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Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"10551",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Beyond Human Resources - Research Paths Towards a New Understanding of Workforce Management Within Organizations",title:"Beyond Human Resources",subtitle:"Research Paths Towards a New Understanding of Workforce Management Within Organizations",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Beyond Human Resources - Research Paths Towards a New Understanding of Workforce Management Within Organizations is a concise and pragmatic book about new trends and future lines in human resource management (HRM). It provides an overview of those crucial topics defining today’s HR function. It includes nine chapters offering a framework about urgent HR challenges and lines of actions to understand how HR adapts and innovates to face new organizational realities. This volume is a useful resource for graduate students in the HR discipline.",isbn:"978-1-83969-273-4",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-272-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-274-1",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92925",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"beyond-human-resources-research-paths-towards-a-new-understanding-of-workforce-management-within-organizations",numberOfPages:208,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"4a34551c1324fb084e902ad7f56e584d",bookSignature:"Gonzalo Sánchez-Gardey, Fernando Martín-Alcázar and Natalia García-Carbonell",publishedDate:"December 15th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10551.jpg",numberOfDownloads:2928,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:1,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:2,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 4th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 4th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 2nd 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 23rd 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 22nd 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"332101",title:"Prof.",name:"Gonzalo",middleName:null,surname:"Sánchez",slug:"gonzalo-sanchez",fullName:"Gonzalo Sánchez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332101/images/system/332101.jpg",biography:"Gonzalo Sánchez-Gardey is a full professor in the Business Management Department, Cádiz University, Spain. His research has been focused on two main lines: workforce diversity and strategic HRM and intellectual capital in academic research teams. He is co-author of several papers in top journals such as British Journal of Management, International Journal of Human Resource Management, Group Decision and Negotiation, and Journal of Intellectual Capital. He has coordinated several funding research projects and has been also a promotor of several dissertations. At the international level, he has been involved in organizing research events, resulting in diverse research stays at prestigious universities such as Oxford University and Cornell University.",institutionString:"University of Cádiz",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Cádiz",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"336929",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",middleName:null,surname:"Martín-Alcázar",slug:"fernando-martin-alcazar",fullName:"Fernando Martín-Alcázar",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336929/images/system/336929.png",biography:"Prof. Fernando Martín-Alcázar is a full professor in the Business Management Department, Cádiz University, Spain. He has more than thirty years of experience in human resource management (HRM) research affiliated with Cádiz University. Since the early 2000s, he has led the Spanish research group SEJ-449 ‘HRM: Social and intellectual capital’. He has published research papers in top journals such as Journal of Intellectual Capital, International Journal of Human Resource Management, British Journal of Management, Journal of Organizational Behavior, Business Research Quarterly, and European Management Journal. He has also coordinated relevant research projects under which several dissertations were developed. From an international perspective, he has been continuously involved in diverse research networks, doing research stays in Canada and Europe and organizing the International Workshop on HRM since 1997.",institutionString:"University of Cádiz",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Cádiz",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"336931",title:"Dr.",name:"Natalia",middleName:null,surname:"García-Carbonell",slug:"natalia-garcia-carbonell",fullName:"Natalia García-Carbonell",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336931/images/system/336931.png",biography:"Natalia García-Carbonell is an associate professor in the Business Management Department, Cádiz University, Spain. Her research interests focus on the influence of top management teams’ human capital in HRM strategy and academic research. She is co-author of different research articles published in top international journals such as Journal of Intellectual Capital, European Management Journal, and International Review of Administrative Sciences. She has also been involved in different funding research projects as both a researcher and principal investigator. In addition, she has actively participated in different research events as part of the organizing and scientific committees. She completed a research stay at Kingston University, London, in 2010.",institutionString:"University of Cádiz",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Cádiz",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1409",title:"Human Resource Management",slug:"human-resource-management"}],chapters:[{id:"75587",title:"The Future of HR",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96672",slug:"the-future-of-hr",totalDownloads:362,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The HR function is currently dealing with a range of questions: How can HR prepare for the future? Which HR competencies will be needed? Which aspects should be focused upon? The way forward may start with capacitating HR managers to obtain the necessary competencies and be enlightened about which aspects should get specific attention in order to prepare for the future world of work. In order to progress towards a new understanding of workforce management within organisations, it is essential to shed light on HR competencies, future workspace, engagement, employment relations and resilience. Although engagement and employment relations are dated, it will still be relevant in the future, especially due to the man–machine connection, remote working and other future world of work challenges. The rebalancing of priorities and rethinking HR, so that resilience become just as important to strategic thinking as cost and efficiency, are important. It is essential that HR must go beyond the here and now in order to properly prepare for the future world of work.",signatures:"Cecile M. Schultz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75587",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75587",authors:[{id:"340009",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Cecile M.",surname:"Schultz",slug:"cecile-m.-schultz",fullName:"Cecile M. Schultz"}],corrections:null},{id:"76658",title:"Transitioning HRM to HSM - Human Self-Management Goes beyond Traditional HR",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96981",slug:"transitioning-hrm-to-hsm-human-self-management-goes-beyond-traditional-hr",totalDownloads:317,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Traditional HRM consists of people and profit management. In the recent decades, HRM has transitioned into human capital management (HCM), focusing on people, planet and profit management. HCM views employees as assets who should be talent managed and supported to innovatively produce and perform through talent opportunities. HCM and talent management strategies promote multiple intelligences and enable multitalented potential to meet individual, organisational, economic and societal needs. Since 21st century humans seek meaningful employment that purposefully contribute to all sectors of society, businesses need to go beyond HR, innovatively exploring how all employees can be developed, thus transforming their high potential into entrepreneurship ventures. Can organisations transition HRM to HCM providing talent creation opportunities, while strategically aiming towards transforming employees into self-managing talent entrepreneurs? The proposed HRM-HSM Transitioning Model with five key steps and roles for HR, line managers and employees may hold the answer to this question, as explored in this conceptual chapter.",signatures:"Cookie M. Govender",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76658",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76658",authors:[{id:"341570",title:"Dr.",name:"Cookie M.",surname:"Govender",slug:"cookie-m.-govender",fullName:"Cookie M. Govender"}],corrections:null},{id:"75507",title:"Strategic Human Resource Management: 37 Years in Academia, How Many in Practice? A Focus on Large Companies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96677",slug:"strategic-human-resource-management-37-years-in-academia-how-many-in-practice-a-focus-on-large-compa",totalDownloads:227,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"In the fast-changing global workplace of today, maintaining competitive advantage has become imperative to survival. Employees matter today more than ever since they become non-imitable sources of firm uniqueness that can deliver value to every stakeholder. Based on this, the field of Strategic HRM has gained a special interest among researchers and practitioners since it employs a strategic approach to the role of employees within the organisations. However, looking at the business world results, it looks like there is a divorce between academia and practitioners and that they are operating in a parallel way. With the aim of evidencing this gap and echoing this issue, this chapter is structured as follows. It starts with a summary of the research conducted under the SHRM field in the last two decades. It follows with a section that evidences the gap between research and practice showing the results of global companies’ surveys related to people management. In the third section a special focus on big companies is done due to their importance when legitimizing managerial trends. The chapter finishes with some conclusions and thoughts for future managers.",signatures:"Alaine Garmendia, Unai Elorza and Urtzi Uribetxebarria",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75507",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75507",authors:[{id:"339882",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaine",surname:"Garmendia",slug:"alaine-garmendia",fullName:"Alaine Garmendia"},{id:"346792",title:"Dr.",name:"Unai",surname:"Elorza",slug:"unai-elorza",fullName:"Unai Elorza"},{id:"346793",title:"Mr.",name:"Urtzi",surname:"Uribetxebarria",slug:"urtzi-uribetxebarria",fullName:"Urtzi Uribetxebarria"}],corrections:null},{id:"75594",title:"Corporate Governance Ideology, Human Resource Practices and Senior Staff Salaries",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96741",slug:"corporate-governance-ideology-human-resource-practices-and-senior-staff-salaries",totalDownloads:248,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter examines the link between corporate governance ideology and HR (human resource) practices involved in the important and ongoing issue of senior staff salaries. In the spirit of financialization and hyper-individuals, the mainstream corporate governance ideology promotes beliefs about competitive pay and managerial power. These beliefs shape the design and implementation of HR practices by legitimizing the ‘common-sense’ assumption that senior staff members should, primarily, be rewarded for meeting corporate goals. However, our discussion critiques the use of this corporate governance ideology for encouraging myopia and silence amongst remuneration committee members in response to growing inequality. This is exemplified by an inductive analysis of remuneration committee minutes taken from British universities (n = 67). Interestingly, this example also highlighted a marginalized belief about sacrificial leadership that countered this growth under alternative ideology in the spirit of altruism. The chapter recommends the radical proposal that remuneration committees should expand their remit beyond only considering senior staff salaries and promote HR practices that will embed altruism and equality.",signatures:"Nicholas Black and Peter Stokes",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75594",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75594",authors:[{id:"341401",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicholas",surname:"Black",slug:"nicholas-black",fullName:"Nicholas Black"},{id:"342029",title:"Prof.",name:"Peter",surname:"Stokes",slug:"peter-stokes",fullName:"Peter Stokes"}],corrections:null},{id:"75366",title:"The Emergence of Risk and Return on Human Capital Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96363",slug:"the-emergence-of-risk-and-return-on-human-capital-development",totalDownloads:299,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Performance improvement has been the focus of both public and private sector organisations for decades, but the extent to which human capital and human capital resources play a central role, has come into sharp focus only in recent years. Human capital, whether it is enhanced through local or foreign direct investment, can be turned into a dynamic capability, optimising and continually transforming collective human skills, competencies and expertise to improve performance and competitive capability. However, to understand the true contribution of human capital to dynamic capabilities, managers and team leaders require the ability to measure and manage the results of human capital improvement or training. Yet, they hardly do, for various reasons. In this chapter, the risk and return on human capital is highlighted, as well as the successes and improved relations organisations and countries may enjoy from understanding, managing and reporting on this important building block to human capital development.",signatures:"Cashandra C. Mara",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75366",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75366",authors:[{id:"339919",title:"Dr.",name:"Cashandra C.",surname:"Mara",slug:"cashandra-c.-mara",fullName:"Cashandra C. Mara"}],corrections:null},{id:"76209",title:"Muddy Realities of Organizational Existence: Should HRD Dive in or Take an Ostrich Defense from the Sidelines? Review of Literature, Framework Development and Future",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97122",slug:"muddy-realities-of-organizational-existence-should-hrd-dive-in-or-take-an-ostrich-defense-from-the-s",totalDownloads:211,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Workforce management goes beyond the management of people and the management of human resources processes and projects, to deciphering organizational climate of operation, activities and behaviors that could hinder organizational progress thereby negating good strategy implementation plans. This chapter intentionally selected several challenges that usually entangle organizations, throwing them into muddy pools where entangling meshes of corruption, workplace incivility, stigmatization, crises and management failure among others envelope and bring some of these organization to their perilous ending. The chapter asserts that the field of Human Resources Development (HRD) could play a meaningful role in the identification of organizational challenges and the initialization of the designing and implementation of interventions that could address systems blockages. By getting inside the challenging muddy pools, HRD would assume a strategic position in redefining its purpose of existence by decoding organizational bottlenecks and introducing interventions that could create new paths and new avenues for organizational effectiveness and sustainability even during environmental turbulences. Through a detailed discussion of negative issues bedeviling organizations, including the crisis brought by the corona virus pandemic that has not spared organizations either, this chapter asserts that HRD cannot take an ostrich defense of burying its head in the sand while chanting the ‘I see no evil, I hear no evil’ slogan pretending that challenges bedeviling organizations are not HRD’s concern. The chapter asserts that through new research pathways and the provision of appropriate interventions, HRD has great potentialities of removing systems blockages and supporting both leadership and the workforce to be flexible and adaptable to environmental turbulences of organizational operations.",signatures:"Kebafentse Tshiamo Modisane",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76209",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76209",authors:[{id:"230208",title:"Dr.",name:"Kebafentse",surname:"Tshiamo Modisane",slug:"kebafentse-tshiamo-modisane",fullName:"Kebafentse Tshiamo Modisane"}],corrections:null},{id:"76531",title:"Impacts of Mobbing and Bossing in Human Resource Management",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97539",slug:"impacts-of-mobbing-and-bossing-in-human-resource-management",totalDownloads:128,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Nowadays, every organisation is looking for new approaches and ways that lead to the optimal usage of workforce and potential of workers which in turn leads to improved status of the business subject within the competitive environment. A still unappreciated element in business management is the level of relationship between the managers and employees and among the employees themselves. Good social relationships, open in-house climate and quality communication significantly influence the behaviour of employees and their performance, contribute to participation of employees in fulfilling the organisation’s goals and by that increasing the performance of the workers and the organisation as a whole. This sphere of social relationships, in-house climate and quality of communication is a stabilizing or unstabilizing element in businesses. In and unsatisfactory and stressful environment, undesirable fluctuations in the employees’ performance occur. Harmful practices (bullying), which prevent the optimal usage of the workforce, lead to the creation of an unfriendly and disfunctional Environment, breakup of teams, they lower the creativity of the employees and encourage bad attendance and fluctuations. A decline in morale of the whole company occurs and the performance, quality of work and productivity of workers also decreases. In spite of the aforementioned reasons why we should fight against these harmful practices which show signs of bullying, more than 40% of Czech employees between 2007 and 2011 have experienced some form of bullying.",signatures:"Darja Holátová and Monika Březinová",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76531",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76531",authors:[{id:"208227",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Monika",surname:"Březinová",slug:"monika-brezinova",fullName:"Monika Březinová"}],corrections:null},{id:"75201",title:"Riders, Rights and Collective Action",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96178",slug:"riders-rights-and-collective-action",totalDownloads:335,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The aim of this chapter is to develop a conceptual framework for analysing the collective actions and organisational practices of delivery and transportation gig-workers, building on Rosa Luxemburg’s colonisation concept and on the power resources theory employed in current trade union analysis. The empirical bases are recent surveys and studies on platform work, the analysis of websites and social media communities for the collective action of platform workers and conversations with platform activists in several European countries. The specific characteristics of platform workers’ collective actions and organisational practices are examined with a view to identifying their potential and the opportunities they afford in the light of different trade union power resources.",signatures:"Holm-Detlev Köhler",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75201",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75201",authors:[{id:"339811",title:"Prof.",name:"Holm-Detlev",surname:"Köhler",slug:"holm-detlev-kohler",fullName:"Holm-Detlev Köhler"}],corrections:null},{id:"77136",title:"Beyond HRM’s Performance Management: Towards Strategic Workforce Resilience",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96703",slug:"beyond-hrm-s-performance-management-towards-strategic-workforce-resilience",totalDownloads:204,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"HRM professionals’ reliance on using teamwork, organisational planning and managerially- controlled appraisal measures within the framework of High Performance Organisation (HPO) and High Performance Work Systems (HPWS) has outlived its useful applicability and sustainability in today’s SME crisis-ridden environment. This chapter highlights the gap between the HRM discipline, whose measures to resolve the organisational performance problem have instead resulted in a deepening of the performance crisis in resource-constrained SMEs and an urgent need to address such a fundamental problem through the creation, development and sustenance of more innovative measures. A critique of HPO and HPWS’s structural and systemic approach to solve the effective organisational performance implementation gap led to an additional discovery, which is how to solve the performance problem competently and sustainably such that SMEs have a more strategically viable future. The study’s interpretivism paradigm backed up by a survey of 85 management and staff respondents in a longitudinal study spanning 7 years in the UK highlighted 6 important themes. These were combined to develop a new ‘Strategic Workforce Resilience Management Model’ as a way to solve the SME performance quagmire. This fills the performance implementation and strategic sustainability gaps and introduces resilience characteristics into the way HRM professionals should be managing the performance problem. The limitations, the implications and future research areas are discussed.",signatures:"John Mendy",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77136",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77136",authors:[{id:"340622",title:"Dr.",name:"John",surname:"Mendy",slug:"john-mendy",fullName:"John Mendy"}],corrections:null},{id:"79249",title:"AI-Powered HCM: The Analytics and Augmentations",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100475",slug:"ai-powered-hcm-the-analytics-and-augmentations",totalDownloads:157,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Artificial intelligence (AI) is seemingly everywhere, red-hot right now, livewire and livelihood for everyone contributing $15 trillion to the World Economy and amplifying Society (Humans 2.O), auguring Service (Cyborg Concierge) and augmenting Management (C-Suite). The waning of ‘Enterprise Technologies’ (R/3 Legacy Systems) and waxing of ‘Dynamic Technologies’ viz., Artificial Intelligence (AI), Deep Learning (DL) and Machine Learning (ML) reshaped, redefined and rewrite the concept of ‘Human Capital Management (HCM)’. The ‘Human Capital’ has always been a top challenge and ‘Human Talents’ are ever scarce resources even today. The Human Capital Management (HCM) and Human Capital Intelligence (HCI) emerged as ‘Natural Intelligence Science’ for Chief Human Resources Officer (CHRO). The HCM Functions have been augmenting, ‘app’ified (an application form) a nerve in a large, diagnosing and detecting problems, proposing the promising solutions. AI-powered HCM embedded into the workplace and transformed the workforce from doing digital to being digital, from centre driven to human-centric, from compliance and control to trust and empowerment. In dictum, AI and ML will be ‘Bright and Shiny Objects’ in the future reinventing Employee Workforce Analytics and redefining Employee Interface (EI) and refining Employee Experience (EX).",signatures:"Kovvali Bhanu Prakash, Appidi Adi Sesha Reddy and Ravi Kiran K. Yasaswi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79249",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79249",authors:[{id:"339102",title:"Prof.",name:"Kovvali Bhanu",surname:"Prakash",slug:"kovvali-bhanu-prakash",fullName:"Kovvali Bhanu Prakash"},{id:"356969",title:"Prof.",name:"Appidi Adi Sesha",surname:"Reddy",slug:"appidi-adi-sesha-reddy",fullName:"Appidi Adi Sesha Reddy"},{id:"428387",title:"Mr.",name:"Ravi Kiran K.",surname:"Yasaswi",slug:"ravi-kiran-k.-yasaswi",fullName:"Ravi Kiran K. Yasaswi"}],corrections:null},{id:"75937",title:"The Emerging New Order: Exploring New Ways to Build an Internal Gig Employment System for IT/ITES Organizations",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96731",slug:"the-emerging-new-order-exploring-new-ways-to-build-an-internal-gig-employment-system-for-it-ites-org",totalDownloads:226,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The IT/ITeS industry has had an impressive growth trajectory over the past two decades. However, it continues to be plagued with talent shortages, managing employee satisfaction, and growth aspirations while trying to reduce employee attrition. COVID-19 has presented an unprecedented opportunity for IT Service organizations to transform the established paradigm of working. The industry has been exploring non-linear growth models that address the talent demand–supply gap. With skilled talent shortage continuing to limit the industry growth, non-linear initiatives of growth are urgently required. Based on the self-determination theory and the dynamic capabilities framework, we propose a model of “Internal Gig” worker (I-GIG) for the IT Services industry. The new I-GIG workforce would be providing non-linear outcomes without increasing costs significantly. We also argue that this model would be motivational for employees who opt for it, with commensurate reward motivations to engage them. Additionally, this model would enable the work-anywhere, anytime, and leverage talent availability on a global scale. We adopt a qualitative research approach to understand the mechanisms to institutionalize internal gig working, the potential issues such a system may face, and then suggest an internal and external enabling framework that organizations need to adapt to support internal gig work.",signatures:"Debolina Dutta, Prem Mirchandani and Anasha Kannan Poyil",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75937",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75937",authors:[{id:"243903",title:"Dr.",name:"Debolina",surname:"Dutta",slug:"debolina-dutta",fullName:"Debolina Dutta"},{id:"346674",title:"Ms.",name:"Anasha Kannan",surname:"Poyil",slug:"anasha-kannan-poyil",fullName:"Anasha Kannan Poyil"},{id:"346675",title:"Mr.",name:"Prem",surname:"Mirchandani",slug:"prem-mirchandani",fullName:"Prem Mirchandani"}],corrections:null},{id:"75817",title:"Exploring Critical Factors for Innovative Capacities: A Life-History Research",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96980",slug:"exploring-critical-factors-for-innovative-capacities-a-life-history-research",totalDownloads:215,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A large volume of literature within human resource management studies and related disciplines suggests that innovation and learning are key factors for economic growth in the knowledge economy. Yet, surprisingly little is known about the key actors in this process – the inventive actors – and the factors that influence their innovative capacities. Information about individual inventors is difficult to obtain and therefore previous research has refrained from performing systematic empirical studies on this topic. Existing studies are often based on quantitative analyses of patent data, and empirics often focus on specific industries or technologies. Such studies provide great knowledge of the importance of specific patent takers for innovation and the knowledge economy; however, patent data do not provide information on influential factors on the innovative capacity of inventors and therefore do not provide any explanation concerning what it is that creates successful inventors. In other words, what we have is knowledge of patent takers in specific industries or technologies, but we lack an understanding of the socio-cultural factors and environments that shape individuals’ innovative capacities. Analysing the life-histories of three inventors allocated into three distinct ideal types, this chapter aims at understanding the links between socio-cultural factors and innovation. Life-history research through in-depth interviews provides a rich quantity of narratives and recorded experiences serving as a springboard for more comprehensive understandings of the actors, networks and events that influence innovative capacities.",signatures:"Christine Benna Skytt-Larsen and Høgni Kalsø Hansen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75817",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75817",authors:[{id:"340352",title:"Dr.",name:"Christine Benna",surname:"Skytt-Larsen",slug:"christine-benna-skytt-larsen",fullName:"Christine Benna Skytt-Larsen"},{id:"340361",title:"Mr.",name:"Høgni Kalsø",surname:"Hansen",slug:"hogni-kalso-hansen",fullName:"Høgni Kalsø Hansen"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6036",title:"Human Capital and Competences in Project Management",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99f3552a2d667e6e7339aeeba60f126c",slug:"human-capital-and-competences-in-project-management",bookSignature:"Manuel Otero-Mateo and Andres Pastor-Fernandez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6036.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"61295",title:"Prof.",name:"Manuel",surname:"Otero-Mateo",slug:"manuel-otero-mateo",fullName:"Manuel Otero-Mateo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6643",title:"Human Resource Planning for the 21st Century",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c6321990447465816eb4f774b8cc2f25",slug:"human-resource-planning-for-the-21st-century",bookSignature:"Josiane Fahed-Sreih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6643.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"103784",title:"Dr.",name:"Josiane",surname:"Fahed-Sreih",slug:"josiane-fahed-sreih",fullName:"Josiane Fahed-Sreih"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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This book aims to provide information about the design of ion exchangers, their application in environmental technologies, and in biotechnology and pharmaceutical applications. This book will be written by authors in the field of experimental methods and critical reviews from multi-disciplines such as chemistry, membranes, and materials science. Among others, some of the topics covered will be Structure of ion exchangers, Synthesis of ion exchangers, Synthesis of inorganic ion exchangers, Properties of ion exchangers, Ion exchange voltammetry, Ion exchange as a separations method, Ion exchange in analytical chemistry, Ion exchange and extraction, Ion exchange membranes, Preparation of organic-inorganic hybrid ion exchangers, Application in environmental technologies, Application in biotechnology and pharmaceutical applications.
\r\n\r\n\tIn this book, the authors will focus on recent studies, applications, and new technological developments on the fundamental properties of ion exchangers.
",isbn:"978-1-83768-391-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83768-390-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83768-392-5",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"8dd8a87a8e42422ab2f346d7d33f2f18",bookSignature:"Dr. Selcan Karakuş",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12301.jpg",keywords:"Selectivity, Diffusion, Isotherm, Electrodialyzer, Computer Simulation, Activity Coefficients, Thermodynamic, Kinetic Model, Semiempirical Models, Ion Exchange Resins, Ion Exchange Composites, Biosorbents",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 10th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 8th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 6th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 25th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 24th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Multidisciplinary Nanoscience Technology Research Group Leader from Istanbul University (Cerrahpasa) and holder of three registered patents on advanced metal/ metal oxide-based nanostructures. 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However, they are either very expensive or much closed. The important theoretical and practical results obtained by the researches are mostly limited to specific scientific institutions. Thus, the process of knowledge concentration is going on and knowledge becomes being accessed only by limited groups of people. That is why the most urgent task is to give the possibility of using this knowledge by wider groups of investigators for whom this knowledge is intended to and is in need of. Besides access to knowledge, such shortcomings are characterized as poorly structured and insufficiently systematized information on the Internet. In addition, the information is widely distributed through various Internet sites, numerous electronic archives and libraries. From the preceding, it is evident that the necessity of new method is urgent to develop specialized Internet knowledge portal using vast amounts of various informational and computational resources in definite sphere. Ontology model takes into the account specifics of Internet portals. Suggested model gives the possibility to systematize and structure Internet portals information as well as to organize informational search.
\nThe aim of this research is to improve access to engineering knowledge by means of designing specialized Internet portal of engineering knowledge (e.g., the portal in the field of strength of materials). The following tasks are to be solved:
qualitative knowledge presentation on the portal;
to systematize and structure information;
to formalize the engineering knowledge and
to organize an effective and purposeful search.
It is necessary to design the model of knowledge representation at the portal of engineering knowledge. It is clear that the model of high-quality designing to represent knowledge at the portal may allow realizing all the abovementioned requirements. Ontology was used as a model knowledge representation at the portal [1].
\nFormally, the ontology may be specified as
\nwhere
\n
\n
R is the set of relations specified for classes:
\n
where
\n\n\n
\n\n
\n\n
\n\n
\n
F is the set of limits for values of attribute notions and relations;
D is the set of class exemplar.
Ontology described here may serve to present notions that are necessary for describing knowledge in the field of strength of materials as well as for engineering activities performed in this context.
\nThe ontology of the portal in the field of strength of materials includes four ontologies such as engineering activity ontology, engineering knowledge ontology, engineering computations ontology and subject domain ontology [2]: \n
Ontologies of the portal.
Engineering ontology consists of engineering activity ontology, engineering knowledge ontology and engineering computations ontology:
\nEngineering activity ontology includes general classes of notions related to the organization of engineering activities such as
Engineering knowledge ontology includes the meta-notions that specify structures to describe the problem. The classes of this ontology correspond to
Engineering computations ontology unites classes that describe calculation abilities realized at the portal. Engineering computations ontology includes classes such as
The classes enumerated are related to each other with classes of one ontology and to the classes of other ontologies by means of associative relations. For example, classes of engineering activity ontology “
Subject domain ontology represents general knowledge of subject domain such as hierarchy of notion classes and their semantic relations. Ontology of subject domain describes the strength of materials as a whole as science and its parts, notions and their connections. These notions are realizations of meta-notions of engineering knowledge ontology and may be put in the order into hierarchy “is-are”. For example, “
The search for information is also based on ontology model. Due to this fact, user can set the search request not only with the help of keywords, but also with the help of terms of subject domain, which are well-known to the user. The main elements of such search request are basic notions of ontology: its classes, attributes and relations of various kinds. Search request that is formed by means of ontology is simple for user and is full from a perspective of information found. For example, the search request: “
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
&
\n\n
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After presentation of search request in the terms of ontology model, let us make the formalized presentation of them:
\n\n\n
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For search request realization such description of classes and relations are actual:
classes: \n
relation of “is-are” type: \n
associative relations: \n
\n\n
With the help of formal description given earlier, search request could be given as shown in \nTable 1\n. \nFigure 2\n shows the process of search through the elements of portal ontology. Class and relations exemplars, set by user in the terms of search request, are marked with bold text and bold line. Class “
Search request | \nDescription | \n
---|---|
\n\n | \nResearch result | \n
\n\n | \nHeld with steel | \n
\n\n | \nReceived by Gain V.A. in 2008 | \n
\n\n | \nDescribed in the book “Steel behavior”, published by the German Institute of Material Science” | \n
Search request formalization.
Search request realization process.
From the practical point of view, implementation of the method will make it possible to give the most optimal result for search request. As the search process is held according to the tree of terms determined in the ontology model, the search query implementation makes all of its terms associated with the relationship of the ontological model. Thus, the result of a search query will be the most appropriate term assignments to the terms in the search query.
\nMost of the portals use relationship databases to organize and to process data. To provide information on the existing knowledge portal in the form of ontological models, it is possible to use a relational database to get data for ontological model designing.
\nThis module should give API to represent ontological model for knowledge portal. This model is based on data from the database. Ontological model that is accessible via modules API is in RDF format. \nFigure 3\n presents the portal with ontology integration schema of used relational database. The schema includes:
\nRelational database;
Knowledge portal component;
Generator of Web Ontology Language (OWL) representation and
Actor (service or user).
Schema of the portal with ontology integration.
To get ontological representation, actor makes requests to OWL generator, OWL generator uses portal database to generate RDF document that corresponds to the ontological model. The main advantage of this approach is that it is not necessary to modify existing knowledge portal.
\nLet us consider the process of generating RDF document (\nFigure 4\n). To generate RDF document using specific program module it is in need to link ontology classes with SQL query. Module gets query using the class name and execute SQL request to database of portal. When database returns appropriate data, the module generates this data in RDF view. After all processing, the module returns RDF document to the client.
\nThe process of RDF document generation.
Knowledge portals have complex structure. It should be possible to visualize the ontological model on the portal. The end user should have tools for the knowledge portal structure modification using its functionality. Basic requirements for visualization module are as follows:
\nability to integrate with portal interface,
visualize ontological model as a graph,
each class of models should have unique color and
visualization should be able to adapt to complex models
Proposed solution developed as a JavaScript module that can be integrated easily with portal interface. Examples of visualization are shown in \nFigure 5\n.
\nVisualization of classes.
The classes have different colors. Class “
The main feature of semantic technology is to store and maintain the integrity of semantics (meaning of knowledge) separately from the contents of data files and from the code of the programs that implement them [4]. Semantic simulation technology differs from traditional methods that combine the meaning of data and the processing procedures directly in the program code. This often leads to the need for a radical manual redevelopment of data structures and total revision of programs during their development or migrate to another platform.
\nSemantic technologies allow obtaining logical conclusions based on the rules of conceptual models and perform automatic redesign of data structures. Experience the semantic modeling of intelligent systems using ontologies indicates that any subject domain (SD) can be described considerable number of ontologies. From the methodological point of view, it is quite understandable—each ontology reflects a person’s perception of the developer of the functioning model of ontology (the main entities, classes, subclasses and their relationships within the general idea about the subject domain). Therefore, it is advisable for the developer to apply such methodology and tools, which allow not only to develop an ontology model, but also to correct it in the process of mastering it, and understanding the features of its functioning, been aimed at the most correct model development.
\nUnder the term ontology, we understood a system of concepts domain, which is represented by a set of entities and their properties, interconnected relations, in order to develop knowledge bases on their basis. Consequently, the main purpose of ontological modeling is to develop a formalized knowledge model of the domain, which is stored electronically and may further improved through a more in-depth understanding of the features of the subject domain.
\nFor the implementation of knowledge-based systems, it is expedient to use common language for describing ontologies such as OWL Lite, OWL DL and OWL 2 [5] that use discriminatory logic for knowledge work. In this case, the semantic modeling process has been performed using the open knowledge base connectivity (OKBC) [6]. This model is based on the theory of frames and uses concepts such as “conceptualization of classes,” “objects,” “slots,” “facets” and “inheritance” for representing knowledge about the subject domain, which allows to develop various knowledge-based applications with a high level of interoperability.
\nThe formal semantics of the subject domain on the OWL describes how to obtain logical investigations, having the ontology of SD, which is to obtain facts that are not represented literally in the ontology, but logically follow from its semantics.
\nAn applied ontology should describe concepts that depend both on the ontology of tasks and on the ontology of the subject domain. The purpose of the applied ontology is to develop an electronic model of knowledge that allows:
\ncreation of general terminology of a subject domain, for common use and understanding by all users—system developers;
give an exact and consistent definition of the meaning of each term and
provide semantic tasks using axioms that automatically allow you to answer the main questions about the subject domain.
One of the most common languages for representing ontology is the Web Ontology Language (OWL). The OWL language contains elements such as classes, properties and individuals [7]. All concepts of the subject domain are divided into classes, subclasses and instances (copies). The tag describes classes as:
\n<
Thus, the process of semantic modeling using the unified OKBC model consists of the following steps:
\nDefinition of the concepts of the subject domain, that is, the basic concepts such as classes, entities, categories (Active Ontology, Entities and Classes) that describe the SD;
Determination of the set of properties, which describes the properties of the concepts of SD and allow in the final sense to develop a knowledge base of the domain. Formation of concept properties in AKVS is performed using the mechanisms of definition, attributes and roles (Data Properties);
Establishing relations between concepts of the subject domain and their properties using the mechanisms of forming predicates (Object Properties), which should be taken into account the functional orientation of relations, for example, “solves problems”, or “is part of”, and so on;
Setting numerical or logical constraints, which are used to describe the properties of instances (Individuals) of the knowledge base. This is realized through the mechanisms of axiom definition (Axiom) or facet (Value). For example, the maximum speed for terrestrial objects is limited to the value;
Formation of knowledge base using the mechanism of description of instances of the knowledge base and its filling (Individual by class);
Development of typical query patterns for the knowledge base using the query language, DL Query and the output machine, Reasoner;
Checking the correctness of the functioning of the ontological model of SD from the point of view of its correspondence to the initial goals and the task and finding gaps in the ontology using the OntoGraf research mechanism. The evaluation is based on the analysis of the results of testing by various output machines (Reasoner) and the compilation of various types of requests;
Development of a strategy for improving the ontological model of SD and carrying out the relevant work.
Taking into account the complexity and ambiguity that arises in the process of describing the subject domain, modern science offers several approaches to the creation of ontology:
\nTop-down. The use of this method requires the definition of the most general concepts of the domain, with further detail of objects in the class hierarchy and the concepts of the subject domain.
Down to the top. This approach begins with the definition of detailed and specific classes (the end of the tree of the hierarchy), followed by grouping into more general concepts.
Combination of the first two methods. First, a description of the concepts that are fully understood, then associate them into groups and develop more complex concepts of subject domain.
It is advisable to start developing an ontology with the purpose of determining its scope and scale. That is, the answer to a few basic questions:
\nWhich SD will cover the ontology?
What types of questions should answer information in ontology be?
Who will use and maintain an ontology?
Of course, the answers to these questions change during the process of designing ontology software, but at any time, they allow you to limit the scale of the ontology if it becomes too complicated.
\nConsider the methodology for creating an ontology in an example of An Intelligent System For Studying Hydroacoustical Processes.
\nThe main quality of such systems is the accumulation of two types of information:
\nreal data—hydroacoustic as a result the marine area scanning,
data modeling—obtained as a result of mathematical modeling, the behavior of the object.
Modeling of hydroacoustical processes requires the development of component models, including the information model of the water area, the database of the parameters of the marine environment (sea noise, ground, coastline, water temperature, deep, salinity) and the parameters of hydroacoustic devices and their interaction with the modeling medium.
\nHydroacoustic processes allow to take into account both problems of direct modeling (for the purpose of obtaining objective data-knowledge about the marine facilities under study), and combine the obtained data with expert knowledge (represented as a characteristic set of parameters of real objects and their assessments based on the expert’s experience).
\nGeneralized structure of the knowledge-based modeling system for the identification, classification and definition of parameters of movement of marine facilities is shown in \nFigure 6\n. The conceptual model consists of such structural components [8]:
\nSimulation of marine environment performs the functions of creating a simulation scene (parameters of depths, temperatures and salinity, type of bottom, coastline, etc.) and location and specification of the parameters of marine objects (type, size, direction, speed, etc.);
Modeling of hydroacoustic device sets the scene of the location of fixing devices and their parameters (type, dimensions, sensitivity);
Hydroacoustic signal analysis is a set of tools for creating models for generating sonar signals and working out methods for their analysis (fast Fourier transforms, digital filtering, spectral, frequency, correlation analysis, etc.);
Knowledge base maintenance contains a set of tools for testing models of object recognition, their identification, classification and definition of the parameters of the movement of objects, including methods of fuzzy logic;
Knowledge base maintenance is intended for the organization of tools for forming a knowledge base for solving problems of identification and classification of marine objects;
Inference engine designed to organize logical inference based on accumulated knowledge, including means of composition of product rules, self-learning and adaptation;
Information storage is the core of the system and provides information to all the structural components of the modeling system, and also contains information with expert assessments of the experiments conducted;
Administration and management tools provide settings for services and applications to manage user access rights to information resources, manage security and performance of the modeling system.
Modeling system structure.
The proposed system provides opportunities for end-to-end documentation of the processes of hydroacoustic experiments, which gives additional advantages in the formation and accumulation of knowledge about the studied processes, including the formation of scenes and modeling scenarios. Simulation involves the following steps:
\nCreation and maintenance of library of hydroacoustic models, including signal generation models, signal extraction models, signal analysis models, implementation of algorithms for classification and identification of objects.
Creation and maintenance tools for entering both types of data such as model and real data (scanning water areas) into the knowledge base;
Development of subject domain ontology;
Development of algorithms and software for recognition and identification types of marine objects
Organization of logical inference on ontology
Creation of learning system (scripts and learning algorithms considering SD).
Maintenance tools for rules setting based on fuzzy inference;
Development of algorithm identification based on logical inference on the ontology and production rules.
Development of algorithms for knowledge classification and clustering;
Formation of classifiers of the system (noise-emitting objects, hydroacoustic systems, water areas).
Scene formation and creating an experiment scenario
Fixing the experiment results in DB
Evaluation of simulation results
Ontology model Ont(SD) of the intellectual system contains the basic concepts (entities—basic concepts of the subject domain), their attributes and describes the relations between them and can be represented as:
\nwhere \n
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Detailed consideration of the concepts of the subject domain and functional problems leads to the allocation of the following main classes:
\nExperiment class \n
Models_Hydroacoustic_processes class \n
Hydroacoustic_objects class \n
Aquatorium class \n
Experiment_scene class \n
Hydroacoustic_System class \n
Modeling_Scenario class \n
Model_estimation class \n
Acoustic signal class \n
Waveguide class \n
In the ontology model, in addition to the main classes, subclasses representing instances of the corresponding classes are also included.
\nIn accordance with the basic rules of the OWL language, a triplet called the RDF graph describes the class. In this graph, vertices are objects and objects, and as arcs are predicates [9]. From a mathematical point of view, the triplet is an instance of an element of a certain binary relation. The expression of the triplet asserts that certain relations indicated by the predicate connect objects marked as the subject and object in particular in the triplet [10].
\nOne of the tools for semantic modeling is the well-known ontology visual editor Protégé 5—Designed by the University of Stanford [11]. Visual methods of designing ontologies help quickly and fully understand the structure of knowledge of the subject domain, which is especially valuable for researchers working in the new subject domain. The Protégé 5 supports all phases of the ontology life cycle in accordance with ISO/IEC 15288: 2002 [7] requirements—from the development of a semantic network and the creation of a knowledge base on its basis, to the formation of user requests to these bases in order to obtain knowledge.
\nThe main window of the Protégé 5 editor consists of tabs that represent the various tools to develop model of knowledge such as <
Main functional toolbar of the Protégé 5 editor.
Defining classes and creating their hierarchy (taxonomy) are keys in the development of ontology SD. The taxonomy of classes is a tree of descriptive terms that have a hierarchical structure.
\nIn Protégé 5 editor, creating classes \n
The peculiarity of designing in the environment Protégé is that classes are considered as subclasses of the general ontology THING. According to the CamelCase notation for OWL [12], all class names must begin with a capitalization and should not contain spaces. For securing the classifications, simply press the <
An example of creating classes of the modeling system.
By default, classes in OWL can intersect. In order to divide the classes, they need to be disjointed. This ensures that an individual cannot be an instance of more than one class. To do this, in the <
Separation of classes into disjointed ones.
OWL allows you to develop annotations with various information (comments, creation date, author, links to resources, etc.) and metadata classes, properties, individuals and ontologies.
\nTabs <
Adding comments to the selected class.
In the Protégé editor, each class defined by properties that describe the relations between classes are divided into two types [13]:
\n<
<
A subset of attributes \n
The creation of attributes subset by the Protégé editor has been performed by using the <
Creation of a new attribute in the Protégé editor.
Repeating this procedure can form a whole set of attributes for a SD. For a complex domain, <
The predefined attributes has been specified in the XML schema dictionary and can be represented in a variety of data formats such as integers, floating point, lines, logical values, and so on.
\nAn example of the owl tag:
\n
Examples of classes \n
Instance creating process is executed through the tab <
<owl:
Process of creating a new instance consists of the following steps:
\nSelect a class by using the <
Select tab <
To create a new instance of the selected class (
Example of adding a new instance.
The procedure <
Example of entering the value of a particular attribute.
Since an instance of the class is described by some subset of attributes, this value-adding procedure must be repeated for each attribute.
\nA set of properties for different instances of classes can be completely individual.
\nIn the Protégé editor, each class is defined by properties that describe the relationship between classes. In the Protégé editor, the object properties describing [14] by tab <
With the help of the <
Formation of a subset of the relationship \n
Formation of a subset of axioms \n
Formation of relationships between individuals using the predicates contained in <owl:
Forming a relationship subset in a defined subject domain.
\nTo create a subset of relationships and adding it to
An example of formation of a new type of relationship.
After performing the appropriate actions provided by the process, a new type of connection appears in the <
Under the axiom are assertions that introduced into the ontology in the finished form, from which other statements can be deduced. Axioms bind two classes (the concept) with certain relations.
\nThe link between classes is described by the RDF graph.
\nThe created relationship between classes (axioms) is described by the RDF graph: <
\n
\n\n
\n
In the editor Protégé 5, two functions used to define the axiom of subject domain:
\nDomains (intersection)—asserts that the subjects of such property statements must belong to the class extension of the indicated class description.
Ranges (intersection)—asserts that the values of this property must belong to the class extension of the class description or to data values in the specified data range.
To create a subset of axioms, you must select the <
To do this, on the <
Example of created relationship between classes.
When selecting second class, you need to click on the “+” next to the function <
For formation of relationships between two individuals in the Protégé 5, you need to click in the <
Process of creation of relationship between individuals.
For example, individual <
After completing the corresponding actions, a new relationship between the individuals has created and stored in the model ontology of Subject Domain.
\n\n\nFigure 17\n presents The hierarchy of classes developed by means of the Protégé.
\nGraph of ontology model using the Protégé.
Subject domain ontology includes 34 classes, each of them has 5–15 attributes, nearly 30 axioms, 23 associative relations, 15 “is-are” relations, nearly 70 heredity relations and 50 “class-data” relations are described; standard types of attributes values and limits for values of attributes are highlighted.
\nFor example, acoustic signal—class \n
Frequency of the signal
Phase
Amplitude
Interference level
Spectral-energy characteristics
Vector-phase characteristics to identify the object
Coefficient of total attenuation (pressure signals, speed along the axes: Vx, Vy and Vz)
Location coordinates
Distance to the object,
Speed of propagation,
Position of the object relative to the receiver,
Pressure at the depth of the receiver,
The results of modulation of the noise spectra of objects
Coefficient of noise emission.
Thus, ontology represents the description of subject domain notions in terms of knowledge processing theory. It allows to describe the subject domain notions in terms of ontology classes, subclasses and classes exemplars as well as to define relations between them. After all ontology elements are described, it is possible to use algorithms of descriptive logic for ontology information processing.
\nThe approach to the Internet portal in the field of materials’ strength is presented. The usage of ontology model for portal knowledge representation allows to structure and systematize portal data and knowledge as well as to organize meaningful search through portal informational space.
\nThe ontology model for the classification of marine objects was proposed, and elements of such ontology was described. The process of ontology development using the Protégé is depicted. The usage of ontology gives the possibility to execute the recognition of marine objects within the developed modeling system.
\nAbout 22–32% of the world’s terrestrial plants have their roots near or within the groundwater [1, 2]. As a result, groundwater significantly impacts the transpiration of aboveground ecosystems and net primary productivity [3, 4, 5]. On a global scale, groundwater contributes about 23% to vegetation water consumption on average [6]. In areas with shallow groundwater, it contributes up to 84% of the total transpiration of vegetation. In arid areas [7], almost all water consumption of the plant comes from groundwater [8]. However, groundwater contributes little or even negatively to transpiration in irrigated agriculture or coastal areas with shallow water table depth, due to its high salinity [9]. At present, with the expansion of the agricultural area, the supply of freshwater resources is becoming more and more insufficient; agricultural production began to use underground saltwater, or which combined with saline water irrigation, along with the development of water-saving irrigation technology and water conservancy engineering measures suitable for the region. Therefore, further research is strongly needed to promote the efficient use of agricultural moisture in areas with shallow groundwater, to figure out the crop growth process under the influences of irrigation and shallow water replenishment, and the salt balance characteristics under different management measures. Consequently, it is beneficial to find out how to use the abundant shallow underground saltwater in the coastal zone as a resource instead of limitations, realize the recycling of groundwater resources, and solve the source problem of lacking freshwater in terms of water-salt regulation.
Recently, numerous researches have been done on the water flow process and mechanism in soil–plant-atmosphere continuous (SPAC) systems. However, these studies do not fully consider the role of groundwater and cannot clarify the water transfer mechanism in groundwater-soil–plant-atmosphere continuum (GSPAC) systems. In particular, in saline groundwater areas, water utilization of crop is limited because of salt stress, and it seems impossible to determine how groundwater recharge the root zone nor its contribution to soil evaporation and crop transpiration [10]. In drought years, plants increase net primary productivity (NPP) by using groundwater to reduce the effect of water stress on CO2 fixation, resulting in significant increases in transpiration due to the presence of shallow groundwater. Lowry and Loheide [11] defined the additional water that the plant transpires from shallow groundwater as “groundwater subsidies”, and calculated the difference of the root water absorption under shallow groundwater and the free drainage conditions. Furthermore, Zipper et al. [4] defined the yield from this additional water as a “groundwater yield subsidy”. In agricultural systems, yield is usually more relevant to total water consumption when characterizing groundwater’s positive or negative effects. Therefore, by introducing the concept of “groundwater yield subsidy”, the maximum annual contribution of groundwater to transpiration and NPP can be quantified and directly related to the efficiency of water utilization.
On the contrary, when shallow groundwater damages production through oxygen stress, the groundwater yield subsidy is negative and can be considered a loss of groundwater yield. Soylu et al. [12] quantified annual groundwater subsidies and NPP changes using the AgroIBIS-VSF model. They found that the largest groundwater subsidy happens at 1.5–2 m of water table depth, regardless of long-term precipitation, described here as the optimal water table. However, the current AgroIBIS-VSF model study is carried out in the non-saline area, and the applicability of these indicators in saline-alkali land and its conceptual extension still needs to be further studied.
In general, to prevent soil salinization, groundwater must be kept below the critical groundwater table [10, 13]. The scientific community currently lacks a recognized definition and quantification method for the critical groundwater table. We define it here as the highest groundwater table that does not cause secondary soil salinization. The critical water table depends on soil and groundwater type and climatic evaporation potential and is also related to the classification criteria for salinization. Theoretically, there is usually an optimal groundwater table in an agricultural ecosystem, ideal for maintaining farmland productivity. However, due to the complex factors which influence groundwater, it is often difficult to quantify. Figure 1a shows a conceptual diagram of the relationship between groundwater and crop yield under the groundwater yield subsidy framework: (1) In dry years, shallow groundwater will provide groundwater yield subsidy by reducing water stress, while in wet years, it will result in loss of groundwater yield by increasing oxygen stress; (2) In other words, for coarse soils with low matric potential values, the roots must be relatively close to the water table in case groundwater yield subsidies are present.
Diagram of crop-groundwater feed-in relationship in shallow groundwater area: (a) the hypothetical relationship between shallow groundwater level and crop (in the case of maize) yield; (b) the conceptual diagram of the groundwater benefit zone. Refer to Zipper et al. [
Theoretically, depending on the objectives of regulation, groundwater control has two criteria (Figure 1b):
It is necessary to control the groundwater table below its critical value to control the salinity of soil [10]; the critical groundwater table (
Where,
It is also necessary to keep the groundwater table close to the optimal groundwater table (groundwater yield subsidy boundary) [4] to maximize crop transpiration, which can be calculated through groundwater-subsidy-based-transpiration (
Where,
Where,
In Eq. (2),
Where,
Based on the equation above: (1) While critical groundwater table is an indicator to prevent soil salinization, the optimum groundwater table is an indicator to maximize groundwater subsidies, (2) The optimum groundwater table is an agrological parameter based on the water absorption by the root system, whereas the critical groundwater table is a hydrological parameter based on soil capillary theory; (3) The critical groundwater table associated with soil salt content control, is a fixed value, while the groundwater table associated with groundwater yield subsidy is a range (which changes with the crop rooting pattern and the water-salt environment in the root zone). Although the effects of salinity on plants are also taken into account in some studies for defining the critical groundwater table (similar to the dynamic range of the groundwater table suitable for the crop), due to the complex coupling relationship between crop type, soil salinity, and groundwater depth, there is often a lack of quantitative indicators or appropriate methods to apply directly [13].
Consequently, in underground saltwater areas, if both soil salt control and groundwater subsidies are taken into account, the water table needs to be regulated below the critical water table and overlapping with the area of the range of groundwater yield subsidies (as shown in Figure 2 yellow plus area), which we define as the “groundwater benefit zone” (Δ
Schematic diagram of definition of groundwater benefit zone.
Therefore, the groundwater benefit zone proposed in this study is a newly defined index. Take it as the theoretical standard of groundwater regulation, it is easy to create the targeted groundwater level and adjust the groundwater level by taking specific control measures. It should be emphasized that, similar to critical and optimal groundwater tables, which define only the characteristics of water levels in vertical directions, the groundwater benefit zone defined by this study is also limited to vertical directions, regardless of their changes in horizontal direction (Figure 2).
To sum up, the physical significance of the “groundwater benefit zone” index defined in this study is clear, which can be used to quantify the potential of groundwater’s contribution to the productivity of farmland ecosystem under the condition of salt stress and also as the theoretical standard of groundwater regulation in GSPAC system.
Traditional soil hydrology mainly pays attention to the influence of soil characteristics on non-biological processes such as water and solute transport. In contrast, agricultural hydrology focuses on the occurrence of various hydrological phenomena in agricultural measures and agricultural engineering and their intrinsic relationship, starting with the influence of water on biological processes such as crop growth and development. Studying the Earth’s critical zone expands the research scope of farmland ecosystem and groundwater hydrological process and strengthens the critical role of soil physical process in multi-scale mass transport and cycle at land surface systems such as soil profile, slope, and basin [14]. In recent years, more and more studies have attempted to establish the relationship between shallow groundwater and vegetation physiology and weathering processes, to identify the critical groundwater table. At the same time, there is still a lack of mathematical expression and field validation for this relationship [10]. Zipper et al. [4] found that shallow groundwater table, root length density distribution, and root water compensation effects (i.e., plants adapt to drought conditions by absorbing more water from less-stressed parts of the root to compensate for root water uptake in areas where stress is more serious; [15]) had a significant impact on transpiration and NPP, emphasizing the importance of incorporating root compensatory water absorption equations into model studies.
At present, many mechanism models of the water-salt coupling transport process of GSPAC systems (e.g., HYDRUS, RZWQM, EPIC, SVAT, SHAW, etc. [16]) have been established, in which HYDRUS models are widely used [17]. Especially based on the concepts of mobile and immobile water bodies, HYDRUS introduce dual-porosity models that simulate large pore flows and preferential flows. These characteristic hydrological parameters and solute reactions are combined to simulate physical equilibrium and chemical nonequilibrium solute transport (e.g., two-region models, two-site models, etc.), which provides convenience for the simulation of water-salt migration models under complex soil profile conditions (such as clay layer, gravel, large pores) with more regional influence factors (e.g., groundwater, irrigation water) [18, 19, 20]. However, the current model of the water-salt transport mechanism is limited within the unsaturated soil area, but it is insufficient in the saturated-unsaturated area, and the influence of groundwater on plant function has not been clarified. In turn, many crop models are good at simulating crop growth processes (e.g., RZWQM, WOFEST, DSSAT, AquaCrop, etc. [21]), but the expression of soil hydrological processes is insufficient, especially the lack of simulating groundwater dynamics. Many methods have been used to couple hydrological and crop models in recent years, for example, HYDRUS-1D and crop model AgroIBIS coupling AgroIBIS-VSF models [12].
It is worth mentioning that although some crop models can simulate the relationship between groundwater and vegetation in some ways, there is a very lack of mechanism models like the AgroIBIS-VSF model that can describe the effects of groundwater dynamics on soil temperature, oxygen, and leaf microclimate conditions. Furthermore, Zipper et al. [22] combined the latest version of the AgroIBIS-VSF model (i.e., the coupling of AgroIBIS and HYDRUS-1D) with the MODFLOW model to create a new model framework, MODFLOW-AgroIBIS (MAGI). The new coupled model simulates vegetation growth dynamics based on environmental conditions and quantifies the movement of water and energy in the GSPAC system (Figure 3). This coupling approach provides three widely-used model benefits for the MAGI model (①AgroIBIS [23], ②HYDRUS-1D [24] and ③MODFLOW-2005 [25]. However, most of the work related to the current MAGI model is carried out in non-saline conditions, while in areas with high groundwater salinity, the salt environment in the root zone of the crop will affect the potential of groundwater utilization and limit the applicability of the model framework. It means that the effects of salt must be taken into account when use models that need to be updated to calculate groundwater yield subsidies in saline agriculture (Figure 3).
Diagram of MAGI Model Research Framework (quoted from [
Although the mechanisms of water and salt transport through the GSPAC system at field scale are considered more comprehensively, the water and salt transport process occurred at an immense scale. The spatial variation of influence factors, especially the measures to regulate soil water and salt changes such as irrigation, drainage, agronomy measures, etc. are carried out on a large scale. Consequently, the field-scaled model, which is often one-dimensional, cannot simulate large-scale saline water process or make the related evaluation [26]. On the other hand, traditional large-scale hydrological models such as MODFLOW, although they are good at dealing with landscape-scale soil-groundwater interaction and groundwater movement process cannot reflect the small-scale hydrological process neither in saturated zone nor in the unsaturated area due to the lack of small-scale soil hierarchy and detailed structural parameters [27]. Thus, another trend of model development is to develop the coupled models at different scales, such as the model “HYDRUS-MODFLOW” [28] is coupled with HYDRUS-1D model and the groundwater model MODFLOW, which extends the simulation of the movement of soil water and salt under a dynamic groundwater condition to (extend to) the regional scale. The model can stimulate the redistribution process of water and salt both in natural and artificial circumstances. In fact, due to the variability of soil spatial structure and the randomness of various factors affecting water-salt movement, the water-salt transport process has a strong scale-dependent effect and corresponds to the appropriate quantitative techniques and methods in that scale.
Currently, there are effective ways to track the migration of substances in GSPAC systems [29, 30, 31, 32], such as isotope, geochemical ions, and rare earth elements. The new Earth Critical Zone study focuses on effectively links between disciplines, scales, and data to achieve the mutual transformation of microscales (soil pores and aggregates), mesoscales (soil profiles, fields, or catena), and macroscales (basins, regions, or global) [33]. It can be spatially interpolated and aggregated according to soil distribution or soil characteristics at landscape-scale according to soil mapping hierarchical system, and then upscaled and downscaled, or it can be transformed on a scale by establishing a relationship between the hierarchical structure of soil models and typical soil processes of different scales. For example, from the mesoscale to the macroscale, “characterization unit regions” can be constructed in combination with topographical changes and land-use methods, thus linking laboratory and field measurements “hydraulic characteristics to watershed scales” ones orderly for spatial scale transformation. On the microscale, soil water and salt movement are mainly influenced by soil structure, soil level, micro-terrain, ion content, soil infiltration, salt leaching, and soil microorganisms. We could quantify the effects of soil and salt effects by soil pore structure, root growth pattern, and water movement, fertilization, soil improvement method, and engineering measures by using X-ray computer tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, and nuclear magnetic resonance, etc. [34, 35, 36]. At the mesoscale, the soil water and salt transport and distribution mainly include evaporation, infiltration, lateral seepage, groundwater leakage, and recharge, and is the basic scope of water-salt regulation and ecological environment construction [33]. Geophysical detection techniques such as multi-receiver Electromagnetic Induction (EMI), Electrical Resistance Tomography (ERT), and time-lapse Ground-Penetrating Radar (GPR) are widely used in soil physical properties measurement on scales such as slopes, catchment, and small basins [37, 38]. In recent years, remote sensing technology has been increasingly used in monitoring the physical properties of soil at the macro-scale and in coupling with other methods. At present, it is a significant scientific issue that how to quantify the water-salt migration flux of large-scale farmland system, through irrigation efficiency, soil salt accumulation, and other salt control factors, to build farmland irrigation-fertilization-salt control technology mode, and whereby to carry out multi-scale regulation under water-saving and reduced fertilizers in irrigation areas, so that it can achieve not only the efficient use of water resources but also maintain a good environment.
At present, there are a variety of measures for the regulation of water and salt, the core of which is to inhibit salt building-up by reducing soil evaporation (e.g., mulching), to promote salt leaching by improving soil structure (e.g., soil amendments), to block salt building-up by creating salt-isolation layer (e.g., salt-resistant barrier), or to increase soil drainage to facilitate soil salt discharge (e.g. subsurface pipes), and among other ways [39, 40, 41]. In general, crop salt thresholds, local soil types, and groundwater conditions need to be taken into account to clarify the applicability of these methods in saline agricultural production. For salinized farmland with shallow groundwater tables, the utilization of groundwater is greatly influenced by the salt accumulation, salt threshold of crop, and salt leaching scheme, so it is essential to clarify the “groundwater benefit zone” and optimize the regulation. Some regulation of water and salt has been made in the Northern Chinese irrigation area, while there was little research based on the simulation of optimization of groundwater [42]. Although some models currently proposed appropriate groundwater levels and irrigation strategies for specific crops [43], it is still challenging to promote and popularize the results due to different soil types, irrigation systems, plant rooting patterns, salt tolerance, groundwater depth, and climatic conditions. In general, to break the limitations of long-term field test and the lack of investigated factors, the technical parameters of water salt regulation can be obtained based on model scenarios analysis and the influence of different factor combinations on the relationship between groundwater table and crop yield can be considered comprehensively. At present, the water-salt transport model of the GSPAC system is applied to predict the trend of water-salt dynamics and the concentration of salt. The response of crop growth to changes in soil water-salt environment under different irrigation systems and planting patterns is systematically analyzed base on boundary conditions and parameters obtained from various management measures [44].
On this basis, the model scenario analysis can design different combinations of influence factors, to clarify the balance point of water conservation measures and salt leaching, and to establish a plant water supply theory scheme aimed at water-saving and salt control. Thus, the key to regulating groundwater benefit zone can be based on models to construct technical parameters that reflect different regulatory measures. In addition, soil improvement products can be designed based on these technical parameters. For example, we could establish the cause-effect relationship by applying modern analysis means like characterizing the structural morphology, its molecular structure, surface morphology, and performance correlation of the soil water and fertilizer, to carry out component screening-structural regulation-fertilization performance determination for material design and optimization, and the optimal technical products for salt-alkali soil water salt regulation. For example, through modern instrumental analysis methods, the structure and morphology of the product are characterized. The relationship between its molecular structure, surface morphology, etc., and soil water and fertilizer storage performance is explored and the structure–function relationship is established. Recently, Swallow and O’Sullivan [45] proposed a new desalination method based on biomimicry of vascular plants, which is to mimic the principle of water absorption of the vascular plant to produce desalination materials. After added to the soil, with the help of natural evaporation, groundwater and soil salt are directly separated the crystallization process. After 30 days of the indoor test, the method can reduce the soil salt content from 8 to 0.8%, and the desalination effect is pronounced. It provides a new technology for saline soil remediation, but it also needs further verification and evaluation in the field.
In this paper, we proposed the new concept and index of the “groundwater benefit zone” based on the interaction between the saline farmland ecosystem and the groundwater. Through a combination of field monitoring and model simulation, the next step is to address the following issues:
How to determine the critical groundwater table in areas with shallow groundwater and their quantitative relationship with soil, climate, and groundwater type? We need to use the theories and methods of soil hydrology and agricultural hydrology, focus on the study of water consumption of agriculture and groundwater-soil water crop carrying capacity. On the one hand, the climate affects soil and groundwater movement and soil biological activities through physical properties such as soil temperature, texture, and bulk density [46]. On the other hand, the movement and distribution of groundwater and soil moisture affect the redox environment and microbial activities by regulating the soil oxygen content, thereby affecting the biogeochemical cycle [47]. Therefore, the development of the interdisciplinary of the groundwater salt process and biogeochemistry is of great significance for describing the mechanism of groundwater salt migration and simulating its flux [45].
How to promote a water-salt transport model of GSPAC system based on soil physical process and crop growth dynamics, and quantify the groundwater benefit zone in one location? It is worth noting that the concept of groundwater subsidy is not only water extracted from the unconfined aquifer but also the edge of the soil capillary rise. Therefore, the calculation of groundwater yield subsidy usually needs to simulate the plant water uptake under shallow groundwater and free drainage conditions respectively and get their difference, which is also an essential aspect of the model application. In addition, water absorption in the root zone is one of the most important processes considered in the GSPAC model, simulating the extent to which plants absorb and utilize soil water and groundwater, thus determining the amount of soil water flow or groundwater recharge [15]. At present, many root water uptake models with different assumptions and complexities have been developed. The main challenge is the lack of data for parameterizing root water use functions and the numerical expression of the associated important processes [47].
How do crops respond to groundwater changes, and what is the mechanism between salt stress, root distribution, and root water compensation effects? Considering the compensation mechanism of root water absorption in the crop growth model can improve the prediction of soil moisture content. In contrast, during the development of the current model, it is still unclear when there is salt stress and how the model takes the mechanism of crops extracting groundwater into account, especially how to parameterize the compensatory water absorption process of the root system. It is worth further research on applying technology and methods in this aspect, analyzing the feedback relationship between groundwater salt process and land productivity, ecological environment safety and other functions, and optimizing and enhancing the function of ecosystem services. Mainly due to the influence of salt, it is challenging to clarify the water transmission mechanism of the GSPAC system. In recent years, isotope technology has become an important and effective method for studying the utilization of plant water resources in a complex system [48, 49], which provides a reference for revealing the mechanism of soil water and solute transport in the GSPAC system. In addition, the latest measurement techniques of sap flow and root system scanner (root length and root distribution) also provide ways for soil-root-water interaction mechanism research.
How to combine model simulation with field control measures test, and thus propose the technical parameters of regional water-salt control? How to use soil physics model to predict the influence of groundwater salt process change on future food production and ecological environment, formulate and evaluate the adjustment strategy of the sustainable development of saline agriculture. In particular, in recent years, climate change, water shortage, and extreme climate are frequent, there is urgently needed to develop the theory and model of crop habitat process regulation and control [50], study the process of non-saturation zone salt migration, driving mechanism and its scale-dependent effect, utilize slight saline water/saline water, farmland drainage and other non-traditional water resources in saline field irrigation safely and evaluate its ecological effects.
"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges".
\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.
",metaTitle:"About Open Access",metaDescription:"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"about-open-access",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\\n\\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\\n\\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nOAI-PMH
\\n\\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\\n\\nLicense
\\n\\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\\n\\nPeer Review Policies
\\n\\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\\n\\nOA Publishing Fees
\\n\\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\\n\\nDigital Archiving Policy
\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\\n\\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\\n\\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
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\\n\\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
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The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\n\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\n\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\n\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\n\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
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On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. 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Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. 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Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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Chemical modification reviewed includes chemical modification without introducing new atom such as cyclized natural rubber and deproteinized natural rubber (DPNR), modification by introducing a chemical group such as hydrogenated natural rubber (HNR), chlorinated natural rubber (CNR) and epoxidized natural rubber (ENR) and lastly modification by grafting on NR. Grafting can be carried out using DPNR latex to yield styrene‐grafted‐NR, methyl methacrylate‐grafted‐NR and styrene and methyl methacrylate‐grafted‐NR. The NR derivatives are reviewed in terms of their preparation, mechanism, properties and applications.",book:{id:"5919",slug:"elastomers",title:"Elastomers",fullTitle:"Elastomers"},signatures:"Azanam Shah Hashim and Siew Kooi Ong",authors:[{id:"200848",title:"Prof.",name:"Azanam Shah",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"azanam-shah-hashim",fullName:"Azanam Shah Hashim"},{id:"205691",title:"Dr.",name:"Siew Kooi",middleName:null,surname:"Ong",slug:"siew-kooi-ong",fullName:"Siew Kooi Ong"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"153",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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