\r\n\tIn the book the theory and practice of microwave heating are discussed. The intended scope covers the results of recent research related to the generation, transmission and reception of microwave energy, its application in the field of organic and inorganic chemistry, physics of plasma processes, industrial microwave drying and sintering, as well as in medicine for therapeutic effects on internal organs and tissues of the human body and microbiology. Both theoretical and experimental studies are anticipated.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe book aims to be of interest not only for specialists in the field of theory and practice of microwave heating but also for readers of non-specialists in the field of microwave technology and those who want to study in general terms the problem of interaction of the electromagnetic field with objects of living and nonliving nature.
",isbn:"978-1-83968-227-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-226-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-228-5",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8f6a41e4f5ce0e9c48628516d7c92050",bookSignature:"Prof. Gennadiy Churyumov",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10089.jpg",keywords:"Electromagnetic Wave, Microwave Energy Application, Electromagnetic Energy Generation, Intelligent Microwave Heating, Microwave Organic Chemistry, Microwave Reactor, Microwave Discharge, Microwave Plasma, Microwave Drying System, Tissue Microwave Heating, Measurement Automation, Industrial Microwave Process",numberOfDownloads:224,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"July 3rd 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 24th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 22nd 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 11th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 9th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"7 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Prof. Gennadiy I. Churyumov is a professor at two universities: Kharkiv National University of Radio Electronics, and Harbin Institute of Technology and a senior IEEE member.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"216155",title:"Prof.",name:"Gennadiy",middleName:null,surname:"Churyumov",slug:"gennadiy-churyumov",fullName:"Gennadiy Churyumov",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/216155/images/system/216155.jfif",biography:"Gennadiy I. Churyumov (M’96–SM’00) received the Dipl.-Ing. degree in Electronics Engineering and his Ph.D. degree from the Kharkiv Institute of Radio Electronics, Kharkiv, Ukraine, in 1974 and 1981, respectively, as well as the D.Sc. degree from the Institute of Radio Physics and Electronics, National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine, Kharkiv, Ukraine, in 1997. \n\nHe is a professor at two universities: Kharkiv National University of Radio Electronics, and Harbin Institute of Technology. \n\nHe is currently the Head of a Microwave & Optoelectronics Lab at the Department of Electronics Engineering at the Kharkiv National University of Radio Electronics. \n\nHis general research interests lie in the area of 2-D and 3-D computer modeling of electron-wave processes in vacuum tubes (magnetrons and TWTs), simulation techniques of electromagnetic problems and nonlinear phenomena, as well as high-power microwaves, including electromagnetic compatibility and survivability. \n\nHis current activity concentrates on the practical aspects of the application of microwave technologies.",institutionString:"Kharkiv National University of Radio Electronics (NURE)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"24",title:"Technology",slug:"technology"}],chapters:[{id:"74623",title:"Influence of the Microwaves on the Sol-Gel Syntheses and on the Properties of the Resulting Oxide Nanostructures",slug:"influence-of-the-microwaves-on-the-sol-gel-syntheses-and-on-the-properties-of-the-resulting-oxide-na",totalDownloads:94,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"75284",title:"Microwave-Assisted Extraction of Bioactive Compounds (Review)",slug:"microwave-assisted-extraction-of-bioactive-compounds-review",totalDownloads:12,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"75087",title:"Experimental Investigation on the Effect of Microwave Heating on Rock Cracking and Their Mechanical Properties",slug:"experimental-investigation-on-the-effect-of-microwave-heating-on-rock-cracking-and-their-mechanical-",totalDownloads:28,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"74338",title:"Microwave Synthesized Functional Dyes",slug:"microwave-synthesized-functional-dyes",totalDownloads:21,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"74744",title:"Doping of Semiconductors at Nanoscale with Microwave Heating (Overview)",slug:"doping-of-semiconductors-at-nanoscale-with-microwave-heating-overview",totalDownloads:45,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"74664",title:"Microwave-Assisted Solid Extraction from Natural Matrices",slug:"microwave-assisted-solid-extraction-from-natural-matrices",totalDownloads:25,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"252211",firstName:"Sara",lastName:"Debeuc",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252211/images/7239_n.png",email:"sara.d@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. 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1. Introduction
“Landscapes in tectonically active areas result from a complex integration of the effects of vertical and horizontal motions of crustal rocks and erosion or deposition by surface processes. In a sense, many landscapes can be thought of as resulting from competition among those processes acting to elevate the Earth\'s surface and those that tend to lower it” (Burbank and Anderson, 2001). Extracting information from deforming landscapes with an integrative approach is the main subject of tectonic geomorphology.
The landscape features have different dimensional scales that correspond to different tectonic implications. The major landforms (from continent scale to orogen scale; 107-104 km) and the intermediate ones (from mountain belt scale to ridge and valley scale; 104-10 km) result from the interaction of both endogenic and exogenic processes, with a dominancy of one over the other at different places and times, while the minor ones (at single landform scale; 10-10-2 km) are related to tectonics (tectonic landforms) or to erosion processes (i.e. fluvial, slope, glacial landforms) as defined since the beginning of the history of tectonic geomorphology (Gerasimov, 1946; Cailleux and Tricart, 1956; Mescerjakov, 1968; Ollier, 1981, 1999; Morisawa and Hack, 1985; Panizza and Castaldini, 1987; Ascione and Cinque, 1999; Burbank and Pinter, 1999; Burbank and Anderson, 2001; Peulvast and Vanney, 2001; Scheidegger, 2004). At intermediate to small scale, mountain belts, and related piedmont, are one of the main subjects of tectonic geomorphology. At this scale, drainage basins are the key features in the landscape. Basins consist of river channels, hill slopes, crests of interfluves and drainage divides that define the shape of the catchment. Some of these elements will respond more rapidly to changes imposed on them than others, according to the combination of many factors such as lithology, local tectonics, rock uplift/subsidence and climate changes (Morisawa and Hack, 1985; Kühni and Pfiffner, 2001; Twidale, 2004).
In tectonically active landscapes, changes in the incision/aggradation behaviour of the rivers are associated with the variations in climate and tectonics (Schumm, 1969; Bull, 1991; Merrits et al., 1994; Ascione and Cinque, 1999; Burbank and Pinter, 1999; Pazzaglia and Brandon, 2001; D’Agostino et al., 2001; Pazzaglia, in press). Such changes occur following a specific sequence involving incision, valley widening and aggradation, and tend to form a series of fluvial terraces. Otherwise, local tectonics tend to shape certain landforms such as river bends, linear valleys, beheaded and hanging valleys, knick points, counterflow confluences of streams and alluvial fans (Miccadei et al., 2004; D’Alessandro et al., 2008; Della Seta et al., 2008 and references therein). The analysis and correlation of these features within the drainage basins allows for the discovery and definition of geomorphic markers of tectonics, as well as its timing. A major influence in landscape is certainly due to rock material properties, although at different scales there are different influences of rock material properties on landscape evolution. The geomorphological features of mountain areas shaped on hard rocks are well recorded in the general configuration of topography and in well preserved tectonic landforms. In piedmont areas, or in general in areas developed on soft rocks, the evidence of tectonics in the landscape is less clear. In these contexts only integrative studies based on (a) terrain analysis, (b) morphostructural analysis of the relief, (c) analysis of geomorphic markers such as certain landforms (geomorphological evidence of tectonics) and deposits (developed in continental environment), (d) drainage basins’ analysis and morphometry, and (e) dating of deposits and landforms, provide clear indications concerning the role of tectonics in the landscape evolution.
Central Italy is characterized by a recent (Pliocene to present) geomorphological history and in this area several studies have been carried out at both local and regional scale, based on the integrative approach, by means of tectonic geomorphology methods (D’Alessandro et al., 2003; Miccadei et al., 2004; Ascione et al., 2008; D’Alessandro et al., 2008; Della Seta et al., 2008). In this paper two studies are presented on chain areas and piedmont areas in order to outline the methodological approach focused to decipher the role of morphotectonics and selective erosion in the landscape evolution (Fig. 1):
chain area – escarpment between the Montagna del Morrone ridge and the Sulmona tectonic basin (central Abruzzi);
piedmont area – dip stream valley (Sangro river valley, south-eastern Abruzzi)
These studies allow for the characteristics of the main morphostructural domains of central Italy (chain area and piedmont area) to be outlined and suggest, in general, the use of a similar methodological approach, but focused also on different geomorphological landscapes.
2. Study area
The Abruzzi region is located on the eastern slope of the central Apennine (central Italy). The geomorphological evolution of the region is related to a complex geological and structural framework developed since the Late Miocene with the formation of the Apennine thrust belt as part of the Mediterranean mountain system. The whole region has been affected since the Pliocene by extensional tectonics, uplift processes and strong morphostructural processes that have induced very active geomorphological processes. These processes have outlined and shaped the major morphostructural domain in the Abruzzi area: Apennine chain, Adriatic piedmont and Adriatic coastal plain (Fig. 1) (Patacca and Scandone, 2007).
At regional scale, the geomorphological analysis and the correlation to geological and structural characteristics allowed the identification, and the morphostructural characterisation, of the major landforms (Fig. 2; D’Alessandro et al., 2003). The results point out the clear coherence of present landforms with the tectonic framework in the Abruzzi area. In the chain area, exhumed thrust ridges and faulted homocline ridges are present (generally NW–SE, NNW–SSE, N–S), separated by tectonic valleys, fault line valleys, tectonic basins and tectonic-karstic basins, partially filled up with continental deposits. In the piedmont periadriatic area the most important morphological elements are represented by homocline relief (gently NE dipping), mesa relief, dip-stream valleys (SW–NE) and alluvial plains. The latter grade eastwards towards the coastal plain.
Figure 1.
Shaded relief image (a) and geological (b) map of the Abruzzi area (central Italy). Black boxes indicate the study areas
Figure 2.
Map of the morphostructural elements of central-eastern Abruzzi (modified from D’Alessandro et al., 2003). LEGEND: CHAIN (C). Ridges: Cr1) Exhumed thrust ridges; Cr2) Faulted homoclinal ridges; Cr3) Exhumed anticline ridges. Valleys: Cv1) Tectonic\n\t\t\t\t\t\tvalleys; Cv2) Fault\n\t\t\t\t\t\tline\n\t\t\t\t\t\tvalley (f Neogene arenaceous-clayey foredeep sequences; ca Mezo-Cenozoic carbonate sequences); Cv3) Transversal and Radial valleys. Basins: Cb1) Tectonic basin; Cb2) Karst-tectonic\n\t\t\t\t\t\tbasin. – PIEDMONT (M). Relief: Mh1) Homoclinal relief (Plio-Quaternary clayey-sandy sequences); Mh2) Mesa relief (Plio-Quaternary clayey-sandy-conglomeratic sequences); Mh3) Eroded\n\t\t\t\t\t\tthrust\n\t\t\t\t\t\trelief (Neogene arenaceous-clayey foredeep sequences); Mh4) Hills on a chaotic and folded clayey-calcareous assemblage (cl ”Argille varicolori” auctorum complex and Cenozoic marly sequences; ca Meso-Cenozoic carbonate sequences); Mv1) Dip-stream valleys; Mv2) Strike-stream valleys. – PLAINS (P). Pa) Alluvial plains (ra recent alluvial deposits; ta Pleistocene terraced alluvial deposits); Pc) Coastal plain (sc recent sandy and conglomeratic deposits)SYMBOLS: 1) Regional attitude; 2) Thrust (Miocene-Pliocene activity); 3) Strike-slip fault (?Pliocene activity); 4) Normal fault (Upper Pliocene - Quaternary activity); 5) Major fault scarp; 6) Major fault related scarp; 7) Major crest; 8) Primary drainage divideI) Ascione and Cinque, 1999; Peulvast and Vanney, 2001. II) Gerasimov, 1946; Mescerjakov, 1968; Panizza, 1997. III) Bartolini, 2002. IV) Peulvast and Vanney, 2001. V) Ascione and Cinque, 1999
The piedmont of Abruzzi region is characterized by a low relief hill landscape (i.e. cuesta, mesa, plateau reliefs) on Mio-Plio-Quaternary terrigenous deposits, related to sin-, late-orogenic phases of the Apennines, by post-orogenic Quaternary marine regressive deposits and fluvial continental deposits. The transition from marine to continental deposits dates the emersion of the area and the starting point of the drainage evolution at the late Lower Pleistocene – early Middle Pleistocene. The Pleistocene fluvial landscape evolution of the piedmont area and the comprehension of the role of tectonics is an intriguing issue, being a key area for the Apennines’ geodynamics, at the transition between compressional active tectonic areas, towards the east (Adriatic) and extensional active tectonic areas towards the west (Apennines chain).
3. Methods
The tectonic geomorphology studies presented in this work are carried out at drainage basin scale by means of: cartographic analysis and morphometry of orography and hydrography (map- and DEM-based), photogeology analysis, Quaternary continental deposits, fluvial terraces and morphotectonic detail field mapping, and morphotectonic cross section drawing. The topographic data in vector and in raster format were provided by Struttura Speciale di Supporto Sistema Informativo Regionale of Abruzzi Region (http://www.regione.abruzzo.it/xcartografia/).
Orography analysis is based on the 40m DEM. Within GIS software slope maps, energy of relief maps and hypsometry maps were realized. Hydrography analysis is based on 40m DEM and scale 1:25,000 topographic maps. Longitudinal profile, drainage density, azimuth of the drainage network, patterns and hydrography parameters were mapped (bifurcation parameters, hierarchic parameters, areal parameters etc.) in order to define the drainage development, to outline the control of morphological alignments and to suggest the tectonic control on basin arrangements (Horton, 1945; Miller, 1953; Schumm, 1956; Strahler, 1957; Avena et al., 1967; Avena and Lupia Palmieri, 1969; Ciccacci et al., 1992, 1995; Keller and Printer, 1996).
These methods, taking into account the relationship between forms and deposits, outlined by morphotectonic mapping and morphotectonic profiles, can contribute to defining the main steps of landscape evolution and the major control on it (tectonics, rock properties, climate change etc.), and to estimate the timing of landscape development.
4. Case studies - chain area: tectonic basin and fault escarpment (Montagna del Morrone ridge)
4.1. Introduction
Montagna del Morrone (2061 m a.s.l.) is one of the main central Apennine ridges (central-eastern part of the Abruzzi Apennines; Fig. 1). It is made up of marine Meso-Cenozoic carbonate rocks, forming an asymmetrical anticline fold with a NW-SE axis, NE verging and overthrust onto Neogene terrigenous deposits. The SW slope is broken by several normal fault systems, NW-SE striking and SW dipping, which separate the ridge from the Sulmona tectonic basin (Fig. 1, 2; Miccadei et al., 1999; Doglioni et al., 1998; Miccadei et al., 2004). This slope shows a complex physiography, both longitudinal and transversal, with secondary ridges, scarps, gentle slopes or counter slopes (Fig. 3). The summit is gently undulating in the southern part, while the northern part is a narrow crest. At the base of the slope a sharp slope change joins the wide plain of the Sulmona tectonic basin and corresponds with one of the main normal fault lines of the Abruzzi area. Many ephemeral streams drain the slope down to the basal break forming alluvial fans.
The Sulmona tectonic basin is a half graben with a NW-SE master fault forming its eastern boundary along the Mt. Morrone slope and is filled by a thick sequence of lacustrine, fluvial and slope Middle-Upper Pleistocene deposits (Miccadei et al., 1999; 2002). It shows a peculiar physiographic setting: the lowest mean topographic height (300 m) in central Apennines intramontane basins, a strong relief (2000 m) up to the eastern ridge (Mt. Morrone) and an anomalous triangular shape. Here, a complex fluvial drainage system converges (Aterno River from NW, Sagittario River from SW and S, Gizio River from S, Vella River and Velletta River from SE) and flow into Pescara River.
The collected data (orography, hydrography, Quaternary continental deposits, morphotectonic evidence) allow us to define geomorphic markers of tectonics and to outline Quaternary landscape evolution of the escarpment between the Sulmona basin and Montagna del Morrone. In order to couple deposits and landforms, six morphotectonic sections are presented (three ridge transversal profiles representative of the northern, central and southern sectors; three stream channel and interfluve profiles representative of the drainage basins).
Figure 3.
Panoramic view (from SW) of the Monte Morrone SW escarpment
4.2. Results
The analysis of the morphotectonic features of the area is based on the investigation of geology (bedrock units, superficial deposits, tectonics and neotectonics) and geomorphology (structural, slope, karst and fluvial landforms, and alluvial fans).
4.2.1. Geology
Bedrock units are made up of carbonate rocks of Lias to Paleogene age divided into units according to their resistance to weathering and erosive processes (Fig. 4a): bedded carbonate rocks (outcropping in the northern area), massive carbonate rocks (outcropping in the central area), carbonate rocks in thick beds (outcropping in the southern areas), dolomite\n\t\t\t\t\t\trocks (outcropping in the lower part of the slope in the northern and central sectors).
Such rock formations, as documented in the relevant literature, can be referred to various Meso-Cenozoic palaeogeographic domains: slope-basin in the northern sector, margin in the central sector and carbonate shelf in the southern sector (APAT, 2006).
Quaternary continental deposits (Fig. 4b) are essentially breccias and conglomerates that can be referred to talus slope and debris cones, to alluvial fans and to eluvial and colluvial covers. There are also chaotic breccias that can be accounted for by paleo-landslide. Based on comparisons with the sector of the Sulmona basin, these deposits can be placed between the Early Pleistocene and the Holocene (Sylos Labini et al., 1993; Carrara, 1998; Miccadei et al., 1999; Lombardo et al., 2001). These deposits are distributed non-homogeneously along all of the slope, but have good continuity at the base and in the mid-slope.
The SW escarpment of Montagna del Morrone is formed by the limb of the anticline structure disarticulated by systems of normal faults, known in the literature as the Monte Morrone fault zone (Vittori et al., 1995; Ciccacci et al., 1999; Miccadei et al., 2002, 2004). The bedrock formations are generally in counter-slope dipping strata, with NW- SE attitude and dipping from 20°NE (in the low part of the slope) to 70°NE (in the high part). Locally, at the base of the slope, there are also SW dipping strata (Fig. 4a).
There are two main normal fault systems with a predominantly N40°-50°W orientation (Fig. 4). These displace the bedrock formations and superficial deposits, and clearly display morphological evidence at different heights on the slope, corresponding to sharp slope breaks or clear fault scarps as described in the following paragraphs.
From the base upwards the main fault systems are as follows:
Basal border fault: this is a system of normal faults with Apennine orientation and SW dip which affect the bedrock formations (displacement higher than 1000 m), as well as the superficial deposits (estimated displacement of 700 m in the breccias of the Lower?-Middle Pleistocene [Miccadei et al., 2002] and up to several tens of metres in the alluvial fans of the Upper Pleistocene). Towards the north, it is made up of fault plains with N2030W orientation, 60SW dip and located at heights from 550 m to 650 m a.s.l. (Popoli, Roccacasale). Towards the south, it is made up of faults with attitude of N5060/50SW placed at heights between 750 and 800 m a.s.l. (Eremo di Celestino V, Pacentro).
The Schiena d’Asino fault: this is a system of normal faults with a N2030W strike and 60°50° SW dip (displacement in the bedrock formations over 1000 m) located at heights between 1100 and 1400 m a.s.l.. These fault plains, in the northern and central parts, are characterised by large rock fault scarps. The system continues southwards, but with a clear reduction of displacement and morphological evidence.
In the middle part of the slope, there is a secondary fault system with a N3050W orientation, widely covered by surface deposits. Minor faults with a NE-SW orientation and limited extension are also present transversal to the slope, but mostly in the central sector; they are characterized by thick cataclasite strata. In general they correspond to small valleys, mostly covered by surface deposits. They can be interpreted as transfer elements between the Schiena d’Asino fault and the Basal border fault.
Figure 4.
Geological-structural scheme of the Montagna del Morrone SW slope (Miccadei et al., 2004). a) Bedrock units: 1) Superficial deposits; 2) bedded carbonate rocks; 3) massive carbonate rocks; 4) carbonate rocks in thick beds; 5) dolomite rocks; 6) attitude of strata and dip angle; 7) normal faults (a: visible slickenside; b: invisible slickenside); 8) faults. b) Quaternary continental deposits: 1) eluvial and colluvial deposits (Holocene); 2) sands and gravels, fluvial (Holocene); 3) loose stratified carbonate breccias, slope (Holocene); 4) loose carbonate gravel and breccias, alluvial fan (Holocene); 5) stratified carbonate breccias loose or poorly cemented, slope (Upper Pleistocene); 6) heterometric carbonate gravel and breccias loose or poorly cemented, alluvial fan (Upper Pleistocene); 7) heterometric carbonate gravel and breccias loose or poorly cemented, alluvial fan (late Middle Pleistocene); 8) limestone and clayey-silt, lacustrine (Middle Pleistocene); 9) heterometric and chaotic breccias, paleo landslide (Lower?-Middle Pleistocene); 10) cemented carbonate gravel and breccias, alluvial fan (Lower?-Middle Pleistocene); 11) bedrock formations (Meso-Cenozoic); 12) normal fault (a: visible slickenside; b: invisible slickenside); 13) fault
4.2.2. Geomorphology
This section includes results from orography and hydrography analysis and from geomorphological field mapping. Particular attention has been devoted to the morphometric analysis of the slope, of the drainage network and basins and of the alluvial fan/catchment systems. The main landforms mapped on the slope, both erosional and depositional, have been defined along with their relative morphogenetic agents. These data are described and discussed in the following paragraphs.
4.2.2.1. Orography
The analysis of orography and slope has outlined a NW-SE straight slope 20 km long and up to 1700 m high (Fig. 5) connecting the Sulmona basin (~350 m a.s.l.) and the Morrone ridge (2061 m a.s.l.). The planar and profile form of the slope consists of concave and convex elements, but mostly of planar segments and sharp breaks (Fig. 5). The orography analysis brought to light a strong longitudinal and transversal heterogeneity, and enables us to distinguish three sectors:
northern sector, a double-ridged slope formed by two relatively down-faulted and uplifted blocks along the two major normal faults. It is made up of two rectilinear steep free faces, gently undulated (concave and convex) in plan, separated by an undulated horizontal or counter slope element.
central sector, made up of three main units, a rectilinear steep free face upslope, a gently sloping midslope, undulated in plan, and then again a steep lower slope.
southern sector, a single major uplifted block. The toe-slope is always marked by a sharp junction passing to the alluvial fan area with a high piedmont angle and it is broken by the mouths of narrow transversal valleys.
The Sulmona basin is a wide plain at 350-400 m a.s.l. partly dissected by the main river valleys (Aterno river, Sagittario river) with abrupt 50-100 m high terrace scarps.
Figure 5.
Orography, drainage basins and network (ordered according to Strahler, 1957) of the Montagna del Morrone SW slope (Miccadei et al., 2004)
4.2.2.2. Hydrography
The drainage network on the steep and heterogeneous escarpment is made up of ephemeral stream channels and the toe-slope break, these stream channels become less defined, forming wide alluvial fans. The slope was subdivided into 16 basins (A-P; Fig. 5; Tab. 1, 2). Of these 16 basins, eight are spread from the line of the crest right to the base of the slope (C, H, I, K, L, M, N and P). Two are endoreic (E and O) on the upstream half of the slope and six develop on the downstream half of the slope (A, B, D, F, G and J). The relief of these basins varies from a minimum of 266 m at the endoreic Basin O, to a maximum of 1510 m at Basin I which extends down from the highest peak (2061 m a.s.l., Mt. Morrone) right to 551 m a.s.l. The total planimetric area of the 16 basins is about 50,0 km², while the total area of the slope is 74,3 km²: the slope is organised into drainage basins over 67% of its planimetric area, while the remaining 33% is made up of areas of interfluve.
Basin
Area (Km2)
Perim. (Km)
H (m)
L (Km)
Re
Rc
Rh
∫ ips
ΣNu
ΣL (Km)
D
F
A
0,85
5,60
809
2,59
0,40
0,34
0,31
0,49
3
2,46
2,88
3,51
B
1,92
6,70
792
2,87
0,54
0,54
0,28
0,47
3
3,75
1,96
1,57
C
9,03
13,25
1335
3,85
0,88
0,65
0,35
0,41
20
15,71
1,74
2,21
D
1,15
5,21
533
2,04
0,59
0,53
0,26
0,68
7
3,77
3,27
6,07
E
3,36
7,88
1021
2,83
0,73
0,68
0,36
0,27
4
4,17
1,24
1,19
F
0,76
5,65
667
2,37
0,42
0,3
0,28
0,65
1
2,64
3,45
1,31
Average Northern sect.
2,85
0,31
0,50
2,42
2,64
G
1,11
5,58
596
2,08
0,57
0,45
0,29
0,67
4
3,26
2,92
3,59
H
2,62
8,20
1360
3,22
0,57
0,49
0,42
0,47
4
2,85
1,09
1,53
I
5,78
12,22
1510
4,50
0,60
0,49
0,34
0,56
16
13,93
2,41
2,77
J
0,93
4,23
588
1,81
0,60
0,65
0,32
0,59
1
1,83
1,97
1,08
K
3,57
9,73
1425
3,84
0,56
0,47
0,37
0,52
14
6,58
1,84
3,92
Average Central sect.
2,80
0,35
0,56
2,05
2,58
L
4,38
10,85
1464
4,25
0,56
0,47
0,34
0,60
13
9,81
2,24
2,97
M
2,05
8,62
1420
3,45
0,47
0,35
0,41
0,67
3
4,39
2,14
1,46
N
7,75
12,01
1436
4,44
0,71
0,68
0,32
0,64
47
22,67
2,93
6,06
O
0,91
4,68
266
1,15
0,94
0,52
0,23
0,45
5
1,93
2,11
5,47
P
3,72
8,43
1230
2,61
0,83
0,66
0,47
0,62
13
6,46
1,74
3,49
Average Southern sect.
3,76
0,35
0,60
2,23
3,89
Average all basins
3,12
0,62
0,52
0,33
2,25
3,01
Total
49,89
Table 1.
Main area and relief geomorphic indices of the basins: H) maximum relief; L) longitudinal length; Re) elongation ratio; Rc) circularity ratio; Rh) relief ratio; ∫ips) hypsometric integral; ΣNu) number of stream segments; ΣL) total stream segment length; D) drainage density; F) drainage frequency
The areal and relief properties of the basins (Tab. 1: Re, elongation ratio; Rc, circularity ratio; Rh, relief ratio; Schumm, 1956; Mayer, 1986; Keller and Pinter, 1996) were analysed, together with the hypsometric data (Tab. 1: ∫ips; Strahler, 1952), not simply to give an indication of the morpho-evolutionary stage, but also to identify the principal situations of disequilibrium and structural control.
Basin
Nu (1°)
Nu (2°)
Nu (3°)
Nu (4°)
ΣNu
Rb (1°-2°)
Rb (2°-3°)
Rb (3°-4°)
Rb aver.
Nd (1°)
Nd (2°)
Nd (3°)
Rbd (1°-2°)
Rbd (2°-3°)
Rbd (3°-4°)
Rbd aver.
R aver.
A
2
1
0
0
3
2,0
2
1
0
2,0
B
2
1
0
0
3
2,0
2
1
0
2,0
C
14
5
1
0
20
2,8
5,0
3,9
13
5
1
2,6
5,0
3,8
0,1
D
4
2
1
0
7
2,0
2,0
2,0
4
2
1
2,0
2,0
2,0
0,0
E
3
1
0
0
4
3,0
3
1
0
3,0
F
1
0
0
0
1
0,0
1
0
0
0,0
G
3
1
0
0
4
3,0
3
1
0
3,0
H
3
1
0
0
4
3,0
3
1
0
3,0
I
12
3
1
0
16
4,0
3,0
3,5
11
3
1
3,7
3,0
3,3
0,2
J
1
0
0
0
1
0,0
1
0
0
0,0
K
10
3
1
0
14
3,3
3,0
3,2
8
3
1
2,7
3,0
2,8
0,3
L
9
3
1
0
13
3,0
3,0
3,0
6
3
1
2,0
3,0
2,5
0,5
M
2
1
0
0
3
2,0
2
1
0
2,0
N
34
9
3
1
47
3,8
3,0
3,0
3,3
28
8
3
3,5
2,7
3,1
0,2
O
4
1
0
0
5
4,0
4
1
0
4,0
P
10
2
1
0
13
5,0
2,0
3,5
7
2
1
3,5
2,0
2,8
0,8
Total
115
35
9
1
160
98
33
9
Average
3,2
2,9
0,3
Table 2.
Geomorphic indices of the drainage network of the 16 basins present on the SW escarpment of Montagna del Morrone. Nu) stream number; Rb) bifurcation ratio; Nd) number of streams flowing into higher order streams; Rbd) direct bifurcation ratio; R) bifurcation index
The northern sector shows elongated (Re=0,4-0,5) and irregular (Re=0,7-0,9) drainage basins with moderately high relief ratios (Rh=0,26-0,36; Tab. 1). The drainage pattern is heterogeneous, sub-dendritic in the upper part and parallel in the lower part. Only Basin C is extended across the whole escarpment, but it shows a clear downstream narrowing (Fig. 5). The downslope interfluves are made of triangular-shaped fault related slopes passing upslope to moderate transversal spur ridges and then to the horizontal undulated mid-slope. In the upper part the valleys are just notched into the uplifted block of the Schiena d’Asino fault. The stream channels have concave-convex profiles with moderate knick points. The hypsometric integrals have values lower than in the southern sector (0,5-0,3) and show concave-convex curves (Fig. 6, Tab. 1).
The southern sector shows elongated (Re=~0,5) and irregular (Re=0,7-0,9) drainage basins with high relief ratios (Rh=0,23-0,47; Tab. 1), separated in the interfluves by wide straight rectilinear slopes (Fig. 5). The drainage patterns are parallel in the lower part of the slope and rectangular on the summit, the drainage density is moderate (1,74-2,93), intermediate between central and southern sectors, the stream channel profiles are convex with sharp knick points, the stream channel/interfluve relief is low, the ipsometric integral show high values (>0,6) and convex curves (Fig. 6, Tab. 1),.
The central sector is in an intermediate situation: the catchments are developed all along the slope, except for a single case (Basin J), but they show a strong downstream narrowing (Re=~0,5; Rh=0,29-0,42). The drainage pattern is parallel, transversal to the slope (Fig. 5), and characterised by the lowest drainage density (1,09-2,92). The stream channel profiles are mostly planar with moderate knick points and the hypsometric integral values are intermediate (0,4-0,6) with moderately convex curves (Fig. 5, Tab. 1).
Figure 6.
Ipsometric analysis of the SW escarpment of Montagna del Morrone (Miccadei et al., 2004). a) Ipsometric curves and ipsometric integral value of the whole escarpment. b) Ipsometric curves and ipsometric integral values of the 16 drainage basins. c) Planimetric distribution of the ipsometric integral values
4.2.2.3. Structural landforms
The geomorphological surveys allow for the mapping of landforms such as fault scarps, fault related slopes and crests (Fig. 7), essentially controlled by the normal fault systems on the slopes.
The fault scarps are made up of rock scarps from some tens of metres to 100 m high, markedly straight, with a basal and a summit part. The basal part is made up of well smoothed scarplets, from a few decimetres to some metres high, 45º - 70º dipping. This typology occurs mainly in the northern sector of the ridge and in the upper parts of the slope. Along the basal fault line these can be identified between Popoli and Roccocasale, at heights from 400 m to 600 m.
The partly retreated and weathered fault scarps are rock scarps up to 100 m high, sinuous, 60º-35º dipping. The basal smoothed scarplets corresponding to the fault plain are only locally preserved and partially covered by scree slopes. Upslope the free faces have, to some extent, retreated from the fault line. Inactive talus deposits, and at certain points the apex of inactive alluvial fans, can show evidence of displacement. These features were identified at the base of the slope above all in the southern sector (Pacentro).
The retreated and weathered fault scarps can be identified as weak breaks in the slope, often discontinuous and partially or completely covered by surface deposits (talus debris and alluvial fans). These landforms are linked upslope to moderate and weathered rock scarps, which result from retreat of the fault scarps.
Fault related slopes: are made up of generally straight and rectilinear high angle slopes (30º -60º), in limestone from stratified to massive, generally counter-slope plunging or sub-horizontal, bordered at the base by the different kinds of fault scarps described above. They are present particularly in the upper part of the slope, in the northern sector (Schiena d’Asino, C.le Affogato) and in the lower part (Popoli, Roccacasale, Pacentro) (Fig. 7). Especially in the central and southern sectors, they are incised by gullies and affected by slope processes that have formed talus slopes and debris cones, both inactive and active, at the base. In the lower part of the escarpment the fault related slopes, dissected by the outlets of the drainage basins, have a sub-triangular shape.
Crest lines: develop in a clear, sharp and slightly asymmetrical shape in the northern sector, while in the central and southern sectors they are more discontinuous, set upslope from a less inclined and gently undulating slope unit.
4.2.2.4. Slope landforms
Several slope landforms are mapped in the study area, even though non-homogeneously distributed: landslide scarps, rock slide bodies, talus slopes and debris cones and also evidence of deep seated gravitational slope deformations (Fig. 7).
Landslide scarps: are made up of arched or semi-circular rock scarps on limestone bedrock formations. They show a marked concave profile, but are generally very weathered. These forms are located on the higher parts of the slope, in the northern, central and southern sectors of the ridge.
Figure 7.
Geomorphological map of the SW escarpment of Montagna del Morrone (Miccadei et al., 2004)
Rock slide bodies: are made up of limestone in large blocks and of heterometric carbonate breccias (up to boulder size) in a chaotic arrangement with abundant clay-silt matrix, or, in some cases, of considerable volumes of limestone stratified rock that still maintains the original lithostructural arrangement. They show with a surface up to 3 km² (length/width ratio of 2:1 to 1:2) and thickness up to hundreds of metres. The longitudinal profile of the slip surface and landslide body is always markedly concave-convex. The movement from the slip surfaces is variable from several hundred metres to several km. The movement is generally complex, however, it is principally attributable to translational and rotational rock slide mechanisms. Similarly to the slip surfaces, the landslide accumulation is also partially covered by talus slopes and debris cones, by active and inactive alluvial fans (Late Pleistocene – Holocene) and by some relict parts, which have been attributed to the Mid-Pleistocene (Miccadei et al., 1999). This suggests an Early?-Mid Pleistocene age for the landslides identified on the slope. They are therefore entirely inactive paleo-landslides; only a few minor ones can be attributed to more recent ages.
Talus slope and debris cones: are formed by bodies of heterometric carbonate breccias. Various inactive forms can be identified from the characteristics of the material, the abundance or absence of matrix, soil and vegetation or from the characteristics of overlooking rock slopes. They are present along the whole escarpment of Montagna del Morrone.
Deep seated gravity slope deformations (D.S.G.S.D.): some areas of the slope are interrupted by elongated trenches and sackung-like features running parallel to the slope itself (NW-SE to NNW-SSE orientation), which are some tens of metres wide and some hundreds of metres long (up to 1000 m). These depressions are in general partly filled with debris and colluvial deposits. These features bring to light the presence of D.S.G.S.D. (Cavallin et al., 1987; Crescenti et al., 1989; Dramis and Sorriso-Valvo, 1994). They are especially evident in the central-northern part of the slope at heights from 1200 m to 500 m, upslope from the principal fault slopes along the Basal border fault (between Popoli and Roccacasale). In some cases they can be identified also upslope from the fault slope of Schiena d’Asino. In the summit area of the southern sector the arrangement of the trenches and karst depressions lead to an elongated NW-SE oriented depression from several tens to hundreds of metres wide and several kilometres. These forms do not display signs of recent movement, but they are very evident indeed and have not be shaped or filled by the geomorphological processes.
4.2.2.5. Karst landforms and complex origin landforms
Mapped landforms are gently undulated surfaces, small karst depressions and suspended valleys (Fig. 7).
Gently undulated surfaces: are areas with gently undulating morphology shaped in the bedrock formation, at a height that ranges from 1800 m to 2000 m, close to the top of the ridge in the central and southern sectors. The occurrence of small dolines and karst valleys suggests that the karst weathering is an important morphogenetic factor.
Karst depressions: are closed depressions with irregular shapes, elongated with a NW-SE or SW-NE orientation, medium in size (length ranging from 500 to 1000 m, width ranging from some tens of metres to 200 m) and filled with residual soils and colluvium. They are located between Mt. Morrone and Morrone di Pacentro at heights of 1500 - 1750 m. Being suspended at these heights, some of these features have been preserved, while others were broken by the incision of the streams along the slope and, also in this case, by intersection with the slip plain of some of the major landslides (Fig. 7).
Suspended valleys: are small valleys, with a flat or concave floor, located in the upper part of the slope (central and southern sectors). They have a very gentle stream channel gradient, abruptly passing downstream to a high stream channel gradient. This creates knick points and strongly convex channel profiles.
4.2.2.6. Fluvial and water erosion landforms
Fluvial and water erosion landforms are mostly present in the lower part of the SW Morrone slope. Major landforms mapped are: fluvial terraces, alluvial plains, alluvial fans (Fig. 7). Alluvial fans are active, inactive or relict and were the subject of morphometric analysis of the fan/catchment systems.
Alluvial fans: all along the join between the slope and the plain several fans are present, ranging in size from several ha to 2,20 km2 and with slope angles of up to more than 17°. The apex is located close to the Basal border fault, slightly upslope, entrenched in the fault related slopes and in the lower part of the catchments. Only the apex of Basin N is deeply entrenched, possibly because it is located between two wide landslide bodies (Fig. 7). The landforms are mostly inactive. The geometry and the spatial relationship between active and inactive forms indicate a general fan aggradation, except in the northern sector. Basin C, in particular, shows a clear entrenching of three subsequent fans and the formation of two orders of terraces.
Morphometric analysis of fan/catchment systems: the morphometric analysis on the main fan/catchment systems was processed in a GIS and on the DEM, following the most relevant literature (Bull, 1964; Saito, 1982; Blair and McPherson, 1994; Oguchi and Ohmori, 1994; Allen and Hovius, 1998; Allen and Densmore, 2000) and it is summarized in Tab. 3. The relationship between the main parameters and the interpolated functions are shown in Fig. 8. The first graph shows the relationship fan area vs. catchment area (Fig. 8a), defined by one of the most widely accepted functions (Af = k Abx, where Af = fan area, Ab = basin area, k and x = constant; Allen and Densmore, 2000), also defined by the ϕ ratio (fan area/catchment area; Allen and Hovius, 1998). Note the good alignment of most of the data except for a few anomalies (Basin C and N; triangular symbol in Fig. 8a).
The fan area was compared to the volume eroded from the catchments (EVc, Tab. 3, Fig. 8b), estimated as follows:
EVc = Vmax-Vc-TLVc (Vmax = volume of a prism with base corresponding to the catchment area and height to the catchment relief; Vc = volume between the catchment surface and a horizontal surface at the minimum height of the catchment; TLVc = estimated volume lacking because of the tectonic displacement along the Schiena d’Asino fault). In the third graph the relationship between the estimated fan volume (Vf) and the estimated volume eroded from the catchments (EVc) is shown (Fig. 8c). In both graphs the data distribution is similar to the first graph (Fig. 8a), but much more scattered; the anomalous data of Basin C and N is confirmed. The fourth graph (Fig. 8d) is similar to the first (Fig. 8a), but we must also consider the relief ratio (Rh) of the catchment in order to verify whether not only the dimension, but also the steepness could be an important factor in the geometry of the fans.
So the fan/catchment systems that seem to be anomalous in the previous graphs (Basin C and Basin N, triangular symbol in Fig. 8a,b,c,d) have been considered in detail. They both have a small alluvial fan, compared to the catchment area, and they have a low ϕ ratio value (fan area/catchment area) with respect to the other basins (Tab. 3). In the first case (Basin C) the deeply entrenched fans indicate the occurrence of deposition and erosion pulse, which led to the fan being undersize due to sediment removal. The geometry of the catchment and the distribution of surface deposits in it, indicate the presence of possible internal storage points that could have contributed to the undersizing of the fans, preventing the sediment supply. In the second case (Basin N) the geometry of the drainage pattern, the basin, the stream channel profile and the ipsometric integral (Fig. 6,7) suggest that the upper part of the catchment underwent a capture during the evolution of the slope. Therefore, the morphometric ratios were recalculated eliminating the supposed captured part (N* in Tab. 3).
The four graphs of Fig. 8a’,b’,c’,d’ were reprocessed eliminating the anomalous data (Basin C, Basin N) and considering the recalculated data (N*): note the clear increase in the R2 value of the regression line calculated. Particularly the approximation of the N* value to the tendency line could be an indirect confirmation of the capture process in the upper part of Basin N: the fan morphometry is still in equilibrium with the pre-capture catchment morphometry. Furthermore, note the increase of R2 in the graph of Fig. 8d’ in relation to the value in the graph of Fig. 8a’ which suggests the influence of catchment steepness in defining the fan area.
Basin
Af
Hf
Lf
Sf
Vf
Ac
Rc
Lc
Rh c
LVc
TLVc
EVc
∫ ips
ϕ
(km2)
(km)
(km)
Hf/Lf
(km3)
(km2)
(m)
(km)
(km3)
(km3)
(km3)
C (Tot)
1,64
0,160
1,64
0,10
43,7E-3
9,03
1335
3,850
0,35
7,05
2,00
5,05
0,41
0,18
C (pars)
0,46
0,070
0,85
0,08
5,4E-3
9,03
1335
3,850
0,35
7,05
2,00
5,05
0,41
0,05
K
1,44
0,200
1,44
0,14
47,9E-3
3,57
1425
3,836
0,37
2,48
0,30
2,18
0,52
0,40
I+L
2,20
0,320
1,95
0,16
117,3E-3
10,16
1510
4,500
0,34
6,23
1,60
4,63
0,58
0,22
J
0,46
0,225
1,17
0,19
17,1E-3
0,93
588
1,811
0,32
0,23
x
0,23
0,59
0,49
J+I+L
2,66
0,320
1,95
0,16
141,7E-3
11,09
1510
4,500
0,34
6,45
1,60
4,85
0,59
0,24
M
1,17
0,255
1,28
0,20
49,8E-3
2,05
1420
3,448
0,41
0,94
x
0,94
0,67
0,57
N
1,39
0,100
1,16
0,09
23,2E-3
7,75
1436
4,440
0,32
4,12
x
4,12
0,64
0,18
N*
1,39
0,100
1,16
0,09
23,2E-3
4,75
1360
2,950
0,46
2,58
x
2,58
0,60
0,29
N**
1,74
0,350
2,16
0,16
33,7E-3
4,75
1360
2,950
0,46
2,58
x
2,58
0,60
0,37
Table 3.
Morphometric parameters of the main alluvial fan and related source catchments (C, northern sector; K, J, I, L, central sector; M, N, southern sector). Af) Fan area; Hf) Fan relief; Lf) Fan length; Sf) Average fan slope; Vf) Estimated fan volume; Ac) Catchment area; Rc) Catchment relief; Lc) Catchment length; Rh c) Catchment relief ratio; LVc) Catchment lacking volume; TLVc) Tectonic lacking volume; EVc) Estimated eroded volume; ∫ ips) Hypsometric integral; ϕ) Fan area/Catchment area; x) negligible; N*) without possible captured upper part of the catchment; N**) considering the entrenched apex
4.3. Discussion
4.3.1. Orography and hydrography
The distribution of slope and relief is irregular in relation to the tectonic setting (Fig. 9): in the southern sector, slope and relief are mostly in the lower part along the wide free face; in the central and particularly in the northern sector, slope and relief are mostly in the upslope, low in the midslope and increase again in the lower part down to the toe-slope break.
The hydrography analysis outlines a poorly developed drainage system with slow denudation processes and strongly controlled by extensional tectonics. The southern sector of the ridge is characterized by a poorly dissected morphology and a clear stage of inequilibrium. This is due to a strong lithological and tectonic control: a single block of resistant rocks relatively uplifted by the activity of the Basal border fault and poorly incised by the drainage network.
Figure 8.
Graphics illustrating the relationships between some of the main morphometric parameters of alluvial fan/catchment systems (refer to Tab. 3). Note the logarithmic axes; each symbol represents a single fan/catchment pair (Circle: normally developed fan/catchment systems; Triangle: anomalous developed fan/catchment systems; see text for detail).a) Fan area vs. catchment area. b) Fan volume vs. catchment area. c) Fan volume vs. catchment estimated eroded volume. d) Fan area vs. catchment area x relief ratio. a’) b’) c’) d’) are the same graphics of a, b, c, d, reprocessed eliminating and recalculating the anomalous data (see text for detail). e) comparison of values of ϕ ratio (fan area/catchment area) calculated on the Montagna del Morrone with value obtained from numerical modelling (Allen and Densmore, 2000). f) comparison of values of ϕ ratio (fan area/catchment area) calculated on the Montagna del Morrone with value calculated in different structural context (Death Valley, Nevada U.S., Allen and Densmore, 2000)
Figure 9.
a) Synthetic 3D morphostructural scheme profiles of the SW escarpment of the Montagna del Morrone (Miccadei et al., 2004). b, c) synthetic transversal and stream channel morphostructural profiles of the northern sector of the escarpment; d, e) synthetic transversal and stream channel morphostructural profiles of the central sector of the escarpment; b, c) synthetic transversal and stream channel morphostructural profiles of the southern sector of the escarpment (for the legend of the deposits see Fig. 4)
The different morphometry of the drainage of the northern sector is thought to be due not to a different development of the erosional processes, but to a different morphostructural setting of this sector of the escarpment. It consists of a double-ridge made up of two different blocks risen in parallel along the Basal border fault and the Schiena d’Asino fault, which have formed two separate fault related slopes with the slightly undulated area in between (Fig. 4, 9). This setting has led to the separation of the catchments between the upper and lower blocks of the slope and the concave-convex hypsometric curve of the basin developed throughout the escarpment (Basin C).
This setting of the central sector is controlled by the interplay of principal faults parallel to the ridge and secondary transversal faults (Fig. 4, 9): the southern termination of the Schiena d’Asino fault, with a reduced morphostructural role, has formed an upper fault related slope, but has not separated upper and lower catchments as in the northern sector. The relative uplift of the lower block along the Basal border fault and the conflicting drainage deepening brought about the downstream narrowing of the catchments. The secondary transversal faults control the development of the parallel drainage network.
4.3.2. Geomorphology
The geomorphological surveys allow for the mapping of structural landforms, slope landforms, karst landforms and fluvial and water erosion landforms.
The processes that have controlled the evolution of the escarpment are highlighted by the characteristics and degree of physical weathering, retreat of fault scarps and fault related slopes, and in particular by the analysis of transversal profiles (mostly rectilinear with more or less evident rock scarps, Fig 9) when compared to the distribution of slope depositional forms (rock landslides and talus slopes) (Fig. 7).
The variable degradation of the fault scarps and the morphology of the fault slopes (according to Brancaccio et al., 1978; Wallace, 1978; Blumetti et al., 1993; Bosi et al., 1993; Stewart and Hancock, 1994; Ascione and Cinque, 1997; Peulvast and Vanney, 2001), suggest a variable balance between the relative tectonic uplift, rejuvenating the fault scarps, and the slope denudation processes. Variability of rock resistance seems to have a control on the development of the geomorphic processes influencing the physical weathering because of the different type of stratification, degree of fracturing and local presence of cataclasite.
Moreover, it is worth noting that the upslope profile of several fault scarps is poliphasic (Fig. 9). This suggests again the cyclic alternation of relief building phases linked to tectonic activity and slope denudation events.
In the northern sector, the slope related to the Schiena d’Asino fault shows a profile made up of a clear fault scarp separating slope segments with different dip angles (Fig. 9b, c). Upslope there are many minor rock cliffs and secondary scarps, while downslope there is a talus slope. On the basis of the models proposed by the literature, particularly for the Apennine area (Demangeot, 1965; Brancaccio et al., 1978; Bosi et al., 1993; Ascione and Cinque, 1997), the slope is thought to be affected by a period of repeated tectonic activity with slope development by replacement with moderate sediment accumulation on the downfaulted block. A possible renewal of the tectonic activity would have formed the present basal fault scarp, which is only partly weathered. On the slope related to the Basal border fault, only triangular shaped fault related slopes, retreated and developed, are preserved (Fig. 9b, c; Brancaccio et al., 1978; Wallace, 1978). This clearly shows the role of drainage downcutting in the geomorphology of the lower part of the northern sector.
In the southern sector, the geomorphological characteristics of the escarpment indicate that the relative uplift has taken place mostly on the Basal border fault (Fig. 9f,g). The basal fault scarp has in many cases clearly retreated and the fault line is covered by scree (Demangeot, 1965; Ascione and Cinque, 1997). Furthermore, on the fault related slope, there are wide rock landslide bodies and remnants of relict alluvial fans, referable to Early?-Mid Pleistocene age. This suggests an early stage of strong activity on the Basal border fault, leading to slope development by wide and sudden mass movements together with early slope replacement processes on the resistant, but highly jointed rocks. This created a steep slope, mostly planar, and supplied slope deposits along the slope down to the base, which are now preserved in remnants. The continuation of the fault activity, possibly at a reduced rate, has brought about a gradual slope development, shaping the basal fault scarps with a high sediment supply that has partly covered the fault lines, the relative scarplets and the landslide bodies placed on them (Fig. 7, 9a,f,g).
Several slope landforms are mapped in the study area, even though non-homogeneously distributed: landslide scarps, rock slide bodies, talus slopes and debris cones, and also evidence of deep seated gravitational slope deformations (Fig. 7, 9). The most significant landforms are large rock landslides mapped on the escarpment. Based on the geomorphological analysis, these landforms are thought to have started as deep seated gravitational slide deformation (D.S.G.S.D.), then evolved as large landslides (Dramis and Sorriso-Valvo, 1994; Dramis et al., 1995).
The distribution of such landforms is linked to the distribution of slope and local relief. In the southern sector of the ridge, the slope and local relief is concentrated in the basal part of the slope, corresponding to the Basal border fault related slope, where the main landslide bodies are located. Poor evidence of D.S.G.S.D. is mostly located in the summit area of the ridge. In the northern sector, however, the distribution of the slope and local relief in two parallel belts seems to have partly prevented the evolution of D.S.G.S.D. into landslides. Evidence for the former is in fact distributed along the lower part of the slope, while landslides are found only on the upper part of the slope, where the gradient becomes steep again.
On the basis of morpho-lithostratigraphic correlations with the relict alluvial fan deposits, these landslides can be dated to the Early?-Mid Pleistocene. The preparatory morphostructural conditions, such as high steep slope on carbonate jointed rocks, and the trigger causes, possibly related to strong seismicity necessary for the occurrence of this type of landslide, could be linked to an important morphotectonic phase during this period. This would have had a great effect on the morphogenesis of the slope. This is confirmed by the intense tectonic activity that took place between the Early Pleistocene and the Mid-Pleistocene, highlighted by various authors in the chain and periadriatic piedmont (Dramis, 1993; Bigi et al., 1996; Centamore and Nisio, 2003). So, possibly a large part of the relief of the slope should have already been formed in the early stages of the slope evolution (Early?-Mid Pleistocene) and would have further growth in later times, as confirmed by the geometry of the foot of the slip surfaces now suspended hundreds of metres above the base of the slope (Fig. 9 b, f, g).
Karst landforms and complex origin landforms on Mt. Morrone are found in the summit areas, as well as on several ridges of the eastern-central Apennines (Montagna Grande, Mt. Godi, Mt. Sirente, Monti Peligni, Maiella). These features have been attributed by many authors to remnants of a summit paleo-landscape and to different periods of shaping from the Late Miocene (Demangeot, 1965) to Late Pliocene-Early Pleistocene (Dramis, 1993; Coltorti and Farabollini, 1995; Centamore and Nisio, 2003). When considering the surface of the mid-slope in the northern sector, it is possible to identify a displacement of the undulated surface brought about by the Schiena d’Asino fault.
In our case, the landform characteristics and the geomorphological correlations with slope forms seem to suggest that the shaping of undulated surfaces and karst depressions may have started before the activity of the landslides between C.le delle Nocelle and Pacentro. This would allow the dating of the first genesis of these forms to a period before the Early?-Mid Pleistocene.
Geomorphological analysis of the alluvial fans has provided a significant contribution to the understanding of the morphostructural evolution of the escarpment and of its base junction with the Sulmona basin. The fans have been useful in defining the morphostratigraphic relationships between the deposits on the slope and in the basin, and also because of the volcanoclastic levels and paleosoil inside them, which have allowed the deposits to be dated (Miccadei et al., 1999). The morphometric analysis of the main fan/catchment systems is summarized in Tab. 3 and Fig. 8. The law which governs the fan area/catchment area relationship (according to Oguchi and Ohmori; 1994; Oguchi, 1997; Allen and Hovius, 1998; Allen and Densmore, 2000) is: Af = 0,59 Ab0,63. Note that the constant k (0,63 in this case) has a direct relationship with the erodibility of the materials, as already indicated in Bull (1964), and an inverse relationship with the rate of the movement of the faults at the apex of the fans (Oguchi and Ohmori, 1994).
The analysis of the results that were obtained on the Montagna del Morrone SW escarpment has very clearly demonstrated how the values, and especially the value of the constant k, are among the lowest known in the relevant literature and similar to values measured on fault related slopes with a fault slip rate documented at some mm/yr (Fig. 8e,f; Allen and Hovius, 1998; Allen and Densmore, 2000). This can be only partly due to higher resistance of the bedrock and must therefore also be accounted for by the high slip rate of the slope’s basal fault. The relationships between the other morphometric parameters are also governed by a power law, as the graphs of Fig. 8 b’, c’ show. The data are more scattered, but they confirm the morphostructural considerations.
Another important aspect relates to the values for the fan area/catchment relationship, which are markedly far from the gathered data in Fig 8a, as similarly occurs for the other parameters (Fig. 8b, c, d). These values are of fan/catchment systems which have undergone noteworthy perturbation in their geometry (Basin C - Mancini fan; Basin N - Marane fan). In the first case there are several generations of fans that are built up one upon the other. The positioning of the alluvial terraces and the correlation with the terraces of the Sulmona basin demonstrate how the development of the fan itself was affected by external elements, such as the process of regressive erosion from the Gole di Popoli in the Sulmona basin (Ciccacci et al., 1999). This has extended its action headward, leading to a re-cutting of the fan and limiting its growth. The overall catchment geometry and the surface sediment distribution suggest that internal factors such as the existence of sediment storage points in the catchment, which tend to prevent the sediment supply to the fan, have also led to the fan being undersize. In the second case (Basin N) the geometry of the network, of the basin and its hypsometry (Fig. 4,5) show how a large part of the summit area of the basin itself may have been ‘captured’ during one of the recent phases of the slope’s development. This is confirmed by comparing the value of the relationships calculated and illustrated in the graphs of Fig. 8. If the area that is considered the object of capture is excluded from the calculation, the data (triangular dot) clearly approximates to the regression line (cfr. Fig. 8 a, b, c, d, e\n\t\t\t\t\t\tFig. 8 a’, b’, c’, d’). Moreover, the anomalous value in the relationships studied shows that the phenomenon must have come about recently, as the re-equilibrium of the fan-basin system has not yet been achieved. Since Allen and Densmore (2000) point to re-equilibrium periods that are in fact rapid (to the order of tens of thousands of years), even considering the presence of resistant lithologies, it seems possible to date the capture to the Late-Pleistocene.
Therefore, it can be stated that the morphometric analysis of fan-basin systems can be exploited in morphostructural contexts such as the central Apennines, whether it be in morphotectonic analysis of fault related slopes or in the assessment of the conditions of equilibrium for single fan-catchment systems, which contributes to the study of local morphostructural evolution.
Finally, the geomorphological evolution of the alluvial fans in the central and southern sectors can be summarized. In the southern sector they are relatively small, with high dip angles, in clear aggradation, and are controlled by structural factors such as the resistant rocks of the catchment bedrock and the high slip rate on the Basal border fault. Considering the relationship between landslide scarps, catchments and alluvial fans, according to Blair (1999), it is possible to argue that the initiation of the catchments was due to the emplacement of the large landslide body.
In the northern sector, the alluvial fans are controlled more by interaction with the geomorphological evolution of the Popoli gorge, the northern outlet of the Sulmona basin, than by these same structural factors (Ciccacci et al., 1999). The regressive erosion due to the incision in the Popoli gorge deeply affected the alluvial fans of this sector, but only just touched those of the central sector, without reaching the southern sector.
4.4. Landscape evolution of the escarpment between the Montagna del Morrone ridge and the Sulmona tectonic basin
The integrated morphotectonic approach to the study of the mountain landscape of the central Apennine chain allows us to outline the main steps of the escarpment between Montagna del Morrone and the Sulmona basin (Fig. 10). The results clearly indicate that it is a high activity fault-generated mountain front according to Bull and McFadden (1977), Bull (1977), Wallace (1978), Bull (1987), Keller and Pinter (1996), and Allen and Densmore (2000). These features include low sinuosity and faceting, high slope and local relief, elongated and out of equilibrium drainage basins, convex and knick pointed stream channel profiles, prevailing areal denudation processes, general aggradation of the alluvial fans at the base of the slope and morphometry of the alluvial fan/catchment system.
This fault-generated mountain front, however, shows a peculiar morphostructural setting, variable both longitudinally and transversally, which led us to define a partition in three distinct sectors: northern, central and southern (Fig. 9). This is closely associated with the morphotectonic evolution of the Montagna del Morrone ridge and the Sulmona basin, which is due to the contrast of local tectonic subsidence on the basin and regional uplift during the Pleistocene (Miccadei et al., 2002).
The geomorphological investigations highlight a complex cyclic evolution in succeeding stages with the dominance either of morphotectonics, linked to the conflicting fault activity and regional uplift, or of erosional processes, particularly during cold stages of Quaternary climate fluctuations (Miccadei et al., 2004).
In a general balance the growth of the escarpment has strongly exceeded and dominated the effect of denudation, due to the local subsidence of the Sulmona basin relative to the Montagna del Morrone blocks along the Basal border fault and the Schiena d’Asino fault and to the general uplift of the area,. This has created relief of up to 1700 m and enabled the maintenance of very steep slopes, on highly resistant rocks, which have been moderately weathered and incised by climate-controlled erosional processes. These processes are mostly due to drainage network linear down-cutting in the mid and lower part of the northern and central sectors, while slope areal denudation is prevailing in the upper part of the northern and central sectors and in the southern sector.
Figure 10.
Evolution of the escarpment between the Montagna del Morrone ridge and the Sulmona basin (Miccadei et al., 2002)
In conclusion, it is possible to define the evolution of the escarpment between the Montagna del Morrone ridge and the Sulmona basin as a growth evolution, rapid in the earlier stages and then continuing in the later phases. We can summarise the main stages of this morphotectonic evolution as follows (Fig. 10):
Early moderately high relief incised by geomorphic processes, among which possibly karst weathering; remnants of this landscape, though reworked by karst processes and nivation, are preserved on the top of the ridge (Lower? Pleistocene);
Growth of the slope due to the strong activity of the normal fault; earlier doubling of the ridge in the northern sector; the central sector begins to work as a structural transfer; the occurrence of fractured carbonate rocks, the high local relief and high slope, and eventually, the occurrence of earthquake-triggered landslides, led to the emplacement of large rock slides and to sediment accumulation along the slope (scree slope breccias, alluvial fan conglomerates) (Lower?-Mid Pleistocene);
Development of drainage basins similar to the present ones (including Basin C, eventually after an early capture of the upper part) and incision of previous alluvial fans (Middle Pleistocene);
Erosion of the escarpment, mostly due to slope denudation processes in the southern sector (and upper part of the central and northern sector) and to stream incision in the northern sector (Middle-Late Pleistocene);
Morphotectonics, though possibly less intense than in the earlier stages, led to a progressive renewal with evidence of faulting, along the basal fault scarp of the southern sector and along both fault scarps of the central and northern sector (renewal mostly evident in the upper slope along the Schiena d’Asino fault scarp); a perturbation of some of the alluvial fan/catchment systems, caused in the northern sector by headward regressive erosion on the alluvial fans, controlled by the Sulmona basin outlet evolution and by upstream capture phenomena in the southern sector (Middle-Upper Pleistocene);
The erosion processes are capable of only partly contrasting the morphotectonic processes (evidence of faulting occurs mostly on Late Pleistocene alluvial fans) and have led to partial reorganization of the drainage basin, still now clearly out of equilibrium, particularly in the southern sector. The present morphotectonic setting is acquired (Upper Pleistocene-Holocene).
5. Case studies - piedmont area: dip stream valley (Sangro river valley)
5.1. Introduction
The Sangro river is, at present, 107 km long and flows on the Adriatic side of central Italy from the inner part of the Apennines to the coast. The direction of the river is variable, from N-S in the upper reach, to WNW-ESE, to SW-NE, to S-N, and, finally, to SW-NE in the lower reach (Fig. 1). The main tributary is the Aventino river, which flows along the eastern side of the Maiella massif and then into the Sangro 20 km away from the coast. The present drainage basin area is about 1560 km2 and its mean elevation is 970 m a.s.l.; about 70% of the basin lies within the range area; 30% within the piedmont one. The Sangro river’s long profile consists of several segments, the highest long valley gradient being in the intermediate sector between the range and the piedmont. Its course and long profile show that the Sangro river can be divided into different reaches based on abrupt bends and/or long gradient variations (Fig. 1). The first part of the Sangro river flows within the range on clayey-arenaceous Miocene foredeep deposits and meso-cenozoic carbonate sequences, and shows a regular long profile with knick points corresponding to the occurrence of carbonate rocks and thrusts. The intermediate reaches carve into thrusted pre-orogenic clayey and carbonate Oligo-Miocene pelagic sequences, overlain by sinorogenic clayey arenaceous Miocene foredeep deposits. This reach shows a marked convex shape with sharp knick points related to the lithostructural control of alternating clayey and carbonate rocks. The abrupt long gradient decrease corresponds to the front of the range. The lower reach incises with a concave long profile the Plio-Pleistocene clayey-sandy marine sediments of the Adriatic basin (Fig. 11).
The study area, the lower part of the Sangro valley, is located in the Adriatic piedmont, in the south eastern Abruzzi area and lies in a complex geological framework between the central Apennines and the coast (Fig. 11). This area is characterised by a cuesta, mesa and plateau relief at a moderate elevation, sloping from SW to NE, from 500 m a.s.l. to sea level. The Sangro river flows, in this area, from 150 m a.s.l. to sea level.
The geological setting is characterized by late-orogenic Plio-Pleistocene Adriatic foredeep units that, in the SW sector, unconformably overlie pre-orogenic Molise pelagic units (Fig. 1). The Plio-Pleistocene units consist of Middle Pliocene to Early Pleistocene foredeep terrigenous clayey-sandy deposits, up to 2000 m thick, with interbedded conglomerates, coarsening upwards into a sandstone-conglomerate regressive sequence. The structural setting is defined by a regional homocline gently dipping north-east and locally affected by systems of low displacement faults (NW-SE, SW-NE). The Plio-Pleistocene foredeep sequence unconformably overlies folded and thrusted Miocene-Pliocene structures.
In the SW sector (Fig. 12) the pre-orogenic Molise pelagic units are made up of a clayey pelagic Oligocene-Miocene formation (argille varicolori formation) and of a limestone and marly-limestone pelagic Miocene formation, which is followed by a pelitic and arenaceous-pelitic sin-orogenic foredeep Late Miocene sequence. The above mentioned units were affected by fold and thrust Miocene-Pliocene deformations that involved a major NE transport.
Pre-, sin- and late-orogenic sequences are unconformably overlain by Middle-Late Pleistocene and Holocene continental conglomerates and subordinate sands, mainly related to fluvial and alluvial fan deposits.
The geomorphological study performed in the area allowed us: i) to identify the fluvial and alluvial fan deposits and the transverse and longitudinal geometry of the related terraces; ii) to qualitatively and quantitatively analyse the geometry of the drainage network; and iii) to determine the distribution and geometry of significant morphotectonic evidence such as linear valleys and asymmetric valleys, hanging and beheaded valleys, counterflow streams and river bends.
Figure 11.
Geological scheme of south-eastern Abruzzi and location of the study area (black box). Legend: post-orogenic Quaternary continental deposits, 1) fluvial deposits (Holocene), 2) terraced fluvial and alluvial fan deposits (Middle-Late Pleistocene); sin- and late-orogenic terrigenous deposits, 3) marine to continental transitional sequences (Early Pleistocene), 4) hemipelagic sequences with conglomerate levels (Late Pliocene-Early Pleistocene), 5) turbiditic foredeep sequences (Late Miocene-Early Pliocene); pre-orogenic carbonate, marly and clayey deposits, 6) Molise pelagic sequences (Oligocene-Miocene), 7) carbonate platform, slope and pelagic sequences (Jurassic - Miocene); 8) thrust (dashed if buried); 9) normal fault (dashed if buried); 10) fault with strike slip or reverse component (dashed if buried); 11) Sangro river drainage divide; 12) course of the Sangro river (Fig. 1)
5.2. Results
In the lower Sangro valley, five levels of terraced fluvial and alluvial fan deposits can be identified, at decreasing heights above the present alluvial plain. The terraces show a heterogeneous plano-altimetric distribution and different sedimentological characteristics, formed in both alluvial fan (T1, T2) and fluvial environments (T3-T5 and alluvial plain) (Fig. 12; Tab. 4).
Figure 12.
Geologic and fluvial terraces map of the lower Sangro river valley (D’Alessandro et al., 2008). Legend: post-orogenic Quaternary continental deposits, 1) present alluvial plain deposits (Holocene), 2) fluvial terrace T5 deposits (Late Pleistocene), 3) fluvial terrace T4 deposits (late Middle Pleistocene), 4) fluvial terrace T3 deposits (Middle Pleistocene), 5) alluvial fan T2 deposits (Middle Pleistocene), 6) alluvial fan T1 deposits (Middle Pleistocene); sin- and late-orogenic terrigenous deposits, 7) conglomerates and sandstone of marine to continental transitional sequences (Early Pleistocene), 8) clays and sands of hemipelagic sequences with conglomerate levels (Late Pliocene-Early Pleistocene), 9) sandstone and siltstone of turbiditic sequences (Late Miocene-Early Pliocene); pre-orogenic carbonate, marly and clayey deposits, 10) limestone and marly-limestone of Molise pelagic sequences (Miocene), 11) clays of Molise pelagic sequences (Oligocene-Miocene); 12) 0-10° dipping strata; 13) 10-45° dipping strata; 14) 45-80° dipping strata; 15) 80-90° dipping strata; 16) buried thrust; 17) fault with strike slip or reverse component; 18) inferred neotectonic fault
The alluvial fan deposits (T1 and T2 in Fig. 12) are located at the summit of the hilly relief, at an elevation higher than 300 m a.s.l. and along the drainage divide between the Sangro basin and the surrounding ones. The fan deposits consist of heterometric, poorly sorted and sub-angular conglomerates (ϕmax> 50 cm) with a matrix of fine gravel to sand. They show variable thicknesses up to 20 m and they are often deeply eroded or preserved only as gravel remnants on planar surfaces.
The fluvial deposits are distributed along the lower Sangro valley, more extensively on the NW side. On the SE side the deposits are rare and thinner. They are arranged in four levels, inset in the older alluvial fan terraces, at elevations decreasing from 280 m to the present valley floor (T3, T4, T5 and present alluvial plain, Fig. 12, Tab. 4). Along the NW valley side down to the river mouth, the terrace treads are at various heights above the present valley floor, decreasing from 150-100 m in the case of T3, to 120-60 m (T4), 50-30 m (T5), down to the present alluvial plain (Tab. 4).
The deposits of the four terrace levels are made up of heterometric, moderately-to-well sorted pebble-to-cobble conglomerates; they are generally clast-supported with sandy matrix. The thickness of fluvial deposits is moderate, up to 20 m in the lower part of the valley. The basal erosive unconformity on the Pleistocene clayey and sandy bedrock outcrops in several locations on the valley side, particularly in quarries located in the lower part of the valley.
The transverse profiles show the relative incision of the fluvial terraces in the alluvial fan terraces and of the different terrace levels one into the other. The valley long profile shows a general downstream convergent geometry of the terrace treads.
The age of fluvial and alluvial fan deposits is inferred from the correlation with the surrounding basins in the Adriatic piedmont, as indicated in the previous section. The alluvial fans and the highest fluvial terrace (T1, T2, T3) are ascribed to the Middle Pleistocene, the second fluvial terrace (T4) to the late Middle Pleistocene, the third (T5) is dated to the Late Pleistocene and the alluvial plain to Holocene.
The Sangro river shows a mainly sub-dendritic drainage pattern in the piedmont area and a generally angular or trellis one in the mountain zone, related, in general terms, to both lithological and structural control. In the lower Sangro valley (Fig. 13a) the total azimuthal stream analysis of the network confirms the general sub-dendritic pattern, showing a sub-elliptical shape, although E-W and NW-SE main orientations are present (Fig. 13 b; Tab. 5). However, considering only the main streams (3rd order or higher), a general angular pattern can be detected along SW-NE, WSW-ENE and NW-SE orientations, as shown by the azimuthal statistics of the main streams (Fig. 13c; Tab. 5).
Morphotectonic field mapping focused on valley features: linear and asymmetric valleys, hanging and beheaded valleys, river bends and counterflow confluences of streams (Fig. 14a). Planimetric distribution is seemingly non-uniform, however, the analysis of azimuthal distribution can highlight an alignment along preferential orientations (Fig. 14b; Tab. 6).
Figure 13.
a) Drainage network of the Sangro basin in the piedmont area and of the surrounding areas; the dashed line marks the drainage divide of the Sangro basin (D’Alessandro et al., 2008). Legend of local drainage patterns: SD) sub-dendritic; P) parallel; SP) sub-parallel; T) trellis; R) radial. b) Total stream azimuth rose diagram for the lower Sangro valley. c) Main stream azimuth rose diagram. d) Azimuth rose diagram of the streams ordered according to Strahler (1957)
Figure 14.
a) Map of the morphological field evidence of tectonics (D’Alessandro et al., 2008). Legend: 1) alluvial fan surface T1; 2) alluvial fan surface T2; 3) fluvial terrace T3; 4) fluvial terrace T4; 5) fluvial terrace T5; 6) present alluvial plain; 7) linear and asymmetric valley; 8) hanging valley; 9) beheaded valley; 10) river bend; 11) counterflow confluence of streams; 7) profile locations (see Fig. 15). b) Azimuth rose diagram of morphological field evidence of tectonics
Linear valleys and asymmetric valleys show a main NNW-SSE orientation and secondary NW-SE and SW-NE orientations. These features - which are linked to the Late Pleistocene terrace (T5) - incise the Middle Pleistocene alluvial fan surfaces and the later fluvial terraces (T1 to T4) on the NW side of the Sangro valley, whereas they incise the Early Pleistocene clayey bedrock on the SE side.
The hanging valleys are located particularly on the northern and eastern sectors of the area, with WSW-ENE and SW-NE dominant orientations. River bends are frequent all over the study area and particularly on the NW side of the Sangro valley (Fig. 14). The azimuthal analysis shows two prevailing orientations: WSW-ENE and NW-SE (Fig. 14b).
The planimetric distribution of the beheaded valleys indicates a dominant SW-NE orientation (Fig. 14). In particular, they are located along the present northern and southern drainage divide of the Sangro basin, and drain into the adjacent basins (Fig. 14).
Finally, the counterflow confluences are mainly on the NW side of the Sangro valley (Fig. 14), they show a prevailing N-S direction and are connected to NNW-SSE linear valleys. These elements are located in an area characterised by beheaded valleys.
The morphological evidence of tectonics allows us to detect morphotectonic lineaments, mainly SW-NE, along the main valley, on its right side and in the northern area outside the Sangro basin. These lineament are intersected by NNW-SSE and WNW-ESE ones, particularly in the SW sector of the study area (Fig. 14, Tab. 6). On the NW side of the valley the correlation between terraces and morphotectonic elements indicates that the SW-NE elongated beheaded valleys are intersected by NNW-SSE and WNW-ESE linear valleys and river bends. The beheaded SW-NE valleys lie on, or slightly incise, the sandy-conglomeratic regressive sequence on top of the marine Pleistocene succession; locally, they are correlated with T1 terraces. The linear valleys incise the Middle Pleistocene fluvial and alluvial fan terraces (T1-T4) and are correlated with the Late Pleistocene terrace (T5). On the right (SE) valley side, it is possible to detect the intersection of NE-SW minor elements (counterflow confluences, linear valleys) with major NNW-SSE and WNW-ESE linear valleys, as already suggested by the drainage pattern.
order
orientation
1st
E-W NW-SE
2nd
NNW-SSE E-W
3rd
NW-SE
4th
NNW-SSE
5th
NNW-SSE
6th 7th 8th
SW-NE
Table 5.
Dominant azimuthal distribution of the ordered streams (Strahler, 1957)
elements
orientation
Linear valleys
NNW-SSE SW-NE
Asymmetric valleys
NNW-SSE E-W
Hanging valleys
SW-NW WSW-ENE
Beheaded valleys
SW-NE
River bends
WSW-ENE WNW-ENE
Counterflow confluences
N-S
Table 6.
Dominant azimuthal distribution of the morphotectonic evidence
5.3. Discussion
The analysis and the correlation of fluvial terraces and alluvial fan surfaces, drainage patterns and morphotectonic evidence provide several indications concerning drainage development in the piedmont area of the Sangro valley since the Middle Pleistocene. Moreover, they allow us to evaluate the role and timing of tectonics in the development of the piedmont area of the Sangro valley.
The remnants of alluvial fan surfaces (T1 and T2; Fig. 12, 15), on top of the hilly relief and along the present drainage divide, outline a landscape completely different from the present one: a Middle Pleistocene wide piedmont plain on which - after the emergence and, more specifically, during early continental morphogenesis - large alluvial fans formed, as already observed in the northern sector of the Adriatic piedmont (Nesci and Savelli, 2003).
Figure 15.
Cross-valley and long profiles showing the relation of the terrace deposits with the local valley geometry (A-A’, B-B’) and the relations among the terrace tread levels (C-C’) (D’Alessandro et al., 2008). Location and numbers legend are referred to Fig. 14
The plano-altimetric distribution of T3 and T4 fluvial terraces (Fig. 14, 15), elongated in the SW-NE direction and entrenched into the ancient fan surfaces and along both margins of the present valley, indicates the development of a subsequent SW-NE consequent drainage starting in the Middle Pleistocene (Coltorti et al., 1991; Nesci et al., 1992; Fanucci et al., 1996). This is confirmed by the SW-NE parallel pattern with marked SW-NE linear valleys, preserved in the northern area outside the drainage divide of the Sangro basin (Fig. 13).
On the NW side of the Sangro valley, a sub-parallel drainage is present along the NNW-SSE direction. Moreover, the sub-dendritic drainage shows NW-SE to NNW-SSE elongated main streams on both valley sides (3rd, 4th, 5th order, Fig. 13). These streams are marked by linear valleys that cut Middle Pleistocene fluvial terraces (T3 and T4) and are connected to the Late Pleistocene terrace (T5) (Fig. 14). This configuration indicates the control of local tectonics on drainage development along NNW-SSE faults and fractures, and suggests that the age of these elements can be ascribed to the late Middle Pleistocene (Fig. 12). The analysed counterflow junction of streams confirms tectonic control along the NNW-SSE orientation (Fig. 14). In the lower part of the valley, along the coastal area, the occurrence of SW-NE, NW-SE river bends and the anomaly in the path of the drainage divide can be related to the role of gravity deformation parallel to the coast.
On the SE side of the Sangro valley, SW-NE counterflow confluences and linear valleys carved on the clayey bedrock are aligned to the straight flank of the main valley and intersect NNW-SSE and WSW-ENE linear valleys. In this case, local tectonic control on the drainage is exerted also along SW-NE lineaments (Fig. 14).
Hence, a rectangular drainage network (sensu\n\t\t\t\t\tZernitz, 1932) developed during the late Middle Pleistocene, as a result of the junction of previous SW-NE streams’ directions - controlled by differential uplift and tilting - and new NNW-SSE, WNW-ESE and SW-NE streams’ directions, controlled by local tectonics along faults and fracture systems (Figs. 12, 14). The development of the NNW-SSE streams, on the NW side of the Sangro valley, beheaded the previous SW-NE drainage, as highlighted along the present divide. A major rearrangement of the drainage widened the basin towards the left (NW) side. In this scenario local tectonics could be an additional explanation of the drainage basin asymmetry in the Adriatic piedmont.
Finally, the development of a sub-dendritic drainage pattern on the clayey Plio-Pleistocene bedrock in the peripheral parts of the basin, together with a local radial pattern on the clayey-calcareous Miocene sequence, indicates a prevailing lithostructural control in the last phase of drainage incision and in the definition of the present fluvial landscape.
5.4. Sangro dip-stream valley landscape evolution
The integrated morphotectonic approach to the study of the fluvial landscape of the Adriatic piedmont allows us to outline the main steps of the lower Sangro river valley evolution:
alluvial fan development in a wide piedmont plain (Middle Pleistocene), following the emergence of the Adriatic basin, which progressively occurred during the Early Pleistocene due to regional uplift, as already observed in the northern Abruzzi and Marche area (Nesci and Savelli, 2003; Cantalamessa and Di Celma 2004);
consequent SW-NE parallel drainage controlled by a regional topographic gradient, due to regional differential uplift with NE tilting and by SW-NE tectonic structures (Middle Pleistocene);
superimposition of the SW-NE drainage on the uplifting piedmont and development of fluvial terraces (Middle Pleistocene – late Middle Pleistocene);
development of NNW-SSE, WNW-ESE and SW-NE faults with low displacements and fractures (late Middle Pleistocene);
adaptation of the drainage network to fault and fracture systems, and development of a rectangular pattern (late Middle Pleistocene – Late Pleistocene);
rearrangement of the drainage network due to lithology-controlled morphoselective processes (Late Pleistocene – Holocene).
The role of regional uplift with NE tilting in the development of the piedmont consequent valleys is confirmed in the case of the Sangro river valley. Local tectonics, mainly along NNW-SSE, WNW-ESE and SW-NE faults and fractures (Fig. 10), played a crucial role in the rearrangement and configuration of the drainage network during the late Middle Pleistocene.
6. Conclusion
This chapter provides examples of morphotectonic studies undertaken in Abruzzi (central Italy) within chain and piedmont areas:
chain area – escarpment between the Montagna del Morrone ridge and the Sulmona tectonic basin (central Abruzzi);
piedmont area – dip stream valley (Sangro river valley, south-eastern Abruzzi)
These areas are characterized by different geomorphological features: 1) bedrock lithologies (conservative carbonate bedrock in the montane area, not conservative clayey-arenaceous-conglomeratic bedrock in the piedmont area), 2) surface deposits (slope and alluvial fan deposits in the montane area, fluvial and alluvial fan deposits in the piedmont area), 3) landforms (slope landforms and fluvial, and water erosion landforms in the montane area, fluvial and water erosion landforms in the piedmont area), and 4) tectonic framework (strong Pleistocene-Holocene extensional tectonics and uplift in the montane area, Pleistocene-Holocene uplift with poor local tectonics in the piedmont area).
The studies suggest that different features of morphostructural domains require similar approaches and methods with suitable adaptation, based on (a) terrain analysis, (b) morphostructural analysis of the relief, (c) analysis of geomorphic markers such as certain landforms (geomorphological evidence of tectonics) and deposits (developed in a continental environment), (d) analysis and morphometry of drainage basins, (e) dating of deposits and landforms.
These studies are focused on deciphering the role of morphotectonics and selective erosion in the landscape’s evolution, incorporating regional morphostructural analysis (based on DEM analysis), Quaternary fluvial deposits mapping, local morphostructural analysis (based on field mapping and aerial photo interpretation), drainage network analysis and orography and hydrography morphometry. The key point is the integration of field geomorphological methods and modern morphotectonic analysis (including drainage network and terrain analysis). Only the correlation of these methods of analysis at drainage basin scale allow us to find out and define geomorphic markers of tectonics and landscape evolution, suggesting also its timing.
The results allow us to outline the main morphostructural features of central Italy (chain area and piedmont area) and to suggest the use of a similar methodological approach, but focused also on different geomorphological landscapes. In addition, discussion and conclusions of the studies show how integrative morphotectonic studies allow for the description of drainage network and landscape evolution driven by the alternating action of tectonic forces and geomorphic processes due to orography and Pleistocene climate fluctuations. It is possible also to define the role of morphotectonics and selective erosion in the landscape evolution and suggest the relative timing of this evolution, while only incorporating specific geochronology studies enables us to define the absolute timing of tectonics and landscape evolution.
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to thank the Struttura Speciale di Supporto Sistema Informativo Regionale of Abruzzo Region (http://www.regione.abruzzo.it/xcartografia/), for providing the topographic data and aerial photos used for the geomorphological investigations and in the figures of this work.
\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/17664.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/17664.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/17664",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/17664",totalDownloads:3791,totalViews:305,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"October 31st 2010",dateReviewed:"July 5th 2011",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"August 9th 2011",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/17664",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/17664",book:{slug:"new-frontiers-in-tectonic-research-at-the-midst-of-plate-convergence"},signatures:"Miccadei Enrico and Piacentini Tommaso",authors:[{id:"33172",title:"Dr.",name:"Tommaso",middleName:null,surname:"Piacentini",fullName:"Tommaso Piacentini",slug:"tommaso-piacentini",email:"tpiacentini@unich.it",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Chieti-Pescara",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"48880",title:"Prof.",name:"Enrico",middleName:null,surname:"Miccadei",fullName:"Enrico Miccadei",slug:"enrico-miccadei",email:"miccadei@dst.unich.it",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Chieti-Pescara",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Study area ",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Methods",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Case studies - chain area: tectonic basin and fault escarpment (Montagna del Morrone ridge)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"4.1. Introduction",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"4.2. Results",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"4.2.1. Geology",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"Table 1.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_4",title:"4.2.2.1. Orography ",level:"4"},{id:"sec_7_4",title:"Table 1.",level:"4"},{id:"sec_8_4",title:"4.2.2.3. Structural landforms",level:"4"},{id:"sec_9_4",title:"4.2.2.4. Slope landforms",level:"4"},{id:"sec_10_4",title:"4.2.2.5. Karst landforms and complex origin landforms",level:"4"},{id:"sec_11_4",title:"Table 3.",level:"4"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"4.3. Discussion",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"4.3.1. Orography and hydrography",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15_3",title:"4.3.2. Geomorphology",level:"3"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"4.4. Landscape evolution of the escarpment between the Montagna del Morrone ridge and the Sulmona tectonic basin",level:"2"},{id:"sec_19",title:"5. Case studies - piedmont area: dip stream valley (Sangro river valley)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_19_2",title:"5.1. Introduction",level:"2"},{id:"sec_20_2",title:"5.2. Results ",level:"2"},{id:"sec_21_2",title:"5.3. Discussion ",level:"2"},{id:"sec_22_2",title:"5.4. Sangro dip-stream valley landscape evolution",level:"2"},{id:"sec_24",title:"6. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_25",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_25",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"2"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'AllenP. A.DensmoreA. L.2000Sediment flux from an uplifting fault block. Basin Res., 12367380'},{id:"B2",body:'AllenP. A.HoviusN.1998Sediment supply from landslide-dominated catchments: implications for basin-margin fans. Basin Res., 101935'},{id:"B3",body:'AmbrosettiP.BonadonnaF. P.BosiC.CarraroF.CitaB. 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Servizi Tecnici Nazionali, Servizio Geologico, Quaderno serie III, 12(1,2,3).\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B64",body:'KellerE. A.PinterN.1996Active tectonics, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, 338 pp.'},{id:"B65",body:'KühniA.PfiffnerO. A.2001Drainage patterns and tectonic forcing: a model study for the Swiss Alps. Basin Research 13169197'},{id:"B66",body:'LeederM. R.JacksonJ. A.1993The interaction between normal faulting and drainage in active extensional basins, with examples from the western United States and central Greece. Basin Res., 579102'},{id:"B67",body:'LombardoM.CalderoniG.D’AlessandroL.MiccadeiE.2001The travertine deposits of the upper Pescara valley (Central Abruzzi, Italy): a clue for the reconstruction of the late Quaternary Palaeoenvironmental evolution of the area. In: Visconti G., Beniston M., Iannorelli E. D., Barba D (eds.): Global Changes, Protected Areas. Advances in global change research, 9459464'},{id:"B68",body:'LupiaPalmieri. E.CiccacciS.CivitelliG.CordaL.D’AlessandroL.Del MonteM.FrediP.PuglieseF.1996Geomorfologia quantitativa e morfodinamica del territorio abruzzese. I. Il Bacino del Fiume Sinello. Geografia Fisica e Dinamica Quaternaria 183146'},{id:"B69",body:'MayerL.1986Tectonic geomorphology of escarpments and mountain fronts. In: Wallace R.E., Allen C.R. (eds.): Active tectonics. National Academy Press, Washington D.C., 125135'},{id:"B70",body:'MerritsD. J.VincentK. R.WohlE. E.1994Long river profiles, tectonism, and eustasy: a guide to interpreting fluvial terraces. Journal of Geophysical Research 99, 1403114050'},{id:"B71",body:'MescerjakovJ. P.1968Les concept de morphostructure et de morphosculpture: un nouvel instrument de l’analyse géomorphologique. Annales de Géographie, 423, 539552'},{id:"B72",body:'MiccadeiE.BarberiR.CavinatoG. P.1999La geologia quaternaria della Conca di Sulmona (Abruzzo, Italia centrale). Geol. Romana, 345886\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B73",body:'MiccadeiE.MascioliF.PiacentiniT.2011Quaternary geomorphological evolution of the Tremiti Islands. Quaternary International, 233315'},{id:"B74",body:'MiccadeiE.ParonP.PiacentiniT.2004The SW escarpment of the Montagna del Morrone (Abruzzi, central Italy): geomorphology of a faulted-generated mountain front. Geografia Fisica e Dinamica Quaternaria, 27, 5587'},{id:"B75",body:'MiccadeiE.PiacentiniT.BarberiR.2002Uplift and local tectonic subsidence in the evolution of intramontane basins: the example of the Sulmona basin (central Apennines, Italy). In: Dramis F., Farabollini P., Molin P. (eds.): Large-scale vertical movements and related gravitational processes, International Workshop Camerino-Rome, 21th-26th June, 1999. Studi Geologici Camerti, Numero Speciale 2002119134'},{id:"B76",body:'MillerV. C.1953A quantitative geomorphology study of drainage basin characteristic in the Clinch Mountain Area, Virginia and Tennessee. Dept. of Geology, 3, 30.'},{id:"B77",body:'MolinP.FubelliG.2005Morphometric evidence of the topographic growth of central Apennines. Geografia Fisica e Dinamica Quanternaria 284761'},{id:"B78",body:'MolinP.PazzagliaF. J.DramisF.2004Geomorphic expression of active tectonics in a rapidly-deforming arc, Sila Massif, Calabria, southern Italy. American Journal of Sciences 304559589'},{id:"B79",body:'MorisawaM.HackT.1985Tectonic Geomorphology. Allen and Unwin, Boston & London.'},{id:"B80",body:'NesciO.SavelliD.2003Diverging drainage in the Marche Apennines (central Italy). Quaternary International 101-102, 203-209.'},{id:"B81",body:'NesciO.SavelliD.CalderoniG.ElmiC.VeneriF.1995Le antiche piane di fondovalle nell’Appennino nord-marchigiano. In: Assetto fisico e problemi ambientali delle pianure italiane. Memorie Società Geografica Italiana 53293312'},{id:"B82",body:'NesciO.SavelliD.VeneriF.1992Terrazzi vallivi e superfici di spianamento nell’evoluzione del rilievo appenninico nord-marchigiano. Studi Geologici Camerti, spec. 1992175180'},{id:"B83",body:'OguchiT.1997Late Quaternary sediment budget in alluvial-fan-source-basin systems in Japan. Journ. Quat. Science, 12(5), 381-390.'},{id:"B84",body:'OguchiT.OhmoriH.1994Analysis of relationships among alluvial fan area, source basin area, basin slope and sediment yield. Zeit. Geomorph. N.F., 38(4), 405-420.'},{id:"B85",body:'OllierC. D.1999Geomorphology and mountain building. Geogr. Fis. Dinam. Quat., 224960'},{id:"B86",body:'OllierC. D.1981Tectonics and landforms. Longman, London.'},{id:"B87",body:'PanizzaM.CastaldiniD.1987Neotectonic research in applied geomorphologic studies. Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie Suppl. Bd. 63, 173211'},{id:"B88",body:'PataccaE.ScandoneP.2007Geology of the southern Apennines, Boll. Soc. Geol. It. Spec. 7775119'},{id:"B89",body:'PazzagliaF.J. (in press). Fluvial terraces, in Wohl, E., ed., Treatise of Geomorphology. New York, NY: Elsevier.'},{id:"B90",body:'PazzagliaF. J.BrandonM. T.2001A fluvial record of long term steady-state uplift and erosion across the Cascadia forearc high, Western Washington State. American Journal of Science 301385431'},{id:"B91",body:'PeulvastJ. P.VanneyJ. R.2001Géomorphologie structurale. Tome 1, Relief et structure. Gordon and Breach Science Publisher, 505 pp.'},{id:"B92",body:'PicottiV.PonzaA.PazzagliaF. J.2009Topographic expression of active faults in the foothills of the northern Apennines, Tectonophysics 474285294'},{id:"B93",body:'RapisardiL.1982Tratti di neotattonica al confine molisano-abruzzese. CNR- Progetto finalizzato Geodinamica, Roma, 223232'},{id:"B94",body:'S.G.N.1994Carta Geomorfologica d’Italia 1:50.000Guida al rilevamento. Presidenza del Consiglio dei Ministri, Dip. Servizi Tecnici Nazionali, Servizio Geologico, Quaderno serie III, 4, 42 pp,\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B95",body:'SaitoK.1982Classification of alluvial fans in Japan by topographical and geological data of drainage basins. Geogr. Rev. Japan, 55334349\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B96",body:'ScheideggerA.2004Morphotectonics. Springer, Amsterdam'},{id:"B97",body:'SchummS. A.1956Evolution of drainage system and slopes in bad-lands at Perth Amboy, New Jersey. In: Schumm S.A. (ed.): Drainage Basin Morphology. Geol. Soc. America Bull., 67597598\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B98",body:'SchummS. A.1969River metamorphosis: proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers. Journal of the Hydraulics Division 95, 255273'},{id:"B99",body:'SpagnoloM.PazzagliaF. J.2005Testing the geological influences on the evolution of river profiles: a case from northern Apennines (Italy). Geografia Fisica e Dinamica Quanternaria 28103113'},{id:"B100",body:'StewartI. S.HancockP. L.1994Neotectonics. In: Hancock P.L. (ed.): «Continental deformation». Pergamon Press, 370409\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B101",body:'StrahlerA. N.1952Hypsometric (area-altitude) analysis of erosional topography. Geol. Soc. America Bull., 6311171142\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B102",body:'StrahlerA. N.1957Quantitative Analysis of Watershed Geomorphology. Am. Geophys. Union Trans., 38(6), 913-920.'},{id:"B103",body:'SylosLabini. S.BagnaiaR.D’EpifanioA.1993Il Quaternario del Bacino di Sulmona (Italia Centrale). Quaternaria Nova, 3343360'},{id:"B104",body:'TwidaleC. R.2004River patterns and their meaning. Earth-Science Reviews 67, 159218'},{id:"B105",body:'VittoriE.CavinatoG. P.MiccadeiE.1995Active faulting along the north-eastern edge of the Sulmona basin (central Apennines), Special Issue Bull. Am. Ass. Eng. Geol., 6115126'},{id:"B106",body:'WallaceR. E.1977Profiles and ages of young fault scarps in north-central Nevada. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 88107172\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B107",body:'WallaceR. E.1978Geometry and rate of changes of fault-generated range fronts, north-central Nevada. Geol. Surv. Journ. Res., 6637650'},{id:"B108",body:'ZernitzE. R.1932Drainage patterns and their significance. The Journal of Geology 40498521'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Enrico Miccadei",address:null,affiliation:'
Laboratory of Tectonic Geomorphology and GIS, Dipartimento di Geotecnologie per l\'Ambiente ed il Territorio (DIGAT), Università degli Studi "G. d\'Annunzio" Chieti-Pescara, Italy
Laboratory of Tectonic Geomorphology and GIS, Dipartimento di Geotecnologie per l\'Ambiente ed il Territorio (DIGAT), Università degli Studi "G. d\'Annunzio" Chieti-Pescara, Italy
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1. Introduction
Kazakhstan is one of the top 9 countries in the world in terms of agricultural land and among 12 leading wheat exporters. It is among the top 15 countries in the world in terms of oil reserve. These resources could provide effective food self-sufficiency with domestic production of three times more than the population needs. However, Kazakhstan’s local food production is much less than the present population needs. Kazakhstan is considered as an upper middle-income country [1] and has 2.8% of the population with income below the poverty line [2]. However, actual poverty is higher than official data, since the estimation of poverty line by the Kazakhstan Ministry of Labor and Social Protection of the Population does not correspond to international standards. Rural poverty is about four times more than in urban areas, and 46% of the population resides in rural areas. Agricultural sector in Kazakhstan comprises 5% of total GDP only, while it employs about one-fifth of the working-age population [3].
This paper focuses on gender dimension of economic issues needed to address gender inequality that continues to persist. It argues that gender equality is an important prerequisite to provide the food security. This research emphasizes on the impact of economic changes in Kazakhstan on women, their role in economy and unpaid household labor, and revealing of underlying causes of gender discrimination. Women in Kazakhstan comprise the majority among the poor and unemployed and face unequal treatment in labor market. And yet, women are the main economic agents of the country. In 2017, female labor force participation rate was 65.4% [4]. Women’s daily work such as cooking; work in farms and household plots; food processing; and caring of livestock and other farm animals is crucial in the provision of the food security of country. “Gender-based constraints must be addressed to increase agricultural productivity; improve food security; reduce poverty; and build the resilience of rural population” [5].
This paper reviews the theoretical framework of the gender and macroeconomics and provides analysis of economic transition situation in Kazakhstan. It studies various economic transformation aftereffects under transition to identify their impact to rural people’s well-being and food security. The paper also presents the issues of Kazakhstani agrarian sector and women status in this sector, applying the growth constraints analysis (hereinafter GCA) and engendering the GCA and the empirical research on Karaganda oblast. Based on growth diagnostics recommendations developed by Hausmann et al. [6], this paper examines the economic history of Kazakhstan and identifies the growth constraints of agriculture development. This paper considers different phases of the Hausmann’s growth diagnostic decision tree, namely, “high cost of finance”; “bad local finance”; “low competition-high risk-high cost”; “low return to economic activity”; “bad infrastructure,” etc. to define constraints to agricultural growth and food security in Kazakhstan. Gender issues are considered at all stages of the GCA. The paper examines food security issue in Kazakhstan through identification of gender differences in economic, social, and physical access to food. Also, it focuses on causes of gender distinctions and the extent to which they can affect agricultural growth and food security [7].
Analysis of the secondary data, review of reports, and the literature on gender and food security were used. Participatory observation is one of the methods of data collection. This paper includes results of the interviews with rural women of Karaganda oblast and with a professor in food safety. The interviews of rural women were done in 2015 in two rural regions of Karaganda oblast including Amangeldy sovkhoz and Abay village, to demonstrate the realities of rural women in Kazakhstan and their unpaid labor role in providing food security and to explore to what extent women’s incomes can provide them with access to quality food.1 Respondents were rural women engaged in household only and were selected from households with two parents and at least one child. Middle-income households with one cow or other farm animals and a small land plot were selected. Open questions with an open-ended choice of answers were used. The interview included questions on income sources and major expenditures; respondents’ opportunities to get credits; challenges and benefits of working in private allotments; employment opportunities in formal sector; and starting own business. The study concludes that “more equal gender relations within household and communities lead to better agricultural and development outcomes including increases in farm productivity and improvements in family nutrition” [8].
2. Gender and macroeconomics: overview
To understand better the nature of gender relations, I focus on the pertinent social differentiations between women and men. “The concept of sex expresses two layers of reality: physiological and social. The first layer is the one a person is born with, while the second one, socio-sex (designated in literature as gender) is acquired in the process of socialization” [9]. “The concept of gender, like concept of class, is an analytical tool to understand social processes” [10]. Historically, the significant “changes in women’s and men’s status in the society were related to the development of material production activities and military art, when in demand were those socially significant attributes and abilities, which psychosomatically are more characteristic of men” [9]. Accordingly, women are often excluded “from prestigious activities, objectively placing” men in a dominant position in society and economy [9]. “Gender measurement of human reality starts settling in. At each level of human existence, certain gender roles are shaped and there arises social and economic inequalities between men and women” [9]. These distinctions in the social and economic status of men and women are maintained and reinforced by the process of economic development. “Due to persistence of gender discrimination, women play submitted roles, while men dominate in all areas of the society. Most important is that all laws and rules emerging in society have always been aimed at gratifying people’s own egoism, especially in the men-women relationships. All legislative measures were worked out by men. Breaking this stereotype is a difficult task” [9].
According to Marxist economists, the root causes of gender discrimination raise from ownership relations, namely, the alienation of women from possession of resources [11]. Differences in economic status of women and men are subject to underlying laws of economic development. The basis of production and social relations are ownership relations that determine whether women can use their capabilities and convert opportunities. Marxist economists argue that, namely, ownership relations determine the economic opportunities of men and women. Cagatay et al. [10] analyzing different approaches to engendering macroeconomic modeling pointed out that “gender as a category of social and economic differentiation (like class and race) influences the distribution of work, income and wealth, the work productivity, and the behavior of agents in the economy.” Consideration of gender relations in economy in terms of “access to capital and property, buying and selling of labour power, distribution of income and time resources” [12] shows that there is gender inequality in Kazakhstan and it constrains economic growth.
“According to the materialistic conception, the determining factor in history is the production and reproduction of the immediate essentials of life. This is of a twofold character. On the one side, the production of the means of existence, on the other side, the production of human beings themselves” [11]. However, “macroeconomics considers paid work and productive economy, but doesn’t consider unpaid female labor and reproductive economy” [10]. Isolation of the reproductive sector from the productive one results in gender inequality [13]. The reproduction of the means of life and reproduction of life itself in fact are two inseparable components of social production. However, the reproductive sector is considered as a subordinate sphere [13]. The woman is the main agent of activity in the system of relations, which forms reproduction of life itself. Therefore, the position of a woman is secondary in the system of the economic relations [14]. Walters [13] criticizes the standard assumption of exogeneity of labor force and points out that labor force requires investments both in the productive and in the reproductive sectors. Considering the importance of health, education, and social infrastructure for labor force growth, he points out that on the whole the reproductive sector affects the quantity and quality of the labor force [13]. Women’s unpaid labor in reproductive sector, such as childcare, food producing and processing, cooking, preschool training, etc., contributes to the development of quantity and quality of labor force and to the enhancement of economic growth in the future.
Sustainable food security deals with the sustainable environment and economic development, which promote “equal access to quality food, its availability, and economic ability of population to buy a quality food” [15]. Gender disparity in economy affects the solution of vital economic issues including food security [16]. Promotion of gender justice and sustainable development and engendering of economic policy with consideration of the own country specifics, traditions, and historical roots are crucial issues for Kazakhstan.
3. Growth constraints analysis
Analysis of economic transition situation in Kazakhstan and various economic transformation aftereffects in transition are necessary to identify the main constraints of the agriculture’s growth and food security and mitigate the inequalities, which rural women face. It is necessary to consider the “country’s economic history and performance, as many of the problems of the past as well as constraints for future actions are affected by macro concerns” [6].
The post-Soviet heritage of Kazakhstan was the one-sided development of the economy with specialization on grain, oil, gas, and coal that affected the country under transition. After the USSR collapse, between 1990 and 1998, there was an economic recession in Kazakhstan. The interest rates were high (about 300–400%) and this resulted in the reduction of credit and business growth. The populations purchasing power and incomes also declined, and poverty and income inequality increased. “Agricultural growth is the most effective way to reduce poverty and increase food security in low-income countries that depend heavily on agriculture” [5]. Agriculture was not a priority for the Government of Kazakhstan and it was funded on residual principles. Nevertheless, agriculture is the most crucial branch in the national economy. Kazakhstan, where 46% of population reside in the countryside, one-third of all employed is engaged in the agrarian sector, and 80% of land are the farming one, is considered as an agricultural country. Most part of agricultural land is disposed in the zone of risky farming and is dependent on weather. Moreover, agriculture is dependent upon state support. During Soviet time subsidies for agriculture were 10–12%, and after 1991 it was reduced to 2–3% [17]. Agricultural production dropped deeply as a result. It had adverse impact on the whole population but mostly on women. The number of men that lost their jobs in the agrarian sector moved to the cities to find the new ones. Work intensity of rural women was increased due to extra agricultural activities [18]. “When the length of the working day increases beyond a critical point, time spent on leisure, social activities, and even sleep is necessarily reduced, with the corresponding decline in well-being becoming unavoidable” [19].
During the 1990s, Kazakhstan’s development has been characterized by privatization. As a result of privatization in agriculture, almost all of the “sovkhozes” (state farms) and “kolkhozes” (collective farms) were reorganized, and their farm lands and equipment were transferred to the farm members in the form of “pai” [share] [20]. It was a notional land or material share without personification and specific plot of land. Unfortunately, most of the rural citizens could not benefit from the privatization. The heads of former state and collective farms became the owners of privatized farm property due to the undeveloped land reform and corruption [20]. Private ownership of land was provided by the Land Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan of 2003. Unfortunately, by that time most of the rural people sold their “pais” for cheapest prices and had nothing to buy the land, neither “pai” nor money. In the second half of the 1990s, more than one-third of Kazakhstan population was poor, with income below the subsistence minimum. Salaries were not paid for a long time, and sometimes workers received substitutes of salary in the form of equipment or food [20]. Women were worse off in terms of income, time resources, and position on the labor market and in the household. They did not participate in the reformation and privatization in agriculture due to lower access to the decision-making positions. They could not form individual farms due to lack of funds and entrepreneurial skills. Only 10% of farms were headed by women in 2005, 12% in 2008 [21], and 9% in 2014 [22]. Privatization promoted further property differentiation and gender discrimination. Women were unable to use advantages of privatization process.
Since 1999, Kazakhstan has reported economic growth. In the composition of economic growth, the share of agriculture among the other sectors of economy is significantly low [23]. The share of construction, services and utilities, oil and gas, and mining sectors is significant. Kazakhstan has prioritized the development of extractive industry, with low proportions of the sectors producing final, processed manufactures. National export consists of 97% of extractive industry products. Raw-material orientation of the Kazakhstani economy results in the decreasing in the economy competitiveness [24]. “Countries specializing in primary commodity exports, however, import mainly finished manufactured goods which have few spillover effects on productivity and output growth” [25]. There is “another side” of resource wealth. One of the poorest regions in the country is West Kazakhstan, and it is where most of the oil resources are concentrated. Stiglitz (in Ref. [26]) called it as a “resource curse.” “Much of the natural resource base of the country is increasingly owned by foreign investors” [24]. Hausmann and Klinger [27] examined the economic growth of Peru and pointed out that the gap “between the growth rate of GDP and GNI demonstrates the share of domestic product which accumulated by foreign investors.” In the case of Kazakhstan, we can see from Figure 1 that since 1999, the growth rate of total GDP has been higher than GNI. This gap is not as large as in Peru (see in Ref. [27]) but still demonstrates a sizable difference, indicating therefore that some part of the domestic product is accumulated by foreign investors.
Figure 1.
Dynamics of GDP and GNI in Kazakhstan. Source: on the basis of World Bank [29].
Extractive industry does not create a lot of jobs and moreover, it is a male-dominated sector. According to official statistics, only 1% of employed women and 4% of employed men work in the mining sector [28]. 78% of all employed in oil, gas, and mining sectors are men, and only 22% are women. Construction sector has the same picture that is 73% of men and 27% of women [28]. After 1999, a lot of constructions occurred in largest cities such as Astana and Almaty. This type of business favored the men employment. The development of the competitiveness of non-oil and non-construction sectors could create additional employment opportunities, especially for women.
Economic growth could create new opportunities for food security. Economic growth provided increase in the budget of the Ministry of Agriculture of the Republic of Kazakhstan from $174MM in 2001 to $931MM in 2008 [17]. In 2014, agriculture budget was $1200 MM. The question is “Who are the beneficiaries of these funds?” Why, in spite of the total GDP growth and decrease of budget and subsidies of the Ministry of Agriculture of the Republic of Kazakhstan, is Kazakhstan still food insecure, and why does it have a non-developed agriculture with low productivity and no competitiveness? First of all, there are the facts of misuse and insufficient, ineffective use of budget funds by the Ministry of Agriculture of the Republic of Kazakhstan. According to the Accounts Committee [30], the total amount of 79.6 billion tenge ($437MM) was used by the Ministry of Agriculture of the Republic of Kazakhstan with violation of the budget and other legislation. This Ministry has also used inefficiently the national budget and the state assets which are equal to 43.1 billion tenge ($237MM).
The 2003 Land Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan promoted the rise of quantity of individual farms (non-state enterprises). Currently, there is a state and private property of land in Kazakhstan with prevalence of private sector in agriculture. 93% of all agricultural lands are used by non-state enterprises. In 2010, there were 175,636 operating agricultural units, of which 5408 were non-state corporate farms; 170,193 family farms; and 35 state enterprises. It would be reasonable to consider private enterprises’ constraints to invest in agriculture since there is a prevalence of private sector in agriculture.
According to Hausmann et al. [6], low levels of private investment and entrepreneurship are the constraint of the growth. There is a restricted access of agribusiness firms to finance. Only 3.5% of total commercial loans goes to agriculture in Kazakhstan [31]. In 2011, 71% of all bank assets were consolidated in five large banks in Kazakhstan, where the Government of Kazakhstan owned the considerable share [31]. It is obvious that there is no competition in financial sector and interest rate can be identified monopolistically. The largest banks have set a high interest rate of up to 14% annually.
According to the OECD [31] bank survey on interaction with the agribusiness sector, 45% of loans to agribusiness were provided to large-scale companies; 25% to medium-sized companies; and 30% to small farms. The share of loans to rural small enterprises is very low. However, it is a large sector that attracts most of the agricultural labor and produces 50% of agricultural output [3]. The majority of women entrepreneurs tend to be in small enterprises [32]. In 2015, the share of women entrepreneurs in small business of a country was 50%, and only 15% of large companies were headed by women [33]. Women have limited economic opportunities and therefore prefer small business which requires less resources, managerial skills, and documentation requirements [32]. Therefore, bank preferences to finance large enterprises restrict access of women to credit.
Investing in agriculture has high risks [31], high risks of banks deal with the low productivity of agriculture and nonperforming loans. Rural enterprises often default on the loans. Nonperformance on loans consists of 25% of gross total loans [31]. It constrains financial institutions from crediting to agribusiness. In order to compensate risks, banks raise the nominal interest rates and establish high collateral for lending. Cost of collateral for agricultural enterprises is higher than for other sectors [34, 35]. Mostly women cannot fulfill collateral requirements and therefore have lower access to credits. Agribusiness is characterized by low return on investment [31]. Low level of investment to agriculture results in the low productivity; low material-technical base; and insufficient use of seeds and fertilizers and bad infrastructure. 80% of farming machines are in technical rundown [36]. Labor productivity in agriculture is very low and accounts $3400/worker/year [37]. Despite the fact that agricultural infrastructure is already underdeveloped, the Government of Kazakhstan decreased expenditures on infrastructure from 16% in 2001 to 5% in 2009 [17]. All of these factors contribute to the production cost increase and no competitiveness of domestic food products.
According to the survey on Karaganda oblast, women are unaware about their opportunities on subsidies and credits (90% of the respondents). Women do not have appropriate qualification and management skills and proper knowledge to fill out documents and procedures on getting credits (90% of the respondents). Most of the women are reluctant to deal with banks or are anxious to take credits because of the unstable general financial situation in the country and non-confidence in their power to handle own business or mistrust to banks (77.5% of the respondents). Women are really concerned about the banks. Few of them who received credits (10%) pay high interest rates. Majority of women prefer to borrow money from their rich relatives and friends (70%). Usually, most of the credits women obtain are the microcredits which aren’t enough to develop successful business.
There are almost no bank branches in rural areas of our country. It takes a lot of time for rural people to get nearest bank branches because of bad transportation. It contributes to the increasing of transaction costs. High transaction costs are also obstacles for small farmers and enterprises [31]. The situation with women is complicated by the fact that having a high “time intensity” [18], they cannot postpone their routine daily household duties such as cooking, child caring, and feeding of domestic livestock in order to go to the city looking for the bank [12]. So far the state support is needed to develop the women’s entrepreneurship in terms of favorable tax system and conditions to access loans and trainings in business management.
4. Time use analysis
Considering constraints to agricultural growth and food security, it would be reasonable to take into account time allocation between men and women in household and then to consider how gender differentials in time allocation can impact food security. The Statistics Committee of Kazakhstan periodically conducts sample household survey in all oblasts of the country focusing on time use module [38]. This method allows examination of all kinds of household members’ activities they do for a week; to determine their real work load; and moreover to demonstrate time use differences between women and men of urban and rural areas. The data were collected from all household members over 18, and the time scope was 7 days including all days of the week (Table 1).
+
Persons above 18 (person/hours)
Urban area
Rural area
Men
Women
Men
Women
Paid work
46.3
41.5
46.3
39.5
Getting to the work place
5.3
4.5
4.0
3.2
Work on the private land and housekeeping
14.1
13.6
16.0
17.3
Studying, in-service training, and self-education
34.5
31.5
38.3
32.5
Getting to the place of studying
4.6
4.4
4.6
3.4
Food shopping
3.3
4.4
2.6
3.4
Nonfood shopping
2.5
2.5
3.2
2.3
Attending consumer service houses
1.3
1.5
1.3
1.4
Cooking and dishwashing
9.5
16.2
9.0
17.0
Repair the housekeeping items
4.3
5.1
4.3
5.4
Laundry, ironing, clothes repairing
2.4
3.5
2.6
4.3
Childcare (children under 12) live in family
9.1
16.1
7.4
12.6
Caring for the elderly who need help
5.2
6.5
6.1
8.0
Attending museums, cinemas, concert, etc.
3.2
3.1
3.0
2.5
Watching TV
19.3
17.2
20.0
17.5
Attending fitness centers and sport clubs
2.4
2.4
1.6
1.5
Sleep
55.4
55.3
54.5
54.3
Free time
22.5
20.6
23.2
20.5
Table 1.
The time budget of all members of households during 7 days of the week according to the type of activity, the category of population, and gender in 2006 (according to the data of simultaneous research).
According to the Statistics Committee of Kazakhstan data [38], respondents recorded the time spent for each activity performed by them within a day in chronological order. Data shows that women have larger workload and there is a time use discrepancy between men and women. Men in urban and rural areas spend more time for paid work. In agriculture men spend for paid work 6.8 h/week more than women. In urban area this difference is 4.8 h. Wage workers can accumulate more qualification and skills to increase their income. Wage employment is a stable source of income, which guarantees work experience benefits and contributions to the pension fund.
Data shows that women spent more time for chores. In agriculture women spend 17 h/week for cooking and dishwashing. It is approximately two times more than men allocate doing these jobs. Similar situation can be observed in performing other chores. Due to society’s mentality, all housework is traditionally considered as women’s one. Even if a man is temporary unemployed, he does not do “women’s work” like cooking, laundering, and dishwashing. All of these works in household are unpaid and waste women’s time which she could spend for training and paid work. The more time women spend for unpaid work, the fewer opportunities she has to increase income.
Table 1 shows that women spend 1.3 hours more than men working on the private land and doing housekeeping that equals 17.3 h/week. Actually this figure is higher because according to observation most rural women estimate their work on household plots as leisure. All respondents in Karaganda oblast answered they have a high burden in household and run around in circles between 6 A.M. and 12 P.M. Mentality of the society and heavy burden in the household set the restrictions for women, so they have no time, power, and energy for paid work. Low revenues do not allow family to mechanize housework and mitigate women’s burden [18]. She was exploring interrelations between well-being and work intensity, pointing out that the lower the welfare of the household, the higher time and labor intensity.
Unfortunately, statistic agency’s time use survey does not consider activities done simultaneously. Respondents registered their time on sequentially performed jobs during a week in chronological sequence. However, for example, in rural areas, women usually cook, work in the household plots, and care for children simultaneously [18]. She points out that “intensification of work … by simultaneously performing two or more activities that require considerable energy or concentration is a qualitative dimension of time use that affects the well-being of the worker as well as the household” [18].
Both rural and urban men have more free time than women. Rural women have 20.5 hours of free time compared to 23.2 h of rural men. Free time is important to reproduce labor force [39] and to develop “internal freedom, creation of an inner world and a person’s inner self-changes” [9]. “Free time is a space for human development [40],” for the comprehensive development of the human being. The lack of free time can result in human degradation to further enslaving division of labor. Women have a larger unpaid workload in household, they can spend a restricted time for paid work because of family preference, and therefore they have less opportunities to accumulate qualification and skills to increase income and have a low access to quality food.
5. Food security
There are numerous definitions of food security in the scientific literature, but they are all about “physical, social and economic access to all people at all times to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life” [41]. Food independence, as a characteristic of food security, is critical for Kazakhstan. For a country with a fair number of natural resources, in order to provide the expanded reproduction of agricultural sector, domestic food production should be more than 80% of the country’s food consumption [42]. When the country is specialized in certain types of food, its export should provide foreign trade surplus on food [42]. One of the main criteria of the country’s food independence is connected with the financial ability to import the missing food and satisfy the demand of its population [42]. In Kazakhstan, “the most of domestic agro-food products were sold unprocessed, and higher quality processed foods were imported” [43]. In 2014 Kazakhstan had a positive foreign trade balance on agricultural products in the amount of US $198,7 million and the negative foreign trade balance on food products US $1782,2 million [42]. Kazakhstan is dependent from food import [44].
In 2017, food self-sufficiency, as a level of domestic agroproduction to the consumption standards, on meat and meat-based products was 62%; on milk 78%; on poultry meat 59%; and on fruits and berries 49%. The positive situation is with the self-sufficiency on grain 161% and potato 195% [44]. When calculating the level of food self-sufficiency, it would be more accurate data if loss of agricultural products will be considered. 30% of agricultural products do not reach consumers due to lack of storage conditions and imperfect economic relations between agribusiness companies and between producers, processors, and trade organizations [42, 45, 46]. So, we can conclude that domestic food supply is likely to be lower than official data. Kazakhstan is dependent from import on basic food stuffs. The more the import of food, the higher extent of dependence the country has from importers and market fluctuations and higher threat for the country’s food security [47].
Nowadays, a significant part of the population’s consumption of the country, especially in rural areas, consists of food produced on household plots and small peasant farms. Household plots calculated 1643.3 thousand units in 2016, and they produced 70% of potato; 50% of vegetables; 88% of milk; 76% of meat; 36% of eggs; and 68% of wool [23]. It is obvious that these farms are strategically important for food security of the country. They produce around half of the gross product. Women are the main economic agents in small peasant enterprises and household plots; therefore, they are important for food security of the country. However, household plots do not ensure women with high income. According to 2015 interview data on Karaganda oblast, the majority of respondents (90%) answered that private allotments bring unstable and humble income. Women were undecided to name specific income data, and only 30% of them answered they had about 60,000–70,000 KZT/month from the sale of agricultural products at the time of vegetable and berry harvest. Perishables such as milk and cottage cheese require certain storage conditions or immediate sale. 60% of respondents have no transport to deliver products to the city market. Resellers offer cut prices. The majority of respondents (80%) noted that they often have no funds to purchase fertilizers, high-grade feed for livestock, and agrotechnics. Thus, according to the survey, low incomes from private farms and low productivity of private farms, along with weather conditions and time intensity, are associated with financial problems that aggravate purchase of quality fertilizers, feeds and necessary farming equipment, as well as problems in sales of products, due to undeveloped rural infrastructure and lack of transport.
Regarding expenses, 90% of respondents said that about 60% of the total household income is spent on food, the rest on clothing and footwear. 10% of respondents spend all their income to educate their children at the universities. 80% of women visit free medical institutions or self-medicate, and only 20% of them could afford paid medical services, since they were forced to do so due to medical prescriptions. Proper social support for women and infrastructure development could mitigate women’s unpaid work in this sector and promote effective producing, harvesting, processing, and marketing of agricultural products and mitigate constraints to food security.
Economic access to food is assessed by the population’s purchasing power and well-being [48]. According to official data, in the past several years, due to economic growth, population’s welfare has improved. In 2014, the share of poor people was 2.8% in contrast with 6.5% in 2010 and 34.6% in 1996 [28]. In 2017, only 0.1% of population had earnings lower than subsistence minimum according to official data [3]. However, the Ministry of Labor and Social Protection of the Population of the Republic of Kazakhstan estimates the poverty line as 50% of the subsistence minimum (before January 1, 2018, it was calculated as a 40% of subsistence minimum). The Government of Kazakhstan uses this indicator to provide social assistance for poor people. The subsistence minimum in Kazakhstan is similar to the minimum consumer’s basket cost, and in 2018 it equals to 28,284 KZT or $86, from which 60%, namely, $52 or 14,675 KZT, is the food basket. In 2011, the poverty line is 6243.6 KZT ($42) and in 2018 it is 14,142 KZT ($34). We can see that if in tenge this indicator grows, the dollar one falls. The quantity of goods and services that can be purchased for this amount is reduced. Quality processed food, medicines, clothing, and footwear are mainly imported, and their prices are set in accordance with the dollar exchange rate. In the past 8 years, the tenge has depreciated by almost 65%. Prices for local food products are also increasing, as production costs are rising: imported equipment, raw materials, vaccines, and fertilizers are used to produce them. Prices for gasoline, electricity, and the cost of a pitch in a market place are also increased. Thus, quality food products that are vital to a human being, such as fish, nuts, meat, olive oil, fruit, etc., are becoming less accessible to most of the population. The real purchasing power of population is falling. $86 (subsistence minimum in Kazakhstan) is not enough to cover vital human needs with consideration of the average family size which is 3.5 persons [21], while prices of utilities, energy, and medical services are increasing. Moreover, it is necessary to apply international standards to calculate the poverty line. Poverty line should be equal to subsistence minimum to guarantee proper social support for poor people. In 2015, poverty in rural areas was 3.6 times higher than in urban areas [23], and 45% of all unemployed reside in rural areas.
Women employed in agriculture have a lowest wage both compared to women of other economic sectors and to men of all sectors [49]. Earnings of 4.4% of the rural population are lower than the subsistence minimum [3]. Furthermore, counted subsistence minimum is inadequate for the upper middle-income country [50]. Moreover, in 2017, 23% of the working-age population was self-employed, and 62.4% of all self-employed people reside in rural areas [3]. 44% of all self-employed in agriculture are women [3]. Although there is not a single, unified definition of the “self-employment” notion in the current legislation of Kazakhstan, usually in practice self-employed people are more vulnerable in terms of stable incomes, social security, work experience records, and contributions to pension fund. They have a limited access to bank loans. So self-employed rural women are more vulnerable than wage-employed people in terms of incomes, position on the labor market, and access to quality food. The same situation is with informal employment. Around 70% of informal employees are engaged in agriculture [51]. Rutkowski (in Ref. [51]) pointed out that informal jobs are associated with low skills and productivity. Women prefer informal activity because working in the formal sector has a high cost including high taxes and document registration due to high bureaucracy. Women engaged in activities that deal with informal self-employment “encounter borrowing constraints, preventing their entry into the formal sectors” [52]. According to interview data in Karaganda oblast, 70% of women could not find decent jobs and have to work in their households only. 30% of respondents answered they do not want to work for low wages on low-skilled jobs outside the household.
On top of that, a woman’s salary is 68% of the man’s salary. Women have to choose low-paid jobs due to their responsibilities in terms of family and homework, limited access to retraining, and inability to work overtime on the paid job. Therefore, women are less suitable labor for employers. In 2017, the share of unemployed women was 53.6% of all unemployed, and 43% of all unemployed women resided in rural areas [3].
Over the last decade, according to the official data, the education and health expenditures have increased. However, these measures do not contribute to the welfare of the population due to inflation, which was 7% in 2017. Moreover, considerable assets have been spent to the elite educational institutions and hospital construction in Astana and Almaty cities. These elite schools, universities, and hospitals provide very expensive services that are unavailable for the majority of the population [53]. Last year’s prices of quality medical services, utilities, electricity, and food have increased, and most of the public preschools have been closed. This has limited women’s ability to find a paid work and has increased their unpaid work in household, thus increasing women’s time pressure. The higher prices for food, the lower the consumption of quality food, which is usually more expensive. In Kazakhstan the consumption of meat, fish, and fruits has decreased. “Underconsumption of vital foods has result in the deterioration of immunity and health” [16]. Almost 40% of women in Kazakhstan suffer from anemia due to deficiency of iron [49].
One of the criteria of food security is the food quality. According to veterinary statistics, 20% of livestock in the country are infected by brucellosis or are located in areas where brucellosis was identified [54]. In 2012, 180 hearts of severe infectious diseases were registered. As a result, only less than 25% of cattle are in the regions where export is permitted [55]. At the interview with a professor from Agrarian University, he said the vaccines for brucellosis currently used in Kazakhstan are not effective in preventing brucellosis in our country and do not work against species of Brucella prevalent in our country. The professor proposed his own vaccine against Brucella that he has developed. Funding is required for further elaboration, testing, and implementation into production of new vaccines. Unfortunately, the Kazakhstani Ministry of Agriculture has not devoted funding for the development of his vaccine. Possibly the Kazakhstani Ministry of Agriculture has own benefits from buying ineffective vaccines. The vaccines, and not only vaccines for brucellosis, often are kept under conditions which do not meet the standards of vaccine storage.2
Moreover, the Ministry of Agriculture provides only diagnostic of disease on a cost-free basis, and farmers have to pay themselves for vaccines. The predominance of small-scale production in agriculture based on individual household plots and small farmers and the need for farmers and peasants to pay themselves for vaccination of animals also caused spreading of brucellosis. Farmers and peasants are not interested in spending money on vaccines due to low incomes. 80% of human diseases come from livestock and most livestock infections originate from poor countries. Women, as main economic agents who process meat and milk, are an at-risk group who can be infected by livestock diseases. Most of the domestic and imported food contains harmful substances [47, 56, 57]. According to the Sanitary-Epidemiological Committee of the Republic of Kazakhstan, around 70% of harmful substances enter into the human body with food [47]. Organic products are very expensive and inaccessible for the most of population. Two-thirds of the rural population has no access to safe water supply due to the insufficient technical condition of the existing water supply systems [58]. Very often the food import in Kazakhstan deals with import of low-quality cheap food from China. According to Kaigorodtsev (in Ref. [47]), there is a threat of “biological degradation of the population in terms of deterioration of the nutrition structure” [47]. “Governance focuses mostly on output, quantity, but not on the issues of effective allocation of resources, quality of product or social issues” [43].
Despite all the challenges, Kazakhstani people had rich qualities; “they recognized martial prowess, hospitality, respect for elders, love for children, and ready aid to kinsmen as virtues” [24]. According to Kazakh national traditions, children will maintain their old parents, more rich relatives help the poor ones, and men have full responsibility for the family’s well-being. Maybe these national characteristics will help poor households and women to survive also in the future.
6. Conclusions
As an agricultural country, Kazakhstan should prioritize the agricultural growth in order to provide food security and mitigate poverty. For a country with a large reserve of natural resources and largest employment share in agriculture, food self-sufficiency is an important prerequisite of food security. Literature review and data analysis show that in spite of the growth in total GDP and budget increase for the Ministry of Agriculture of the Republic of Kazakhstan, Kazakhstan is still food insecure and has the underdeveloped agriculture. Kazakhstan is dependent from food import. Fieldwork data analysis has determined that economic access to safe and nutritious food is limited by low purchasing power and well-being of whole rural population, but women are relatively worse off than men.
The empirical analysis revealed that the access of rural women to finance is limited by the high cost of finance, which is the result of the high interest rate, high risks for banks in lending of agriculture, and high transaction costs. It primarily affected the small enterprises and women who can handle only small business. Deficiency of skills and training opportunities; unpaid household work; high time and work intensity; low access to land, equipment, and quality fertilizers; and mentality of the society on “women’s work” demonstrate gender inequality in Kazakhstan’s agriculture sector which constrain agricultural growth and the national food security.
Cultivation of household land plots became a main survival strategy of a family, in terms of individual consumption of the products in the household and in terms of income from the sale of the surplus product in the markets. Unfortunately, this sector cannot provide women with the sufficient income due to low productivity and lack of resources to buy fertilizers, livestock feed, and agricultural equipment. Most women have not any market experience and often face challenges in selling their products. Such a situation becomes keener due to bad infrastructure which increases women’s business costs and work burden.
This paper calls the attention of Kazakhstan’s policy makers to the importance of gender mainstreaming in food security programs; women’s role in economy; and unpaid labor in household. Proper state support for women and infrastructure development is needed to mitigate women’s unpaid work and free up time for further training and for decent paid work in the formal sector. It could promote effective producing, harvesting, processing, and marketing of agricultural products and mitigate constraints to food security provision. This paper provides analytical examination of interaction of gender equality and food security and concludes that gender discrimination affects the national food security.
Kazakhstan has elaborated and signed a number of documents on gender equality. However, there is a gap between the creation of legislative documents and their actual implementation. Nowadays the major question is how the declared tasks should be implemented. Gender mainstreaming into food security is about not just women’s issues in agriculture but also poverty, unequal access to resources, unequal distribution of income, as well as wealth and corruption. All human beings, especially decision-makers, shall be “responsible for results. Personal characteristics of employees (including potential negative demonstrations such as personal ambitions, incompetence”, and preference to personal interests) “may differently affect public interests” [9]. “The rate of divergence between the set objective and its actual implementation is the measure of personal” and moral responsibility of each member of the society [9]. This gap “may affect the quality of outcomes, in our case resulting in gender inequality remaining” [9]. Spiritual and moral crisis is the main “cause of all other forms of global crisis” including economic, ecological, and social crises [59] and corruption. To overcome the spiritual and moral crisis, the humanization of people is needed and changing the outlook of people and their attitude to other people and the environment. Efforts to achieve gender equality must include personal spiritual revival and promotion of a truly civilized society, where absolute values and norms of life are freedom, equality, and security of everyone.
Acknowledgments
I would like to express my special thanks to adjunct professor of the University of Eastern Finland Heimo Mikkola for the scientific guidance, technical assistance, and moral support.
I am very grateful to the Fulbright Visiting Scholar Program for financial support and for the great opportunity to conduct research and to get consultations at the American University and World Bank in Washington, DC.
\n',keywords:"gender economics, food security, rural poverty, growth constraints analysis, Kazakhstan",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/70300.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/70300.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70300",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70300",totalDownloads:191,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"October 9th 2019",dateReviewed:"October 31st 2019",datePrePublished:"November 30th 2019",datePublished:"November 19th 2020",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"Kazakhstan has a large reserve of natural resources to provide the food self-sufficiency with domestic production. It could be three times more than population needs. However, Kazakhstan depends on food import and the agricultural sector accounts for 5% of GDP only. The actual poverty is higher than official data indicate, and it’s about four times more in rural areas where 46% of population resides and one-fifth of the working-age population is employed. Women represent the majority among the poor and unemployed and face unequal treatment in labor market and burden of larger unpaid household workload. All of this decreases women’s purchasing power, lowering economic access to quality food. This paper examines the interaction of gender inequality and food insecurity, applying the growth constraints analysis and engendering this approach and the empirical research on Karaganda oblast. It argues that gender inequality and rural poverty are linked to high economic costs and constraints in agriculture development and food security attainment.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/70300",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/70300",signatures:"Maigul Nugmanova",book:{id:"6950",title:"Education, Human Rights and Peace in Sustainable Development",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Education, Human Rights and Peace in Sustainable Development",slug:"education-human-rights-and-peace-in-sustainable-development",publishedDate:"November 19th 2020",bookSignature:"Maigul Nugmanova, Heimo Mikkola, Alexander Rozanov and Valentina Komleva",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6950.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"290871",title:"Dr.",name:"Maigul",middleName:null,surname:"Nugmanova",slug:"maigul-nugmanova",fullName:"Maigul Nugmanova"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"290871",title:"Dr.",name:"Maigul",middleName:null,surname:"Nugmanova",fullName:"Maigul Nugmanova",slug:"maigul-nugmanova",email:"maigulnugmanova@yahoo.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Kazakh Ablai Khan University of International Relations and World Languages",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Kazakhstan"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Gender and macroeconomics: overview",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Growth constraints analysis",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Time use analysis",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Food security",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'World Bank. Kazakhstan overview. February 2013. Available at: http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/kazakhstan/overview'},{id:"B2",body:'The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (hereinafter OECD). Multi-dimensional review of Kazakhstan. In: Initial Assessment, OECD Development Pathways. Vol. 1. Paris: OECD Publishing; 2016. DOI: 10.1787/9789264246768-en'},{id:"B3",body:'Statistics Committee of Kazakhstan. 2018. Available at: http://stat.gov.kz/'},{id:"B4",body:'TheGlobalEconomy.com. 2018. 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Forty married women between the ages of 35 and 55 were interviewed, among them 20 interviews in Sovkhoz Amangeldy and 20 in Abay village."},{id:"fn2",explanation:"Unpublished anonymous interview with a professor of Kazakh National Agrarian University on food security issues, 2013"}],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Maigul Nugmanova",address:"maigulnugmanova@yahoo.com",affiliation:'
Gender Economics Research Center, Narxoz University, Almaty, Kazakhstan
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The Open Access publishing model followed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, thus enabling readers to access research at no cost to themselves. In order to sustain these operations, and keep our publications freely accessible, we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee on all manuscripts accepted for publication to help cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books.
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