Comparison of features of cupola and induction furnace.
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"368",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Skin Grafts - Indications, Applications and Current Research",title:"Skin Grafts",subtitle:"Indications, Applications and Current Research",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The procedure of skin grafting has been performed since 3000BC and with the aid of modern technology has evolved through the years. While the development of new techniques and devices has significantly improved the functional as well as the aesthetic results from skin grafting, the fundamentals of skin grafting have remained the same, a healthy vascular granulating wound bed free of infection. Adherence to the recipient bed is the most important factor in skin graft survival and research continues introducing new techniques that promote this process. Biological and synthetic skin substitutes have also provided better treatment options as well as HLA tissue typing and the use of growth factors. Even today, skin grafts remain the most common and least invasive procedure for the closure of soft tissue defects but the quest for perfection continues.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-509-9",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6465-4",doi:"10.5772/892",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"skin-grafts-indications-applications-and-current-research",numberOfPages:386,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"78bb532197274bb1fe80d42c800a1b00",bookSignature:"Marcia Spear",publishedDate:"August 29th 2011",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/368.jpg",numberOfDownloads:162678,numberOfWosCitations:39,numberOfCrossrefCitations:18,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:59,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:116,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 16th 2010",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 14th 2010",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 20th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 20th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 19th 2011",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"61993",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcia",middleName:null,surname:"Spear",slug:"marcia-spear",fullName:"Marcia Spear",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61993/images/1926_n.jpg",biography:"Marcia Spear is a Doctor of Nursing Practice for the Department of Plastic Surgery, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, USA. She received her Masters and Doctorate degrees from Vanderbilt University, School of Nursing in 1999 and 2010, respectively. She holds faculty appointments in both the School of Medicine and School of Nursing. She has worked in the specialty of Plastic Surgery and Wound Care for over twenty years and has written numerous articles and publications on related issues.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Vanderbilt University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1144",title:"Craniofacial Surgery",slug:"craniofacial-surgery"}],chapters:[{id:"18924",title:"Split-Thickness Skin Grafts",doi:"10.5772/23658",slug:"split-thickness-skin-grafts",totalDownloads:25346,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:12,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Tamer Seyhan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/18924",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/18924",authors:[{id:"53040",title:"Dr.",name:"Tamer",surname:"Seyhan",slug:"tamer-seyhan",fullName:"Tamer Seyhan"}],corrections:null},{id:"18925",title:"Skin Graft Harvesting and Donor Site Selection",doi:"10.5772/21957",slug:"skin-graft-harvesting-and-donor-site-selection",totalDownloads:18143,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Yusuf Kenan Coban, Ahmet Hamdi Aytekin and Göktekin Tenekeci",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/18925",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/18925",authors:[{id:"45584",title:"Dr.",name:"Yusuf Kenan",surname:"Coban",slug:"yusuf-kenan-coban",fullName:"Yusuf Kenan Coban"},{id:"54839",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmet Hamdi",surname:"Aytekin",slug:"ahmet-hamdi-aytekin",fullName:"Ahmet Hamdi Aytekin"},{id:"54847",title:"Dr.",name:"Goktekin",surname:"Tenekeci",slug:"goktekin-tenekeci",fullName:"Goktekin Tenekeci"}],corrections:null},{id:"18926",title:"Indications of Skin Graft",doi:"10.5772/21916",slug:"indications-of-skin-graft",totalDownloads:6850,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Abdou Darwish",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/18926",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/18926",authors:[{id:"45367",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdou",surname:"Darwish",slug:"abdou-darwish",fullName:"Abdou Darwish"}],corrections:null},{id:"18927",title:"Full Thickness Skin Grafts",doi:"10.5772/22385",slug:"full-thickness-skin-grafts",totalDownloads:20543,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Saikat Ray and Krishna Rao",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/18927",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/18927",authors:[{id:"47548",title:"Dr.",name:"Krishna",surname:"Rao",slug:"krishna-rao",fullName:"Krishna Rao"},{id:"61637",title:"Mr",name:"Saikat",surname:"Ray",slug:"saikat-ray",fullName:"Saikat Ray"}],corrections:null},{id:"18928",title:"Lower Third Nasal Skin Grafting",doi:"10.5772/22737",slug:"lower-third-nasal-skin-grafting",totalDownloads:7043,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"James F. 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The earliest accounts date back to the Hearst Papyrus, an integral part of the Eber Papyrus of ancient Egypt, circa 1500 BC. There is also mention of this disease in the Sushruta Samhita manuscript from 800 to 600 BC, written by Sushruta, founder of Ayurvedic medicine [1, 2, 3]. Several authors continued describing specific aspects of aortic aneurysm disease, such as Galen and Antyllus. At that time, there was no treatment described for aortic aneurysm repair [4].
However, the evolution of the treatment of abdominal aortic aneurysms only occurred in 1817, when Cooper performed the first aortic ligation for the treatment of a ruptured external iliac artery aneurysm [3]. The patient died four hours after the procedure. It was only in 1923 that the first successful surgical treatment for the treatment of arterial aneurysm occurred, being responsible for the development of the endoaneurysmorrhaphy technique [5]. Several surgeons worked hard, in the 19th and 20th centuries, to develop safe surgical treatment methods with low mortality. Nissen performed the surgical treatment of an abdominal aortic aneurysm in Albert Einstein by wrapping him in cellophane [6, 7]. This surgery allowed Einstein to live more 7 years.
Alexis Carrel contributed significantly to vascular surgery. He developed the techniques of vascular anastomosis, allowing new perspectives in the treatment of abdominal aortic aneurysms [1, 2, 3]. In 1952, Arthur Vorhees performed the repair of a ruptured aortic aneurysm with a synthetic graft, applying vascular anastomosis techniques, marking the beginning of the golden age of aortic surgery [8].
Great surgeons such as Ernest Stanley Crawford, Michael Ellis DeBakey and Denton Arthur Cooley improved vascular surgical techniques, introducing sequential clamping methods, with shorter ischemia times [9]. As a result, they obtained fantastic results in open abdominal aortic surgery.
The research and improvements in abdominal aortic surgery continued over the years, allowing new technical options to be developed. Juan Carlos Parodi 1976 began the study of grafts for endovascular use. However, it was only in 1990 that Parodi performed the first successful endovascular surgery in humans [10].
Aortic aneurysm disease continues to be the source of numerous studies. New perspectives in identifying etiology, pathophysiology, diagnosis and treatment should be encouraged. Surgical treatment has advanced significantly in recent years with less invasive techniques and lower morbidity and mortality.
This book aims to provide an objective technical and scientific approach to abdominal aortic aneurysm disease. In addition to the aspects inherent to technical knowledge of aortic aneurysmal disease for successful treatment, the surgeon must have the skills and virtues.
The surgeon, especially those who approach the aorta, sometimes faces situations that are almost impossible to correct and it is at this moment that we feel the limit of our performance. There is the treatment for all patients, but it depends on the medical technical decision associated with the patient’s care. Therefore, the clear and objective explanation to the patient, the “steps” to be followed, is a joint and fundamental action for the success of the treatment, whatever it may be. Thus, a doctor-patient relationship is built, whose trust implements the treatment actions.
The surgeon does his/her work far beyond the purely technical aspects. Well, the construction of a career as a surgeon cannot be only technical but based on moral aspects and humanism. We will discuss the four virtues that must be developed and are essential to a good surgeon.
The first virtue is courage, it represents the beginning and is most admired for its ability to overcome fear. The fear of approaching the largest vessel in the human body, which is the aorta, is responsible for bringing life to all tissues and organs. This virtue is not a spectacle and is never seen as a success. Courage is a virtue that is present in the lives of heroes, who believe in their principles: it serves to think well, to advance or retreat, especially in operative approaches.
The second virtue is humility, a singular virtue because the surgeon’s self-works. It makes the surgeon not proud of his/her technical preparation and surgical results. This virtue awakens the surgeon to the awareness of the impotence of imitating God, without being so. It also allows the surgeon to be clear about reality and possible difficulties.
The third virtue is prudence, it is the exercise of the superego leading the professional to do and choose what is absolutely necessary. Avoiding acts opposite to necessary in the treatment of the patient. Prudence has as its principle the condition of fidelity between technique and absolute character. It is a structural part of medical ethics.
The fourth virtue is simplicity, it is the lightest of virtues. This one is unquestionable, it is just real. Simplicity summarizes existence. It is virtue linked to intelligence, it turns complex actions into simple actions.
We believe that the union between technical and scientific knowledge associated with the virtues allows for greater humanism in the doctor-patient relationship.
Cast iron is an important engineering material and has numerous applications in Civil Engineering, Architecture, Agriculture, etc. Manufacturing of Cast iron products is comprised of first melting and then casting process, normally followed in Cast iron foundries. Cast iron contains about 2–4% C and 1–2% Si and the melting takes place at a temperature of 1550C. The furnaces used for melting the Cast iron need to be lined internally with Refractory material which can withstand that temperature continuously in presence of molten metal and slag to protect the integrity of the furnace structure. Different type of furnaces can be used for melting the Cast iron and the quality of the Refractory material used depends upon the furnace type. Although the Refractory cost per ton of processed cast iron is not high and significant but the refractory plays a very vital role towards the economic viability of the project.
The Refractory lining influences the furnace operational efficiency and the productivity. Higher is the refractory life, lower is the stoppage time and higher is furnace availability and productivity. Refractory quality influences quality of the castings also, because of the inclusion, coming from refractory. The incorporation of inclusion in the casting impairs its mechanical property and appearance.
We shall discuss here about the different types of furnaces used for the cast iron melting, different types of the Refractories used for different kind of furnaces, installation of refractories and the cause of failure of Refractories.
Three types of furnaces are mostly used for the Cast iron melting in the foundries. These are:-
Cupola Furnace
Induction Furnace
Arc furnace
The refractories are designed to withstand the operational conditions and the environment inside the furnace and therefore it is essential to know the furnace and operational details connected to refractory selection.
The typical Cupola furnace cross sections are shown in Figure 1 [1].
Cupola furnace.
The cupola is a shaft type cylindrical structure as shown in Figure 1. The principle of operation is similar to Blast furnace. The pig iron and scraps, lime stones and coke are charged from the top and air is blown from the bottom when the oxidation of Carbon generates heat which melts the iron and it is collected at the bottom of the furnace from where it is tapped out. The hot air moves upward through the bed exchanging its heat with the downward moving cold burden and preheating it. Two major reactions take place inside the cupola. The first one is the oxidation of carbon in the coke C + O2 = CO2, which is highly exothermic reaction and increases the temperature inside and melts the iron. The molten iron picks up the carbon according to the reaction 3Fe+2CO = Fe3C + CO2 which is an endothermic reaction. Temperature inside the Cupola can reach up to 1600C and temperature control is not easy and precise in the Cupola furnace. Cupolas are used mainly where the large volume of Cast iron is melted.
The typical arrangement of Arc furnace is shown in Figure 2 [1]. This furnace is a cylindrical Refractory lined steel shell fitted with three Carbon electrodes inserted through the Refractory lined roof of the furnace. The scrap and the pig iron and the fluxes are charged through the door inside the furnace and the power is made on. The arc between the charge and the electrodes produces arcs which generates high temperature and melts the charge.
Arc furnace.
This is the most widely used furnace in the foundry for melting the cast iron because of its easy and precise control of temperature and melt chemistry. The principle of induction furnace is same as a transformer. The electric current is passed through a water cooled coil and when electrically conductive solid metal kept inside the coil, it gets heated up because of induction. Two different types of induction furnaces are there.
The coreless induction furnace basically consists of the cylindrical refractory crucible surrounded by the induction coil supported by the transformer yokes (Figure 3). The energy is transmitted in such induction furnaces by passing an electric current through the coil which creates a magnetic field. Voltages are induced in the feed material due to this magnetic field, whereby eddy currents are created due to the conductivity of the metal. The induced current heats the charged material in accordance with Joule’s law and it melts after a certain heating time.
Vertical section of coreless induction furnace.
Any current I, AC or DC, passing through an electrically conducting material causes a voltage drop V resulting in energy conversion to heat. Heat generated in the process is defined by V.I = R.I2, where R is the electrical resistance of the current path. The resistance of the current path is inversely proportional to the cross-section area in which the current is flowing.
Coreless induction furnace normally has capacity up to 50 Ton. It can run by the main frequency of 50 Hz or by frequencies 200-1000 Hz called medium frequency furnace. Medium frequency furnaces are mainly used in industries because they have got certain advantages over the main frequency furnaces e.g.,
It requires less energy to melt the same quantity of metal.
It does not require to maintain any metal heel inside the furnace.
The furnace can be emptied and therefore no chance of mixing in case of different metals are produced in the same furnace.
No necessity to use the starter block to start cold heat.
Channel induction furnaces are mostly used for holding the molten metal or for superheating the molten metal. It is used along with the Cupola to hold molten metal. The arrangement of the furnace is shown in Figure 4.
Channel induction furnace.
Power consumption – Theoretically, melting one ton of Cast iron at 1500C should consume 396 Kwh of energy, but in actual practice it takes about 500 Kwh of energy because many types of energy losses takes place which is shown in Figure 5 [2].
Energy balance in the coreless induction furnace.
All the different types of furnaces discussed have some special features, advantages and disadvantages. Selection of the right kind of furnace depends upon the grades of metal to be produced, required melting capacity, availability and cost of raw materials and consumables, cost of electricity and coke, capital investment, operational cost, environmental restrictions, available space etc. Amongst all these different type of furnace used for Cast Iron melting, most used furnaces are Cupola and Coreless Induction furnace. The comparison of the special features of Cupola and Coreless Induction furnace is shown in Table 1 [3, 4].
Features | Cupola | Induction furnace |
---|---|---|
Energy consumption/ton of metal (KWh) | 825–890 | 490–520 |
Efficiency% | 44–47 | 75–79 |
Energy Consumption/ton of metal (Auxiliary Equipment) (KWh) | 20–70 | 6–10 |
Throughput (Ton/h) | 5–100 | 0.1–50 |
Temperature variation (K) | 20–50 | 5 |
Chemistry control | ||
Delta C% | 0.5–0.7 | 0.1 |
Delta Si% | 0.5–1.2 | 0.1 |
Slag quantity (Kg/ton) | 40–100 | 10–30 |
Dust quantity (Kg/ton) | 5–15 | 0.1–0.3 |
Metal losses (%) | 0.5–1.5 | 0.1–0.3 |
Mode of operation | Continuous | Intermittent |
Charge quality | Can handle highly oxidized and low quality scrap | Require high quality scrap |
Maintenance cost | Higher | Lower |
Capital investment | 25% higher | 25% lower |
Refractory cost | Lower (1.8USD/t) | Higher(3.1USD/t) |
Flexibility | Limited | Very high |
Refractory lining | Complicated | Easy |
Temperature homogeneity | Good | Very good |
Chemistry adjustment | Good | Very good |
Comparison of features of cupola and induction furnace.
Materials are inert inorganic solid materials which can withstand high temperature in contact with solid, liquid and gases to retain its integrity and mechanical strength. These are basically Oxides, Nitrides, Carbides and Borides of Aluminum, Silicon, Alkaline earth metals and transition metals. Selection criteria of refractory for a high temperature process depend mainly upon the following.
Operational temperature
Chemical constituents, it will be in contact with and their state of occurrence at that temperature (solid, liquid or gas)
Batch process or continuous process
Mechanical abuse by the solid charge, degree of turbulence of liquid or gas velocity
Thickness of the refractory lining and shell temperature permitted as per design
Furnace size and geometry.
Economic considerations
Refractory lining has primarily two main functions
To withstand the hostile environment inside the furnace to protect of the furnace steel structure.
To reduce the outward flow of energy from furnace inside to conserve energy.
It is to be borne in mind that there is lot of difference between a modern Cupola and the Cupola of earlier days. In earlier days Cupola used to be run for a day and next day it was used to be put down for Refractory maintenance and slag cleaning. Very low quality patching material comprised of sand, burnt brick bats and clay mixture were used for patching purpose. But to-day the modern Cupola is designed for continuous running and therefore high quality Refractories are used to line inside. Cupola is a vertical shaft furnace in which different operational condition exists across its height (zone) and different quality of refractories are used at different zone of the furnace (Figure 6a) [5]. The thermal profile across different zone is shown in Figure 6b [6].
a. Different zones of the cupola furnace. b. the temperature profile inside cupola.
Charging is done from the top and the uppermost zone experiences heavy mechanical abuse and abrasion by the falling charge material like scrap, limestone and coke and descending burden.
Preheating and calcining zone are heated by the upward moving gas and the temperature there is low, below 1000C (Figure 6b). High density and low porosity 60–70% Al2O3 refractory bricks or dense low cement Castable can be used here for lining.
In the melting and well zone high quality Al2O3-SiC-C refractory either in brick form or as low cement self- flow Castable is used. Corundum based Castable or bricks can also be used here.
The tuyere is lined with high strength Al2O3-SiC-C or Corundum based low cement Castable. The refractories are degraded mostly by the chemical corrosion by the fluid slag generated in the melting process. The primary condition for the corrosion is the wetting of the refractory surface by the molten slag. The wettability of a solid surface by a liquid happens when the contact angle is low. The addition of Carbon to the refractory increases the contact angle of slag to refractory surface to make it non-wetting and hence more corrosion resistant [7]. The thickness of the lining depends upon the diameter of the Cupola and the intended shell temperature. To maintain low shell temperature and lower refractory thickness the use of insulation refractory is inevitable, otherwise the water cooling of the shell is required.
The use of water cooling leads to energy loss and increases the fuel cost.
Chemical and physical properties of refractory castables used for different zone of the cupola furnace are shown in Table 2.
Area of use | Al2O3% | SiO2% | SiC+C% | CaO% | Bulk density (gm/cc) | Maximum Service temp (°C) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Upper stack/ Cal.zone | 60–70 | 25–35 | — | 2–4 | 2.2–2.5 | 1600–1700 |
Melting zone | 10–40 | 5–6 | 45–80 | 0.5–1.5 | 2.65–2.70 | 1700 |
Well /Hearth | 45–75 | 5–6 | 20–45 | 0.5–1.0 | 2.75–3.00 | 1700 |
Taphole area | 65–70 | 4–5 | 20–22 | 1–3 | 2.90–3.00 | 1700 |
Iron Runner | 60–75 | 5–6 | 18–20 | 1–2 | 2.9–3.00 | 1700 |
Typical properties of Castables suitable for different zone of cupola.
The Refractory issue is much more critical in case of Coreless induction furnace. In Coreless induction furnace the refractory lining separates the molten metal from the electrical copper coil behind (Figure 3) through which water is circulated to keep it cool.
The refractory lining thickness is to be optimized taking into consideration of the following:-
The higher is the thickness better it is to prevent heat loss through the lining.
Higher is the lining thickness lesser is the electrical efficiency of heating (Figure 7) [3].
Safety is a very important issue to be looked into during the operation of induction furnace. If a crack forms in the lining during the operation of the furnace, the molten metal may penetrate inside and strikes the coil which may lead to severe explosion.
Effect of refractory lining thickness on electrical efficiency.
Thinner the lining more is the chance of metal penetration. On the other hand, higher is the refractory lining thickness lesser will be the heat loss through the lining but more will be the loss in electrical energy input given, to heat the charge inside the furnace.
Decreasing refractory thickness improves the coil efficiency but at the same time admits higher thermal losses through the thinner crucible wall. However, since coil losses exceed the thermal losses across the crucible wall nearly by the factor of 10, coil losses play the dominant role here. Taking above all points into consideration high safety margin is eliminated by use of advanced crucible monitoring equipment and the lining thickness is optimized.
The refractory lining thickness commonly maintained is from 75 to 125 mm based on the furnace capacity. The concept of refractory lining design for the induction furnace is quite different from conventional refractory lining.
The main attention is given to arrest crack formation and crack propagation, across the lining thickness, which may pose the danger of penetration of molten metal to strike the coil. During the operation of the furnace the refractory lining always experiences temperature fluctuation and related thermal shock, because the furnace does not run continuously at same temperature. The thermal shock generates crack in the lining, therefore, lining by brick or ramming masses of conventional type are not suitable because in sintered refractory brick, in castable or in a chemically bonded ramming mass, if a crack forms, it propagates very fast.
One of the measures taken to handle this problem is to use the dry powdery mass for lining. The material is designed such that during the use only one third of the lining thickness at the working face will get sintered hard which will withstand the chemical and mechanical abuse of molten metal and charging scrap. The next one third of the thickness will be in semi-sintered stage and the rest one third of the thickness at the back, in touch with inductor coil, will be in loose form (Figure 8) [8]. Under such condition if a crack forms at the working face, it cannot propagate up to the coil and will be arrested in between. The diagram also shows the temperature profile of the lining in case of Quartzite lining (Silica Ramming Mass) which is mostly used in case of Cast iron melting.
The thermal profile across the refractory lining thickness in coreless induction furnace (b is total thickness).
The requirements of a ramming mass suitable for the lining of a coreless induction furnace are
It should have a softening point minimum 150C above the operating temperature
It should sinter in working layer to have a strength to withstand the pressure of molten metal.
Should have a poor sinter-ability not to allow sinter at back
Should be chemically inert at the operating temperature in contact with the molten metal and slag.
Should have permanent expansion at a temperature 1000-1200C
Should have a low thermal conductivity
Should be economic
Meets all the criteria mentioned before, to make it a most commonly used lining material for the Coreless induction furnace for melting Cast iron. It is made out of high purity Quartzite or Quartz containing minimum 98.5% SiO2. 0.2–1.5% Boron containing compounds like Boric acid or Boron oxide is used as the sintering aid and mixed with the ramming mass during supply. The percentage of these additives depends upon the operational temperature of the furnace. The grain size distribution in the ramming mass is of utmost importance. The grain size distribution determines its packing density on compaction. Higher is the packing density better will be the performance.
Quartz the main mineral phase in this ramming mass can exist in different crystalline phases and undergoes polymorphic changes at different temperature as shown in Table 3.
Due to this polymorphic transformation and associated volume change from Cristobalite to Tridymite the Refractory lining at the middle layer remains tight and does not allow any crack to proceed further and stops any liquid metal penetration. Chemical and physical properties of Silica Ramming mass used for the lining of Induction furnaces are shown in Table 4.
Installation is a very important part towards the efficient running of the furnace. The campaign life of the lining and the electrical efficiency depends upon the quality of the installation. Best quality refractory material will not produce the desired performance unless the installation is sound. Figure 9 [3] shows how the electrical efficiency is related to the packing density. The aim of good installation is to get maximum and uniform packing density. The process of packing the Refractory mass between the coil and the central former can be done both manually as well as through mechanization. For smaller furnaces below 5 ton capacity manual ramming may be done but for larger furnaces mechanical ramming method must be adopted to ensure best and uniform packing.
Relation between the packing density and the energy consumption (MFT-GE/10000/8000KW/250 Hz).
It is necessary to check, before installation that the ramming mass does not contain any moisture and is perfectly dry. It is very safe to heat the ramming mass before installation to ensure the removal of any moisture. In actual installation process the ramming mass poured on the bottom is first rammed to compact. The ramming material should be poured in such a way that every time sufficient material is poured to get a compacted height of 50 mm and gradually the desired height is build up. The material must not be poured from a height which may segregate the coarse and fine particles of the mass. In case of pouring from a height, a long funnel must be used to ensure no segregation. After the bottom is ready its level is checked and then a mild steel former of the shape, shown in Figure 10a is placed on the packed bottom and the annular space between the coil and the former outer wall is packed with the Ramming mass. Figure 10b shows some of the tools being used for the compaction of the refractory ramming mass.
a. Steel former. b. Ramming tools.
Ramming is done dry and therefore is difficult to compact and the tools are also of different design than those used for wet ramming.
Before ramming the inside wall of the coil is plastered with mixture of fine Alumina powder and high Alumina cement mixed with water. The presence of coarse grains may damage the Copper coil. The coating thickness will be 3–5 mm. This provides an extra layer of protection over the coil and also forms a separation layer between the coil and the ramming mass which makes the removal of the used up lining easier after the campaign life of the ramming mass is over.
There is a practice to put some insulation layer like Asbestos sheet over the coil to thermally insulate the coil, but this is not recommended as a correct practice. It consumes both money and time and reduces the lining life by helping sintering front to move towards the coil. This is against the philosophy of the lining design of the coreless induction furnace and moreover Asbestos creates health hazard.
After completion of lining, the scrap is charged inside and the power is put on. The steel former used for the lining is allowed to melt in the process of sintering the lining. There are methods in which the steel former can be taken out after the ramming is over and before the power is made on. This process is much more economical because the same former can be used number of times and it saves the cost of the former. For removing the former before melting, special binder is added in the ramming mass and the former is heated up to 400C by gas burner inside when the ramming mass, in contact with it, forms a hard layer and enables the pull out of the former which has a taper design to facilitate the removal.
The first heat is very important because it is to be done with care to sinter and stabilize the lining and next heat onwards it can be run in normal routine way. It is also recommended to use clean and good quality scrap in first few heats. The former used for the lining is allowed to melt in service and it actually holds the dry material till it sinters and acquires strength to stand on its own.
After a new lining is constructed, its first heat up procedure is very important. A special heat up schedule is followed which helps in stabilization of the Refractory lining. This is called sintering cycle and should be followed as per the instruction of the supplier of the lining material because it depends upon the grain size distribution, raw material character, quality and quantity of the sintering aid used and also upon the furnace capacity. The most common sintering aid is Boric acid or Boron Oxide used for Silica Ramming mass. Table 5 shows the typical heat up schedule used for a certain ramming product.
Change in crystalline phase | Transformation Temperature (°C) | Associated volume change% |
---|---|---|
β to α- Quartz | 573 | +0.8–1.3 |
β Quartz to β- Tridymite | 870 | +14.4 |
β Quartz to β-Cristobalite | 1250 | +17.4 |
Polymorphic changes in silica relevant to function of silica ramming Mass.
SiO2% | Al2O3% | Fe2O3% | Others% | Bulk density (gm/cc) | Max service temp C |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
99.2 | 0.5 | 0.1 | 0.2 | 2.1 | 1650 |
98.8 | 0.7 | 0.07 | 0.40 | 2.1 | 1700 |
Properties of typical silica ramming Mass.
Furnace size (Ton) | Boron oxide (B2O3) | Boric acid (H3BO3) |
---|---|---|
1–3 | 180 C/h | 120 C/h |
4–15 | 150 C/h | 100 C/h |
+15 | 100 C/h | 60 C/h |
Heat up schedule of the coreless induction furnace.
After rising, the temperature is hold at a certain temperature, called sintering temperature, which depends upon the quantity of additive used. Table 6 shows the relation between the kind of sintering aid used, its percentage and the sintering temperature.
% Additive | B2O3 | H3BO3 |
---|---|---|
1.0 | 1530C | — |
0.8% | 1580C | — |
0.6% | 1630C | — |
0.4% | 1680C | — |
2% | — | 1530C |
1.6% | — | 1580C |
1.2 | — | 1630C |
0.8% | — | 1680C |
Typical relation between additive% and sintering temperature.
Refractory lining life depends not upon quality of the refractory alone but more upon the other parameters e.g., furnace size, quality of installation and the deviations from SOP etc. Same Refractory performs differently in different cast iron melting units.
Following are the major causes of refractory degradation process takes place in induction furnace.
Chemical corrosion and erosion
Crack formation
Erosion
Superheating
Build up
It causes the gradual loss of the lining thickness due to the chemical reaction of the refractory material with the charge material or alloying elements in the metal. The presence of carbon and other oxides like Mn, Mg, and Al present in the melt reacts with SiO2 and reduces it following the reaction as below.
The content of the said impurities must be low to avoid the chemical corrosion. Carbon in Cast iron also attacks SiO2 at a temperature above 1450C to 1480C when the boiling process sets in. The FeO present in the slag reacts with SiO2 to form low melting compound Fayalite (2FeO.SiO2) having melting point 1180C and corrodes SiO2 Refractory lining. Slag also contains Manganese silicate (MnO.SiO2) with 1250°C as its melting temperature. Both of these compounds occur in the slag in proportion 10 to 30% and 2 to 10% respectively. Input of rusty scrap makes the situation worse.
The content of the said impurities must be low to avoid the chemical corrosion. Carbon in Cast iron also attacks SiO2 at a temperature above 1450C to 1480C when the boiling process sets in.
During the charging of the scrap in molten metal or during the CO boiling process, molten metal is splashed on the refractory lining and later gets oxidized and forms FeO and then to Fayalite.
When the metal is hold in the furnace for longer time metal gets oxidized to FeO and causes the erosion in the lower part of the crucible. During holding, the temperature of the molten metal should be kept as low as possible to retard the oxidation process and generation of FeO. In melting of nodular iron, SiO2-Al2O3-MgO eutectic is formed at 1365C [9] and the lining gets eroded because if it’s higher tapping temperature.
If the scrap, used as feed to furnace, contains Zn, then it vaporizes beyond 900 C and permeates through the lining material and condenses on the inductor coil. This deposited Zn layer may cause arc formation in the inductor coil and damages it [8]. To avoid this problem the initial three charges must be free from any Zn and the lining is allowed to sinter and get dense to retard the permeation of Zn vapor. The same is applicable during the charges after cold heat because the time is to be allowed to heal up the cooling crack through which the vapor permeates easily. A high temperature gradient from hot to cold face of the lining is also recommended to allow the condensation zone away from the coil. The coil coating material with high thermal conductivity is recommended.
The CO gas also permeates through the lining and gets converted to C and CO2 as per the Boudouard reaction
This Carbon gets deposited on the coil. Beside this, Sulfur vapor generated from the MgS in recycled nodular iron also penetrates through the lining and reacts with the Oxygen and the moisture in the lining to form Sulfuric acid as per the reaction
Sulfuric acid attacks the Copper coil to form Copper Sulfate and damages the coil.
in the lining is inevitable because of thermo-mechanical stresses developed in heating and cooling of the lining and due to volumetric changes during the polymorphic transitions of Quartz. But formation of deep crack is dangerous which may allow the passage of molten metal through it to strike the coil. Formation of small cracks is not a concern rather formation of smaller cracks absorbs the stress and does not allow the formation of bigger cracks. Cracks can be of different type and the reason of their formation is shown in Figure 11 [10].
Different types of lining cracks and their causes.
The lamination is formed due to separation of two layers during compaction of the lining and care must be taken to avoid such layer formation. The vertical cracks are formed during over sintering also and care must be taken to reduce the amount of sintering agent in such case. Crack also formed if the density is not uniform throughout the lining. Segregation of the material can also cause such non uniformity. To avoid segregation the refractory material must not be poured from much height or to pour the material through a long funnel during lining.
Erosion is more of a physical process and aggravates chemical corrosion by exposing the fresh surface available for chemical reaction and corrosion. Erosion is connected to the extent of turbulence of the bath of molten metal. Higher the turbulence more is the erosion.
The characteristic of induction melting is that the bath is in constant movement, which is called inductive stirring. The amount of stirring is determined by the size of the furnace, the power put into the metal, the frequency of the electromagnetic field and the type/amount of metal in the furnace.
When a furnace is operated at a frequency lower than ideal, the result may be a violent stirring action that may produce inclusions of slag and refractory particles. Metal loss may be excessive due to excess surface area of the melt and oxidation of volatiles.
In many cases the refractory lining life is reduced because of using too low of a frequency to produce strong stirring. On the other hand, if too high a frequency is selected for the size of the furnace, there may be a complete lack of stirring, uneven heating throughout the charge, excessive side-wall temperatures and difficulty in attaining homogeneous melts.
The degree of agitation in molten metal can be indicated by Stirring Index, which is defined as [11].
Where, SI- Stirring Index, KW = Power of Furnace in KWh, D = Melt diameter, SG = Sp. Gravity of metal, ρ = Metal resistivity, f = Frequency, A = Cross sectional area of the melt (πD2/4). Relation between furnace size and frequency is shown in Figure 12 [12].
Relation between the furnace size and the ideal frequency of operation.
Due to erosion when the lining gets thinner, the furnace draws more power and the melting rate becomes faster and this is an indicator of lining erosion. Data in Table 7 [2] illustrates this effect in a 3 ton capacity furnace of 700 KW rating.
Campaign | Power input (KW) | Energy consumption (KWh/t) |
---|---|---|
New Lining | 615 | 656 |
Lining after 1 week | 655 | 622 |
Lining after 3 week | 750 | 598 |
Effect of refractory lining age on energy consumption.
When the slag makes contact with the refractory lining of a furnace wall (or other areas of the holding vessel) that is colder than the melting point of the slag, the slag is cooled below its freezing point and adheres to the refractory furnace wall or inductor channel. The source of these build up material are the oxides from the oxidation of the metal or contaminants charged into the furnace e.g. molding sands. Buildup normally occurs in the areas where the flow or the turbulence is minimum. Some of the major mineral forms found in the buildup, are shown in Table 8 [13].
Formula | Mineral | Melting point (°C) |
---|---|---|
FeO | Wustite | 1379 |
Fe2O3 | Hematite | 1625 |
2MnO.SiO2 | Galaxite | 1850 |
2FeO.SiO2 | Fayalite | 1216 |
MgO.SiO2 | Forsterite | 1888 |
2(Fe, Mg)OSiO2 | Olivine | 1798 |
CaS | Oldhamite | 2522.5 |
CaO.MgO.SiO2 | Diopside | 1389.7 |
CaO.Al2O3.SiO2 | Anorthite | 1555.6 |
MgO.Al2O3.5SiO2 | Cordierite | 1576 |
Some minerals, found in the buildup material in cast iron melting.
The buildup gradually reduces the working volume of the furnace and forced to take shutdown for the new lining. The remedy is to use the better quality of scrap with lesser contaminants. Sometimes the use of flux reduces the build up by reacting with it to reduce the melting point so it goes into the slag.
The generation of localized heat, which leads to high temperature at some spots, is very detrimental for the refractory lining and may cause lining failure. The major reasons for the localized superheating of the lining are shown in Figure 13 [10].
Factors that cause superheating of molten cast iron.
During the scrap charging in the furnace, it may so happen that some scraps remain at hanging position at the top while the liquid metal is formed below and an air gap forms in between the liquid metal at the bottom and the charge at the top in hanging position and is called Bridging. This is a very dangerous situation for the refractory because the liquid metal below will be superheated and will have high stirring effect due to high power density and lesser quantity of molten metal. The metal temperature can shoot up above the melting point of refractory and erosion will be high because of strong agitation of molten metal. Under such condition the refractory lining can give way and molten metal can penetrate through the lining to strike the water cooled coil causing severe explosion (Table 8).
Once the bridging of scrap happens the power must be switched off immediately. The scrap sizes are very important to control the bridging and the charges must be of different sizes.
The trapped metal pieces inside the refractory lining can also cause the local superheating of the refractory lining. The penetrated metal fin inside the lining can also cause the superheating of the lining.
For transportation of the molten cast iron in foundries Ladles can be used and these ladles can also be lined with Silica Ramming mass in similar way as it is being done for induction furnace. The advantage of Silica Ramming mass is its low cost and lower drop in metal temperature because of its low thermal conductivity. Smaller foundry ladles also use sol-gel castable lining which is amenable for fast drying and heat up.
In case of cupola also, the liquid metal can be transported through ladle lined by Silica Ramming mass which is most economical. In case of bigger ladle Alumina—Silicon Carbide bricks can be used which gives better campaign life but it is having much higher thermal conductivity and need insulation at the back to prevent the heat loss.
The driving force acting on industries, in general, today are related to economy, environment and safety and health issues and that brings the changes in current practices. The cast iron industry is not an exception to that.
For example, so far Boron compounds are being used as the sintering aid to Silica Ramming mass, but Boron compounds are found to have detrimental effects on human health. Trials are on the way to develop Boron free Silica Ramming masses and initial trial results are very encouraging.
New methods for melting, like Electron beam melting, Microwave melting, Solar furnaces [13] are under trial and Refractory requirements will be changed along with the changed furnace type in future.
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On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. 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After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. 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