Prevalence of schistosomiasis and soil-transmitted helminths before (2008) and after deworming (2009) in Taabo lake dam in south-center of Côte d\'Ivoire
\r\n\tThe aim of this book will be to describe the most common forms of dermatitis putting emphasis on the pathophysiology, clinical appearance and diagnostic of each disease. We also will aim to describe the therapeutic management and new therapeutic approaches of each condition that are currently being studied and are supposed to be used in the near future.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"278931ae110500350d8b64805c70f193",bookSignature:"Dr. Eleni Papakonstantinou",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7934.jpg",keywords:"Atopic eczema, Interleukin, Topical corticosteroids, Hand eczema, Blisters, Pruritus, Irritant contact dermatitis, Allergic contact dermatitis, Discoid eczema, Sebaceous glands, Inflammatory dermatitis, Facial rash",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 5th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 19th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 18th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 6th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 5th 2019",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"203520",title:"Dr.",name:"Eleni",middleName:null,surname:"Papakonstantinou",slug:"eleni-papakonstantinou",fullName:"Eleni Papakonstantinou",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/203520/images/system/203520.jpg",biography:"Dr. med. Eleni Papakonstantinou is a Doctor of Medicine graduate and board certified Dermatologist-Venereologist. She studied medicine at the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, in Greece and she continued with her dermatology specialty in Germany (2012-2017) at the University of Magdeburg and Hannover Medical School, where she completed her dissertation in 2016 with research work on atopic dermatitis in children. During this time she gained wide experience in the whole dermatological field with special focus on the diagnosis and treatment of chronic inflammatory skin diseases and also the prevention and treatment of melanocytic and non-melanocytic skin tumors. Her research interests were beside atopic dermatitis and pruritus also the pathophysiology of blistering dermatoses. In addition to lectures at german and international congresses, she has published several articles in german and international journals and her work has been awarded with various prizes (poster prize of the German Dermatological Society for the project: 'Bullous pemphigoid and comorbidities' (DDG Leipzig 2016), 'Michael Hornstein Memorial Scholarship' (EADV Athens 2016), travel grant (EAACI Vienna 2016). Since 2017, she works as a specialist dermatologist in private practice in Dortmund, in Germany. Parallel she co-administrates an international dermatologic network, Wikiderm International and she writes a dermatology public guide for patients, as she is convinced that evidence-based knowledge has to be shared not only with colleagues but also with patients.",institutionString:"Private Practice, Dermatology and Venereology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"270941",firstName:"Sandra",lastName:"Maljavac",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/270941/images/7824_n.jpg",email:"sandra.m@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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These diseases occur mainly in tropical regions, are real public health problems, and have a negative impact on socioeconomic development (WHO, 2008).
Côte d’Ivoire, located in West Africa, is not spared. Many parasitic diseases exist in this country. Schistosomiasis is widespread (Doumenge et al., 1987; N’Goran et al., 1997; N’Guessan et al., 2007; Raso et al., 2005; Utzinger et al., 2000; WHO, 2011) with prevalence generally higher in communities around the water projects built to solve the problems of electrical safety and / or food (Steinmann, 2006). As for soil-transmitted helminthiasis, there is very little data on the prevalence and intensity in Côte d\'Ivoire. But according to the WHO, they are common throughout the territory [WHO, 2010.3]. The available data show that the prevalence of hookworm infection may reach 100% in endemic communities in Côte d\'Ivoire, 71.6% of ascariasis and trichuriasis 24%. Concerning soil-transmitted helminth infections, hookworm is the main parasite of our study area with 50% prevalence and less than 10% for other affections (N’Guessan, 2003).
In this study, we seek lasting solutions to fight against schistosomiasis and soil-transmitted helminthiasis in the ecoepidemiological context of a large dam. Our results can be extrapolated in similar epidemiological settings elsewhere in Côte d\'Ivoire, and other African countries. To this end, our investigations were conducted in the locality of Taabo-village straddling the area of forest and savannah woodland. The set of two areas represents 2/3 of the different vegetation types encountered in this country. Parasitological monitoring conducted, in such eco-epidemiological context, for two consecutive years of annual mass treatment revealed a high prevalence of urinary schistosomiasis among school children. Prevalence ranged from 94% to 74% at the beginning to the end (N’Goran et al., 2001). Moreover, the evaluation of reinfection of Schistosoma haematobium in various eco-epidemiological systems has shown that it is faster in the context of large dams. The high prevalence and limited reductions after mass treatments could be explained by the almost continuous transmission of this parasite (N’Goran et al., 2001; N’Guessan et al., 2007).
The example of Taabo-village located near the large dam Taabo where urinary schistosomiasis is a real public health problem is remarkable (N’Goran et al., 1997 and 2001). Given the importance of this disease at Taabo-village, which approach control could put important pressure on large and sustained transmission of S. haematobium and hope to significantly reduce the morbidity due to urinary schistosomiasis?
In this perspective, a preventive approach and the fight against disease caused by schistosomiasis and soil-transmitted helminthiasis as recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO, 2003, 2004 a and 2004b) were implemented. We believe that the communication for behavior change associated with the ongoing management could allow a significant decrease in the prevalence and morbidity of these diseases. To do so, parasitological surveys were conducted in schools before and after a control action to assess the epidemiological situation. Then, teachers and Community Health Workers (AUC) were trained to educate and support consistently the population. Finally, sociological surveys were conducted to determine the perceptions and human factors in risk associated with the endemicity of these diseases.
The Taabo dam is located in south-center of Côte d\'Ivoire, on the river Bandama in degraded forest area. Its construction was completed in 1979 (Sellin B. and Simonkovich, 1982). It has a maximum depth of 34 m and a dam of 7.5 km long. The water reservoir is 630 million m3 and an area of 69 km2. It is used to generate electricity. Taabo- village is 0.5
km far from the lake (Figure 1). This study area includes 3 929 inhabitants from the database collected in 2009 by the Demographic Surveillance System of Taabo (SSD).
Overview of the study area
From the list of the two primary schools of the study site, a school was chosen according to the largest number of students. In the selected school, about 60 students at the rate of 10 per classroom from the first year of the primary (CP1) to the last year (CM2) were selected by lottery for the baseline survey and the second survey. Participation in the study was voluntary. Parents or guardians of selected children were invited to sign a written informed consent after explanation of the objective of the study and procedures by investigators.
The selected school children participated in parasitological surveys conducted in April 2008 before treatment and on May 2009 after one year. In 2008 as in 2009, each student gave a urine sample and a stool sample. These samples were taken between 10 a.m and 2 p.m.
The search for eggs of Schistosoma haematobium in each urine sample was performed by the standard filtration of 10 ml of urine on a filter Nytrel ®, then the analysis of the filter under a microscope after coloration with lugol (Plouvier et al., 1975). The eggs of Schistosoma\n\t\t\t\t\thaematobium were identified and counted.
The stools were examined by the Kato-Katz technique, which involved analysis of 41.7 mg of stool under a microscope after plating and clarification by malachite green (Katz et al., 1972). The readings of the slides were made after 30 to 60 min for clarification in order to observe hookworms in addition to other helminths. The eggs of Schistosoma mansoni and soil-transmitted helminths (Ancylostoma spp, Ascaris lumbricoides and Trichuris trichiura) were detected and counted by species. The intensity of infection was expressed as number of eggs per gram of stool. After microscopic examination, a quality control was used to check the consistency of results. Prevalences and intensities of parasites were classified into three categories: mild, moderate and heavy according to WHO classification (WHO, 2004 and 2004a).
During a workshop held in 2008 at Taabo city, two teachers and one community health worker (CHW), selected per locality and by their authorities, attended a course of half a day. They were trained to use the awareness tools and prevention on the one hand and on the other hand administration of praziquantel against schistosomiasis and mebendazole against soil-transmitted helminthiasis. Then they received the tablets, treatment forms and media for awareness and health education.
The awareness, prevention and control studies were conducted in the two primary schools by two teachers among the school-age populations and by a CHW among the other community members. Everyone was aware of the opportunity to treat himself according to his convenience because drugs were available to them from teachers and CHW. Treatment (praziquantel and mebendazole) cost per student was 100 CFA francs in schools and 150 CFA in community during the first year. At the end of the study, all parasitized individuals were treated with praziquantel and/or mebendazole for free for ethical reasons.
The sociological survey concerned on the one hand the school-age children (children attending school or not) and on the other hand the general population, particularly the heads of households. The selection of children attending school was done by a reasoned choice of 12 students per class from the first year elementary classes (CE1) to the last year of primary school (CM2). As for children who do not attend school, they have been chosen unintentionally on the ground during the investigation. Based on the estimated number of households, the quota of households to be interviewed has been determined. This survey was made after the awareness and treatment. The majority of respondents are farmers and students, the survey took place when they were free i.e in the morning (from 6:00 to 10:00) and in the evening (from 16:00 to 20:00). We collected qualitative information from focus group and quantitative information by questionnaire.
The data were analyzed using STATA software, version 9 (Stata Cooperation, College Station, Tx, USA). The various parasites were collected in two groups of diseases: schistosomiasis and soil-transmitted helminthiasis. For each condition, the prevalences and intensities of infection were calculated for each survey. the 2008 data were compared with those of 2009 by comparison test of two proportions unrelated. The treatement results of the sociological survey have been analised by the same test.
Both parasitological surveys were conducted in Taabo-village 1 primary school, successively in 2008 and 2009. The age group of school children who participated in the survey is between 6 and 15 years. The urine and feces analyzes of 114 school children have identified 62 (54.4%) school children infected. Among schoolchildren examined, 42.1% are infected with schistosomes and soil-transmitted helminths by 28.9% (Table 1). At the baseline, 37.5% of school children were carriers of at least one parasite against 70.1% a year later. The school children infected in the second survey appeared to be significantly (P < 0.0001) more numerous than those of the baseline survey, regarding schistosomiasis (P <0.0001). For soil-transmitted helminths difference is not significantly (P = 0.131). Considering prevalence of the parasitic species, Schistosoma haematobium attained 41.2% as judged by urine analysis, and Ancylostoma spp. (27.2%) excreted in the feces. Trichuris trichiura (2.6%) and Schistosoma mansoni (0.9%) were rarely observed following stool analyses. Based on prevalence, urinary schistosomiasis is the main parasite of Taabo-village.
The intensities of infections reported in Table 2, indicate that whatever the year, the majority of the population is infected with schistosomes i.e more than 75% have a mild infection (<50 eggs in 10 ml of urine for S. haematobium and <100 eggs in 1 g of stool for S. mansoni) (WHO, 2004). Heavy infections (≥ 50 eggs in 10 ml of urine for S. haematobium and ≥ 400 eggs in 1 g of stool for S. mansoni) appear to be solely due to S. haematobium. As for those who are infected by soil-transmitted helminths, they all have a mild infection (Table 2). It is of note that the intensities of infection of these parasites remained invariant after treatment.
Awareness, prevention and treatment were made by two teachers from the school age population and a community health worker (CHW) to other members of the community. In the general population of Taabo-village, the number of infected individuals is estimated at 70% and yet only 12% were treated between 2008 and 2009 (Table 3). This low rate indicates that there was no enthusiasm in general; however it was more encouraging in schools where 32.9% were treated against 8.2% in the village.
The sociological survey involved 176 people including 78 school-age children and 98 adults. The quantitative information reported in Table 4 indicate that schistosomiasis and soil are considered as diseases by over 65% of respondents. However, the majority states that these parasites do not have serious consequences on their health and more than 95% confirms that they are not dreadful. The concept of illness and fear is determined by a set of characters which are: immobility, pain, costly treatment, lack of effective remedy, contagiousness, disability, lack of knowledge of symptoms and rapid death. To fight against the parasites, the most common practice (19.4%) is the association of pharmaceutical products and plants. In the control project against the diseases in question, the community generally wants to organize neighborhood with awareness as major roles (35.7%) and environmental health (18.4%). According to the qualitative data, people think that these ailments do not require treatment because they are supposed to heal over time. Also they do not know the mode of contamination which they think would be done by drinking dirty water from the lake, spanning the urine of a schistosomiasis patient, or by bathing in the lake water.
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\tTaabo-village 1\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tTOTAL\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t|
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t2008\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t2009\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t |
Number of subjects examined | \n\t\t\t56 | \n\t\t\t58 | \n\t\t\t114 | \n\t\t
Number of parasitized individuals | \n\t\t\t21 | \n\t\t\t41 | \n\t\t\t62 | \n\t\t
Prevalence % | \n\t\t\t37.5 | \n\t\t\t70.1 | \n\t\t\t54.4 | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tSchistosomiasis\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t |
Number of parasitized individuals | \n\t\t\t13 | \n\t\t\t35 | \n\t\t\t48 | \n\t\t
Prevalence (%) | \n\t\t\t23.2 | \n\t\t\t60.3 | \n\t\t\t42.1 | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tS. haematobium\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t |
Number of parasitized individuals | \n\t\t\t12 | \n\t\t\t35 | \n\t\t\t47 | \n\t\t
Prevalence (%) | \n\t\t\t21.4 | \n\t\t\t60.3 | \n\t\t\t41.2 | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tS. mansoni\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t |
Number of parasitized individuals | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t1 | \n\t\t
Prevalence (%) | \n\t\t\t1.8 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0.9 | \n\t\t
Soil-transmitted helminths | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t |
Number of parasitized individuals | \n\t\t\t13 | \n\t\t\t20 | \n\t\t\t33 | \n\t\t
Prevalence (%) | \n\t\t\t23.2 | \n\t\t\t34.4 | \n\t\t\t28.9 | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tAncylostoma spp.\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t |
Number of parasitized individuals | \n\t\t\t13 | \n\t\t\t18 | \n\t\t\t31 | \n\t\t
Prevalence (%) | \n\t\t\t23.2 | \n\t\t\t31.0 | \n\t\t\t27.2 | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tT.trichiura\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t |
Number of parasitized individuals | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t3 | \n\t\t\t3 | \n\t\t
Prevalence (%) | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t5.1 | \n\t\t\t2.6 | \n\t\t
Prevalence of schistosomiasis and soil-transmitted helminths before (2008) and after deworming (2009) in Taabo lake dam in south-center of Côte d\'Ivoire
\n\t\t\t\tSchistosomiasis\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tSoil-transmitted helminths Infection intensities (%) in years | \n\t\t|||
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t2008\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t2009\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t2008\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t2009\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tLight infection\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t76.9 | \n\t\t\t77.1 | \n\t\t\t100 | \n\t\t\t100 | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tHigh infection\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t23.1 | \n\t\t\t22.9 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t\t0 | \n\t\t
Percentages of intensities of schistosomiasis infection and soil-transmitted helminths in the Taabo lake dam in south-center of Côte d\'Ivoire
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\tPopulation\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t||
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\tWorkforces\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tTreated\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tTreated Percentage \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Attending school | \n\t\t\t598 | \n\t\t\t197 | \n\t\t\t32.97 | \n\t\t
Not attending school | \n\t\t\t3 331 | \n\t\t\t275 | \n\t\t\t8.25 | \n\t\t
Total | \n\t\t\t3 929 | \n\t\t\t472 | \n\t\t\t12.01 | \n\t\t
Percentage of treated population to Taabo-village of 2008 – 2009
They use water from Lake dam for all daily activities including laundry, washing dishes, cooking, bathing, swimming and even sometimes for drinking when drinking water is inaccessible. Fishing takes place in the lake, and the water is also used to irrigate nurseries of coffee and cocoa.
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\tReactions et reponses to questions\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tWorkforces \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tPercentages \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tKnowledge of diseases\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t |
Schistosomiasis | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t |
Know | \n\t\t\t128 | \n\t\t\t72.7 | \n\t\t|
Do not Know | \n\t\t\t48 | \n\t\t\t27.3 | \n\t\t|
\n\t\t\t | Serious | \n\t\t\t39 | \n\t\t\t22.2 | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t | Less serious | \n\t\t\t137 | \n\t\t\t77.8 | \n\t\t
soil-transmitted helminths | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t |
Know | \n\t\t\t115 | \n\t\t\t65.3 | \n\t\t|
Do not Know | \n\t\t\t61 | \n\t\t\t34.7 | \n\t\t|
\n\t\t\t | Serious | \n\t\t\t55 | \n\t\t\t31.2 | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t | Less serious | \n\t\t\t121 | \n\t\t\t68.8 | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tCommunities attitudes\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tNon dreadful schistosomiasis | \n\t\t\t168 | \n\t\t\t95.5 | \n\t\t
Dreadful schistosomiasis | \n\t\t\t8 | \n\t\t\t4.5 | \n\t\t|
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t | |
Non dreadful soil-transmitted helminthes | \n\t\t\t172 | \n\t\t\t97.7 \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t|
Dreadful soil-transmitted helminthes | \n\t\t\t4 | \n\t\t\t2.3 | \n\t\t|
\n\t\t\t\tPractices in communities\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tNone | \n\t\t\t2 | \n\t\t\t2.1 | \n\t\t
Never infected | \n\t\t\t61 | \n\t\t\t62.2 | \n\t\t|
Pharmaceutical products | \n\t\t\t10 | \n\t\t\t10.2 | \n\t\t|
Medicinal Plants | \n\t\t\t6 | \n\t\t\t6.1 | \n\t\t|
Pharmaceutical products + Plants | \n\t\t\t19 | \n\t\t\t19.4 | \n\t\t|
\n\t\t\t\tControl Project\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tBy neighborhood | \n\t\t\t57 | \n\t\t\t58.1 | \n\t\t
Combination | \n\t\t\t2 | \n\t\t\t2.1 | \n\t\t|
Gender | \n\t\t\t9 | \n\t\t\t9.2 | \n\t\t|
No answer | \n\t\t\t30 | \n\t\t\t30.6 | \n\t\t|
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t | |
\n\t\t\t\tRole in participation\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tDecision making | \n\t\t\t10 | \n\t\t\t10.2 | \n\t\t
Environmental health | \n\t\t\t18 | \n\t\t\t18.4 | \n\t\t|
Awareness | \n\t\t\t35 | \n\t\t\t35.7 | \n\t\t|
Supervision | \n\t\t\t5 | \n\t\t\t5.1 | \n\t\t|
No answer | \n\t\t\t30 | \n\t\t\t30.6 | \n\t\t
Results of sociological surveys conducted in Taabo-village community near the dam Taabo in south-center of Côte d\'Ivoire.
Parasitic diseases highlighted in the locality of the Taabo-village are schistosomiasis and hookworm. Schistosomiasis was the predominant parasitosis. It was followed by ankylostosomiasis. This classification is different from the distribution observed in Africa south of the Sahara where ankytosmosomiasis is top of the list (Hotez et Kamath, 2009). The prevalence of these parasitoses are moderate overall. However, a high prevalence of Schistosoma haematobium in the order of 60% was recorded at the end of the study in 2009 where no case of S. mansoni infection was observed. The study area is an environment with a high prevalence of urinary schistosomiasis as already reported by N\'Goran and colleagues more than 20 years ago (N\'Goran et al., 1987).
The high prevalence of 60.3% recorded only a year later, does not demonstrate that reinfection is fast because we have not reviewed all of the students selected in 2008. Rather we made another sample because we adopted a population-based approach to see how the home would evolve in real conditions when the population was aware and had medicines at their disposal. On the contrary, this result reveals that the treatment did not have a great influence on morbidity indicators such as the prevalence and intensity of infection. It is explained by the fact that only 12% of the population was treated. Thus, for the treatments have a significant impact, they must extend at least 75% of the school age population and for a long-term as recommended by the WHO (2012). Based on the categories of prevalences and intensities of infection, we offer an annual treatement of the entire community with praziquantel in the case of schistosomiasis. As for soil-transmitted helminthiasis, albendazole may also be distributed once a year. However, all children of preschool and school age and women of childbearing age and adults at risk should be given priority in accordance with the recommendations of the WHO (WHO, 2004.9; 2010.3). For ongoing management, it would be appropriate after the annual mass distribution campaign to,make anthelmintics available to the public through the channels of teachers and community health worker.
It should be noted that while anthelmintics were made available to the Taabo village’s population, very few people were treated. There was no enthusiasm for the treatment for the simple reason that these parasites are considered by the majority of the population as non-serious illnesses and less dreadful. For this population it is not necessary to observe measures of prevention and fight as they think diseases are supposed to heal over time. We think that these perceptions are a major obstacle to control actions by chemotherapy.
To develop an appropriate approach of prevention, we must attract the attention of the population through advocacy and health education as suggested by Monday (Useh, 2012). This awareness action and the population’s education aim to significantly alter his perception of the severity of these infections, the effectiveness of existing treatments anthelmintics and the risk behaviors. Emphasis will be placed on the causes of the outbreak of schistosomiasis, the consequences associated with schistosomiasis and soil-transmitted to the modes of transmission of these parasites and the importance of seeking treatment for infections. However, awareness sessions will be done with the involvement of opinion leaders such as religious and customary authorities and groups of associations. Awareness must be held at school in the village, in places of worship and preferably on Sunday, which is the market day or the gathering of this farming population. These control actions will take place between December and February which is the rest period for farmers.
Instead of preventing people from visiting the lake shore, we suggest people to collect water for their domestic activities early in the morning i.e before 10 am or in afternoon after 2:00 p.m. The interval between 10 am and 2 p.m corresponds to the maximum period of cercariae emission in water during which people would better avoid attending it. Moreover, the authorities should ensure that drinking water is accessible and that latrines are available. To reduce transmission, we recommend people not to urinate and defecate in the lake or to defecate far away from the lake.
It must be noted that the relatively low percentage of 23.2% of schistosomiasis, recorded at the beginning of the study has not yet been determined in this locality to our knowledge. This level of prevalence could be explained by the previous effect of control actions. We can mention as examples the mass treatment against schistosomiasis conducted in five primary schools around the dam of Taabo and in hyperendemic primary school of Tiassalé’s district that Taabo-village is part of it (N\'Goran et al., 1997 and 1998). In addition, control activities are performed in Taabo-village for only about a decade (Esse, 1997; N\'Goran et al., 1997, 2001 and 2003). This is also probably the reason why the intensities of infection were mostly minor. Morbidity is less severe in the population examined. Indeed, the population examined would be concerned because it is often affected by the programs against schistosomiasis and soil-transmitted helminthiasis. It could be that the category of population such as adultes that do not fall often in programs against these infections have more severe lesions. This was noted by Keita et al. Mali (Keita et al., 2009).
The prevention and control proposed above should extend at least 75% of the school age population and make long-term as recommended by the WHO (2012). We propose to this end a period of at least five years.
The results of this study allow us to identify an approach for prevention and sustainable fight against schistosomiasis and soil-transmitted helminthiasis in the context of a large dam in Côte-d’Ivoire. It is partly based on the awareness of the population in order to change significantly their perception of the seriousness of these infections and the effectiveness of existing anthelmintics treatments. On the other hand, the population will change habits in relation to periods of attendance at the lake and the discharge of excrement in the water. This fight will be the responsibility of community and must be sustained for a long term This community approach of prevention and control proposed at the end of our study is most applicable in the context of eco-epidemiological of large dams, where soil-transmitted helminthiasis and schistosomiasis are generally a serious, but neglected, public health problem.
We specially acknowledge the Agence Universitaire de la Francophonie (AUF), which funded the research. The authors wish to thank Mr TP Gonety, Taabo Hospital Director and Dr. L. Adiossan the chief doctor of the said hospital for treatments supervision. We acknowledge inspector of primary teaching, principals and teachers of Taabo-village and the Head of this locality. We also acknowledge the laboratory technicians, KL Lohourignon, M. Traore, S. Diabaté, A.S. Brou, J. Brou, S. Kouadio, M. N\'Cho, N. Kouadio and MG Gry for the quality of the work they have done and Mr Zahoui André for the translation from English.
The process of engineering design comprises of devising a scheme/module, or process to achieve the required goal or target. It can also be defined as an assessment –making procedure, which utilized the knowledge of basic sciences, mathematics and engineering sciences to convert resources optimally to meet quantified objectives. In other words, engineering design is the procedure of formulating framework, segment, or procedure to address desired problems [1]. General goal of engineering design is to develop a solution (the design) to a known problem. However, there is no single solution, and depends upon the approach used by different engineers resulting different solution. Among the solution obtained some will work well than others, but it is necessary that all solutions should ‘work’. The reason behind the fact that solutions to engineering design problem are not unique is perhaps due to very broader spectrum of the concerns encountered in design [2].
Each and every engineering problem/task passes through a design process. According to Hill (1983), as discussed by Biniawski (1988), the design process is: a) logical development of design inside organization of actions and b) a work plan process for planning the design program. For satisfactory design results, a define process can work as agenda of activities. The defined process or methodology can be considered as a form of quality control that ensures that all aspects that should be considered in the design are considered [2]. Response to a complex engineering problem does not shortly seem in a vacuum. Well-meaning description of engineering problem needs exercise or approach. Design processes generally depend upon the number of engineers analyzing design. The process described here is general, and one can adapt it to the problem, they are trying to solve [3]. Following are the different stages of design process [1] illustrated in Figure 1.
Recognition of need or a problem
Statement of the problem
Collection of information
Analysis of solution component
Synthesis to create a detailed solution
Evaluation of ideas and solutions
Optimization
Recommendation
Communication
Implementation
The engineering design process [1].
Engineering design activity always occurs in response to a human need [3]. Before attempting any solution for design, the presence and nature of a problem must be. This is not an easy task. It needs the rather rare skill of inquiring the right kind of question and call for a clear identification of the problem to be solved. In design it involves the recognition of a genuine social need want or opportunity.
If there is any problem involves, it is then necessary to clearly define it. This may involve a list of specification or criteria. These must be stated clearly and concisely. A poorly recognized and expressed problem cannot be anticipated to result in a good solution. In rock mechanics design, this means to set design objectives in terms of economy, safety and stability.
This stage comprises the collecting, investigation, processing and analyzing of information to obtain the explicit nature of the targeted problem. In rock engineering collection of information include site investigations, conducting in-situ and laboratory tests to determine the characteristics of the rock strata and assessment of applied loads and field stresses.
The selection of approach to either search for the most promising method of solution or certain hypothesis is selected or conceived depends upon the nature of the problem. Design approaches at this phase involve numerical analysis and mathematical, physical modal studies, observation and monitoring or the empirical analyses based on experience.
On the basis of analysis of the individual solution component, all design is focused to furnish comprehensive alternative solutions. In this phase of design, calculations, specifications, performance predictions, cost estimates, scheduling procedures and the experimentation are involved.
In this phase the solution is interpreted and compare with the original hypothesis, specification, facts assumptions, requirements or constraints. This demand for a clear understanding of the all relevant interacting factors that’s needed for the engineering judgments. The solution for engineering problems should be balanced involving all the factors with interact.
Optimization is the assortment of a best solution (with regard to some criteria) from some set of available alternative solutions [4]. There are always multiple solutions available to any engineering problem. Refinement and modification of a solution may then be required to reach a practicable agreement between the generally contradictory constraint and assets. The effectiveness of an optimization process mostly depends upon simplicity and clarity with which problem and solution are specified.
Recommendation is the principle of the whole Engineering design process. It provides a refined endorsement of the solution to problem, point out limitations and shows the trend to be followed in applying the solution.
The conclusive aim of the all design stages is the creation or instigation of a progression accomplishment. In order to achieve the objective requires the engineer must communicate the finding effectively. Effective communication means that all relevant aspects should be appropriately presented. If a mathematician were to sum up these thoughts, he might well do so by the Eq. (1).
Where,
E means effectiveness of the subject, M mean the mastery of the subject matter and C means the communication.
So for effective communication one should have sound knowledge of the subject matter and good communication skills. The design engineer must have the capability to communicate views and ideas concisely and clearly and to convey technical knowledge effectively.
This is the final stage of design procedures. The finding or results communicated are applied under the given circumstance and proper monitoring is carried out for further refining the result or design that has been recommended for action. The main objective of the design is to ensure that a desire goal and quality will achieved within the time frame and the budget allocated.
After implementation of the design, its performance is monitored and recorded. Remedial measurements are suggested for more improvement of the performance the solution design.
There are different significant design techniques in rock engineering. They are classified into three groups which are Analytical, Empirical and Observational. Rock masses having more complex in nature. Due to the very complex nature of rock masses and the difficulties encountered with their characterization, the analytical approach is the least used in the present engineering practice. Due to this reason, it does not lie in the analytical techniques themselves, since some have been developed to a high degree of sophistication, but in the inability to furnish the necessary input data as the ground conditions are adequately explored. Consequently, such analytical techniques as the finite element method, the boundary element method, closed form mathematical solutions, photo-elasticity or analogue simulation are mainly useful for assessing the influence of the various parameters or processes and for comparing alternative design schemes; they are the methods of the future not as yet acceptable as the practical engineering means for the design of rock tunnels [5]. Empirical methods of design are commonly applied as these are built on earlier practices derived from creation of rock structures owning alike physical characteristics [6]. It is a good practice to evaluate the stability of tunnels using at least two Empirical methods and validate through Numerical methods. Therefore, these two groups of tunnel design methods will be discussed in detail [7].
The empirical approach relates the experience encountered at previous projects to the conditions anticipated at a proposed site. If an empirical design is backed by a systematic approach to ground classification, it can effectively utilize the valuable practical experience gained at many projects, which is so helpful to exercising one’s engineering judgment. This is particularly important since, a good engineering design is a balanced design in which all the factors which interact, even those which cannot be quantified, are taken into account; the responsibility of the design engineers is not to compute accurately but to judge soundly. Rock mass classifications, which the main part of the empirical design methods, are extensively used tunnels within rock. At present, most of the tunnels excavated in the United States make use of some classification system. Terzaghi classification which was presented over 40 years ago is the most broadly used. In fact, rock mass classifications have been successfully applied throughout the world [5].
The empirical methods of design may be used in association with other engineering assessment and design Techniques [6]. These methods are very essential and beneficial for the design in the earlier stages of the project, when minimum evidence about the behavior of rock mass, stress conditions and hydrological characteristics are obtainable [8].
Rock mass classification is a tool for the assessment of the rock behavior and performance based on the essential inherent and structural parameters [9]. Rock mass classification systems are the most and widely used empirical methods of design Different rock mass classification systems are RMR, Q-System, RQD, RSR, GSI etc. [6]. Rocks have been classified on the basis of origin, mineralogical compositions and distinct physical properties and ground condition. Rock Classification provides a mutual basis of communication to recognize rock mass in a category having same and well define characterization and basic input parameters for rock engineering design. For designing purposes in several attempts were made to classify rock based on rock and site characterization. Such simplified classification systems have served to understand the upper bound response of the rocks [10]. Rock mass classification systems effectively combined the results comes observation, experience and other engineering judgment for providing a quantitative evaluation of rock mass situations. Rock mass classification systems has the below mentioned purposes in tunneling design [5].
Group rock masses having similar behaviors.
Provides the root for understanding the characteristics of independent groups.
Helps in planning and designing of excavation in rock and provide quantifiable data for the design of complex engineering complications.
A common understanding agenda for all the related people in the project.
Up till now different rock mass classification systems have been proposed by Terzaghi (1946), Lauffer (1958), Deere (1964), Wickham, Tiedemann, and Skinner (1972), Bieniawski (1973), and Barton, Lien, and Lunde (1974), (Bieniawski Z. T. 1990). The different classification systems used for the design purposes are assembled in Table 1.
A well-known classification system for support of tunnels. This explanatory system was developed in the U.S.A in 1946. Terzaghi’s (1946) formulate the first rational method of evaluating the rock loads suitable to the design of steel sets. This classification is appropriate for the estimating rock loads for steel arch supported tunnels. It is not so suitable for modern tunneling methods using shotcrete and rock bolts [5].
Terzaghi’s classify rocks as under [11]:
Intact Rock: Rocks that’s having no joints and cracks, it breaks crossways a sound rock or loose block may drops off the top for many hours and days due to blasting. It is called sapling condition.
Stratified rock: that rock composed those distinct sections having slightly or no confrontation to parting beside the margins stuck between the strata. In such rock the spalling condition is generally happened.
Moderately jointed rock: That rock having joints and hair cracks, but the blocks among joints are locally developed collectively or so closely joined that perpendicular walls do not need on the sides support. In this type of rock, both spalling and popping conditions may be happened.
Blocky and seamy rock: Such rocks consist of chemically intact or almost intact rock fragments which are totally detached from each other and erroneously joined. In such rock, vertical walls may need sides support.
Crushed rock: such rocks are chemically intact rock but have the characteristic of crusher outing. If maximum or completely all the fragments are as small as fine sand particles and no cementation has taken place, crushed rock below the water table demonstrate the properties of water-bearing sand.
Squeezing rock: Squeezing rock gradually progresses into the tunnel without noticeable increase in volume. An obligation for squeeze is a high percentage of microscopic and sub-microscopic elements of micaceous minerals or clay minerals with a low swelling capability.
Swelling rock: Such rock moves inside the tunnel mainly because of expansion. The capability to swell seems to be insufficient to those rocks that have clay minerals such as montmorillonite, with a high swelling capability.
Lauffer (1958) anticipated that stand up time for an excavation span is associated with the quality of rock mass in which the width is mined. The Unsupported span may be defined as the width of the tunnel or the distance between the face and the adjacent support, if such is grater that the tunnels width. Laufer’s (1958) advanced classification has been improved by various researchers especially Pacher et al., (1974) and currently formulae the part of the worldwide tunneling attitude so called the New Austrian Tunneling Method (NTAM). The importance of the standup time is to increase in the tunnel width results in a substantial decrease in the period available for the fixing of support. The NATM comprises numerous systems for workable, safe and stable excavation in rock situations where the stand-up time is restricted before collapse occurred. These systems are:
The use of small headings and benching
The use of several small drifts to form a reinforced ring inside which the unpackaged of the tunnel can be mined
As described by Terzaghi (1946), these practices are appropriate to apply in squeezing soft rock mass i.e. shale’s, phyllites and mudstones. The practices are also appropriate when tunneling in exceptionally jointed rock, but needs excessive attention to apply these practices to underground excavations designed in hard rocks having dissimilar failure mechanisms. For hard rock excavation support design, it is practical to accept the assumption that the stability of the rock mass adjacent to the underground excavation is not time-dependent. A defined wedge visible in the roof of an excavation will fall as soon as after excavation. This can happen after blasting or during the succeeding scaling process. Early support is demanded do keep such a wedge in place, or to improve the limit of safety preferably before the rock supporting the full wedge is removed. On the other hand, in a highly stressed rock condition, failure will generally be induced by some change in the stress condition adjoining the excavation. The failure may occur gradually and apparent it as spalling or it may occur rapidly in the form of a rock burst. In either case, the support system design must take into account the modification in the stress condition rather than the ‘stand-up’ time of the excavation.
It is developed by Deere et al., (1967). Such system provides the quantities estimation of rock mass quality from the drill core logs. RQD is defined as the percentage sum of all intact core pieces having length more than 10 cm in the total length of the core provided that the core should be of NX size (54 mm in diameter). The precise practices for the estimation of the size of core portions and the approximation of Rock Quality Designation Index are summarized as shown in Figure 2 [11].
Procedure for measurement and calculation of RQD [11].
In 1982, Plastron suggested that when core is not available and discontinuity traces are visible in surface disclosure or exploratory adits, the RQD may be calculated from the number of discontinuities per unit volume. The suggested relationship is for clay free masses and is given below by Eq. (2).
Where,
RQD is the Rock Quality Designation Index,
Jv is the number of all joints per unit length for all joint (discontinuity) sets, so called volumetric joint count.
Wickham et al. (1972) established another quantitatively rock mass classification system termed as Rock Structure Rating (RSR). RSR is used to describe and measure the quality of rock mass for selecting of appropriate support and reinforced system. Such classification system not applied generally as compared to other classification systems, but it has its important role in the emergent of other empirical classification schemes. Many investigators advised that for good, reliable and suitable results for planning of excavation more than one rock mass classification systems should be used at initial stage of the project. The significance of the rock structure rating, in the context of this conversation, is to bring forward the idea of assessment of each of the constituents recorded below to calculate a mathematical value of RSR = A + B + C.
Where,
Factor A: Area Geology: It includes Common evaluation of geological structure based on:
Rock type Origin (sedimentary, metamorphic and igneous).
Rock Hardness (it means hard, medium, soft and decomposed).
Geologic structure (immense, marginally faulted/folded, reasonably faulted/folded, extremely faulted/folded).
Factor B: Geometry of the geological structures: it consists of effect of disjointedness arrangement with consideration to the tunnel alignment on the basis of:
Joint spaces.
Orientation of joints (dip and strike).
Direction of tunnel drive.
Factor C: it includes influence of groundwater inrush and joint situation on the basis of:
Whole rock mass class based previous parameter combined (A and B).
Situation of Joint (poor, fair and good).
Quantity of water flow (gallons/minute/1000 feet of tunnel).
The following tables are used for the calculation of RSR (maximum RSR is 100) [9] (Tables 2–4).
S.No | Rock mass classification system | Originator | Origin country | Application areas |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Rock Load | Terzaghi, 1946 | USA | Tunnels with steel support |
2 | Stand-up time | Lauffer, 1958 | Australia | Tunneling |
3 | New Austrian Tunneling Method (NATM) | Pacher et al., 1964 | Austria | Tunneling |
4 | Rock Quality Designation (RQD) | Deer et al., 1967 | USA | Core logging, Tunneling |
5 | Rock Structure Rating (RSR) | Wickham et al., 1972 | USA | Tunneling |
6 | Rock Mass Rating (RMR) Modified Rock Mass Rating (M-RMR) | Bieniawski 1973 (List modified, 1989-USA) Özkan and Ünal, 1990 | South Africa Turkey | Tunnels, Mines, (Slopes, Foundations) Mining |
Rock Mass Quality (Q) | Barton et al., 1974 (Last modified 2002) | Norway | Tunnels, Mines, Foundations | |
8 | Strength- Block Size | Franklin, 1975 | Canada | Tunneling |
9 | Rock Mass Strength (RMS) | Stille et al., 1982 | Sweden | Metal Mining |
10 | Unified Rock Mass Classification System (URMC) | Williamson, 1984 | USA | General Communication |
11 | Weakening Coefficient System (WCS) | Singh, 1986 | India | Coal Mining |
12 | Basic Geotechnical Classification | ISRM, 1981 | International | General |
13 | Geological strength index (GSI) | Hoek et al. 1995 | Mines and Tunnels |
Basic Rock Type | Geological Structure | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Hard | Medium | Soft | Decomposed | |||||
Igneous | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | Slightly | Moderately | Intensively | |
Metamorphic | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | Folded or | Folded or | Folded or | |
Sedimentary | 2 | 3 | 4 | 4 | Massive | Faulted | Faulted | Faulted |
Type 1 | 30 | 22 | 15 | 9 | ||||
Type 2 | 27 | 20 | 13 | 8 | ||||
Type 3 | 24 | 18 | 12 | 7 | ||||
Type 4 | 19 | 15 | 10 | 6 |
Rock structure rating, parameter a: General area geology [9].
Strike ⊥ to Axis | Strike ║ to Axis | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Direction of Drive | Direction of Drive | |||||||
Both | With Dip | Against Dip | Either direction | |||||
Dip of Prominent Jointsa | Dip of Prominent Joints | |||||||
Average joint spacing | Flat | Dipping | Vertical | Dipping | Vertical | Flat | Dipping | Vertical |
1. Very closely jointed, < 2 in | 9 | 11 | 13 | 10 | 12 | 9 | 9 | 7 |
2. Closely jointed, 2–6 in | 13 | 16 | 19 | 15 | 17 | 14 | 14 | 11 |
3. Moderately jointed, 6–12 in | 23 | 24 | 28 | 19 | 22 | 23 | 23 | 19 |
4. Moderate to blocky, 1–2 ft | 30 | 32 | 36 | 25 | 28 | 30 | 28 | 24 |
5. Blocky to massive, 2–4 ft | 36 | 38 | 40 | 33 | 35 | 36 | 24 | 28 |
6. Massive, > 4 ft | 40 | 43 | 45 | 37 | 40 | 40 | 33 | 34 |
Rock structure rating, parameter B: Joint pattern, direction of drive [9].
Dip: flat: 0–20°; dipping: 20–50°; and vertical: 50–90°.
Sum of Parameters A + B | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
13–44 | | | 45–75 | ||||
Anticipated water inflow gpm/1000 ft. or tunnel | Joint Conditiona | |||||
Good | Fair | Poor | Good | Fair | Poor | |
None | 22 | 18 | 12 | 26 | 22 | 18 |
Slight, < 200 gpm | 19 | 15 | 9 | 23 | 19 | 14 |
Moderate, 200–1000 gpm | 15 | 22 | 7 | 21 | 16 | 12 |
Heavy, > 1000 gp | 10 | 8 | 6 | 18 | 14 | 10 |
Rock structure rating, parameter C: Groundwater, joint condition [11].
Joint condition: good = tight or cemented; fair = slightly weathered or altered; poor = severely weathered, altered or open.
The RSR value calculated for the above tables are then used for the calculation support system recommendation. The support recommendation chart for the RSR value is given in Figure 3.
RSR support recommendation chart [9].
The rock mass rating system was produced by Biniawski in 1976; it is sometimes also called geo-mechanics classification system. It was developed taking into account the distinctive case histories in the field of structural designing This classification system was altered in 1974, 1976, 1979 and 1989, because of considering of more contextual analyses identified related to tunnels, mines, chambers, slopes and foundations [1]. The Geo-mechanics classification system has a widespread application in different rock engineering fields such as mining, hydro power projects, tunneling and hill slope stability (Kumar S. S., 2012). The geo-mechanics classification incorporates the following 6 parameters that are computable in the site and from cores [6]:
Uniaxial compressive strength
Rock quality designation (RQD)
Spacing of discontinuities
Condition of discontinuities
Ground water condition
Orientation of discontinuities
While using this classification system, the rock masses are divided into a number of structural regions. Each region is classified independently [12]. These six parameters are being given different rating based on different geological and geotechnical condition as shown in Table 5.
A. CLASSIFICATION PARAMETERS AND THEIR RATINGS* | |||||||||
Parameter | Range of values | ||||||||
1 | Strength of intact rock material | Point-load strength index | >10 MPa | 4–10 MPa | 2–4 MPa | 1–2 MPa | For this low range - unlaxial compressive test is preferred | ||
Unlaxial comp. Strength | >250 MPa | 100–250 MPa | 50–100 MPa | 25–50 MPa | 5–25 MPa | 1–5 MPa | < 1 MPa | ||
Rating | 15 | 12 | 7 | 4 | 2 | 1 | 0 | ||
2 | Drill core Quality RQD | 90% - 100% | 75% - 90% | 50% - 75% | 25% - 50% | <25% | |||
Rating | 20 | 17 | 13 | 8 | 3 | ||||
3 | Spacing of | > 2 m | 0.6–2. m | 200–600 mm | 60–200 mm | < 60 mm | |||
Rating | 20 | 15 | 10 | 8 | 5 | ||||
4 | Condition of discontinuities (see E) | Very rough surfaces | Slightly rough surfaces | Slightly rough surfaces | Slickensided surfaces or Gouge <5 mm thick or Separation 1–5 mm Continuous | Soft gouge >5 mm thick or Separation >5 mm Continuous | |||
Not continuous | Separation <1 mm | Separation <1 mm | |||||||
No separation | Slightly weathered walls | Highly weathered walls | |||||||
Unweathered wall rock | |||||||||
Rating | 30 | 25 | 20 | 10 | 0 | ||||
5 | Groundwater | Inflow per 10 m tunnel length (Mm) | None | < 10 | 10–25 | 25–125 | > 125 | ||
(Joint water press)/(Major principal σ) | 0 | <0.1 | 0.1, − 0.2 | 0.2–0.5 | >0.5 | ||||
General conditions | Completely dry | Damp | Wet | Dripping | Flowing | ||||
Rating | 15 | 10 | 7 | 4 | 0 | ||||
B. RATING ADJUSTMENT FOR DISCONTINUITY ORIENTATIONS (See F) | |||||||||
Strike and dip orientations | Very favorable | Favorable | Fair | Unfavorable | Very Unfavorable | ||||
Ratings | Tunnels & mines | 0 | −2 | −5 | −10 | −12 | |||
Foundations | 0 | −2 | −7 | −15 | −25 | ||||
Slopes | 0 | −5 | −25 | −50 | |||||
C. ROCK MASS CLASSES DETERMINED FROM TOTAL RATINGS | |||||||||
Rating | 100 ← 81 | 80 ← 61 | 60 ← 41 | 40 ← 21 | <21 | ||||
Class number | I | II | III | IV | V | ||||
Description | Very good rock | Good rock | Fair rock | Poor rock | Very poor rock | ||||
D. MEANING OF ROCK CLASSES | |||||||||
Class number | I | II | III | IV | V | ||||
Average stand-up time | 20 yrs. for 15 m span | 1 year for 10 m span | 1 week for 5 m span | 10 hrs for 2.5 m span | 30 min for 1 m span | ||||
Cohesion of rock mass (kPa) | >400 | 300–400 | 200–300 | 100–200 | <100 | ||||
Friction angle of rock mass (deg) | >45 | 35–45 | 25–35 | 15–25 | <15 | ||||
E. GUIDELINES FOR CLASSIFICATION OF DISCONTINUITY conditions | |||||||||
Discontinuity length (persistence) | <1 m | 1–3 m | 3–10 m | 10–20 m | >20 m | ||||
Rating | 6 | 4 | 2 | 1 | 0 | ||||
Separation (aperture) | None | <0.1 mm | 0.1–1.0 mm | 1–5 mm | >5 mm | ||||
Rating | 6 | 5 | 4 | 1 | 0 | ||||
Roughness | Very rough | Rough | Slightly rough | Smooth | Slickensided | ||||
Rating | 6 | 5 | 3 | 1 | 0 | ||||
Infilling (gouge) | None | Hard filling <5 mm | Hard filling >5 mm | Soft filling <5 mm | Soft filling >5 mm | ||||
Rating | 6 | 4 | 2 | 2 | 0 | ||||
Weathering | Unweathered | Slightly weathered | Moderately weathered | Highly weathered | Decomposed | ||||
Ratings | 6 | 5 | 3 | 1 | 0 | ||||
F. EFFECT OF DISCONTINUITY STRIKE AND DIP ORIENTATION IN TUNNELING** | |||||||||
Strike perpendicular to tunnel axis | Strike parallel to tunnel axis | ||||||||
Drive with dip - Dip 45–90° | Drive with dip - Dip 20–45° | Dip 45–90° | Dip 20–45° | ||||||
Very favorable | Favorable | Very unfavorable | Fair | ||||||
Drive against dip - Dip 45–90° | Drive against dip - Dip 20–45° | Dip 0–20 - Irrespective of strike° | |||||||
Fair | Unfavorable | Fair |
Rock mass rating system [5].
Some conditions are mutually exclusive. For example, if infilling is present, the roughness of the surface will be overshadowed by the influence of the gouge. In such cases use A.4 directly.
Modified after Wickham et al. (1972).
Based on the overall rating of RMR calculated form above mentioned parameters support systems are being recommended for the project site. Support recommendation based on RMR value is given in Table 6.
Rock mass class | Excavation | Rock bolts (20 mm diameter, fully grouted) | Shotcrete | Steel sets |
---|---|---|---|---|
I. Very good rock RMR: 81–100 | Full face, 3 m advance. | Generally no support required except spot boiling. | ||
II. Good rock RMR: 61–80 | Full face, 1–1.5 m advance. Complete support 20 m from face. | Locally, bolts in crown 3 m long, spaced 2.5 m wi1n occasional wire mesh. | 50 mm in crown where required. | None. |
III. Fair rock RMR: 41–60 | Top heading and bench 1.5–3 m advance in top heading. Commence support after each blast. Complete support 10 m from face. | Systematic bolts 4 m long, spaced 1.5–2 m in crown and walls with wire mesh in crown. | 50–100 mm in crown and 30 mm in sides. | None. |
IV. Poor rock RMR: 21–40 | Top heading and bench 1.0–1.5 m advance in top heading. Install support concurrently with excavation, 10 m from face. | Systematic bolts 4–5 m long, spaced 1–1.5 m in crown and walls with wire mesh. | 100–150 mm in crown and 100 mm in sides. | Light to medium ribs spaced 1.5 m where required. |
V. Very poor rock RMR: < 20 | Multiple drifts 0.5–1.5 m advance in lop heading. Install support concurrently with excavation Shotcrete as soon as possible after blasting. | Systematic bolts 5–6 m long, spaced 1–1.5 m in crown and walls with wire mesh. Bolt invert. | 150–200 mm in crown, 150 mm in sides, and 50 mm on face. | Medium to heavy ribs spaced 0.75 m with steel lagging and forepoling if required. Close invert. |
This system of rock mass classification was devised by Barton et al., (1979) in Norwegian Geotechnical Institute (NGI), explicitly for the design of tunnel established on 212 case histories. The rock mass classification system is generally used for tunnel design throughout the world and has been used in approximately 1260 various projects and considered as one of the best classification systems for design of tunnels (Kumar N., 2002). The extreme ratings of Q-System shows good quality of rock mass and the lowest ratings designate poor quality of rock mass. The minimum and maximum of Q-index ranges from 0.001 to 10000 on logarithmic scale. According to this classification system Q is the function of six independent parameters as defined by Eq. (3).
Where,
RQD Rock Quality designation index, Jn shows joint set number, Jr shows number of joint roughness estimated for the set of joint that is most terrible and dangerous to alignment of tunnel, Ja show joint alteration number estimated for the most dangerous and unfavorable set of joint along the alignment of tunnel, Jw is joint water condition which shows the water reduction factor, Stress Reduction Factor, SRF is comprised to consider the consequence of in-situ stress condition on the whole quality of Rock. The following comments are offered by Barton et al. (1974) for explaining the meaning of the parameters used to decide the value of Q.
The first quotient
The second quotient
The third quotient
1 | Rock quality designation (RQD) | RQD | |
---|---|---|---|
A | Very poor | >27 joints per m3 | 0–25 |
B | Poor | 20–27 joints per m3 | 25–50 |
C | Fair | 13–19 joints per m3 | 50–75 |
D | Good | 8–12 joints per m3 | 75–90 |
E | Excellent | 0–7 joints per m3 | 90–100 |
Rock quality designation (RQD) and volumetric jointing [13].
Note: i. Where RQD is reported, as ≤10 (including zero) the value 10 is used to assess the Q-value.
ii. RQD-intervals of 5 are adequately accurate.
2 | Jn values | Jn |
---|---|---|
A | Massive, no or few joints | 0.5–0.1 |
B | One joint set | 2 |
C | One joint set plus random joints | 3 |
D | Two joint sets | 4 |
E | Two joint sets plus random joints | 6 |
F | Three joint sets | 9 |
G | Three joint sets plus random joints | 12 |
H | Four joint sets, random, heavily jointed, “sugar cube”, etc. | 15 |
I | Crushed rock, earth like | 20 |
Joint set numbers (Jn) values [13].
Note: i. For tunnel intersection, use 3 Jn.
ii. Far portals, use 2 Jn.
3 | Jr values | Jr |
---|---|---|
a. Rock-wall contact and | ||
b. Rock-wall contact before 10 cm shear movement | ||
A | Discontinuous joints | 4 |
B | Rough or irregular undulating | 3 |
C | Smooth undulating | 2 |
D | Slickensides, undulating | 1.5 |
E | Rough irregular planar | 1.5 |
F | Smooth planar | 1 |
G | Slickensides planar | 0.5 |
Note: i. description refer to small scale features and intermediate scale features, in that order | ||
c. No-rock wall contact when sheared | ||
H | Zones containing clay minerals thick enough to prevent rock wall contact | 1 |
I | Sandy, gravely or crushed zone thick enough to prevent rock wall contact | 1 |
Note: ii. 1. Add 1.0 if the mean spacing of the relevant joint set is greater than 3 m. iii. Jr. = 0.5 can be used for planar, slickensides joints having lineation, provided that the lineation are oriented for minimum strength. |
Joint roughness number (Jr) values [13].
4 | Ja values | φT approx. | Ja |
---|---|---|---|
a. Rock-wall contact (no filling, just coatings) | |||
A | Hard impermeable filling firmly healed hard such as epidolite/quartz | 0.75 | |
B | Only surface staining with unaffected joint walls. | 25–35° | 1 |
C | A little altered joint-walls with Non-softening mineral coatings; sandy particles/clay free fractured rock, etc. | 25–30° | 2 |
D | Silty/sandy clay coatings. Small clay fraction. | 20–25° | 3 |
E | Mineral coatings with clay of low friction, such as Mica/Kaolinite etc. | 8–16° | 4 |
b. Rock-wall contact before 10 cm shear with a slim mineral filling | |||
F | Clay-free fragmented rock, sandy particles | 25–30° | 4 |
G | Strongly over-consolidated, non-softening, clay mineral fillings (less than 5 mm Continuous thickness). | 16–24° | 6 |
H | Medium or low over-consolidation, softening, clay mineral fillings (less than 5 mm continuous thickness). | 12–16° | 8 |
I | Swilling clay fillings, i.e., montmorillonite (less than 5 mm continuous thickness). | 6–12° | 8–12 |
c. No rock-wall contact due to thick mineral filling even after shear | |||
J | Zones or bands of crushed rock. Medium or low over-consolidation. | 16–24° | 6 |
K | Zones of clay, disintegrated rock Medium or low over-consolidation. | 12–16° | 8 |
L | Zones of clay, disintegrated rock. Joint alteration depends on the percentage of swelling clay-size particles. | 6–12° | 8–12 |
M | Thick continuous zones of clay or band of clay. Strongly over consolidated | 12–16° | 10 |
N | Thick continuous zones of clay. Joint alteration depends on the percentage of welling clay-size particles. | 12–16° | 13 |
O | Thick and continuous clay zones. Joint alteration depends on the percentage of swelling clay-size particles. | 6–12° | 13–20 |
Joint alteration (Ja) values [13].
5 | Jw values | Jw |
---|---|---|
A | Dry excavation or minor inflow (humid or a few drips) | 1.0 |
B | Medium inflow, infrequent outwash of joint filling (many drips/“rain”) | 0.66 |
C | Jet inflow or higher pressure in competent rock with unfilled joints | 0.5 |
D | Large inflow or higher pressure, considerable outwash of joint fillings | 0.33 |
E | Exceptionally high inflow continuing without perceptible decay. Causes outwash of material and possibly cave in | 0.2–0.1 |
F | Exceptionally high inflow continuing without perceptible decay. Causes outwash of material and possibly cave in | 0.1–0.05 |
Joint water reduction factor (Jw) values [13].
6 | SRF values | SRF | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
a. Weak zones crossing the underground excavation, which may cause loosening of rock mass | ||||
A | Multiple occurrences of weak zones within a short section containing clay or chemically disturbed very loose surrounding rock at any depth, or long section with incompetent rock. | 10 | ||
B | Multiple shear zones within a short section in competent day-free rock with weak surrounding rock at any depth. | 7.5 | ||
C | Single weak zone with or without clay or chemical disintegrated rock with depth less than or equal to 50 m. | 5 | ||
D | Loose, open joints, heavily jointed at any depth | 5 | ||
E | Single weak zones with or without clay or chemical disintegrated rock with depth greater than 50 m | 2.5 | ||
Note: i. Reduce these values of SRF by 25–50% if the weak zones but do not intersect the underground opening | ||||
b. Competent massive rock with stress problems | σc / σ1 | σΘ / σc | SRF | |
F | Low stress, near surface, open joints | >200 | <0.01 | 2.5 |
G | Medium stress, favorable stress condition | 200–10 | 0.01–0.3 | 1 |
H | High stress, very tight structure. Usually good for stability. Depending on stress orientation it may be unfavorable to stability. | 10–5 | 0.3–0.4 | 0.5–2 2–5* |
I | Moderate spalling land/slabbing after greater than one hour in massive rock | 5–3 | 0.5–0.65 | 5–50 |
J | Spalling or rock burst after a few minutes in massive rock | 3–2 | 0.65–1 | 50–200 |
K | Heavy rock burst and instant active deformation in massive rock | <2 | >1 | 200–400 |
Note: ii. For strongly anisotropic virgin stress field (if measured): when 5 ≤ σ1 / σ3 ≤ 10 reduce σc to 0.8 σc, and σΘ to 0.8 σΘ, when σ1 / σ3 > 10 reduce σc to 0.5 σc, and σΘ to 0.5 σΘ. iii. Few case records available where depth of crown below surface is less than span width Suggest SRF increase from 2.5 to 5 for such cases (see H). | ||||
c. Squeezing rock: plastic deformation in incompetent rock under the influence of high pressure | σΘ / σc | SRF | ||
L | Mild squeezing rock pressure | 1–5 | 5–10 | |
M | Heavy squeezing rock pressure | >5 | 10–20 | |
d. Swelling rock: chemical swelling activity depending on the presence of water | SRF | |||
N | Mild swelling rock pressure | 5–10 | ||
O | Heavy swelling rock pressure | 10–15 |
Stress reduction factor (SRF) values [13].
The values achieved for the different parameters using the above cited tables are then used for the determination of the value of the Q- system. Based on the Value of Q-System the Bortan et al. (1974) classify the quality of rock into nine different groups as shown in Table 13.
Q-System values range | Group | Classes of rock mass |
---|---|---|
0.001–0.01 | 3 | Exceptionally Poor |
0.01–0.1 | Extremely Poor | |
0.1–1 | 2 | Very Poor |
1–4 | Poor | |
4–10 | Fair | |
10–40 | 1 | Good |
40–100 | Very Good | |
100–400 | Extremely Good | |
400–1000 | Exceptionally Good |
Rock mass classification based on Q-system [13].
High professionalism is required for estimation of the values of parameter used in this system. The poor professional users may face trouble while approximating the score of the parameters and may approximate the lesser value for Q-System, which is considered the weakness of this classification system [14].
The width and altitude of the underground excavations mainly depend on the class of rock mass and considered as significant elements in design of underground excavations. The facet of width or altitude directly disturbs the stability when amplified or declined. To highlight the safety obligation, Bortan et al. (1974) further carry the addition of a fresh parameter to Q-System named as excavation support ratio (ESR). The lower value of ESR symbolizes the necessity of great level firmness and vice versa. The ESR is used for the estimation of support system that can be set up to sustain the stability and also associated to the anticipated use of excavation. Incorporating various conditions, different values of ESR are summarized in Table 14. Based on the width and altitude of underground excavation, ESR shows the Equivalent dimension that is achieved by means of the Eq. (4) [13].
7 | Excavation types | ESR values |
---|---|---|
A | Temporary mine openings | 3–5 |
B | Permanent mine openings, water tunnels for hydro power (excluding high Pressure penstocks), pilot tunnels, drifts and headings for large excavations. | 1.6 |
C | Storage rooms, water treatment plants, minor road and railway tunnels, surge Chambers, access tunnels. | 1.3 |
D | Power stations, major road and railway tunnels, civil defense chambers, Portal intersections. | 1.0 |
E | Underground nuclear power stations, railway stations, sports and public Facilities, factories. | 0.8 |
Excavation support ratio (ESR) [13].
The support chart proposed by Bortan et al. (1974) as shown in Figure 4, is based on the Q-system ratings and equivalent dimension for the endorsement of permanent support system for underground excavations. This chart provides a wide-ranging framework established on the empirical data that what kind of support system is recommended in case of rock bolt’s center to center spacing and the thickness sprayed concrete, and also give the energy absorption of fiber strengthened sprayed concrete.
Permanent support system recommendation chart for Q-system [13].
This classification system established and improved by Hoek and other researchers including the block size and its shear strength in order to estimate value of GSI quantitatively. The GSI index value for any rock mass is depend on the estimation techniques, expertise and reliability of these two input parameters. Sonmez and Ulusay developed the arithmetical basis for GSI value calculation and present quantitatively GSI chart as given in Figure 5 [16]. Further research were carried out for quantification of GSI value by (Cai, et al.,2004), they present the assessment method for block size, joint and joints wall condition for GSI value quantification.
Geological strength index chart [15].
GSI system should not be considered as the replacement for other classification systems like RMR and Q-System, as this system cannot recommend any support system for stability of rock mass. This system can only be used in estimation of rock mass properties and input parameters for numerical modeling [15]. The comprehensive practice for estimation of input parameters for numerical analysis of stress condition and the remedial measures is presented in Figure 5 (Hoek, 2013).
The GSI index may be estimated by subsequent various methods used for assessment of rock mass.
Method A: Using this method the GSI is estimated by skilled geologist or mining engineers from the data collected (observational data) at site and then the value of GSI is evaluated from chart [17].
Method B: In this method the GSI index is estimated by using other classification systems like RQD and RMR etc. when limited data is available. The GSI can be estimate from the well-known relationship presented by various researchers [17].
Method C: The sonmez and Ulusay considered structure rating (SR) and surface condition rating (SCR) for approximation of GSI value [17].
The Cai et al. (2004) used block volume (Vb) and joint surface condition factor (Jc) to approximation the GSI. The block volume having greater number of joint sets indicated as:
where, S is joint spacing.
The Jc defined by the roughness of joint, weathering and infilling, these are used to measure the joint surface condition factor by using the Eq. (6).
The Vb and Jc are used to precisely quantify the GSI value [17]. The quantitative chart for estimation of GSI suggested by sonmez and Ulusay [1999] is shown in Figure 6.
Quantitative estimation of GSI chart [15].
The empirical methods of design do not estimate accurately the reliability supports, redistribution of stresses, rock mass deformation [18]. These parameters are very important in designing and analysis of any excavation therefore, numerical analysis should be carried out for appropriate designing. The numerical methods are considered very useful to estimate the above parameters precisely and in minimum time as compared to other methods of design. Numerical methods used physical and strength properties of rock as input for analysis. For efficient and viable design the numerical and empirical methods are used in parallel [19, 20, 21, 22, 23].
Different researchers developed and present various numerical methods and models. These are divided into eight classes on the basis of four methods and two levels as shown in Figure 7 [24, 25].
Division of numerical models and methods [24, 25].
The numerical methods of design uses in rock/soil engineering are grouped into three classes for modeling in rock mechanics as discussed above.
The different continuum methods of design are as under.
Finite Difference Method (FDM)
Finite Element Method (FEM)
Boundary Element Method (BEM)
Finite Difference Method (FDM).
The Finite difference method (FDM) is the direct calculation of PDEs and transmitted the creative PDEs in term of unknown at grid point into a system of algebraic equations by interchange the fractional derivatives with difference at irregular or regular grid forced over problem areas. This system is solved due to establishing the required initial and boundary condition. This method is old but widely applied in the numerical modeling in rock mechanics. This method is based for explicit approach of discreet element method (DEM) [26].
Finite Element Method (FEM).
The Finite element method (FEM) splits the problem into sub-elements of smaller sizes and shapes with fitting the number of nodes at the vertices and at the side of discretization. FEM is mostly used to estimate the behavior of PDEs at elemental level and for signifying the behavior of elements; it produces the local algebraic equation. After creating the local equation the FEM gathered it according to topographic relation of node and elements and further put it into worldwide system of algebraic equation for receiving the required information after establishing the definite initial and boundary situations.
Boundary Element Method (BEM).
The Boundary element method is the precise method then FEM and FDM because of its easiness. This method involves the discretization of solution areas at boundary and thus decreases the problem dimension by simplifying the design input parameters. This method computes separately the essential information in the solution domains from the information at the boundary, which is achieved by the solution of boundary integral equation rather than direct solution of PDEs [26].
The different discontinuum methods of design are given below.
Discrete Element Method (DEM)
Discrete Fracture Network (DFN)
Following are the different Hybrid continuum/discontinuum methods of design:
Hybrid FEM/BEM methods
Hybrid DEM/DEM methods
Hybrid FEM/DEM methods
Other hybrid method/models
This method of design was developed by Clough et al., (1950). Due to wide application of this method in mining engineering especially tunneling, it get more attention for solving mining problems and popularity in this field [19]. The FEM divide problem into small parts and connect these parts at a point/nodes at the apexes and at the boundaries of meshing/discretization. The FEM has many applications in modeling in rock engineering design due to dealing with nonlinearity, boundary conditions and heterogeneity problems [26, 27].
The unidentified function over each element in FEM estimated through test function having its nodal values of anonymous system (in polynomial form). This practice is the fundamental supposition of FEM. For experimental function, it is mandatory to satisfy the principal of PDFs. In this research the FEM based software Phase2 was used for analysis of stresses and total displacement around tunnel. For experimental function it must be satisfied the principal of PDFs, which is given in Eq. (7).
Where,
Nij is the shape function or interpolation function; this must be defined into inherent coordinates for use of Gaussian quadratic integration, M is the element order.
Using shape function the problem original PDFs can be substituted by the arithmetical equation as given below.
Where,
Keij is the coefficient matrix,
Keij is also called the element stiffness matrix in term of elasticity problem which is given by Eq. (9).
Where,
Di is the elasticity matrix; Bi is the geometry matrix which is determined from the relation between displacement and strain.
In FEM the material properties of different materials can easily feed into FEM by assigning different properties to different elements distinctly.
The element may be in numerous forms i.e. one dimensional, two dimensional and three dimensional elements. One dimensional element having cross-sectional area and usually denoted by line sections or segment. Two dimensional element fields consist of triangle and quadrilateral. Three dimensional element field described by tetrahedron and parallelepiped. Some element shapes and node position used in two dimensional element fields [28] (Figure 8).
Some element forms and node position used in two dimensional [28].
It is the displacement within the element at any point when related to the displacement of the nodes. For instance the displacement of u and v within the quadrilateral element at any point represented by Eq. (10).
Where,
u1, v1….u4, v4 are nodal displacement and N1-N4 are shape function and that are connected with the nodes 1–4 correspondingly.
The shape function is additionally used for coordinate’s alteration of element in order to simplify the integration for calculation of stiffness matrix of some quantities for element. The coordinates (x, y, z), within the element of a point represented by Eq. (11) [28].
For two dimensional element domain the relation between strain and displacement represent by Eq. (12) [28].
It may express as:
Where,
It is formed when added the stiffness matrices of all elements. The equation for global stiffness is given as:
Where.
For material linear elastic material behavior the equation may by write as (Scheldt, 2002).
Following are finite element based software’s.
Displacement Analyzers Finite Element program (DIANA) software is developed by TNO Building and Construction Research, Netherlands. It is a flexible software and used in solving of linear and nonlinear structural engineering in 2D and 3D [28].
Phase2 developed by rock science for solving 2D non-linear problems like analysis of displacements and stresses around underground openings, in the field of mining and civil engineering [29].
ABAQUS software is developed by Hibbitt et al. (1978) in USA. It is used for linear and non-linear, problems and analyzes the stresses of any structure in 3D [28].
ANSYS software is developed for solving both linear and non-linear problems for isotropic and non-isotropic properties of materials [28].
Engineering design is the valuation using knowledge of basic sciences, mathematics and engineering sciences to convert resources optimally to meet quantified objectives. Its goal is to develop a solution to a known problem. There are different stages of design process; one can adapt it to the particular problem for solving it. We have variety of design techniques in rock engineering. They are classified in to three groups i.e. are Analytical, Empirical and Observational. Among, these empirical approaches can effectively be used for engineering judgment. Rock mass classification is one of the widely used empirical methods for the assessment of the rock mass behavior. The empirical methods of design do not estimate accurately the reliability of support systems, redistribution of stresses and rock mass deformation. Numerical methods are considered very useful to be used for estimate these parameters precisely and in short time as compared to other methods of design. So it is recommended that for efficient and viable design the numerical and empirical methods should be used in parallel for the assessment of soil/rock mass behavior to design any underground structure.
We acknowledge the support of all colleagues in the Department of Mining Engineering, University of Engineering and Technology Peshawar, Pakistan while compiling this work.
We have no conflict of interest.
Thanks and warm regards.
IntechOpen publishes different types of publications
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\n\nEdited Volumes can be comprised of different types of chapters:
\n\nRESEARCH CHAPTER – A research chapter reports the results of original research thus contributing to the body of knowledge in a particular area of study.
\n\nREVIEW CHAPTER – A review chapter analyzes or examines research previously published by other scientists, rather than reporting new findings thus summarizing the current state of understanding on a topic.
\n\nCASE STUDY – A case study involves an in-depth, and detailed examination of a particular topic.
\n\nPERSPECTIVE CHAPTER – A perspective chapter offers a new point of view on existing problems, fundamental concepts, or common opinions on a specific topic. Perspective chapters can propose or support new hypotheses, or discuss the significance of newly achieved innovations. Perspective chapters can focus on current advances and future directions on a topic and include both original data and personal opinion.
\n\nINTRODUCTORY CHAPTER – An introductory chapter states the purpose and goals of the book. The introductory chapter is written by the Academic Editor.
\n\nMonographs is a self-contained work on a particular subject, or an aspect of it, written by one or more authors. Monographs usually have between 130 and 500 pages.
\n\nTYPES OF MONOGRAPHS:
\n\nSingle or multiple author manuscript
\n\nCompacts provide a mid-length publishing format that bridges the gap between journal articles, book chapters, and monographs, and cover content across all scientific disciplines.
\n\nCompacts are the preferred publishing option for brief research reports on new topics, in-depth case studies, dissertations, or essays exploring new ideas, issues, or broader topics on the research subject. Compacts usually have between 50 and 130 pages.
\n\nCollection of papers presented at conferences, workshops, symposiums, or scientific courses, published in book format
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