a research professor from the Facultad de Ciencias de la Ingeniería y Tecnología, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Tijuana, Baja California, México. 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For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. 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His fields of interest are anterior segment disease, keratoconus, glaucoma, corneal dystrophies, and cataracts. His research topics include\nintraocular lens power calculation, eye modification induced by refractive surgery, glaucoma progression, and validation of new diagnostic devices in ophthalmology. \nHe has published more than 100 papers in international and Italian scientific journals, more than 60 in journals with impact factors, and chapters in international and Italian books. 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His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. 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He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a Principal Investigator and Scientist at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via machine-learning-based analyses of exosomal signatures. Dr. Paul has published in more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award, a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He is currently working on the protective activity of phenolic compounds in disorders associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329248",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"md.-faheem-haider",fullName:"Md. Faheem Haider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329248/images/system/329248.jpg",biography:"Dr. Md. Faheem Haider completed his BPharm in 2012 at Integral University, Lucknow, India. In 2014, he completed his MPharm with specialization in Pharmaceutics at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India, in 2018. He was selected for the GPAT six times and his best All India Rank was 34. Currently, he is an assistant professor at Integral University. Previously he was an assistant professor at IIMT University, Meerut, India. He has experience teaching DPharm, Pharm.D, BPharm, and MPharm students. He has more than five publications in reputed journals to his credit. Dr. Faheem’s research area is the development and characterization of nanoformulation for the delivery of drugs to various organs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/system/329795.png",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is an assistant professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, India, where he obtained a Ph.D. in Pharmacology in 2020. He also obtained a BPharm and MPharm from the same university in 2013 and 2015, respectively. His area of research is the pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/natural products in liver cancer and cardiac diseases. He is a member of many professional bodies and has guided many MPharm and PharmD research projects. Dr. Siddiqui has many national and international publications and one German patent to his credit.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null},{id:"255360",title:"Dr.",name:"Usama",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"usama-ahmad",fullName:"Usama Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255360/images/system/255360.png",biography:"Dr. Usama Ahmad holds a specialization in Pharmaceutics from Amity University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. from Integral University, Lucknow, India, with his work titled ‘Development and evaluation of silymarin nanoformulation for hepatic carcinoma’. Currently, he is an Assistant Professor of Pharmaceutics, at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University. He has been teaching PharmD, BPharm, and MPharm students and conducting research in the novel drug delivery domain. From 2013 to 2014 he worked on a research project funded by SERB-DST, Government of India. He has a rich publication record with more than twenty-four original journal articles, two edited books, four book chapters, and several scientific articles to his credit. He is a member of the American Association for Cancer Research, the International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer, and the British Society for Nanomedicine. Dr. Ahmad’s research focus is on the development of nanoformulations to facilitate the delivery of drugs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333824",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmad Farouk",middleName:null,surname:"Musa",slug:"ahmad-farouk-musa",fullName:"Ahmad Farouk Musa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333824/images/22684_n.jpg",biography:"Dato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa\nMD, MMED (Surgery) (Mal), Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery (Monash Health, Aust), Graduate Certificate in Higher Education (Aust), Academy of Medicine (Mal)\n\n\n\nDato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa obtained his Doctor of Medicine from USM in 1992. He then obtained his Master of Medicine in Surgery from the same university in the year 2000 before subspecialising in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Institut Jantung Negara (IJN), Kuala Lumpur from 2002 until 2005. He then completed his Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Monash Health, Melbourne, Australia in 2008. He has served in the Malaysian army as a Medical Officer with the rank of Captain upon completing his Internship before joining USM as a trainee lecturer. He is now serving as an academic and researcher at Monash University Malaysia. He is a life-member of the Malaysian Association of Thoracic & Cardiovascular Surgery (MATCVS) and a committee member of the MATCVS Database. He is also a life-member of the College of Surgeons, Academy of Medicine of Malaysia; a life-member of Malaysian Medical Association (MMA), and a life-member of Islamic Medical Association of Malaysia (IMAM). Recently he was appointed as an Interim Chairperson of Examination & Assessment Subcommittee of the UiTM-IJN Cardiothoracic Surgery Postgraduate Program. As an academic, he has published numerous research papers and book chapters. He has also been appointed to review many scientific manuscripts by established journals such as the British Medical Journal (BMJ). He has presented his research works at numerous local and international conferences such as the European Association for Cardiothoracic Surgery (EACTS) and the European Society of Cardiovascular Surgery (ESCVS), to name a few. He has also won many awards for his research presentations at meetings and conferences like the prestigious International Invention, Innovation & Technology Exhibition (ITEX); Design, Research and Innovation Exhibition, the National Conference on Medical Sciences and the Annual Scientific Meetings of the Malaysian Association for Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery. He was awarded the Darjah Setia Pangkuan Negeri (DSPN) by the Governor of Penang in July, 2015.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Monash University Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"30568",title:"Prof.",name:"Madhu",middleName:null,surname:"Khullar",slug:"madhu-khullar",fullName:"Madhu Khullar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/30568/images/system/30568.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madhu Khullar is a Professor of Experimental Medicine and Biotechnology at the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India. She completed her Post Doctorate in hypertension research at the Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, USA in 1985. She is an editor and reviewer of several international journals, and a fellow and member of several cardiovascular research societies. Dr. Khullar has a keen research interest in genetics of hypertension, and is currently studying pharmacogenetics of hypertension.",institutionString:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",institution:{name:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",biography:"Xianquan Zhan received his MD and Ph.D. in Preventive Medicine at West China University of Medical Sciences. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics at the Central South University, China, and the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC), USA. He worked at UTHSC and the Cleveland Clinic in 2001–2012 and achieved the rank of associate professor at UTHSC. Currently, he is a full professor at Central South University and Shandong First Medical University, and an advisor to MS/PhD students and postdoctoral fellows. He is also a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and European Association for Predictive Preventive Personalized Medicine (EPMA), a national representative of EPMA, and a member of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS). He is also the editor in chief of International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, an associate editor of EPMA Journal, Frontiers in Endocrinology, and BMC Medical Genomics, and a guest editor of Mass Spectrometry Reviews, Frontiers in Endocrinology, EPMA Journal, and Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. He has published more than 148 articles, 28 book chapters, 6 books, and 2 US patents in the field of clinical proteomics and biomarkers.",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"China"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"26",type:"subseries",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",keywords:"Intelligent Systems, Machine Learning, Data Science, Data Mining, Artificial Intelligence",scope:"The scope of machine learning and data mining is immense and is growing every day. It has become a massive part of our daily lives, making predictions based on experience, making this a fascinating area that solves problems that otherwise would not be possible or easy to solve. This topic aims to encompass algorithms that learn from experience (supervised and unsupervised), improve their performance over time and enable machines to make data-driven decisions. 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In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/265638",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"265638"},fullPath:"/profiles/265638",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()