Benefits of Anomaly Detection in Smart City Applications.
\r\n\tIn sum, the book presents a reflective analysis of the pedagogical hubs for a changing world, considering the most fundamental areas of the current contingencies in education.
",isbn:"978-1-83968-793-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-792-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-794-5",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b01f9136149277b7e4cbc1e52bce78ec",bookSignature:"Dr. María Jose Hernandez-Serrano",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10229.jpg",keywords:"Teacher Digital Competences, Flipped Learning, Online Resources Design, Neuroscientific Literacy (Myths), Emotions and Learning, Multisensory Stimulation, Citizen Skills, Violence Prevention, Moral Development, Universal Design for Learning, Sensitizing on Diversity, Supportive Strategies",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 14th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 12th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 11th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 1st 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 30th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Phil. Maria Jose Hernandez Serrano is a tenured lecturer in the Department of Theory and History of Education at the University of Salamanca, where she currently teaches on Teacher Education. She graduated in Social Education (2000) and Psycho-Pedagogy (2003) at the University of Salamanca. Then, she obtained her European Ph.D. in Education and Training in Virtual Environments by research with the University of Manchester, UK (2009).",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"187893",title:"Dr.",name:"María Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Hernandez-Serrano",slug:"maria-jose-hernandez-serrano",fullName:"María Jose Hernandez-Serrano",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/187893/images/system/187893.jpg",biography:"DPhil Maria Jose Hernandez Serrano is a tenured Lecturer in the Department of Theory and History of Education at the University of Salamanca (Spain), where she currently teaches on Teacher Education. She graduated in Social Education (2000) and Psycho-Pedagogy (2003) at the University of Salamanca. Then, she obtained her European Ph.D. on Education and Training in Virtual Environments by research with the University of Manchester, UK (2009). She obtained a Visiting Scholar Postdoctoral Grant (of the British Academy, UK) at the Oxford Internet Institute of the University of Oxford (2011) and was granted with a postdoctoral research (in 2021) at London Birbeck University.\n \nShe is author of more than 20 research papers, and more than 35 book chapters (H Index 10). She is interested in the study of the educational process and the analysis of cognitive and affective processes in the context of neuroeducation and neurotechnologies, along with the study of social contingencies affecting the educational institutions and requiring new skills for educators.\n\nHer publications are mainly of the educational process mediated by technologies and digital competences. Currently, her new research interests are: the transdisciplinary application of the brain-based research to the educational context and virtual environments, and the neuropedagogical implications of the technologies on the development of the brain in younger students. Also, she is interested in the promotion of creative and critical uses of digital technologies, the emerging uses of social media and transmedia, and the informal learning through technologies.\n\nShe is a member of several research Networks and Scientific Committees in international journals on Educational Technologies and Educommunication, and collaborates as a reviewer in several prestigious journals (see public profile in Publons).\n\nUntil March 2010 she was in charge of the Adult University of Salamanca, by coordinating teaching activities of more than a thousand adult students. She currently is, since 2014, the Secretary of the Department of Theory and History of Education. Since 2015 she collaborates with the Council Educational Program by training teachers and families in the translation of advances from educational neuroscience.",institutionString:"University of Salamanca",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Salamanca",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"23",title:"Social Sciences",slug:"social-sciences"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"301331",firstName:"Mia",lastName:"Vulovic",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/301331/images/8498_n.jpg",email:"mia.v@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6942",title:"Global Social Work",subtitle:"Cutting Edge Issues and Critical Reflections",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"222c8a66edfc7a4a6537af7565bcb3de",slug:"global-social-work-cutting-edge-issues-and-critical-reflections",bookSignature:"Bala Raju Nikku",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6942.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"263576",title:"Dr.",name:"Bala",surname:"Nikku",slug:"bala-nikku",fullName:"Bala Nikku"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"58448",title:"Introductory Chapter: Time Series Analysis (TSA) for Anomaly Detection in IoT",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72669",slug:"introductory-chapter-time-series-analysis-tsa-for-anomaly-detection-in-iot",body:'\nObserving data points over time with proper transform may reveal valuable information about systems behaviours and trends. This book entitled “Time Series Analysis (TSA) and Applications” comes at a very opportune period where business enterprises are overloaded with data and looking for swift analytics and on the other hand have not yet trusted the powerful algorithms such as deep learning and AI. Academics prefer simple tools like Matlab or Mathematica to run TSA. However, statistics and probabilistic instruments have gained wide acceptance for decades. Time Series Analysis had been often assimilated to finance and forecasting. The chapters presented here prove the contrary and show how far TSA is being applied across an array of disciplines and how efficient and effective this technique could be if it is fittingly utilised. In the same spirit, this chapter provides an overview of time series as applied to detect anomalies in Internet of Things (IoT) networks. Specific attention is paid to anomalies that occur in smart cities IoT use cases. The final aim of this research work partly described here is to mount plug n play anomaly detection engine (ADE).
\nThe Internet has evolved from its original aim of providing access to web resources globally to what is commonly called today Internet of Things, where it is expected that objects will internetwork and have a presence on the Internet just with an IPv6 address for example. The objects market is estimated in billions and trillions, very far from the global human population. This has led to new business models with development of dedicated IoT networks such as SigFox, LoRa, Symphony Link, and NB-IoT, and production of IoT compliant devices from microcontrollers’ manufacturers such as Microchip, Intel, and Raspberry PI. Software companies have come up with virtual machines and statistical tools for big data analytics whereas network devices constructors like Cisco and Juniper for instance have come up with network gateways and routers to accommodate devices connection, routing, and IoT data transit. The myriad of technologies involved within the IoT ecosystem should empower smart environments as it happens likewise in smart cities. The next section introduces the IoT value chain and then lists some use cases of IoT in smart environments whereby anomalies arouse, followed by the classification of anomalies in the time domain, the time series models applicable and finally problematics in applying TSA to anomaly detection in IoT.
\nThe IoT value chain in \nFigure 1\n shows that the value added services to IoT & key differentiator is the data analytics part which comprises the anomaly detection component with the help of TSA. Data analytics in IoT could be a higher income generator than key technology enablers like SDN, IPv6, and 5G, even more than machine automation. We are talking about Analytics as a Service (AaaS). According to Cisco’s annual Visual Networking Index, machine-to-machine (M2M) connections that support IoT applications will account for more than half of the world’s 27.1 billion devices and connections by 2021.
\nIoT Value Chain.
\n\nTable 1\n illustrates the anomalies descriptions in selected smart cities IoT use cases.
\nSmart | \n\nAnomalies description\n | \n\nBenefits\n | \n
---|---|---|
Water | \nWater leakages | \nTo prevent water waste | \n
Lighting | \nBroken bulbs | \nSave time and fuel for maintenance | \n
Home | \nGas leakage | \nAlert home users on the incident | \n
Building | \nElectricity peak and pipe leakage | \nEnergy monitoring | \n
Farm | \nAnomalies in farm data and weather | \nMonitor growth | \n
Goods | \nTraffic congestion spots | \nOptimize route and delivery | \n
Benefits of Anomaly Detection in Smart City Applications.
Let us now classify the anomalies in the time domain.
\nStatic vs. dynamic: anomalies are defined as data points not following current patterns; static means in the same direction but with different characteristics whereas dynamic refers to opposite direction.
\nOutlier: an outlier is not necessarily an anomaly; it all depends on the defined threshold, for instance in the example in \nFigure 2\n showing sugar bags weight with respect to time, any bag <920 g or >1080 g is considered as an anomaly.
\nContextual: a data point could be an anomaly in one context but not in another. For example, a temperature of 35°C in January is an anomaly in a northern European country but normal in a southern hemisphere island for the same month.
\nCollective: this happens when there is elongation in time of a particular anomaly like it happens in telecom transmission; there are accumulation of delays that result in jitters.
Outlier anomaly (https://anomaly.io/anomaly-detection-normal-distribution/).
There is actually no one size fit all solution for the development of an ADE as well as no de facto time series model that suits the ADE. Below are some of the popular time series models adopted for ADE in IoT.
\nAutoregressive models: an autoregressive model specifies that the output variable depends linearly on its own previous values. It is based on an approach that several points from the past generate a forecast of the next point with the addition of some random variable, which is usually white noise. The autoregressive integrated moving average (ARIMA) is applicable to stationary time series only.
\nSymbolic TSA: data points are converted to bits and bytes 10100111001; then, Information Theory; Shannon, FFT, DFT, DWT is applied.
\nSeasonal-trend-Loess (STL) decomposition: data points together with the noise or multiple data sets over a period are decomposed and analyzed to detect eventual anomalies.
\nMachine learning: there are two main branches of machine learning namely supervised learning whereby the pattern for the anomaly is learnt and known, whereas in supervised mode, detection is done by inference or featuring. The latter is more challenging as the anomaly pattern is unknown and the algorithm learnt from the data points is to be analyzed. The supervised mode comprises the following methods: Decision Table, Random Forest, K-nearest Neighbor, SVMs, Deep Learning, Naive Bayes. The popular “unsupervised” algorithms are K-means clustering, DBSCAN, N-SVM, Stream Clustering, and LDA (Latent Dirichlet Allocation).
Below listed are the 10 main issues, in which some are inherent to the IoT network and others to the time series properties.
Missing data points/holes: missing data can happen due to device malfunctioning, for instance, or issues related to device identification for example. “Potent, climate warming gases are being emitted into the atmosphere but are not being recorded in official inventories,” a BBC (
Data corruption: for instance, data can be corrupted due to external factors or device malfunctioning; thus, it is important to ensure that the data points analyzed are accurate and come from the system under investigation.
Encrypted data: in most IoT networks, data are encrypted during transmission and normally decrypted for customer usage. If detection is to be performed on encrypted data, anomaly detection might not be straightforward.
Sensor fusion: data points from different sensors can be aggregated for a specific function. For example, different parameters like temperature, carbon footprint, wind speed can be captured from different sensors and merged for modelling on a server for environmental impact study. In such cases, the TSA needs to deal with multiple datasets. Sensor fusion is also assimilated to evolving sources.
Real-time detection: this is probably more inherent to the network itself, but the processing and programming aspects of the TSA are also determinants.
Seasonality: also called as periodic time series, arrives when the time series is influenced by the seasonal factors such as day, night, month, and so on.
Heteroscedasticity: it involves frequent changes in variances that can render the transformation of the time series more complex.
Noisy data: data points with very low amplitude can be drowned into the intrinsic transmission electronic noise. Network equipment vendors are proposing edge computing routers that would actually clean the IoT device data in a closer location prior to run the complete analytics on the cloud.
Traffic surge: at times, there could be excessive throughput like number SMS on the eve of New Year that could bring an overload on the ADE.
Non-linearity: date points that are not stationary and changing with time would require multivariate analysis.
This chapter highlights the challenges relevant to core elements involved in the development of an anomaly detection engine (ADE). It was found that an accurate and reliable ADE relies on three main selection factors namely, the quality of the data points, the time series transformation, and where analytics are executed. Moreover, due to the heterogeneous nature of networking environments, the convergence of communication and data protocols in IoT requires special attention when it comes to anomaly detection software development. For instance, raw data points from a smart water application are surely completely different from that from a health care IoT application; hence, the domain of application is another determinant factor in the construction of an efficient ADE. Machine learning in the unsupervised mode is indeed very efficient in situations where datasets are unpredictable. Moreover, cases where data points show nonlinear time series require multivariate analysis that makes the process more computing intensive. This property is not favorable to real-time anomaly detection as more computation at the ADE level will affect the accuracy of the ADE. From a software development perspective, the trend is similar to data mining tools embedded in popular database servers. Once the dataset is compiled, the user can choose the most appropriate statistical tool. In a near future, ERP solution providers will probably propose the ADE as a customizable module that would best fit the customers’ requirements. Future work will investigate into the challenges from empirical experimentations and how anomaly detection can be translated as a service in cloud computing.
\nShipping has a vital role in developing human society over the years, at which the shipping activities have linked the widely separated parts of the world through commercial relationships. In fact, the shipping industry is still developing from time to time with rapid industrial and digital economy growth. In Canada, the shipping industry has been established since 1840 and now undergone significant technological advances, where the size of ships that carry containers for international use continues to increase [1]. Even in Malaysia, the government has launched an initiative, namely, Malaysia Shipping Master Plan, that ensures the shipping industry is focused on developing itself and has a guide for future development. This initiative takes place from 2017 until 2022 with a “Revitalizing Shipping for a Stronger Economy” theme [2].
\nGenerally, there are three main classifications for the global cargo shipping industry, which are:
Wet bulk: Transportation of crude oil and other petroleum products
Dry bulk: Shipment of bulk goods
Liners: Small shipments of general commercial goods
Each of wet bulk, dry bulk, and liner shipping needs their specialized vessels, which are tankers, bulkers, and container ships, respectively [3].
\nFirstly, for wet bulk shipping, approximately a quarter of the goods transported by sea is dominated by crude oil [4]. The oils are transported from its production point to the purchasers by the wet bulk shipping or known as tankers. Majority of the crude oil is moved from the most significant oil-producing region, which is the Middle East, to the dominant importers like the European Union, Japan and the United States of America. Other than that, North America imports oil from the Caribbean and West America meanwhile West and North Africa export their oils to Europe [4].
\nNext, the largest group out of these three classifications is dry bulk shipping, where more than 50% of all loaded goods are handled by the bulkers, while 30 and 16% are for tankers and containers, respectively [5]. There is a vast range of solid cargoes transported by containers. Generally, there are five primary crucial bulk goods, which are coal, grain, iron ore, bauxite, and phosphates, in which iron ore and coal are the two goods that are transported the most [4]. Meanwhile, chemical packages and steel products are the example of the shipped minor bulk goods [6]. The main routes for iron ore transportation are from Australia and Brazil to Japan as well as from Brazil to Western Europe. While for coal, which is commonly used as steam coal in power stations to generate electricity, the leading exporters are from South Africa, Australia, Colombia, the East and West Coast of the United States, as well as Indonesia. Moreover, Australia, South Africa, Colombia, and the East Coast of the United States export their coal to Western Europe, whereas Japan receives the coal from the West Coast of the United States, Australia, and South Africa [4].
\nLiner shipping, also known as container shipping, provides services by transporting goods in containers with scheduled sailings. The variety of goods transported by liner shipping are packed in a smaller unit. One of the contributors to the continuation and development of liner shipping is the increment of the digital economy. According to Ref. [7], companies that produce and process raw materials, commodities, and manufacturing goods are the previous world’s fastest-growing and biggest corporations. However, currently, Internet-related service and technology-based manufacturers, such as Alibaba, Amazon, Apple, and Microsoft, have become the world’s most valuable and most prominent companies, where e-commerce, online communication and cashless Business to Business (B2B) and Business to Consumer (B2C) transactions are practiced [7]. This development has contributed more to the growth of the shipping industry, where it is considered as a catalyst for economic development by facilitating world trade, due to the cheaper mode of transportation.
\nHowever, aside from on-the-ground activities such as lubricants, refineries, and petrochemical industries, it is undeniable that shipping activities have contributed to marine pollution, especially in this twentieth century where carriage of the cargoes by the ships is increasing. According to [8], millions of tons of oily wastes and waste oils are generated as the by-products of the ships, every year. One of the contributors to water pollution by the operating marine vessels is the discharging of oily bilge water. Typically for marine vessels, the oily wastes and waste oil that come from various sources accumulate in the bilge space, which is the lowest part of the vessel.
\nRoutinely, the accumulated oily bilge water must be discharged out of the bilge spaces to maintain the stability of the vessel, hence eliminating the possibility of the ship to be in the conditions that can cause a hazard to it [9]. The wastes discharged can eventually cause water pollution, which leads to many negative impacts on the human, environment, and marine populations. Oily bilge water may poison marine organisms because it might cover plants and tiny animals when it floated on the surface of the water and is carried into the shoreline, causing life cycles of the plant and the respiration of the animals be interfered [10].
\nHence, many governments and international industries are working on the marine pollution issue, mainly originated from the shipping industry, such as the Marine Environmental Protection Committee (MEPC), the International Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution from Ships (MARPOL), and the Department of Environment (DOE), Malaysia. In order to solve the problem, oily wastewater separator is essential and needs to be installed and operated effectively to prevent the pollution as well as to ensure that the water discharged overboard is within legal limits.
\nThe lowest compartment of the vessels and directly above the keel is known as bilge, where water that drains off from various sources is captured. The water might be originated from rain, interior spillage, rough seas, or minor leakage in other main parts of the vessel. Depending on a few factors such as ship size, design of engine room, and components’ age, the amount of accumulated bilge water onboard varies from one to another. In order to maintain the stability of the vessel and to avoid conditions that can cause hazard (such as vessel’s propulsion systems and ancillary machinery damage and fire hazard) due to too much of bilge waste accumulation, it is crucial to remove the bilge water into a holding tank, periodically [9]. There are two options to manage the bilge water, which are whether installing bilge separator to treat it onboard or holding it in a tank on the vessel before discharging it to the shore’s treatment facility. Somehow, treating it onboard has an advantage where a smaller volume of oily bilge water has to be stored in the vessel. Meanwhile, the treated wastewater can be removed according to the related regulations and standards.
\nThe composition of bilge water depends on the design and function of the ship. The wastewater is commonly comprised of water, oily fluids, cleaning fluids, lubricant, and grease as well as other wastes that originated from piping, engines, and other operational and mechanical sources in the vessel’s machinery spaces [9] as well as urine and chemicals. Other than that, extra waste streams in massive vessels contain sludge, waste oil, and oily water mixtures. Sludge is formed from the continuous fuel purification to remove contaminants in order to enhance low-quality fuels as well as to avoid ship’s engines and highly machined components from being damaged.
\nThe regulation stipulated by the International Maritime Organization (IMO) highlighted on the oil content of the bilge water discharged to the sea. The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL 73/78) has set the maximum limit of 15 mg/L for the oil content in the wastewater to be discharged to the sea. According to the US EPA (2008), passenger ships produce the highest amount of bilge water with huge difference as compared to the other types of ships. This is due to their more complex constructions and support for crowds of passengers [9].
\nTypically, the small volumes of treated bilge water are released above the water line and instantly diluted in the sea water. Hence, the obvious effects of oil spill is most likely not going to occur. However, a long-term effect might happen to the marine living organisms around the shipping lanes. The negative consequences that will take place may be due to the excessive concentration of biodegradable compounds, including oil, as well as continuous increment of nondegradable compound concentration such as metals [11].
\nOther than that, surfactant is one of the significant chemicals contained in the bilge water. The mixtures of oil and surfactants may cause higher toxicity since the oil and surfactants alone are toxic themselves. This may be due to the synergistic effects or the crude oil that has been dissolved, causing it to be consumable for the exposed organisms [12, 13, 14, 15].
\nTypically, OWS is made up of three segments, which are separator unit, filter unit, and oil content monitor and control unit. The separator and filter units are included as treatment units, where many designs and different principles are applied. The gravity and centrifugal separators are commonly used as the first stage of the treatment, followed by other separation techniques, which is called as polishing treatment. The examples of the polishing unit are flotation, coagulation and flocculation, filtration, biological treatment, as well as absorption and adsorption [16]. Normal techniques, such as gravitational and centrifugation, are used for oily wastewater that has two distinct phases; meanwhile, addition of chemical or biological de-emulsification is required for separation of emulsified oily bilge water [17].
\nTypically, oily bilge water treatment onboard starts with a gravitational method in order to remove heavy fractions and lighter fractions based on density difference. In this method, coalescing materials made of oleophilic polymer in the form of loose-packed media or parallel plate are used to attract the oil droplets to adhere to the plate [16]. Examples of oleophilic polymer used as the coalescing plate separators are polyethylene, fiberglass, and nylon [18].
\nThe free-moving dispersed oil droplets continue to adhere to the plate or media until it can break from the coalescing material and float up to the surface of the tank. The presence of the oil detected by the sensors then automatically triggers the OWS to remove the collected oil to a waste oil tank. However, this method can only be effective when the phase of the oil and water is separated distinctively [19]. In other words, in some instances, the gravitational method is not suitable since the bilge water typically consists of emulsified oil formed due to the chemical emulsifiers (solvents and cleaning agents) as well as mechanical means such as ship’s motion and transfer system pump [16]. Figure 1 shows the gravitational separator process.
\nGravitational separator [20].
As can be seen from the figure above, as the oily bilge water flows through the parallel plate, oil globules are formed and float up to the surface to form oil layer. Oil skimmer is used to skim off the oil layer. Then, oil discharge valve and purge water valve are opened, where the oil is removed from the unit by the purge water.
\nCentrifugal separators are the alternative option for the gravity separators. The same principle is applied, in which the oil is separated based on the different density of oil and water as well as coalescence of the oil droplets. Somehow, the centrifugal acceleration causes the gravity to increase more, and the coagulation and flocculation processes are enhanced in order to separate the emulsified oil. This type of separator has many advantages as compared to gravity OWS. Since it can separate more oil from the bilge water, including emulsified oil, less oil content is loaded to the next treatment step, which is usually called a polishing unit. Thus, the polisher’s service life might last long, reducing the cost of maintenance and repair. Centrifugal separators are also more compact and require smaller bilge water holding tanks [16]. However, high capital cost is needed for the centrifuges, and regular maintenance must be done since large horsepower motors are used during the process.
\n\nFigure 2 shows an example of manufactured separator (PureBilge by Alfa Laval).
\nPatented Alfa Laval XLrator [21].
In the inlet stream of the unit, the bilge water is accelerated by the XLrator with less shearing and foaming in order to prevent the oil drops from separating and further emulsion formation. Then, it flows into the separator, in which coalescence occurs due to high centrifugal force. Flocculation of small oil drops takes place and flocculants is added to promote bigger flocs for easier separation [21].
\nSeparation of oil by flotation occurs due to the difference in density of oil and water, where water is denser than oil, forming a scum layer on top of the water. Floatation technique can be divided into many different techniques, including electroflotation, froth flotation [22], and dissolved air flotation (DAF). Electroflotation separates oil from water through electrochemical reactions by electrolysis, where tiny bubbles produced from electrolysis will cause the pollutants to float to the water body surface [23]. In froth flotation, the separation takes place when the oil adheres onto the fine bubbles generated when air is introduced into the system. Surfactant is added to adsorb the air or water interface of the bubbles of air with the head groups (hydrophilic) in the water and the tail groups (hydrophobic) in the air. Hence, when the bubbles rise through the solution, the oil will concentrate on the bubble surfaces and foam is formed [24].
\nMeanwhile, dissolved air flotation (DAF) introduces micro gas bubbles into the flotation chamber that has been formed when water is saturated with gas under pressure [25]. The oil droplet will spread around the gas, and conglomerate will continue to rise to the surface of the solution. The advantages of flotation treatment are the following: less investment needed, low energy consumption, and easy to maintain [26]. However, the statement contradicts with Yu et al. [27] who stated that flotation requires high energy consumption and has repairing and maintenance problem as well as issue in manufacturing of the device.
\nAccording to Yu et al. [27], coagulation process is a robust oil–water separation technology because it is able to separate dissolved and emulsified oil; hence, it is vastly applied in the latest oily wastewater treatment method [28]. In the coagulation process, coagulant, a chemical substance, is added to the wastewater to destabilize the charge of colloidal particles in the solution [29] which is too tiny for gravitational settling. When the particles are destabilized, larger flocs are formed making it easier to settle and then are skimmed off to the clarifier or sludge thickener.
\nAnyhow, many experiments might be needed if the coagulation method is going to be used in treating oily wastewater. This is because of the complexity of oily wastewater, making it hard to choose the most suitable coagulants for effective separation of oil and water to take place [27]. In a study done by Zeng et al. [30], oil removal efficiency is improved up to 99% when aggregation of poly-zinc silicate (PZSS) with anionic polyacrylamide (A-PAM) is used as the coagulating and flocculating chemicals. Somehow, higher costs are needed, and it could cause water bodies’ secondary pollution and difficulties to the next process [27].
\nSome bilge water treatment units include biological treatment, which is called as a bioreactor. In this method, microorganisms are used to eliminate or reduce the organic and inorganic compounds before the treated wastewater being discharged to the sea or to a collection system [29]. The microorganisms convert the dissolved and particulate carbonaceous organic matter, including oil, in the bilge water into simple end products through the oxidation process. The equation below is representing the aerobic biological oxidation of organic matter [29].
\nAs can be seen from Eq. 1 above, the oxidation process needs oxygen (O2) and nutrients, which are nitrate (NH3) and phosphate (PO4\n3−), in order to convert the organic matter to carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O). Other than that, the new cells generated are referring to the biomass produced after the oxidation of organic matter takes place.
\nThere are two principals of biological processes used to treat wastewater, which are suspended growth and attached growth, or also known as biofilm, processes. Suspended growth process maintains the microorganisms in liquid suspension by proper mixing methods. Meanwhile, attached growth attach the microorganisms to an inert packing material, where the wastewater will flow past the biofilm to remove the organic materials [29]. For OWS onboard, biofilm is used, in which the bacteria are attached to a synthetic support media. In this bioreactor, aerators are installed under the media to supply oxygen to the bacteria for bacterial growth as well as for oxidation of the organic contaminants to take place. Other than that, a clarifier is needed in order to remove the biomass formed at the end of the processes [16].
\nBiological treatment, with flexible operation, simple maintenance and management, as well as stable effluent quality [26], is indeed a suitable method since no waste oil is produced by the process [16]. Small oil droplets of emulsified oil, which are hardly removed by physical and chemical treatment, can be degraded easily by the bacteria [31]. However, CO2 will be produced from the process, resulting in increment in greenhouse gases. Even though the operating cost is low, the capital cost needed is high and skillful personnel to be in charge is required to ensure the treatment functioned well.
\nBasically, there are three stages involved in the process [32]. The first stage is heavy phase separation, where separated oils and solids are removed. In the second stage, the bacteria are used to convert the emulsified oil into non-harmful end products. This stage is known as emulsified oil degradation stage. Then, the third stage contains clarifier in order to remove the remaining solids and water.
\nPhysicochemical sorption involved in absorption and adsorption processes can eventually separate the oil from the bilge water. Absorption occurs when two discrete physical states of substances are fused together. Meanwhile, in adsorption, molecules adhere onto the surface of different phase [16]. Both absorption and adsorption involved absorbent sorption media and adsorbent, respectively. The oil is separated by pumping the bilge water through these media until their maximum sorption capacity is achieved, which then the oil is removed. Certain used media are possible to be regenerated onboard; meanwhile, some are regenerated or disposed of onshore. Somehow, the regenerated media is replaced once it is exhausted, where it can no longer absorb or adsorb the oil molecules. Having a few advantages which include low capital and operating cost as well as compact treatment unit, these two sorption techniques are suitable for vessels with less than 400 gross tonnages [16]. Table 1 summarizes the comparison of the oil–water separation techniques.
\nTechniques | \nAdvantages | \nDisadvantages | \nReferences | \n
---|---|---|---|
Gravitational | \nEffective for discrete phases of oil and water | \nNot effective to separate emulsified oils from water | \n[16, 19] | \n
Centrifugation | \n\n
| \n\n
| \n[16] | \n
Flotation | \n\n
| \n\n
| \n[26, 27] | \n
Coagulation and flocculation | \n\n
| \n\n
| \n[16, 27, 28, 33] | \n
Biological | \n\n
| \n\n
| \n[16, 27] | \n
Absorption and adsorption | \n\n
| \n\n
| \n[16] | \n
Comparison of the separation techniques.
Currently, many types of OWS for bilge from different manufacturers are available in the market. The separators consist of a number of separator units that use different separation techniques. Table 2 shows examples of companies that produced commercially available bilge water separators.
\nNo. | \nManufacturers | \nName of the products | \nSeparation techniques applied | \n
---|---|---|---|
1 | \nAlfa Laval | \nPureBilge | \nCentrifugation | \n
2 | \nEnSolve Biosystems, Inc. | \nPetroLiminator OWS | \nBiological | \n
3 | \nVillage Marine Tec. | \nVillage Marine Tec. Oily Water Separator (VMT OWS) | \nAdsorption | \n
4 | \nSeparator Spares & Equipment, LLC. | \nULTRA-SEP Bilge Water Separator | \nUltrafiltration (membrane) | \n
5 | \nCompass Water Solutions | \nCRP-SEP | \n\n
| \n
ULTRA-SEP | \n\n
| \n||
VG-SEP | \n\n
| \n||
6 | \nRecovery Energy, Inc. | \nBOSS Oily Water Separators | \n\n
| \n
Examples of commercially available bilge water separator.
Different techniques are available and being used in the oil–water separation techniques for bilge water treatment. Typically, more than one unit of separators is needed to meet the minimum allowable discharge limit value set by the regulatory bodies. Gravitational and centrifugal methods are said to be the first technique before undergoing further polishing separation. Polishing treatment unit caters smaller droplet of oil, or emulsified oil, which cannot be treated by gravitational and centrifugal methods. To conclude, oily bilge water can be treated with proper separation techniques so that the treated bilge water discharged to the sea comply with the limit and marine pollution can be minimized and prevented. Any other treatment techniques can as well be tested and introduced to enhance the oil–water separation process in treating bilge water.
\nThe authors would like to acknowledge the Centre for Biofuel and Biochemical Research (CBBR) and Chemical Engineering Department, Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS for the support.
\nThe authors declare no conflict of interest.
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