\r\n\tWe accept scientific papers which can be presented as original research papers and review papers. The required length of the full chapters is 10-20 pages and the chapters should be original works (not republished). \r\n\tAs a self-contained collection of scholarly papers, the book will target an audience of practicing researchers, academics, Ph.D. students and other scientists. Since it will be published as an Open Access publication, it will allow unrestricted online access to chapters with no reading or subscription fees.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a8274c7a57830fae9cfa2dd00780184f",bookSignature:"Associate Prof. Arpit Sand",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8505.jpg",keywords:"Applications, PEG, Biotechnical, Biomedical, Water Structure, Cell Fusion, DSC Measurement, Phase Diagram, NMR Spectroscopy, Protein Interaction, Grafted PEG Surface, Monte Carlo ,Protein Hybrid Catalyst, Nano Protein ,Metal Complex",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 8th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 2nd 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 1st 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"January 20th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"March 20th 2020",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a year",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"287032",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Arpit",middleName:null,surname:"Sand",slug:"arpit-sand",fullName:"Arpit Sand",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/287032/images/system/287032.jpg",biography:"Dr. Arpit Sand is currently Associate Professor in the Department of Chemistry, Manav Rachna University Faridabad India. He received his B.Sc. in Science and M.Sc. in Chemistry from the University of Allahabad, Allahabad, India. Dr. Arpit received his Ph.D. degree in Chemistry from the University of Allahabad, Allahabad, India, in 2010. Dr. Sand is an editorial board member for numerous recognized publishers. In addition, he is a reviewer for multiple international journals. He has authored more than 24 international research articles.",institutionString:"Manav Rachna International University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"8",title:"Chemistry",slug:"chemistry"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"304289",firstName:"Rebekah",lastName:"Pribetic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/304289/images/13255_n.png",email:"rebekah@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3621",title:"Silver Nanoparticles",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"silver-nanoparticles",bookSignature:"David Pozo Perez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3621.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6667",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Pozo",slug:"david-pozo",fullName:"David Pozo"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"39437",title:"Fuzzy Control of Nonlinear Systems with General Performance Criteria",doi:"10.5772/48298",slug:"fuzzy-control-of-nonlinear-systems-with-general-performance-criteria",body:'
1. Introduction
Research on control of non-linear systems over the years has produced many results: control based on linearization, global feedback linearization, non-linear H∞ control, sliding mode control, variable structure control, state dependent Riccati equation control, etc [Khalil, 2002]. This chapter will focus on fuzzy control techniques. Fuzzy control systems have recently shown growing popularity in non-linear system control applications. A fuzzy control system is essentially an effective way to decompose the task of non-linear system control into a group of local linear controls based on a set of design-specific model rules. Fuzzy control also provides a mechanism to blend these local linear control problems all together to achieve overall control of the original non-linear system. In this regard, fuzzy control technique has its unique advantage over other kinds of non-linear control techniques. Latest research on fuzzy control systems design is aimed to improve the optimality and robustness of the controller performance by combining the advantage of modern control theory with the Takagi-Sugeno fuzzy model [7, 8, 9, 10, 13, 14].
In this chapter, we address the non-linear state feedback control design of both continuous-time and discrete-time non-linear fuzzy control systems using the Linear Matrix Inequality (LMI) approach. We characterize the solution of the non-linear control problem with the LMI, which provides a sufficient condition for satisfying various performance criteria. A preliminary investigation into the LMI approach to non-linear fuzzy control systems can be found in [7, 8, 13]. The purpose behind this novel approach is to convert a non-linear system control problem into a convex optimization problem which is solved by a LMI at each time. The recent development in convex optimization provides efficient algorithms for solving LMIs. If a solution can be expressed in a LMI form, then there exist optimization algorithms providing efficient global numerical solutions [3]. Therefore if the LMI is feasible, then LMI control technique provides globally stable solutions satisfying the corresponding mixed performance criteria [4, 6, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20]. We further propose to employ mixed performance criteria to design the controller guaranteeing the quadratic sub-optimality with inherent stability property in combination with dissipative type of disturbance attenuation.
In the following sections, we first introduce the Takagi-Sugeno fuzzy modelling for non-linear systems in both continuous time and discrete time. We then propose the general performance criteria in section 3. Then, the LMI control solutions are derived to characterize the optimal and robust fuzzy control of continuous time and discrete time non-linear systems, respectively. The inverted pendulum system control is used as an illustrative example to demonstrate the effectiveness and robustness of our proposed approaches.
The following notation is used in this work: x∈Rndenotes n-dimensional real vector with norm ∥x∥=(xTx)1/2 where (.)T indicates transpose. A≥0for a symmetric matrix denotes a positive semi-definite matrix. L2and l2 denotes the space of infinite sequences of finite dimensional random vectors with finite energy, i.e. ∫0∞∥xt∥2<∞in continuous-time, and Σk=0∞∥xk∥2<∞ in discrete-time, respectively.
2. Takagi-Sugeno system model
The importance of the Takagi-Sugeno fuzzy system model is that it provides an effective way to decompose a complicated non-linear system into local dynamical relations and express those local dynamics of each fuzzy implication rule by a linear system model. The overall fuzzy non-linear system model is achieved by fuzzy “blending” of the linear system models, so that the overall non-linear control performance is achieved. Both of the continuous-time and the discrete-time system models are summarized below.
2.1. Continuous-time Takagi-Sugeno system model
The ith rule of the Takagi-Sugeno fuzzy model can be expressed by the following forms:
Model Rulei:
If\n\t\t\t\t\tφ1(t)
\n\t\t\t\t
isMi1,φ2(t)
\n\t\t\t\t
isMi2,... and φp(t) isMip,
Then the input-affine continuous-time fuzzy system equation is:
where x(t)∈Rnis the state vector, u(t)∈Rmis the control input vector, y(t)∈Rqis the performance output vector, w(t)∈Rsis L2 type of disturbance, ris the total number of model rules, Mijis the fuzzy set. The coefficient matrices areAi∈Rn×n,Bi∈Rn×m,Fi∈Rn×s,Ci∈Rq×n,Di∈Rq×m,Zi∈Rq×s. And φ1,...,φp are known premise variables, which can be functions of state variables, external disturbance and time.
It is assumed that the premises are not the function of the input vectoru(t), which is needed to avoid the defuzzification process of fuzzy controller. If we use φ(t)to denote the vector containing all the individual elementsφ1(t),φ2(t),...,φp(t), then the overall fuzzy system is
where x(k)∈Rnis the state vector, u(k)∈Rmis the control input vector, y(k)∈Rqis the performance output vector, w(k)∈Rsis l2 type of disturbance, ris the total number of model rules, Mijis the fuzzy set. The coefficient matrices areAi∈Rn×n,Bi∈Rn×m,Fi∈Rn×s,Ci∈Rq×n,Di∈Rq×m,Zi∈Rq×s. And φ1,...,φp are known premise variables which can be functions of state variables, external disturbance and time.
It is assumed that the premises are not the function of the input vectoru(k), which is needed to avoid the defuzzification process of fuzzy controller. If we use φ(k)to denote the vector containing all the individual elementsφ1(k),φ2(k),...,φp(k), then the overall fuzzy system is
In this section, we propose the general performance criteria for non-linear control design, which yields a mixed Non-Linear Quadratic Regular (NLQR) in combination with H∞ or dissipative performance index. The commonly used system performance criteria, including bounded-realness, positive-realness, sector boundedness and quadratic cost criterion, become special cases of the general performance criteria. Both the continuous-time and discrete-time general performance criteria are given below:
By properly specifying the value of weighing matrices Q,R,Ci,Di,Ziandα,β,γ, mixed performance criteria can be used in non-linear control design, which yields a mixed Non-linear Quadratic Regulator (NLQR) in combination with dissipative type performance index with disturbance reduction capability. For example, if we takeα=1,β=0,γ<0, (25) yields
Other possible performance criteria which can be used in this framework with various design parameters α,β,γare given in Table.1. Design coefficients αand γcan be maximized or minimized to optimize the controller behavior. It should also be noted that the satisfaction of any of the criteria in Table 1 will also guarantee asymptotic stability of the controlled system.
By properly specifying the value of weighing matrices Q,R,Ci,Di,Ziandα,β,γ, mixed performance criteria can be used in non-linear control design, which yields a mixed Non-linear Quadratic Regulator (NLQR) in combination with dissipative type performance index with disturbance reduction capability. For example, if we takeα=1,β=0,γ<0, (29) yields
which is a mixed NLQR-H∞Design [16, 17, 18]. In (19), γcan be minimized to achieve a smaller l2-l2 or H∞ gain for the closed loop system.
Other possible performance criteria which can be used in this framework with various design parameters α,β,γare given in Table.1. Design coefficients αand γcan be maximized or minimized to optimize the controller behavior. It should also be noted that the satisfaction of any of the criteria in Table 1 will also guarantee asymptotic stability of the controlled system.
α
β
γ
Performance Criteria
1
0
<0
NLQR-H∞Design
1
0
NLQR-PassivityDesign
1
"/>0
NLQR-InputStrictPassivityDesign
"/>0
1
0
NLQR-OutputStrictPassivityDesign
"/>0
1
"/>0
NLQR-VeryStrictPassivity
Table 1.
Various performance criteria in a general framework
4. Fuzzy LMI control of continuous time non-linear systems with general performance criteria
The main results of this chapter are summarized in section 4 and section 5. The following theorem provides the fuzzy LMI control to the continuous time non-linear systems with general performance criteria.
Theorem 1 Given the system model and performance output (2) and control input (8), if there exist matrices S=P-1>0for allt≥0, such that the following LMI holds:
Hence, if the LMI (49) holds, inequality (24) is satisfied. This concludes the proof of the theorem.
Remark 1: For the chosen performance criterion, the LMI (49) need to be solved at each time to find matricesS,M, by using relation (33), we can find the feedback control gain, therefore, the feedback control can be found to satisfy the chosen criterion.
5. Fuzzy LMI control of discrete time non-linear systems with general performance criteria
This section summarizes the main results for fuzzy LMI control of discrete time non-linear systems with general performance criteria:
Theorem 2: Given the closed loop system and performance output (13), and control input (19), if there exist matrices S=P-1>0for allk≥0, such that the following LMI holds:
By factoring out the ∑i∑jhi(φk)hj(φk) term, we have
Ω11Ω12Ω13Ω14Ω15Ω22Ω23Ω240*P-100**I0***R-1≥0E128
\n\t\t\t
where
Ω11=P-QE129
Ω12=β4[Hji+Hij]TE130
Ω13=12(Gji+Gij))TE131
Ω14=12α1/2(Hij+Hji)TE132
Ω15=12(Ki+Kj)TE133
Ω22=-γI+β2(Zi+Zj)TE134
Ω23=12(Fi+Fj)TE135
Ω24=12α1/2(Zi+Zj)TE136
\n\t\t\t
By pre-multiplying and post-multiplying the matrix with the block diagonal matrixdiag(S,I,I,I,I), whereS=P-1, and applying Schur complement again, the following LMI result is obtained
whereS(k)=P-1(k), then (28) is satisfied with the feedback control gain being found by
K(k)=Y(k)P(k)E147
(69)
6. Application to the inverted pendulum system
The inverted pendulum on a cart problem is a benchmark control problem used widely to test control algorithms. A pendulum beam attached at one end can rotate freely in the vertical 2-dimensional plane. The angle of the beam with respect to the vertical direction is denoted at angleθ. The external force uis desired to set angle of the beam θ(x1) and angular velocity θ˙ (x2) to zero while satisfying the mixed performance criteria. A model of the inverted pendulum on a cart problem is given by [1, 9]:
where x1 is the angle of the pendulum from vertical direction, x2is the angular velocity of the pendulum, gis the gravity constant, mis the mass of the pendulum, Mis the mass of the cart, Lis the length of the center of mass (the entire length of the pendulum beam equals2L), uis the external force, control input to the system, wis the L2 type of disturbance, a=1m+Mis a constant, and ε1.ε2 is the weighing coefficients of disturbance.
Due to the system non-linearity, we approximate the system using the following two-rule fuzzy model:
and the initial condition ofx1(0)=π/6,x2(0)=-π/6. The membership function of Rule 1 and Rule 2 is shown below in Fig.1.
Figure 1.
Membership functions of Rule 1 and Rule 2.
Figure 2.
Angle trajectory of the inverted pendulum.
Figure 3.
Angular velocity trajectory of the inverted pendulum.
Figure 4.
Control input applied to the inverted pendulum.
The feedback control gain can be found from (31)(51) by solving the LMI at each time. The following design parameters are chosen to satisfy:
Mixed NLQR-H∞criteria:
C=[11],D=[1],Q=diag[1001],R=1,α=1,β=0,γ=-5E160
Mixed NLQR-passivitycriteria:
C=[11],D=[1],Q=diag[1001],R=1,α=1,β=5,γ=0E161
The mixed criteria control performance results are shown in the Figs.2-4. From these figures, we find that the novel fuzzy LMI control has satisfactory performance. The mixed NLQR-H∞criteria control has a smaller overshoot and a faster response than the one with passivity property. The new technique controls the inverted pendulum very well under the effect of finite energy disturbance. It should also be noted that the LMI fuzzy control with mixed performance criteria satisfies global asymptotic stability.
7. Summary
This chapter presents a novel fuzzy control approach for both of continuous time and discrete time non-linear systems based on the LMI solutions. The Takagi-Sugeno fuzzy model is applied to decompose the non-linear system. Multiple performance criteria are used to design the controller and the relative weighting matrices of these criteria can be achieved by choosing different coefficient matrices. The optimal control can be obtained by solving LMI at each time. The inverted pendulum is used as an example to demonstrate its effectiveness. The simulation studies show that the proposed method provides a satisfactory alternative to the existing non-linear control approaches.
\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/39437.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/39437.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/39437",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/39437",totalDownloads:2424,totalViews:88,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"November 18th 2011",dateReviewed:"May 14th 2012",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"September 27th 2012",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/39437",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/39437",book:{slug:"fuzzy-controllers-recent-advances-in-theory-and-applications"},signatures:"Xin Wang, Edwin E. Yaz, James Long and Tim Miller",authors:[{id:"141768",title:"Prof.",name:"Xin",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Xin Wang",slug:"xin-wang",email:"xin.wang@oit.edu",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Takagi-Sugeno system model",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Continuous-time Takagi-Sugeno system model",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Discrete-time Takagi-Sugeno system model",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"3. General performance criteria",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.1. Continuous-time general performance criteria",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.2. Discrete-time general performance criteria",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"4. Fuzzy LMI control of continuous time non-linear systems with general performance criteria",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"5. Fuzzy LMI control of discrete time non-linear systems with general performance criteria",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"6. Application to the inverted pendulum system",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"7. Summary",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Baumann W.T, Rugh W.J1986Feedback Control of Non-linear Systems by Extended Linearization. IEEE Trans. Automatic Control. AC-3114046'},{id:"B2",body:'BasarT.BernhardP.1995H-infinity Optimal Control and Related Minimax Design Problems, A Dynamic Game Approach,nd Ed.,Birkhauser, 1995.'},{id:"B3",body:'BoydS.GhaouiL. E.FeronE.BalakrishnanV.1994Linear Matrix Inequalities in System and Control TheorySIAM Studies in Applied Mathematics, SIAM, Philadelphia.'},{id:"B4",body:'HuangY.Lu-MW.1996Non-linear Optimal Control: Alternatives to Hamilton-Jacobi Equation, Proc. of 35th Conf. on Decision and Control, Kobe, Japan, 39423947'},{id:"B5",body:'Khalil H.K2002Non-linear Systems, 3rd Ed., Prentice Hall, N.J.'},{id:"B6",body:'MohseniJ.YazE.OlejniczakK.1998State Dependent LMI Control of Discrete-Time Non-linear Systems, Proc. of the 37th IEEE Conference on Decision and Control, Tampa, FL, 46264627'},{id:"B7",body:'TakagiT.SugenoSugenoM(1985Fuzzy Identification of Systems and Its Applications to Model and Control, IEEE Trans. Syst. Man. Cyber., 15116132'},{id:"B8",body:'TanakaK.SugenoM.1990Stability Analysis of Fuzzy Systems Using Lyapunov’s Direct Method, Proc. NAFIPS90, 133136'},{id:"B9",body:'TanakaK.IkedaT.WangH. O.1996Design of Fuzzy Control Systems Based on Relaxed LMI Stability Conditionsthe 35th IEEE Conference on Decision and ControlKobe, 1598603'},{id:"B10",body:'TanakaK.WangH. O.2001Fuzzy Control Systems Design and Analysis, A Linear Matrix Inequality Approach,Wiley.'},{id:"B11",body:'Van der Shaft A.J1993Non-linear State Space H1 control Theory, in Perspectives in control, H. J. Trentelman and J. C.Willems, Eds. Birkhauser.'},{id:"B12",body:'VidyasagarM.2002Non-linear System Analysis, 2nd Ed., SIAM.'},{id:"B13",body:'Wang L.X1994Adaptive Fuzzy Systems and Control: Design and Stability Analysis,Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.'},{id:"B14",body:'WangH. O.TanakaK.GriffinM.1996An Approach to Fuzzy Control of Non-linear Systems: Stability and Design Issues, IEEE Trans. Fuzzy Syst., 411423'},{id:"B15",body:'WangX.YazE. E.2009The State Dependent Control of Continuous-Time Non-linear Systems with Mixed Performance Criteria, Proc. of IASTED Int. Conf. on Identi cation Control and Applications, Honolulu, HI, 98102'},{id:"B16",body:'WangX.YazE. E.2010Robust multi-criteria optimal fuzzy control of continuous-time non-linear systems, Proc. of the 2010 American Control Conference, Baltimore, MD, USA, 64606465'},{id:"B17",body:'WangX.YazE. E.JeongC. S.2010Robust non-linear feedback control of discrete-time non-linear systems with mixed performance criteria, Proc. of the 2010 American Control Conference, Baltimore, MD, USA,63576362'},{id:"B18",body:'WangX.YazE. E.2010Robust multi-criteria optimal fuzzy control of discrete-time non-linear systems, Proc. of the 49th IEEE Conference on Decision and Control, Atlanta, Georgia, USA, 42694274'},{id:"B19",body:'WangX.YazE. E.YazY. I.2010Robust and resilient state dependent control of continuous-time non-linear systems with general performance criteria, Proc. of the 49th IEEE Conference on Decision and Control, Atlanta, Georgia, USA, 603608'},{id:"B20",body:'WangX.YazE. E.YazY. I.Robustresilientstate.dependentcontrol.ofdiscrete.timenon-linear.systemswith.generalperformance.criteriaProc.of discrete time non-linear systems with general performance criteria, Proc. of the 18th IFAC Congress, Milano, Italy, 1090410909'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Xin Wang",address:null,affiliation:'
Oregon Institute of Technology, Department of Electrical and Renewable Energy Engineering, Klamath Falls, Oregon, USA
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Edwin E. Yaz",address:null,affiliation:'
Marquette University, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Haggerty Hall of Engineering, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"2229",title:"Fuzzy Controllers",subtitle:"Recent Advances in Theory and Applications",fullTitle:"Fuzzy Controllers - Recent Advances in Theory and Applications",slug:"fuzzy-controllers-recent-advances-in-theory-and-applications",publishedDate:"September 27th 2012",bookSignature:"Sohail Iqbal, Nora Boumella and Juan Carlos Figueroa Garcia",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2229.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"138350",title:"Dr.",name:"Sohail",middleName:null,surname:"Iqbal",slug:"sohail-iqbal",fullName:"Sohail Iqbal"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"39445",title:"Fuzzy Logic Control of a Smart Actuation System in a Morphing Wing",slug:"fuzzy-logic-control-of-a-smart-actuation-system-in-a-morphing-wing",totalDownloads:2949,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Teodor Lucian Grigorie, Ruxandra Mihaela Botez and Andrei Vladimir Popov",authors:[{id:"17568",title:"Dr.",name:"Ruxandra",middleName:null,surname:"Botez",fullName:"Ruxandra Botez",slug:"ruxandra-botez"}]},{id:"39439",title:"Embedded Fuzzy Logic Controllers in Electric Railway Transportation Systems",slug:"embedded-fuzzy-logic-controllers-in-electric-railway-transportation-systems",totalDownloads:4082,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Stela Rusu-Anghel and Lucian Gherman",authors:[{id:"142006",title:"Dr.",name:"Stela",middleName:null,surname:"Rusu-Anghel",fullName:"Stela Rusu-Anghel",slug:"stela-rusu-anghel"},{id:"146321",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcel",middleName:null,surname:"Topor",fullName:"Marcel Topor",slug:"marcel-topor"}]},{id:"39427",title:"Design of a Real Coded GA Based Fuzzy Controller for Speed Control of a Brushless DC Motor",slug:"design-of-a-real-coded-ga-based-fuzzy-controller-for-speed-control-of-a-brushless-dc-motor",totalDownloads:3186,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Omer Aydogdu and Ramazan Akkaya",authors:[{id:"143234",title:"Dr.",name:"Omer",middleName:null,surname:"Aydogdu",fullName:"Omer Aydogdu",slug:"omer-aydogdu"}]},{id:"39429",title:"A Type-2 Fuzzy Model Based on Three Dimensional Membership Functions for Smart Thresholding in Control Systems",slug:"a-type-2-fuzzy-model-based-on-three-dimensional-membership-functions-for-smart-thresholding-in-contr",totalDownloads:2750,totalCrossrefCites:2,signatures:"M.H. Fazel Zarandi, Fereidoon Moghadas Nejad and H. Zakeri",authors:[{id:"142009",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad Hossein",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel Zarandi",fullName:"Mohammad Hossein Fazel Zarandi",slug:"mohammad-hossein-fazel-zarandi"},{id:"160785",title:"Ph.D.",name:"H",middleName:null,surname:"Zakeri",fullName:"H Zakeri",slug:"h-zakeri"},{id:"160872",title:"Prof.",name:"Freeidon",middleName:null,surname:"Moghadas Nejad",fullName:"Freeidon Moghadas Nejad",slug:"freeidon-moghadas-nejad"}]},{id:"39437",title:"Fuzzy Control of Nonlinear Systems with General Performance Criteria",slug:"fuzzy-control-of-nonlinear-systems-with-general-performance-criteria",totalDownloads:2424,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Xin Wang, Edwin E. Yaz, James Long and Tim Miller",authors:[{id:"141768",title:"Prof.",name:"Xin",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Xin Wang",slug:"xin-wang"}]},{id:"39486",title:"A New Method for Tuning PID-Type Fuzzy Controllers Using Particle Swarm Optimization",slug:"a-new-method-for-tuning-pid-type-fuzzy-controllers-using-particle-swarm-optimization",totalDownloads:4147,totalCrossrefCites:6,signatures:"S. Bouallègue, J. Haggège and M. Benrejeb",authors:[{id:"141915",title:"Dr.",name:"Soufiene",middleName:null,surname:"Bouallegue",fullName:"Soufiene Bouallegue",slug:"soufiene-bouallegue"}]},{id:"39423",title:"Output Tracking Control for Fuzzy Systems via Static-Output Feedback Design",slug:"output-tracking-control-for-fuzzy-systems-via-static-output-feedback-design",totalDownloads:1658,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Meriem Nachidi and Ahmed El Hajjaji",authors:[{id:"25659",title:"Prof.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"El Hajjaji",fullName:"Ahmed El Hajjaji",slug:"ahmed-el-hajjaji"},{id:"141360",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Nachidi",fullName:"Meriem Nachidi",slug:"meriem-nachidi"}]},{id:"39485",title:"FPGA-Based Motion Control IC for Linear Motor Drive X-Y Table Using Adaptive Fuzzy Control",slug:"fpga-based-motion-control-ic-for-linear-motor-drive-x-y-table-using-adaptive-fuzzy-control",totalDownloads:4484,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Ying-Shieh Kung, Chung-Chun Huang and Liang-Chiao Huang",authors:[{id:"2669",title:"Prof.",name:"Ying-Shieh",middleName:null,surname:"Kung",fullName:"Ying-Shieh Kung",slug:"ying-shieh-kung"},{id:"146069",title:"MSc.",name:"Chung-Chun",middleName:null,surname:"Huang",fullName:"Chung-Chun Huang",slug:"chung-chun-huang"},{id:"146072",title:"MSc.",name:"Liang-Chiao",middleName:null,surname:"Huang",fullName:"Liang-Chiao Huang",slug:"liang-chiao-huang"}]},{id:"39430",title:"Novel Yinger Learning Variable Universe Fuzzy Controller",slug:"novel-yinger-learning-variable-universe-fuzzy-controller",totalDownloads:1662,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Ping Zhang and Guodong Gao",authors:[{id:"141337",title:"Dr.",name:"Ping",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",fullName:"Ping Zhang",slug:"ping-zhang"},{id:"160791",title:"Dr.",name:"GuoDong",middleName:null,surname:"Gao",fullName:"GuoDong Gao",slug:"guodong-gao"}]},{id:"39425",title:"Fuzzy Controllers: A Reliable Component of Smart Sustainable Structural Systems",slug:"fuzzy-controllers-a-reliable-component-of-smart-sustainable-structural-systems",totalDownloads:1784,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Maguid H. M. Hassan",authors:[{id:"141308",title:"Prof.",name:"Maguid H.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Hassan",fullName:"Maguid H.M. Hassan",slug:"maguid-h.m.-hassan"}]},{id:"39431",title:"Vehicle Fault Tolerant Control Using a Robust Output Fuzzy Controller Design",slug:"vehicle-fault-tolerant-control-using-a-robust-output-fuzzy-controller-design",totalDownloads:2496,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"M. Chadli and A. El Hajjaji",authors:[{id:"25659",title:"Prof.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"El Hajjaji",fullName:"Ahmed El Hajjaji",slug:"ahmed-el-hajjaji"},{id:"14659",title:"Prof.",name:"M.",middleName:null,surname:"Chadli",fullName:"M. Chadli",slug:"m.-chadli"}]},{id:"39424",title:"Wheelchair and Virtual Environment Trainer by Intelligent Control",slug:"wheelchair-and-virtual-environment-trainer-by-intelligent-control",totalDownloads:2583,totalCrossrefCites:2,signatures:"Pedro Ponce, Arturo Molina and Rafael Mendoza",authors:[{id:"143594",title:"Dr.",name:"Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Ponce",fullName:"Pedro Ponce",slug:"pedro-ponce"},{id:"154069",title:"Dr.",name:"Arturo",middleName:null,surname:"Molina",fullName:"Arturo Molina",slug:"arturo-molina"},{id:"157920",title:"BSc.",name:"Rafael",middleName:null,surname:"Mendoza",fullName:"Rafael Mendoza",slug:"rafael-mendoza"}]},{id:"39444",title:"A Hybrid of Fuzzy and Fuzzy Self-Tuning PID Controller for Servo Electro-Hydraulic System",slug:"a-hybrid-of-fuzzy-and-fuzzy-self-tuning-pid-controller-for-servo-electro-hydraulic-system",totalDownloads:4617,totalCrossrefCites:4,signatures:"Kwanchai Sinthipsomboon, Issaree Hunsacharoonroj, Josept Khedari, Watcharin Po-ngaen and Pornjit Pratumsuwan",authors:[{id:"146645",title:"Mr.",name:"Kwanchai",middleName:null,surname:"Sinthipsomboon",fullName:"Kwanchai Sinthipsomboon",slug:"kwanchai-sinthipsomboon"},{id:"155368",title:"Dr.",name:"Pornjit",middleName:null,surname:"Pratumsuwan",fullName:"Pornjit Pratumsuwan",slug:"pornjit-pratumsuwan"}]},{id:"39433",title:"Design and Simulation of Anfis Controller for Virtual-Reality-Built Manipulator",slug:"design-and-simulation-of-anfis-controller-for-virtual-reality-built-manipulator",totalDownloads:4147,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Yousif I. Al Mashhadany",authors:[{id:"143171",title:"Dr.",name:"Yousif",middleName:"I",surname:"Al-Mashhadany",fullName:"Yousif Al-Mashhadany",slug:"yousif-al-mashhadany"}]},{id:"39436",title:"Hierarchical Fuzzy Control",slug:"hierarchical-fuzzy-control",totalDownloads:1787,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Carlos André Guerra Fonseca, Fábio Meneghetti Ugulino de Araújo and Marconi Câmara Rodrigues",authors:[{id:"146827",title:"Prof.",name:"Marconi",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigues",fullName:"Marconi Rodrigues",slug:"marconi-rodrigues"},{id:"149969",title:"MSc.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Fonseca",fullName:"Carlos Fonseca",slug:"carlos-fonseca"},{id:"158900",title:"Dr.",name:"Fábio",middleName:"Meneghetti Ugulino De",surname:"Araújo",fullName:"Fábio Araújo",slug:"fabio-araujo"}]},{id:"39428",title:"Enhancing Fuzzy Controllers Using Generalized Orthogonality Principle",slug:"enhancing-fuzzy-controllers-using-generalized-orthogonality-principle",totalDownloads:1856,totalCrossrefCites:3,signatures:"Nora Boumella, Juan Carlos Figueroa and Sohail Iqbal",authors:[{id:"138350",title:"Dr.",name:"Sohail",middleName:null,surname:"Iqbal",fullName:"Sohail Iqbal",slug:"sohail-iqbal"},{id:"164823",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos Figueroa",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia",fullName:"Juan Carlos Figueroa Garcia",slug:"juan-carlos-figueroa-garcia"},{id:"165173",title:"Dr.",name:"Nora",middleName:null,surname:"Boumela",fullName:"Nora Boumela",slug:"nora-boumela"}]},{id:"39442",title:"New Areas in Fuzzy Application",slug:"new-areas-in-fuzzy-application",totalDownloads:1935,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Muhammad M.A.S. Mahmoud",authors:[{id:"150046",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad M.A.S.",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud",fullName:"Muhammad M.A.S. Mahmoud",slug:"muhammad-m.a.s.-mahmoud"}]},{id:"39435",title:"Fuzzy Control Systems: LMI-Based Design",slug:"fuzzy-control-systems-lmi-based-design",totalDownloads:4100,totalCrossrefCites:5,signatures:"Morteza Seidi, Marzieh Hajiaghamemar and Bruce Segee",authors:[{id:"145408",title:"Mr.",name:"Morteza",middleName:null,surname:"Seidi",fullName:"Morteza Seidi",slug:"morteza-seidi"},{id:"147329",title:"Ms.",name:"Marzieh",middleName:null,surname:"Hajiaghamemar",fullName:"Marzieh Hajiaghamemar",slug:"marzieh-hajiaghamemar"},{id:"155198",title:"Dr.",name:"Bruce",middleName:null,surname:"Segee",fullName:"Bruce Segee",slug:"bruce-segee"}]},{id:"39443",title:"New Results on Robust H∞ Filter for Uncertain Fuzzy Descriptor Systems",slug:"new-results-on-robust-h-filter-for-uncertain-fuzzy-descriptor-systems",totalDownloads:1487,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Wudhichai Assawinchaichote",authors:[{id:"2491",title:"Dr.",name:"Wudhichai",middleName:null,surname:"Assawinchaichote",fullName:"Wudhichai Assawinchaichote",slug:"wudhichai-assawinchaichote"}]},{id:"39438",title:"Robust Stabilization for Uncertain Takagi-Sugeno Fuzzy Continuous Model with Time-Delay Based on Razumikhin Theorem",slug:"robust-stabilization-for-uncertain-takagi-sugeno-fuzzy-continuous-model-with-time-delay-based-on-raz",totalDownloads:1860,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Yassine Manai and Mohamed Benrejeb",authors:[{id:"143798",title:"Dr.",name:"Yassine",middleName:null,surname:"Manai",fullName:"Yassine Manai",slug:"yassine-manai"}]},{id:"39441",title:"A Two-Layered Load and Frequency Controller of a Power System",slug:"a-two-layered-load-and-frequency-controller-of-a-power-system",totalDownloads:2371,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Mavungu Masiala, Mohsen Ghribi and Azeddine Kaddouri",authors:[{id:"143521",title:"Dr.",name:"Azeddine",middleName:null,surname:"Kaddouri",fullName:"Azeddine Kaddouri",slug:"azeddine-kaddouri"},{id:"143574",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohsen",middleName:null,surname:"Ghribi",fullName:"Mohsen Ghribi",slug:"mohsen-ghribi"},{id:"143580",title:"Dr.",name:"Mavungu",middleName:null,surname:"Masiala",fullName:"Mavungu Masiala",slug:"mavungu-masiala"}]},{id:"39440",title:"Performance Evaluation of PI and Fuzzy Controlled Power Electronic Inverters for Power Quality Improvement",slug:"performance-evaluation-of-pi-and-fuzzy-controlled-power-electronic-inverters-for-power-quality-impro",totalDownloads:2376,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Georgios A. Tsengenes and Georgios A. Adamidis",authors:[{id:"21306",title:"Prof.",name:"Georgios",middleName:null,surname:"Adamidis",fullName:"Georgios Adamidis",slug:"georgios-adamidis"},{id:"143361",title:"MSc.",name:"Georgios",middleName:null,surname:"Tsengenes",fullName:"Georgios Tsengenes",slug:"georgios-tsengenes"}]},{id:"39432",title:"Discrete-Time Cycle-to-Cycle Fuzzy Logic Control of FES-Induced Swinging Motion",slug:"discrete-time-cycle-to-cycle-fuzzy-logic-control-of-fes-induced-swinging-motion",totalDownloads:1974,totalCrossrefCites:3,signatures:"B. S. K. K. Ibrahim, M. O. Tokhi, M. S. Huq and S. C. Gharooni",authors:[{id:"144872",title:"Dr.",name:"Babul Salam",middleName:null,surname:"Ibrahim",fullName:"Babul Salam Ibrahim",slug:"babul-salam-ibrahim"}]},{id:"39434",title:"Three Types of Fuzzy Controllers Applied in High-Performance Electric Drives for Three-Phase Induction Motors",slug:"three-types-of-fuzzy-controllers-applied-in-high-performance-electric-drives-for-three-phase-inducti",totalDownloads:3735,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"José Luis Azcue, Alfeu J. Sguarezi Filho and Ernesto Ruppert",authors:[{id:"25305",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfeu J.",middleName:null,surname:"Sguarezi Filho",fullName:"Alfeu J. Sguarezi Filho",slug:"alfeu-j.-sguarezi-filho"},{id:"37044",title:"Prof.",name:"Ernesto",middleName:null,surname:"Ruppert",fullName:"Ernesto Ruppert",slug:"ernesto-ruppert"},{id:"117327",title:"M.Sc.",name:"José",middleName:"Luis",surname:"Azcue",fullName:"José Azcue",slug:"jose-azcue"}]}]},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5238",title:"Automation and Control Trends",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d234bd6ef276fb1abcaca85c8de363f4",slug:"automation-and-control-trends",bookSignature:"Pedro Ponce, Arturo Molina Gutierrez and Luis M. Ibarra",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5238.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"143594",title:"Dr.",name:"Pedro",surname:"Ponce",slug:"pedro-ponce",fullName:"Pedro Ponce"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"51438",title:"New Strategy to Approach the Inverse Kinematics Model for Manipulators with Rotational Joints",slug:"new-strategy-to-approach-the-inverse-kinematics-model-for-manipulators-with-rotational-joints",signatures:"José-Emilio Vargas-Soto, Efren Gorrostieta-Hurtado, Saúl Tovar-\nArriaga, Jesús-Carlos Pedraza-Ortega and Juan-Manuel Ramos-\nArreguín",authors:[{id:"6112",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan-Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Ramos-Arreguin",fullName:"Juan-Manuel Ramos-Arreguin",slug:"juan-manuel-ramos-arreguin"},{id:"20944",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Pedraza-Ortega",fullName:"Jesus Carlos Pedraza-Ortega",slug:"jesus-carlos-pedraza-ortega"},{id:"34946",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose Emilio",middleName:null,surname:"Vargas-Soto",fullName:"Jose Emilio Vargas-Soto",slug:"jose-emilio-vargas-soto"},{id:"38850",title:"Dr.",name:"Efren",middleName:null,surname:"Gorrostieta Hurtado",fullName:"Efren Gorrostieta Hurtado",slug:"efren-gorrostieta-hurtado"},{id:"182111",title:"Dr.",name:"Saul",middleName:null,surname:"Tovar-Arriaga",fullName:"Saul Tovar-Arriaga",slug:"saul-tovar-arriaga"}]},{id:"51936",title:"Models for the Reliability Analysis of Digital Instrumentation and Control Systems for Nuclear Power Plants",slug:"models-for-the-reliability-analysis-of-digital-instrumentation-and-control-systems-for-nuclear-power",signatures:"Jonathan M. O. Pinto, Ian B. Gomes, Pedro L. C. Saldanha, Eustério\nB. Furieri and Paulo F. F. e Melo",authors:[{id:"26628",title:"Prof.",name:"Paulo",middleName:null,surname:"Frutuoso e Melo",fullName:"Paulo Frutuoso e Melo",slug:"paulo-frutuoso-e-melo"},{id:"30429",title:"Dr.",name:"Pedro Luiz da C.",middleName:null,surname:"Saldanha",fullName:"Pedro Luiz da C. Saldanha",slug:"pedro-luiz-da-c.-saldanha"},{id:"182207",title:"D.Sc.",name:"Jonathan",middleName:"Marcello",surname:"Pinto",fullName:"Jonathan Pinto",slug:"jonathan-pinto"},{id:"182465",title:"MSc.",name:"Ian",middleName:null,surname:"Gomes",fullName:"Ian Gomes",slug:"ian-gomes"},{id:"182572",title:"MSc.",name:"Eustério",middleName:null,surname:"Furieri",fullName:"Eustério Furieri",slug:"eusterio-furieri"}]},{id:"51994",title:"Force Estimation for Teleoperating Industrial Robots",slug:"force-estimation-for-teleoperating-industrial-robots",signatures:"Enrique del Sol Acero",authors:[{id:"182748",title:"Dr.",name:"Enrique",middleName:null,surname:"Del Sol Acero",fullName:"Enrique Del Sol Acero",slug:"enrique-del-sol-acero"}]},{id:"51207",title:"Human Movement Control",slug:"human-movement-control",signatures:"David Balderas and Mario Rojas",authors:[{id:"183076",title:"M.Sc.",name:"David",middleName:null,surname:"Balderas Silva",fullName:"David Balderas Silva",slug:"david-balderas-silva"},{id:"184877",title:"MSc.",name:"Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas",fullName:"Mario Rojas",slug:"mario-rojas"}]},{id:"51186",title:"Aircraft Landing Control Using the H-inf Control and the Dynamic Inversion Technique",slug:"aircraft-landing-control-using-the-h-inf-control-and-the-dynamic-inversion-technique",signatures:"Romulus Lungu and Mihai Lungu",authors:[{id:"181904",title:"Prof.",name:"Romulus",middleName:null,surname:"Lungu",fullName:"Romulus Lungu",slug:"romulus-lungu"}]},{id:"52178",title:"Adaptive Building Envelope: An Integral Approach to Indoor Environment Control in Buildings",slug:"adaptive-building-envelope-an-integral-approach-to-indoor-environment-control-in-buildings",signatures:"Mitja Košir",authors:[{id:"182476",title:"Dr.",name:"Mitja",middleName:null,surname:"Košir",fullName:"Mitja Košir",slug:"mitja-kosir"}]},{id:"51867",title:"Automatic Prompt Gamma‐Ray Analysis System: Automation of an Existing Large‐Scale Analytical Device",slug:"automatic-prompt-gamma-ray-analysis-system-automation-of-an-existing-large-scale-analytical-device",signatures:"Takahito Osawa",authors:[{id:"104085",title:"Dr.",name:"Takahito",middleName:null,surname:"Osawa",fullName:"Takahito Osawa",slug:"takahito-osawa"}]},{id:"51070",title:"Fuzzy PD Controller in NAO System's Platform",slug:"fuzzy-pd-controller-in-nao-system-s-platform",signatures:"Edgar Omar López‐Caudana and César Daniel González Gutiérrez",authors:[{id:"26464",title:"Dr.",name:"Edgar",middleName:"Omar",surname:"Lopez-Caudana",fullName:"Edgar Lopez-Caudana",slug:"edgar-lopez-caudana"},{id:"185936",title:"Mr.",name:"César Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"González Gutiérrez",fullName:"César Daniel González Gutiérrez",slug:"cesar-daniel-gonzalez-gutierrez"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"69255",title:"The War between Bacteria and Bacteriophages",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87247",slug:"the-war-between-bacteria-and-bacteriophages",body:'
1. Introduction
Antimicrobial resistance is a global public health crisis. According to Public Health England [1], each year approximately 25,000 people die across Europe due to hospital-acquired infections caused by antibiotic-resistant and MDR bacteria such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and multiresistant Gram-negative bacteria. Gram-negative infections include those caused by Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Pseudomonas aeruginosa [2]. Nevertheless, it is estimated that by 2050, the global yearly death toll will increase to 10 million. Accelerating emerge of antimicrobial resistance seriously threatens the effectiveness of treatments for pneumonia, meningitis and tuberculosis, in addition to diminishing prevention of infections acquired during surgeries and chemotherapies. The crisis of the antibiotic resistance requires urgent, coordinated action. Misuse and overuse of antibiotics must be controlled, implementation of new policies regarding prescriptions has to be internationally addressed; and development of new therapeutics is urgently required [1].
Félix d’Herelle, known as the father of bacteriophage (or phage) therapy [3], brought an evolutionary discovery of phages as therapeutics for various infections and conditions. Phage therapy was widely enforced in the 1920s and 1930s to combat the bacterial infections. However, in the 1940s, the newly discovered antibiotics replaced the phage therapy (except Russia, Georgia and Poland) [4].
The emergence of MDR bacteria prompted a renewal of the interest to the phage therapy as an alternative treatment to overcome a broad spectrum of resistant bacterial infections. Phage therapy and phage cocktails that contain a mixture of different bacteria-specific phages, drawn interest within molecular biology and modern medical research as potential antimicrobials that could tackle the crisis of antimicrobial resistance. Nonetheless, the phage therapy remains controversial due to its disadvantages such as bacteriophage resistance: bacteria-phage evolutionary arms race that could put a burden on a long-time application of phage therapy as an anti-infectious agent [5].
Phage therapy has many advantages, primary because phages are very specific (generally limited to one species) and easy to obtain as they are widely distributed in locations populated by bacterial hosts including soil and seawater, and they do not have any known chemical side effects like antimicrobials [6].
Understanding host-phage interactions and ‘the war between bacteria and phages’ are steps towards designing engineering ‘broad-spectrum phage’ that can overcome the limitations of phage therapy and potentially overcome a wide range of resistant bacterial infections [6].
2. The evolutionary phage-host arms race
Phages are obligate intracellular parasites that distinctively infect bacterial cells. Although phages are very specific to their host, generally limited to one species, they pose an enormous threat to bacteria as in some habitats they outnumber their hosts by nearly 10-fold number [7]. Phages are the most abundant, ubiquitous and diversified organisms in the biosphere [8, 9]. Phage-host interaction and fight for the survival led to the evolution of bacterial and viral genomes and, therefore, to the evolution of resistance mechanisms. Bacteria, continuously, evolve many molecular mechanisms, driven by gene expression to prevent phage infection. These evolving phage-resistance mechanisms in bacteria induce the parallel co-evolution of phage diversity and adaptability [10, 11]. The co-evolving genetic variations and counteradaptations, in bacteria and phages, drive the evolutionary phage-host arm race [11, 12].
Leigh Van Valen, an evolutionary biologist, metaphorised the co-evolutionary arm race and proposed the Red Queen hypothesis [13].
‘It takes all the running you can do, to stay in the same place’ the Red Queen says to Alice in Through the Looking-Glass.
The Red Queen hypothesis proposes that to survive, microorganisms must constantly adapt, evolve and thrive against ever-evolving antagonistic microorganisms within the same ecological niche [14].
Bacteria have developed various anti-phage mechanisms including non-adaptive defences (non-specific) and adaptive defences associated with Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR) along with CRISPR-associated (Cas) proteins [7, 15, 16, 17, 18].
The non-specific adaptations (analogues to innate immunity in multicellular organisms) act as primary mechanisms to evade viral infection, and they include mechanisms that inhibit phage adsorption and prevent nucleic acid entry, superinfection exclusion systems, restriction-modification systems and abortive infection [7, 19].
On the other hand, the adaptive resistance (analogues to the acquired immunity in multicellular organisms) serves as a second line of defence, which is very efficient and phage-specific.
Interestingly, it was observed that the bacterial anti-phage mechanisms are generally present in a genomic array, known as ‘defence islands’ [20]. The ‘defence islands’ are enriched in putative operons and contain numerous overrepresented genes encoding diverged variants of antiviral defence systems. Moreover, scientific evidence and characteristic operonic organisation of ‘defence islands’ show that many more anti-phage mechanisms are yet to be discovered [21, 22, 23, 24].
Although bacteria have developed several resistance mechanisms against phages, phages can circumvent bacterial anti-phage mechanisms on the grounds of their genomic plasticity and rapid replication rates. These counterstrategies include point mutations in specific genes and genome rearrangements that allow phages to evade bacterial antiviral systems such as CRISPR/Cas arrays by using anti-CRISPR proteins and abortive infection by hijacking bacterial antitoxins, as well as escaping from adsorption inhibition and restriction-modification mechanisms [15, 16, 17, 18].
This chapter will comment on the genetic basis of bacterial resistance to phages and different strategies used by phages to evade bacterial resistance mechanisms.
3. Preventing phage adsorption and phage’s counterstrategy
Phage adsorption to host-specific receptors on the cell surface is the initial step of the infection and host-phage interaction. Depending on the nature of bacteria, whether it is Gram-positive or Gram-negative proteins, lipopolysaccharides, teichoic acids and other cell surface structures can serve as irreversible phage-binding receptors [19]. These receptors might be present in the cell wall, bacterial capsules, slime layers, pili or flagella [25].
Bacteria have acquired various barriers to inhibit phage adsorption, such as blocking of phage receptors, production of extracellular matrix (e.g. capsule, slime layers) and production of competitive inhibitors [26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31]. The diversity of phage receptors in the host is influenced by co-evolutionary adaptations of phages to overcome these barriers [32]. This includes diversity-generating retroelements (DGRs) and phase variation mechanisms causing phenotypical differences within the bacterial colony [7, 33, 34].
Phase variation is a heritable, yet reversible process regulating gene expression in bacteria; genes can switch between a functional (expression) and a non-functional state leading to phenotypical variations within the bacterial population even when strains have identical genotype. Sørensen et al. [35] investigated the underlying resistance mechanism of Campylobacter jejuni (NCTC11168) to phage F336. They have discovered that phage F336 relies on the hypervariable O-methyl phosphoramidate (MeOPN) modification of capsular polysaccharides (CPS) for successful adsorption to the bacterial surface. Nevertheless, loss of MeOPN receptor on the bacterial cell surface due to phase variation in the cj1421 gene encoding the MeOPN-GalfNAc transferase (MeOPN transferase attaches MeOPN to GalfNAc and Hep side chains of CPS) results in phage resistance [35, 36].
DGRs are genetic elements diversifying DNA sequences and the proteins they encode ultimately mediating the evolution of ligand-receptor interactions. Error-prone DGRs and random mutations in the bacterial genes encoding cell surface receptors lead to the alternation and change in the structural composition of the phage receptors, making them non-complementary to the phage’s anti-receptors, known as receptor-binding proteins (RBP) [34] (Figure 1(1)).
Figure 1.
Bacterial defence mechanisms preventing phage adsorption and phage’s counteradaptations. (1) Phage adsorption to a host-specific receptor site on a host cell surface. Bacterium evolves phage resistance by the modification of these cell surface receptors; phage is incapable of binding to the altered receptor. (2) Phage’s adaptation to these modifications through mutations in receptor-binding protein gene that leads to the co-evolution of bacterial genetic variation. Bacteria are also capable of producing proteins that mask the phage recognition site receptors (3 and 4), thus making the receptor inaccessible for phage adsorption [28, 29, 30, 31]. Image courtesy of springer nature: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20348932.
Yet, phage’s replication is exceedingly error-prone, therefore causing many random mutations in the genes encoding the RBP or tail fibres. Phages also possess DGRs that mediate phage’s tropism by accelerating the variability in the receptor-coding genes through reverse transcription process [37]. The changes in the nucleotide sequence in the RBP-coding gene may ultimately lead to the adaptation to the modified receptor (Figure 1(2)), thus the ability to adsorb and infect the bacterial cell.
Unsurprisingly, bacteria also exhibit different strategies to block their receptors [28, 29, 30, 31].
Figure 1(4) demonstrates the findings from studies conducted on Staphylococcus aureus by Nordstrom and Forsgren [38]. Mutants of Staphylococcus aureus producing higher anticomplementary protein A were found to adsorb fewer phages than Staphylococcus aureus mutants with scarce of protein A, which had an apparent increased ability to adsorb phages [38]. These findings indicate that some bacteria, including Staphylococcus aureus, are capable of production of surface proteins that mask the phage receptors making them inaccessible for phage recognition and attachment (Figure 1(3)).
Receptors located on bacterial cell surface serve a vital role in bacterial metabolism; they may function as membrane porins, adhesions or chemical receptors [19]. Therefore, mutation or complete loss of the receptor might be lethal for bacteria. To inhibit phage adsorption, bacteria can produce surface molecules, such as exopolysaccharides.
Exopolysaccharides are extracellular polysaccharides acting as a physical barrier, composing slime or capsules surrounding bacterial cells that lead to inaccessible host receptors for efficient phage adsorption [39] (Figure 2). Studies conducted by Looijesteijn et al. [40] shown that exopolysaccharides produced by Lactococcus lactis function as external protection from phages and the cell wall destructing lysozyme, due to masked cell surface receptors [40].
Figure 2.
Bacterial strategies to inhibit phage adsorption and phage strategies to access host receptors. Some bacteria are capable of the production of exopolysaccharides, which act as an outer shield, protecting a cell from the phage infection [28, 29, 30, 31]. If the phage does not possess any polysaccharide-degrading enzymes, it cannot access the host cell membrane receptor. However, some phages evolved mechanisms allowing them to recognise these extracellular matrixes and degrade them by the means of hydrolases and lyases [15, 16, 17, 18]. Image courtesy of Springer Nature: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20348932.
Nevertheless, some phages evolved mechanisms allowing them to recognise these extracellular matrixes and degrade them by utilising hydrolases and lyases (Figure 2) [15, 16, 17, 18]. The polysaccharide-degrading enzymes allow phages to gain access to the receptor that may lead to the viral propagation. They are commonly present bound to the RBPs or exist as free soluble enzymes from previously lysed bacterial cells [41].
4. Preventing phage DNA entry and phage’s counteradaptations
If phage bypasses primary antiviral strategies, it is now able to initiate infection by adsorption to a specific receptor site on a host cell surface through phage RBP [42, 43]. Upon interaction with the cell receptors, the phage injects its genetic material (single or double-stranded DNA or RNA) into the cytoplasm of the host. Depending on the nature of the phage and growth conditions of the host cell, it follows one of the two life cycles: lytic or lysogenic (Figure 3).
Figure 3.
Lytic and lysogenic life cycles of a temperate coliphage λ that infects Escherichia coli [44, 45]. cos—cohesive sites: the joining ends that circularise the linear phage λ DNA. Image courtesy of Springer Nature: https://www.nature.com/articles/nrg1089.
In the lytic cycle, virulent phages degrade host’s genome leading to the biosynthesis of viral proteins and nucleic acids for the assembly of phage progeny. Eventually, the bacterial cell lysis, releasing a multitude of newly assembled phages, is ready to infect a new host cell [46].
In contrast, temperate phages might enter the lytic or lysogenic cycle, if the host cell exists in adverse environmental conditions that could potentially limit the number of produced progeny (Figure 3 demonstrates typical lifecycle of temperate phage using coliphage λ as an example) [44, 45]. In the lysogenic phase, repressed phage genome integrates into the bacterial chromosome as a prophage. This process causes the proliferation of prophage during replication and binary fission of bacterial DNA.
Prophage only expresses a repressor protein-coding gene. The repressor protein binds to the operator sites of the other genes and ultimately inhibits synthesis of phage enzymes and proteins required for the lytic cycle.
When the synthesis of the repressor protein stops or if it becomes inactivated, a prophage may excise from the bacterial chromosome, initiating a lytic cycle (induction) which leads to the multiplication and release of virulent phages and lysis of a host cell [44, 45].
If the phage remains in the nearly dormant state (prophage), the lysogenic bacterium is immune to subsequent infection by other phages that are the same or closely analogous to the integrated prophage by means of Superinfection exclusion (Sie) systems [47].
Sie systems are membrane-associated proteins, generally, phage or prophage encoded, that prevent phage genome entry into a host cell [47]. Figure 4 shows the role of Sie system (proteins Imm and Sp) in blocking phage T4 DNA entry into Gram-negative Escherichia coli. Despite successful attachment to the phage-specific receptor, phage DNA is directly blocked by Imm protein from translocating into the cytoplasm of the cell. Sp system, on the other hand, prevents the degradation of the peptidoglycan layer by inhibiting the activity of T4 lysozyme [26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 48].
Figure 4.
Superinfection exclusion systems preventing phage DNA entry in Gram-negative Escherichia coli. (a). Standard T4 phage: upon attachment to phage-receptor on the surface of the host cell, an inner-membrane protein aids the translocation of phage DNA into the cell’s cytoplasm. (b) Imm encoding phage T4: Imm protein directly blocks the translocation of the phage DNA into the cytoplasm of the cell. (c) Imm and Sp encoding phage T4: phage DNA is prevented from entering the cell’s cytoplasm by Imm; and Sp protein prevents degradation of the peptidoglycan layer by inhibiting the activity of T4 lysozyme [28, 29, 30, 31]. Image courtesy of Springer Nature: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20348932.
5. Host strategies to cleave invading genomes and evolutionary tactics employed by phages to bypass these antiviral mechanisms
The evolution of bacterial genomes allowed bacteria to acquire vast mechanisms interfering with every step of phage infection. In a case where a phage succeeded to inject its viral nucleic acid into a host cell, bacteria possess a variety of nucleic acid degrading systems such as restriction-modification (R-M) systems and CRISPR/Cas that protect bacteria from the phage invasion.
5.1 Restriction-modification systems
It has been reported that R-M systems can significantly contribute to bacterial resistance to phages [49].
R-M systems incorporate activities of methyltransferases (MTases) that catalyse the transfer of a methyl group to DNA to protect self-genome from a restriction endonuclease (REase) cleavage and REases, which recognise and cut foreign unmethylated double-stranded DNA at specific recognition sites, commonly palindromic. To protect self-DNA from the degradation, methylases tag sequences recognised by the endonucleases with the methyl groups, whereas unmethylated phage (nonself) DNA is cleaved and degraded (Figure 5) [26, 27, 50, 51, 52].
Figure 5.
General representation of the bacterial restriction-modification (R-M) systems providing a defence against invading phage genomes. R-M systems consist of two contrasting enzymatic activities: a restriction endonuclease (REase) and a methyltransferase. REase recognises and cuts nonself unmethylated double-stranded DNA at specific recognition sites, whereas MTase adds methyl groups to the same genomic recognition sites on the bacterial DNA to protect self-genome from REase cleavage [50, 51]. Image courtesy of: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3591985/.
R-M systems are diverse and ubiquitous among bacteria. There are four known types of R-M within bacterial genomes (Figure 6). Their classification is mainly based on R-M system subunit composition, sequence recognition, cleavage position, cofactor requirements and substrate specificity [26, 27, 50, 51].
Figure 6.
Four distinct types of restriction-modification (R-M) systems. (a) Type I R-M system is composed of three subunits forming a complex: hsdR (restriction), hsdM (modification) and hsdS (specificity subunit that binds to an asymmetrical DNA sequence and determines the specificity of restriction and methylation). Two hsdM subunits and one hsdS subunit are involved in methylation of self-DNA. On the other hand, two complexes of hsdR, hsdM and hsdS (where each complex consists of two hsdR, two hsdM and one hsdS subunit) bind to the unmethylated recognition sites on phage DNA and cleave the DNA at random, far from their recognition sequences. Both reactions—methylation and cleavage—require ATP. (b) Type II R-M system is composed of two distinct enzymes: palindromic sequence methylating methyltransferase (mod) and endonuclease (res) that cleave unmethylated palindromic sequences close to or within the recognition sequence. (c) Type III R-M system is formed of methyltransferase (mod) and endonuclease (res) that form a complex. Methyltransferase transfers methyl group to one strand on the DNA, whereas two methyltransferases (endonuclease complexes) act together to bind to the complementary unmethylated recognition sites to cleave the DNA 24–26 bp away from the recognition site. (d) Type IV R-M system contains only endonuclease (res) that recognises methylated or modified DNA. Cleavage occurs within or away from the recognition sequences [26, 27, 50, 51]. Image courtesy of: https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev-virology-031413-085500?journalCode=virology.
Due to the diversity of R-M systems, phages acquired several active and passive strategies to bypass cleavage by REases. Passive mechanisms include reduction in restriction sites, modification and change of the orientation of restriction sites, whereas more specific, active mechanisms include masking of restriction sites, stimulation of MTase activity on phage genome or degradation of an R-M system cofactor (Figure 7) [15, 16, 17, 18].
Figure 7.
Phage’s passive and active strategies to bypass restriction-modification (R-M) systems. (a) Phages that possess fewer restriction sites in their genome are less prone to DNA cleavage by the host restriction endonuclease (REase). (b) Occasionally phage DNA might be modified by bacterial methyltransferase (MTase) upon successful injection into a host cell. Methylated recognition sites on viral DNA are, therefore, being protected from the cleavage and degradation by REase, leading to the initiation of the phage’s lytic cycle. In addition, some phages encode their own MTase that is cooperative with the host REase; thus viral DNA cannot be recognised as nonself. (c) Some phages, for example, coliphage P1, while injecting its DNA into a host cell, it also co-injects host-genome-binding proteins (DarA and DarB) that mask R-M recognition sites. (d) Phages such as Coliphage T7 possess proteins that can mimic the DNA backbone. Ocr, a protein expressed by Coliphage T7, mimics the DNA phosphate backbone and has a high affinity for the EcoKI REase component, thereby interfering with R-M system. (e) In addition, some phages (e.g. Ral protein of Coliphage λ) can also stimulate activity of the bacterial modification enzyme in order to protect own DNA from the recognition by the bacterial REase as nonself. The peptide Stp encoded by Coliphage T4 can as well disrupt the structural conformation of the REase-MTase complex [15, 16, 17, 18]. Image courtesy of: https://www.nature.com/articles/nrmicro3096.
Fewer restriction sites in the evading genome lead to the selective advantage of this phage as its DNA is less prone to cleavage and degradation by the host REase (Figure 7a). Also, some phages incorporate modified bases in their genomes that may lead to successful infection of the host cell as REase may not recognise the new sequences in the restriction sites. A decrease in the effective number of palindromic sites in DNA or change in the orientation of restriction-recognition sites can affect R-M targeting. Alternatively, the recognition sites within the viral genome can be too distant from each other to be recognised and cleaved by the REase [15, 16, 17, 18, 53].
Interestingly, phage genome might be methylated by bacterial MTase upon successful injection into a host cell. Methylated recognition sites on viral genomes are therefore being protected from the cleavage and degradation by REase, leading to the initiation of the phage’s lytic cycle. Viral progeny remains insensitive to this specific bacterial REase until it infects a bacterium that possesses a different type of REase, in which case the new progeny will become unmethylated again and will, therefore, be sensitive to the R-M system of the cognate bacterium [28, 29, 30, 31].
The fate of the host cell chiefly confides in the levels of R-M gene expression and ultimate proportion of the R-M enzymes and their competition for the sites in the invading phage genome [52].
Furthermore, some phages encode their own MTase that is cooperative with the host REase, and thereby viral DNA cannot be recognised as nonself. Phages can also stimulate the activity of host modification enzymes that can rapidly methylate viral DNA, thus protecting it from the activity of REase.
Alternatively, phages can bypass R-M systems by masking restriction sites. For example (Figure 7c), coliphage P1, while injecting its DNA into a host cell, it also co-injects host-genome-binding proteins (DarA and DarB) that mask R-M recognition sites [53, 54].
As shown on an example of a Coliphage T7 (Figure 7d), some phages code for proteins that directly inhibit REase. Coliphage T7 possesses proteins that can mimic the DNA backbone. Ocr, a protein expressed by Coliphage T7, directly blocks the active site of some REases by mimicking 24 bp of bent B-form DNA, and it has a high affinity for the EcoKI REase component, thereby interfering with R-M system [53].
Lastly, phage-bacteria arm race allowed phages to gain capabilities of degrading necessary cofactors of R-M systems. For instance, coliphage T3 encodes S-adenosyl-l-methionine hydrolase that destroys an essential host R-M cofactor (the S-adenosyl-l-methionine). The removal of this necessary co-factor will lead to the inhibition of the REase, thereby successfully infecting the host cell [15, 16, 17, 18].
5.2 CRISPR/Cas system
CRISPR along with CRISPR-associated (Cas) proteins is the type of adaptive heritable ‘immunity’ of bacteria, thus very specific and effective; and it is prevalent within the bacterial domain [55]. The CRISPR are DNA loci consisting of short palindromic repeats (identical in length and sequence), interspaced by segments of DNA sequences (spacer DNA) derived from previous exposures to phages. The spacer DNA sequences act as a ‘memory’, allowing bacteria to recognise and destroy specific phages in a subsequent infection. Genes encoding Cas proteins are adjacent to CRISPR loci [56].
Although some studies have suggested that CRISPRs can be used for pathogen subtyping [57], it has been found that CRISPR typing is not useful for the epidemiological surveillance and outbreak investigation of Salmonella typhimurium [58].
The CRISPR/Cas phage resistance is mediated in three-step stages: adaptation (acquisition), where spacer phage-derived DNA sequences are incorporated into the CRISPR/Cas system; expression, where cas gene expression and CRISPR transcription lead to pre-CRISPR RNA (pre-crRNA) that is then processed into CRISPR RNA (crRNA); and interference, during which the crRNA guides Cas proteins to the target (subsequently invading DNA) for the degradation. The cleavage of the target (proto-spacer) depends on the recognition of complementary sequences in spacer and protospacer [59, 60].
CRISPR/Cas systems have been classified into three major types: Types I, II and III, which are further divided into subtypes that require different types of Cas proteins. Although the CRISPR/Cas array is diverse among the bacteria and it is continuously co-evolving in response to the host-phage interactions, the defence activity in all three types of the CRISPR is comparable [21, 22, 23] Figure 8 illustrates the defence mechanisms in three distinct CRISPR/Cas arrays.
Figure 8.
Image showing mechanisms of adaptation, expression and interference in three different types of CRISPR/Cas arrays. Type I and Type II CRISPR/Cas arrays rely on the protospacer adjacent motif (PAM), contained within phage nucleic acid, to ‘select’ the phage-derived protospacer. Next steps in the adaptation stage are similar in all three types; protospacer is incorporated by Cas 1 and Cas2 proteins into the bacterial genome at the leader end of the CRISPR loci to form a new spacer. In expression step, CRISPR loci are transcribed into pre-crRNA. The crRNA processing and interference stage is distinct in each type of the CRISPR/Cas system. In Type I, the multisubunit CRISPR-associated complex for antiviral defence (CASCADE) binds crRNA to locate the target, and with the presence of Cas3 protein, the invading target genome is degraded whereas in Type II, Cas9 protein is essential in the processing of the crRNA. TracrRNA recognises and attaches to the complementary sequences on the repeat region that is then cut by RNase III in the presence of Cas9. Lastly, in Type III, processing of pre-crRNA into crRNA is dependent upon the activity of Cas6. Mature crRNA associated with Csm/Cmr complex targets foreign DNA or RNA for the degradation [21, 22, 23]. Image courtesy of: https://www.nature.com/articles/nrmicro2577.
The Type II, CRISPR/Cas9, which was first identified in Streptococcus pyogenes, gained considerable interest within scientific studies as a precise genome editing tool. CRISPR/Cas9 system is unique; a single Cas 9 protein (in addition to prevalent Cas 1 and Cas 2) is involved in the processing of crRNA and destruction of the target viral DNA [56, 61].
In the adaptation stage, phage-derived protospacer (snippet of DNA from the invading phage) is incorporated into the bacterial genome at the leader end of the CRISPR loci. In expression phase, the Cas9 gene expresses Cas9 protein possessing DNA cleaving HNH and RuvC-like nuclease domains; CRISPR locus is then transcribed and processed into mature crRNA. Finally, in interference step, the complex consisting of Cas9, crRNA and separate trans-activating crRNA (tracrRNA) cleave 20 base pairs crRNA-complementary target sequence that is adjacent to the protospacer adjacent motif (PAM) [62].
To bypass CRISPR/Cas that has an incredibly dynamic rate of evolution, phages acquired array of strategies to succeed in propagation; this includes mutations in the protospacers or in the PAM sequences and expression of anti-CRISPR proteins, and even some phages encode their own functional CRISPR/Cas systems [15, 16, 17, 18, 63].
Phages can evade interference step of Type I and Type II CRISPR/Cas system by a single point mutation or deletion in their protospacer region or in the PAM sequence (Figure 9). Phages with single-nucleotide substitutions or deletions positioned close to PAM sequence can bypass the CRISPR/Cas activity and complete their lytic cycles; in contrast, phages with multiple mutations at PAM-distal protospacer positions do not [15, 16, 17, 18, 28, 29, 30, 31].
Figure 9.
Evasion by mutation. Mutations in the phage protospacers or in the PAM sequences allow the phage to escape interference step of the CRISPR/Cas system that would lead to the degradation of the phage genome [15, 16, 17, 18]. Adapted image courtesy of: https://www.nature.com/articles/nrmicro3096.
In some circumstances, however, although the phage successfully evades CRISPR/Cas interference, the host cell may survive by the acquisition of new spacer sequences (derived from invading phage) into their own CRISPR/Cas system. This new spacer provides the bacterium with an accelerated spectrum of phage resistance [15, 16, 17, 18].
Prophages integrated within Pseudomonas aeruginosa possess genes that encode anti-CRISPR proteins directly suppressing CRISPR/Cas-mediated degradation of the phage genome (Figure 10). According to Wiedenheft [64], these proteins might interrupt CRISPR RNA processing by preventing mature crRNA from binging to the crRNA-guide complex or by preventing the assembled crRNA-guided complex from interacting with target substrates through binding to it [64].
Figure 10.
Anti-CRISPR proteins expressed against CRISPR subtype I-F systems. Temperate phages such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa possess genes encoding anti-CRISPR proteins that directly interfere with the bacterial CRISPR/Cas system [15, 16, 17, 18]. Adapted image courtesy of: https://www.nature.com/articles/nrmicro3096.
Prophages do not only contribute to bacterial resistance to invading phages, they can also encode proteins that contribute to bacterial virulence and antimicrobial resistance [58, 66].
Bacteria can also resist phages by possessing phage-inducible chromosomal islands (PICI) which prevent phage replication. Nevertheless, phages evolved their genomes to overcome this very specific antiviral strategy. For example, Vibrio cholerae ICP1 phages possess their own CRISPR/Cas systems that inactivate PICI-like elements (PLE) in Vibrio cholerae (Figure 11). Studies conducted by Naser et al. [67] have shown that phage CRISPR arrays have evolved by the acquisition of new spacers targeting diverse regions of PLEs carried by Vibrio cholerae strains. Furthermore, the addition of the new spacers within phage CRISPR/Cas loci enables the phages to expand their ability to counter PLE-mediated phage defence of diverse Vibrio cholerae strains [67].
Figure 11.
Phage-encoded CRISPR/Cas systems in Vibrio cholerae ICP1 phages. Upon adsorption and injection of viral genome into a host cell, phage crRNAs and CRISPR/Cas complexes are expressed and target phage-inducible chromosomal island (PICI) in the host genome; in the Vibrio cholerae, they are termed as PICI-like elements (PLE). If the spacers within phage CRISPR locus are complementary to the bacterial PLE, the CRISPR machinery is then able to specifically target this genetic element and inactivate it, leading to the viral propagation. However, in the absence of such targeting, phage CRISPR/Cas system can acquire new spacers to evolve rapidly and ensure effective targeting of the PLE to restore phage replication [15, 16, 17, 18, 65]. Adapted image courtesy of: https://www.nature.com/articles/nrmicro3096.
Abortive infection (Abi) systems promote cell death of the phage-infected bacteria, inhibiting phage replication and providing protection for bacterial populations [68].
Abi systems require both toxins and antagonistic antitoxins. Antitoxins are proteins or RNAs that protect bacterial cell from the activity of toxins in a typical cell life cycle, whereas toxins are the proteins encoded in toxin-antitoxin locus that disrupt cellular metabolism (translation, replication and cell wall formation), causing cell death. During an infection, the expression of the antitoxin encoding gene is suppressed, leading to the lethal activation of the toxin [69]. Figure 12 illustrates the mechanism of Abi systems in Escherichia coli [70].
Figure 12.
Abortive infection (Abi) systems in Escherichia coli. The Rex system is a two-component Abi system. A phage protein-DNA complex (formed during phage replication) activates the sensor protein RexA, which in turn activates RexB. RexB is an ion channel that causes depolarisation of the bacterial membrane leading to cell death [28, 29, 30, 31]. Image courtesy of Springer Nature: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20348932.
Interestingly, phages evolved an array of tactics to circumvent Abi systems. This includes mutations in specific phage genes and encoding own antitoxin molecules that suppresses bacterial toxin [15, 16, 17, 18]. Figure 13 provides a broad overview of the strategies employed by the phages to by-pass Abi systems.
Figure 13.
Escaping abortive infection mechanisms. (a) In a typical cell life cycle, antitoxins protect bacterial cell from the activity of toxins. (b) During phage infection, the expression of antitoxin encoding gene is suppressed, leading to the lethal activation of the toxin. (c) Mutations in certain phage genes can lead to escaping Abi systems activity, thereby a successful viral propagation without killing the host cell. (d) Some phages encode molecules that functionally replace the bacterial antitoxins, thus suppressing toxin activity and avoiding host cell death [15, 16, 17, 18]. Image courtesy of: https://www.nature.com/articles/nrmicro3096.
Bacteria-phage interaction is therefore very complex, and it is crucial to understand the molecular basis of this interaction and how bacteria and phages ‘fight’ each other. It has been reported that Anderson Phage Typing System of Salmonella Typhimurium can provide a valuable model system for study of phage-host interaction [71].
7. The potential application of phages as antibacterial therapeutics
The rapid emergence and dissemination of MDR bacteria seriously threaten global public health, as, without effective antibiotics, prevention and treatment of both community- and hospital-acquired infections may become unsuccessful and lead to widespread outbreaks.
Carbapenems and colistin are antibiotics of last resort, generally reserved to treat bacteria which are resistant to all other antibiotics. Until not long ago, colistin resistance was only described as chromosomal, however, in 2016 Liu et al. reported the emergence of the first plasmid-mediated colistin resistance mechanism, MCR-1, in Enterobacteriaceae [72]. Furthermore, the increasing occurrence of colistin resistance among carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae has also been reported [73]. This is of significant concern as infections caused by colistin and carbapenem-resistant bacteria are very challenging to treat and control, as the treatment options are greatly limited or non-existent. Thus, the discovery and development of alternative antimicrobial therapeutics are the highest priorities of modern medicine and biotechnology.
Phages should be considered as great potential tools in MDR pathogens as they are species-specific (specificity prevents damage of normal microbiota), thus harmless to human; they have fast replication rate at the site of infection, and their short genomes can allow to further understand various molecular mechanisms implied to ‘fight’ bacteria. In addition, this understanding can enable scientists to ‘manipulate’ viral genomes and engineer a synthetic phage that combines the antibacterial characteristics of multiple phages into a single genome.
The escalating need for new antimicrobial agents attracted new attention in modern medicine, proposing several potential applications of phages as antibacterial therapeutics including phage therapy, phage lysins and genetically-engineered phages.
7.1 Phage therapy
Phage therapy utilises strictly lytic phages that have bactericidal effect. As phages are host-specific, ‘phage cocktails’ containing multiple phages can broaden range of target cells. Nevertheless, selection of suitable phages is at the paramount to the successful elimination of clinically important pathogens, and it includes avoidance of adverse effects, such as anaphylaxis (adverse immune reaction) [74].
7.2 Phage-derived enzymes: lysins
In order to hydrolyse and degrade the bacterial cell wall, phages possess lysins.
The spectrum of efficiency of natural lysins (derived from naturally occurring phages) is generally limited to Gram-positive bacteria; however, recombinant lysins have shown an ability to destabilise the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria and ultimately lead to rapid death of the target bacteria [74].
7.3 Bioengineered phages
Bioengineered phages have the potential to solve inherent limitations of natural phages such as narrow host range and evolution of resistance. Various genetic engineering methods have been proposed to design phages with extended antimicrobial properties such as homologous recombination, phage recombineering of electroporated DNA, yeast-based platform, Gibson assembly and CRISPR/Cas genome editing [75].
Engineering of synthetic phages could be tailored to enhance the antibiotic activity, to reverse antibiotic resistance or to create sequence-specific antimicrobials [74].
8. Conclusions
The antagonistic host-phage relationship has led to the evolution of exceptionally disperse phage-resistance mechanisms in the bacterial domain, including inhibition of phage adsorption, prevention of nucleic acid entry, Superinfection exclusion, cutting phage nucleic acids via restriction-modification systems and CRISPR, as well as abortive infection.
Evolvement of these mechanisms has been induced by constant parallel co-evolution of phages as they attempt to coexist. To survive, phages acquired diverse counterstrategies to circumvent bacterial anti-phage mechanisms such as adaptations to new receptors, digging for receptors and masking and modification of restriction sites and point mutations in specific genes and genome rearrangements that allow phages to evade bacterial antiviral systems such as CRISPR/Cas arrays, as well as mutations in specific genes to bypass abortive infection system. Conclusively, the co-evolving genetic variations and counteradaptations, in both bacteria and phages, drive the evolutionary bacteria-host arm race.
Besides, accumulating evidence shows that phages contribute to the antimicrobial resistance through horizontal gene transfer mechanisms. Indeed, many bacterial strains have become insensitive to the conventional antibiotics, posing a growing threat to human; and although in the past, western counties withdrew phage therapy in response to the discovery of therapeutic antibiotics, now, phage therapy regains an interest within the research community. There are apparent advantages of phage therapy, such as specificity, meaning only target bacteria would encounter lysis, but not healthy microbiota inhabiting human’s system. Additionally, ‘phage cocktails’, containing multiple bacteria-specific phages, could overcome the issue of phage-resistance as phages do adapt to these resistance mechanisms. However, ‘phage cocktails’ would require large numbers of phages that would have to be grown inside pathogenic bacteria in the laboratory, putting laboratory staff and the environment at risk.
Alternatively, building up the understanding of host-phage interactions and ‘the war between bacteria and phages’ could potentially lead to defeating antimicrobial resistance by designing synthetic phages that can overcome the limitations of phage therapy.
Acknowledgments
Dr Manal Mohammed is funded by a Quinton Hogg start-up award, University of Westminster.
Abbreviations
Abi
abortive infection
CPS
capsular polysaccharides
CRISPR
clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats
crRNA
crispr RNA
DGR
diversity-generating retroelement
DNA
deoxyribonucleic acid
MDR
multidrug-resistant
MeOPN
O-methyl phosphoramidate
MTase
methyltransferase
PAM
protospacer adjacent motif
PICI
phage-inducible chromosomal island
PLE
PICI-like element
RBP
receptor-binding protein
REase
restriction endonuclease
R-M
restriction-modification
RNA
ribonucleic acid
Sie
superinfection exclusion
tracrRNA
trans-activating crRNA
\n',keywords:"bacteria-phage arms race, CRISPR system, anti-CRISPR system, superinfection exclusion (Sie), restriction-modification, abortive infection (Abi)",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/69255.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/69255.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69255",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69255",totalDownloads:736,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:1,dateSubmitted:"July 15th 2018",dateReviewed:"June 4th 2019",datePrePublished:"October 31st 2019",datePublished:null,dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"The rapid emergence and dissemination of multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacteria represents a worldwide crisis concerning that humankind is re-entering the ‘pre-antibiotics’ era. Before the discovery of antibiotics, bacteriophage therapy was widely enforced to combat bacterial infections. However, the discovery of penicillin in 1940 and other novel antibiotics replaced phage therapy, and they are being used as the first line of defence against pathogenic bacterial infections. Factors such as selective pressure resulted in bacteria becoming insensitive to one or multiple antibiotics, frequently leading to limited treatment options. This prompted a renewal of interest to the phage therapy that remains dubious due to its disadvantages such as host specificity and the development of bacterial resistance against phages. Evolution of bacterial genomes allowed bacteria to acquire vast mechanisms interfering with phage infection such as inhibition of phage adsorption, prevention of phage entry, superinfection exclusion, restriction-modification and abortive infection. Interestingly, phages have developed diverse counterstrategies to circumvent bacterial anti-phage mechanisms including digging for receptors, adapting to new receptors and masking and modifying restriction sites. Understanding the complex dynamics of bacteria-phage interaction is a preliminary step towards designing synthetic phages that can overcome limitations of phage therapy and potentially lead to defeating MDR bacteria.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/69255",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/69255",signatures:"Beata Orzechowska and Manal Mohammed",book:{id:"7240",title:"Growing and Handling of Bacterial Cultures",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Growing and Handling of Bacterial Cultures",slug:"growing-and-handling-of-bacterial-cultures",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",bookSignature:"Madhusmita Mishra",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7240.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"204267",title:"Dr.",name:"Madhusmita",middleName:null,surname:"Mishra",slug:"madhusmita-mishra",fullName:"Madhusmita Mishra"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. The evolutionary phage-host arms race",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Preventing phage adsorption and phage’s counterstrategy",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Preventing phage DNA entry and phage’s counteradaptations",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Host strategies to cleave invading genomes and evolutionary tactics employed by phages to bypass these antiviral mechanisms",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"5.1 Restriction-modification systems",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"5.2 CRISPR/Cas system",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"6. Overcoming host abortive infection systems: toxin-antitoxin",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"7. The potential application of phages as antibacterial therapeutics",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"7.1 Phage therapy",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"7.2 Phage-derived enzymes: lysins",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"7.3 Bioengineered phages",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13",title:"8. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"Abbreviations",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Public Health England. Health Matters: Antimicrobial Resistance. Government Digital Service. 2018. Available from: https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/health-matters-antimicrobial-resistance/health-matters-antimicrobial-resistance [Accessed: 10 July 2018]'},{id:"B2",body:'Slama TG. Gram-negative antibiotic resistance: There is a price to pay. Critical Care. 2008;12:S4'},{id:"B3",body:'Herelle FD. The Bacteriophage: Its Rôle in Immunity. English ed. Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins; 1922'},{id:"B4",body:'Sulakvelidze A, Alavidze Z, Morris JG. Bacteriophage therapy. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 2001;45(3):649'},{id:"B5",body:'Fauconnier A. Regulating phage therapy. EMBO Reports. 2017;18(2):198-200'},{id:"B6",body:'Baharuddin A et al. Revitalizing phage therapy in combating multi-drug resistant bacteria. Haya: The Saudi Journal of Life Sciences. 2017;2(4):122-130'},{id:"B7",body:'Bikard D, Marraffini LA. Innate and adaptive immunity in bacteria: Mechanisms of programmed genetic variation to fight bacteriophages. Current Opinion in Immunology. 2012;24(1):15-20'},{id:"B8",body:'Breitbart M, Rohwer F. Here a virus, there a virus, everywhere the same virus? Trends in Microbiology. 2005;13(6):278-284'},{id:"B9",body:'Muhammad Abu BS et al. Bacteria vs. bacteriophages: Parallel evolution of immune arsenals. Frontiers in Microbiology. 2016;7:1292'},{id:"B10",body:'Chao L, Levin BR, Stewart FM. A complex community in a simple habitat: An experimental study with bacteria and phage. Ecology. 1977;58(2):369-378'},{id:"B11",body:'Bohannan B, Lenski R. Linking genetic change to community evolution: Insights from studies of bacteria and bacteriophage. Ecology Letters. 2000;3(4):362-377'},{id:"B12",body:'Chibani-Chennoufi S, Bruttin A, Dillmann M, Brussow H. Phage-host interaction: An ecological perspective. The Journal of Bacteriology. 2004;186(12):3677'},{id:"B13",body:'Van Valen L. A new evolutionary law. Evolutionary Theory. 1973;1(1):1-30'},{id:"B14",body:'Betts A et al. Contrasted coevolutionary dynamics between a bacterial pathogen and its bacteriophages. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 2014;111(30):11109'},{id:"B15",body:'Samson JE et al. Passive and active strategies to avoid restriction-modification systems [image]. 2013. Available from: https://www.nature.com/articles/nrmicro3096 [Accessed: 9 July 2018]'},{id:"B16",body:'Samson JE et al. Phage strategies to by-pass CRISPR-Cas systems [image]. 2013. Available from: https://www.nature.com/articles/nrmicro3096 [Accessed: 9 July 2018]'},{id:"B17",body:'Samson JE et al. Phage strategies to by-pass toxin–antitoxin systems [image]. 2013. Available from: https://www.nature.com/articles/nrmicro3096 [Accessed: 11 July 2018]'},{id:"B18",body:'Samson JE et al. Revenge of the phages: Defeating bacterial defences. Nature Reviews Microbiology. 2013;11(10):675'},{id:"B19",body:'Hyman P, Abedon ST. Bacteriophage host range and bacterial resistance—chapter 7. Advances in Applied Microbiology. 2010;70:217-248'},{id:"B20",body:'Doron S et al. Systematic discovery of antiphage defense systems in the microbial pangenome. Science (New York, N.Y.). 2018;359(6379):eaar4120'},{id:"B21",body:'Makarova KS et al. Evolution and classification of the CRISPR-Cas systems. Nature Reviews. Microbiology. 2011;9(6):467'},{id:"B22",body:'Makarova KS et al. Defense Islands in bacterial and Archaeal genomes and prediction of novel defense systems. Journal of Bacteriology. 2011;193(21):6039-6056'},{id:"B23",body:'Makarova KS et al. The three stages of CRISPR–Cas action [image]. 2011. Available from: https://www.nature.com/articles/nrmicro2577 [Accessed: 8 July 2018]'},{id:"B24",body:'Vale PF, Little TJ. CRISPR-mediated phage resistance and the ghost of coevolution past. Proceedings of the Royal Society B. 2010;277(1691):2097-2103'},{id:"B25",body:'Etz H et al. Bacterial phage receptors, versatile tools for display of polypeptides on the cell surface. The Journal of Bacteriology. 2001;183(23):6924'},{id:"B26",body:'Dy RL et al. The mechanisms for methylation and restriction for the four types of restriction-modification (RM) systems [image]. 2014. Available from: https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev-virology-031413-085500?journalCode=virology [Accessed: 8 July 2018]'},{id:"B27",body:'Dy RL et al. Remarkable mechanisms in microbes to resist phage infections. Annual Review of Virology. 2014;1:307-331'},{id:"B28",body:'Labrie SJ, Samson JE, Moineau S. Bacteriophage resistance mechanisms. Nature Reviews Microbiology. 2010;8(5):317'},{id:"B29",body:'Labrie SJ et al. Blocking phage DNA entry into the bacterial cell [image]. 2010. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20348932 [Accessed: 9 July 2018]'},{id:"B30",body:'Labrie SJ et al. Different strategies used by bacteria to block phage adsorption [image]. 2010. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20348932 [Accessed: 9 July 2018]'},{id:"B31",body:'Labrie SJ et al. The mode of action of the rex system [image]. 2010. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20348932 [Accessed: 6 July 2018]'},{id:"B32",body:'Golais F, Hollý J, Vítkovská J. Coevolution of bacteria and their viruses. Folia Microbiologica. 2013;58(3):177-186'},{id:"B33",body:'Ahmad S et al. An overview on phase variation, mechanisms and roles in bacterial adaptation. JPMA. The Journal of the Pakistan Medical Association. 2017;67(2):285-291'},{id:"B34",body:'Guo H et al. Diversity-generating retroelements in phage and bacterial genomes. Microbiology Spectrum. 2014;2(6):2014'},{id:"B35",body:'Sørensen MC et al. The F336 bacteriophage recognizes the capsular phosphoramidate modification of Campylobacter jejuni NCTC11168. Journal of Bacteriology. 2011;193:6742-6749. DOI: 10.1128/JB.05276-11'},{id:"B36",body:'Sørensen MC et al. Phase variable expression of capsular polysaccharide modifications allows Campylobacter jejuni to avoid bacteriophage infection in chickens. Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology. 2012;2:11. DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2012.00011'},{id:"B37",body:'Dai W et al. Three-dimensional structure of tropism-switching Bordetella bacteriophage. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2010;107(9):4347'},{id:"B38",body:'Nordstrom K, Forsgren A. Effect of protein a on adsorption of bacteriophages to Staphylococcus aureus. The Journal of Virology. 1974;14(2):198'},{id:"B39",body:'Nwodo U, Green E, Okoh A. Bacterial Exopolysaccharides: Functionality and Prospects. Basel: MDPI AG; 2012'},{id:"B40",body:'Looijesteijn PJ et al. Physiological function of exopolysaccharides produced by Lactococcus lactis. International Journal of Food Microbiology. 2001;64(1):71-80'},{id:"B41",body:'Sutherland IW. Polysaccharide lyases. FEMS Microbiology Reviews. 1995;16(4):323'},{id:"B42",body:'Letarov A, Kulikov E. Adsorption of bacteriophages on bacterial cells. Biochemistry (Moscow). 2017;82(13):1632-1658'},{id:"B43",body:'Orlova EV. How viruses infect bacteria? EMBO Journal. 2009;28(7):797-798'},{id:"B44",body:'Campbell A. Life cycle of the typical temperate phage coliphage-λ [image]. 2003. Available from: https://www.nature.com/articles/nrg1089 [Accessed: 7 July 2018]'},{id:"B45",body:'Campbell A. The future of bacteriophage biology. Nature Reviews Genetics. 2003;4(6):471'},{id:"B46",body:'St-Pierrea F, Endy D. Determination of cell fate selection during phage lambda infection. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2008;105(52):20705-20710'},{id:"B47",body:'Folimonova SY. Superinfection exclusion is an active virus-controlled function that requires a specific viral protein. Journal of Virology. 2012;86(10):5554'},{id:"B48",body:'Hofer B, Ruge M, Dreiseikelmann B. The superinfection exclusion gene (sieA) of bacteriophage P22: Identification and overexpression of the gene and localization of the gene product. The Journal of Bacteriology. 1995;177(11):3080'},{id:"B49",body:'Mohammed M, Cormican M. Whole genome sequencing provides possible explanations for the difference in phage susceptibility among two Salmonella Typhimurium phage types (DT8 and DT30) associated with a single foodborne outbreak. BMC Research Notes. 2015;8(1):728'},{id:"B50",body:'Vasu K, Nagaraja V. Diverse Functions of Restriction-Modification Systems in Addition to Cellular Defense. Washington: American Society for Microbiology; 2013'},{id:"B51",body:'Vasu K, Nagaraja V. Restriction-modification (R-M) systems as defense mechanisms [image]. 2013. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3591985/ [Accessed: 5 July 2018]'},{id:"B52",body:'Enikeeva FN et al. Restriction-modification systems and bacteriophage invasion: Who wins? Journal of Theoretical Biology. 2010;266(4):550-559'},{id:"B53",body:'Stern A, Sorek R. The phage-host arms race: Shaping the evolution of microbes. BioEssays. 2011;33(1):43-51'},{id:"B54",body:'Tock MR, Dryden DT. The biology of restriction and anti-restriction. Current Opinion in Microbiology. 2005;8(4):466-472'},{id:"B55",body:'Marchfelder A. Special focus CRISPR-Cas. RNA Biology. 2013;10(5):655-658'},{id:"B56",body:'Heler R et al. Cas9 specifies functional viral targets during CRISPR-Cas adaptation. Nature. 2015;519(7542):202L'},{id:"B57",body:'Fabre L et al. CRISPR typing and subtyping for improved laboratory surveillance of salmonella infections (CRISPR polymorphisms in salmonella). PLoS One. 2012;7(5):e36995'},{id:"B58",body:'Mohammed M et al. The invasome of Salmonella Dublin as revealed by whole genome sequencing. BMC Infectious Diseases. 2017;17(1):544'},{id:"B59",body:'Koonin EV, Makarova KS. CRISPR-Cas: Evolution of an RNA-based adaptive immunity system in prokaryotes. RNA Biology. 2013, 2013;10(5):679-686'},{id:"B60",body:'Leon LM, Mendoza SD, Bondy-Denomy J. How bacteria control the CRISPR-Cas arsenal. Current Opinion in Microbiology. 2018;42:87-95'},{id:"B61",body:'Ka D et al. Crystal structure of streptococcus pyogenes Cas1 and its interaction with Csn2 in the type II CRISPR-Cas system. Structure. 2016;24(1):70-79'},{id:"B62",body:'Carroll D. Staying on target with CRISPR-Cas. Nature Biotechnology. 2013;31(9):807-809'},{id:"B63",body:'Mohanraju P et al. Diverse evolutionary roots and mechanistic variations of the CRISPR-Cas systems. Science. 2016;353(6299)'},{id:"B64",body:'Wiedenheft B. In defense of phage: Viral suppressors of CRISPR-mediated adaptive immunity in bacteria. RNA Biology. 2013;10(5):886'},{id:"B65",body:'Seed K et al. A bacteriophage encodes its own CRISPR/Cas adaptive response to evade host innate immunity. Nature. 2013;494(7438):489-491'},{id:"B66",body:'Mohammed M, Cormican M. Whole genome sequencing provides insights into the genetic determinants of invasiveness in Salmonella Dublin. Epidemiology and Infection. 2016;144(11):2430-2439'},{id:"B67",body:'Naser I et al. Analysis of the CRISPR-Cas system in bacteriophages active on epidemic strains of Vibrio cholerae in Bangladesh. Scientific Reports. 2017;7(1):14880'},{id:"B68",body:'Chopin M, Chopin A, Bidnenko E. Phage abortive infection in lactococci: Variations on a theme. Current Opinion in Microbiology. 2005;8(4):473-479'},{id:"B69",body:'Fineran PC et al. The phage abortive infection system, ToxIN, functions as a protein-RNA toxin-antitoxin pair. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2009;106(3):894'},{id:"B70",body:'Refardt D, Kümmerli R. Defying bacteriophages: Contrasting altruistic with individual-based resistance mechanisms in Escherichia coli. Communicative & Integrative Biology. 2013;6(5):e25159'},{id:"B71",body:'Mohammed M. Who fights whom? Understanding the complex dynamics of bacteria-phage interaction using Anderson phage typing system. Journal of Infectious Diseases & Therapy. 2018;6(3):367'},{id:"B72",body:'Liu Y et al. Emergence of plasmid-mediated colistin resistance mechanism MCR-1 in animals and human beings in China: A microbiological and molecular biological study. The Lancet Infectious Diseases. 2016;16(2):161-168'},{id:"B73",body:'European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control. Expert consensus protocol on colistin resistance detection and characterisation for the survey of carbapenem- and/or colistin-resistant Enterobacteriaceae. 2019. Available from: https://ecdc.europa.eu/en/publications-data/expert-consensus-protocol-colistin-resistance-detection-and-characterisation [Accessed: 13 May 2019]'},{id:"B74",body:'Kakasis A, Panitsa G. Bacteriophage therapy as an alternative treatment for human infections. A comprehensive review. International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents. 2019;53(1):16-21'},{id:"B75",body:'Monteiro R et al. Phage therapy: Going temperate? Trends in Microbiology. 2019;27(4):368-378. DOI: 10.1016/j.tim.2018.10.008'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Beata Orzechowska",address:null,affiliation:'
School of Life Sciences, College of Liberal Arts and Sciences University of Westminster, London, UK
School of Life Sciences, College of Liberal Arts and Sciences University of Westminster, London, UK
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"7240",title:"Growing and Handling of Bacterial Cultures",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Growing and Handling of Bacterial Cultures",slug:"growing-and-handling-of-bacterial-cultures",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",bookSignature:"Madhusmita Mishra",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7240.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"204267",title:"Dr.",name:"Madhusmita",middleName:null,surname:"Mishra",slug:"madhusmita-mishra",fullName:"Madhusmita Mishra"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"253229",title:"Dr.",name:"Kullaya",middleName:null,surname:"Takkavatakarn",email:"koykullaya@hotmail.com",fullName:"Kullaya Takkavatakarn",slug:"kullaya-takkavatakarn",position:null,biography:null,institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalEditedBooks:"0",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:null},booksEdited:[],chaptersAuthored:[{title:"Hemodiafiltration in Acute Kidney Injury",slug:"hemodiafiltration-in-acute-kidney-injury",abstract:"Acute kidney injury (AKI) is one of the most important complications during hospitalization, especially in critically ill patients. Recent data demonstrated that certain biomarkers including pro-inflammatory cytokines are associated with high morbidity and mortality. These biomarkers, most of which have middle molecular weight, and protein-bound uremic toxins are limitedly removed by diffusion mechanism in conventional hemodialysis. Hemodiafiltration (HDF), a new modality that combines convective clearance with diffusion, could effectively enhance removal of middle molecule and protein-bound solutes. Therefore, HDF is increasingly used in several AKI settings such as septic AKI, rhabdomyolysis-associated AKI, myeloma cast nephropathy, and contrast-induced AKI. This chapter summarizes the available HDF techniques including intermittent and continuous modes, and clinical data comprise the benefits of HDF on biomarkers and renal as well as cardiovascular outcomes. Additionally, the topic provides the proposed future directions of HDF in various AKI settings.",signatures:"Kullaya Takkavatakarn, Paweena Susantitaphong and Somchai\nEiam-Ong",authors:[{id:"49591",title:"Dr.",name:"Somchai",surname:"Eiam-Ong",fullName:"Somchai Eiam-Ong",slug:"somchai-eiam-ong",email:"somchai80754@yahoo.com"},{id:"253229",title:"Dr.",name:"Kullaya",surname:"Takkavatakarn",fullName:"Kullaya Takkavatakarn",slug:"kullaya-takkavatakarn",email:"koykullaya@hotmail.com"},{id:"253230",title:"Dr.",name:"Paweena",surname:"Susantitaphong",fullName:"Paweena Susantitaphong",slug:"paweena-susantitaphong",email:"pesancerinus@hotmail.com"}],book:{title:"Aspects in Continuous Renal Replacement Therapy",slug:"aspects-in-continuous-renal-replacement-therapy",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"49591",title:"Dr.",name:"Somchai",surname:"Eiam-Ong",slug:"somchai-eiam-ong",fullName:"Somchai Eiam-Ong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"156627",title:"Dr.",name:"Ayman",surname:"Karkar",slug:"ayman-karkar",fullName:"Ayman Karkar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/156627/images/system/156627.jpeg",biography:"Following his graduation from medical school, Dr. Ayman Karkar received his MSc degree in Nephrology and Hypertension and his PhD degree in Renal Medicine from Hammersmith Hospital, University of London. Dr. Karkar is a consultant physician and nephrologist, Fellow of the Royal Colleges of Physicians of London, Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Ireland, and Fellow of the American National Kidney Foundation and the American Society of Nephrology. He has authored several books and book chapters and published over 150 articles and abstracts in peer-reviewed medical journals. Dr. Karkar is currently Baxter Head of Medical Affairs—Renal Care, Middle East and Africa, and Subject Matter Expert, East and Central Europe and Middle East and Africa.",institutionString:"Baxter AG",institution:null},{id:"182959",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandip",surname:"Mitra",slug:"sandip-mitra",fullName:"Sandip Mitra",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Manchester",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"251913",title:"Dr.",name:"Patrick",surname:"Hamilton",slug:"patrick-hamilton",fullName:"Patrick Hamilton",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252119",title:"Dr.",name:"Jorge",surname:"Echeverri",slug:"jorge-echeverri",fullName:"Jorge Echeverri",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"253230",title:"Dr.",name:"Paweena",surname:"Susantitaphong",slug:"paweena-susantitaphong",fullName:"Paweena Susantitaphong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"254796",title:"Dr.",name:"Carolina",surname:"Larrarte",slug:"carolina-larrarte",fullName:"Carolina Larrarte",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"254797",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",surname:"Huerfano",slug:"manuel-huerfano",fullName:"Manuel Huerfano",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"259335",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",surname:"Alkhunaizi",slug:"ahmed-alkhunaizi",fullName:"Ahmed Alkhunaizi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"294148",title:"Dr.",name:"Rhodri",surname:"Harris",slug:"rhodri-harris",fullName:"Rhodri Harris",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]},generic:{page:{slug:"our-story",title:"Our story",intro:"
The company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.
",metaTitle:"Our story",metaDescription:"The company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/our-story",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
\\n\\n
In the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\\n\\n
The IntechOpen timeline
\\n\\n
2004
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Intech Open is founded in Vienna, Austria, by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students, and their first Open Access journals and books are published.
\\n\\t
Alex and Vedran launch the first Open Access, peer-reviewed robotics journal and IntechOpen’s flagship publication, the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\\n
\\n\\n
2005
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes its first Open Access book: Cutting Edge Robotics.
\\n
\\n\\n
2006
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes a special issue of IJARS, featuring contributions from NASA scientists regarding the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
\\n
\\n\\n
2008
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: 200,000 downloads reached
\\n
\\n\\n
2009
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: the first 100 Open Access STM books are published
\\n
\\n\\n
2010
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: one million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen expands its book publishing into a new field: medicine.
\\n
\\n\\n
2011
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: More than five million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Harold W. Kroto’s “Strategies to Successfully Cross-Link Carbon Nanotubes”. Find it here.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen and TBI collaborate on a project to explore the changing needs of researchers and the evolving ways that they discover, publish and exchange information. The result is the survey “Author Attitudes Towards Open Access Publishing: A Market Research Program”.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen hosts SHOW - Share Open Access Worldwide; a series of lectures, debates, round-tables and events to bring people together in discussion of open source principles, intellectual property, content licensing innovations, remixed and shared culture and free knowledge.
\\n
\\n\\n
2012
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: 10 million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen holds Interact2012, a free series of workshops held by figureheads of the scientific community including Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro, director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, who took the audience through some of the most impressive human-robot interactions observed in his lab.
\\n
\\n\\n
2013
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
\\n
\\n\\n
2014
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
\\n
\\n\\n
2015
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
\\n\\t
40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
\\n\\t
Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
\\n
\\n\\n
2016
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\\n
\\n\\n
2017
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
\n\n
In the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\n\n
The IntechOpen timeline
\n\n
2004
\n\n
\n\t
Intech Open is founded in Vienna, Austria, by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students, and their first Open Access journals and books are published.
\n\t
Alex and Vedran launch the first Open Access, peer-reviewed robotics journal and IntechOpen’s flagship publication, the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\n
\n\n
2005
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes its first Open Access book: Cutting Edge Robotics.
\n
\n\n
2006
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes a special issue of IJARS, featuring contributions from NASA scientists regarding the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
\n
\n\n
2008
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: 200,000 downloads reached
\n
\n\n
2009
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: the first 100 Open Access STM books are published
\n
\n\n
2010
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: one million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen expands its book publishing into a new field: medicine.
\n
\n\n
2011
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: More than five million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Harold W. Kroto’s “Strategies to Successfully Cross-Link Carbon Nanotubes”. Find it here.
\n\t
IntechOpen and TBI collaborate on a project to explore the changing needs of researchers and the evolving ways that they discover, publish and exchange information. The result is the survey “Author Attitudes Towards Open Access Publishing: A Market Research Program”.
\n\t
IntechOpen hosts SHOW - Share Open Access Worldwide; a series of lectures, debates, round-tables and events to bring people together in discussion of open source principles, intellectual property, content licensing innovations, remixed and shared culture and free knowledge.
\n
\n\n
2012
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: 10 million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen holds Interact2012, a free series of workshops held by figureheads of the scientific community including Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro, director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, who took the audience through some of the most impressive human-robot interactions observed in his lab.
\n
\n\n
2013
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
\n
\n\n
2014
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
\n\t
IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
\n
\n\n
2015
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
\n\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
\n\t
40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
\n\t
Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
\n
\n\n
2016
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n
\n\n
2017
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
\n\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
\n
\n"}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5681},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5161},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1683},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10200},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:886},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15610}],offset:12,limit:12,total:117095},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{sort:"dateEndThirdStepPublish",topicId:"9"},books:[{type:"book",id:"10653",title:"Optimization Algorithms",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"753812dbb9a6f6b57645431063114f6c",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10653.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10651",title:"Machine Learning",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"5806b4efae3bd91c3f56e64e0442df35",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10651.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10652",title:"Visual Object Tracking",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"96f3ee634a7ba49fa195e50475412af4",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10652.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10694",title:"Genetic Algorithms",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"91c5491dc248333f624d1d35e590ba45",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10694.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10693",title:"Open Data",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"9fcbb8e096da084fb29d8f16aaecb061",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10693.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10260",title:"E-Service",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"11dab65781b3c4347022c56477311f46",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Kyeong Kang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10260.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"2114",title:"Dr.",name:"Kyeong",surname:"Kang",slug:"kyeong-kang",fullName:"Kyeong Kang"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9226",title:"Intelligent User Interfaces",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"2540a73b78f2f13158366ac0ab9d62a1",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Rüdiger Heimgärtner",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9226.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"135236",title:"Dr.",name:"Rüdiger",surname:"Heimgärtner",slug:"rudiger-heimgartner",fullName:"Rüdiger Heimgärtner"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9980",title:"Vision Sensors",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"fc472f04a4214bf13db3f693a2c7c323",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Vasanth Iyer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9980.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"301000",title:"Dr.",name:"Vasanth",surname:"Iyer",slug:"vasanth-iyer",fullName:"Vasanth Iyer"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10517",title:"Swarm Intelligence",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c184136bf5b833b19f7e12ace5531773",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Mehmet Emin Aydin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10517.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",surname:"Aydin",slug:"mehmet-aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10576",title:"Factoring Ethics in Technology, Policy Making and Regulation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"eff20787f4c5417ea12367e8a6d72e92",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Ali G. Hessami and Dr. Patricia Shaw",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10576.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"108303",title:"Prof.",name:"Ali G.",surname:"Hessami",slug:"ali-g.-hessami",fullName:"Ali G. Hessami"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10394",title:"Blockchain Potential in AI",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"700eff7270bae63fd214974a0bd8e77f",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Tiago M. Fernández-Caramés and Dr. Paula Fraga-Lamas",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10394.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"186818",title:"Dr.",name:"Tiago M.",surname:"Fernández-Caramés",slug:"tiago-m.-fernandez-carames",fullName:"Tiago M. Fernández-Caramés"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10452",title:"Computer-Mediated Communication",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"ed2d494d96079740341956fe830814ac",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Indrakshi Dey",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10452.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"321151",title:"Dr.",name:"Indrakshi",surname:"Dey",slug:"indrakshi-dey",fullName:"Indrakshi Dey"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:17},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:15},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:60},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:2}],offset:12,limit:12,total:19},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9343",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",subtitle:"New Approaches and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ae07e345bc2ce1ebbda9f70c5cd12141",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar, Hugo Saldarriaga-Noreña and Agnieszka Saeid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9343.jpg",editors:[{id:"255959",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Murillo-Tovar",slug:"mario-alfonso-murillo-tovar",fullName:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7769",title:"Medical Isotopes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f8d3c5a6c9a42398e56b4e82264753f7",slug:"medical-isotopes",bookSignature:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi and Muhammad Babar Imrani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7769.jpg",editors:[{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9376",title:"Contemporary Developments and Perspectives in International Health Security",subtitle:"Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b9a00b84cd04aae458fb1d6c65795601",slug:"contemporary-developments-and-perspectives-in-international-health-security-volume-1",bookSignature:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki, Michael S. Firstenberg, Sagar C. Galwankar, Ricardo Izurieta and Thomas Papadimos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9376.jpg",editors:[{id:"181694",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislaw P.",middleName:null,surname:"Stawicki",slug:"stanislaw-p.-stawicki",fullName:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7831",title:"Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c924420492c8c2c9751e178d025f4066",slug:"sustainability-in-urban-planning-and-design",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed, Asaad Almssad and Linh Truong - Hong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7831.jpg",editors:[{id:"110471",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9279",title:"Concepts, Applications and Emerging Opportunities in Industrial Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9bfa87f9b627a5468b7c1e30b0eea07a",slug:"concepts-applications-and-emerging-opportunities-in-industrial-engineering",bookSignature:"Gary Moynihan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9279.jpg",editors:[{id:"16974",title:"Dr.",name:"Gary",middleName:null,surname:"Moynihan",slug:"gary-moynihan",fullName:"Gary Moynihan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7807",title:"A Closer Look at Organizational Culture in Action",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"05c608b9271cc2bc711f4b28748b247b",slug:"a-closer-look-at-organizational-culture-in-action",bookSignature:"Süleyman Davut Göker",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7807.jpg",editors:[{id:"190035",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Süleyman Davut",middleName:null,surname:"Göker",slug:"suleyman-davut-goker",fullName:"Süleyman Davut Göker"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7796",title:"Human 4.0",subtitle:"From Biology to Cybernetic",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5ac5c052d3a593d5c4f4df66d005e5af",slug:"human-4-0-from-biology-to-cybernetic",bookSignature:"Yves Rybarczyk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7796.jpg",editors:[{id:"72920",title:"Prof.",name:"Yves",middleName:"Philippe",surname:"Rybarczyk",slug:"yves-rybarczyk",fullName:"Yves Rybarczyk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9711",title:"Pests, Weeds and Diseases in Agricultural Crop and Animal Husbandry Production",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"12cf675f1e433135dd5bf5df7cec124f",slug:"pests-weeds-and-diseases-in-agricultural-crop-and-animal-husbandry-production",bookSignature:"Dimitrios Kontogiannatos, Anna Kourti and Kassio Ferreira Mendes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9711.jpg",editors:[{id:"196691",title:"Dr.",name:"Dimitrios",middleName:null,surname:"Kontogiannatos",slug:"dimitrios-kontogiannatos",fullName:"Dimitrios Kontogiannatos"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10178",title:"Environmental Emissions",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"febf21ec717bfe20ae25a9dab9b5d438",slug:"environmental-emissions",bookSignature:"Richard Viskup",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10178.jpg",editors:[{id:"103742",title:"Dr.",name:"Richard",middleName:null,surname:"Viskup",slug:"richard-viskup",fullName:"Richard Viskup"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8511",title:"Cyberspace",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8c1cdeb133dbe6cc1151367061c1bba6",slug:"cyberspace",bookSignature:"Evon Abu-Taieh, Abdelkrim El Mouatasim and Issam H. Al Hadid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8511.jpg",editors:[{id:"223522",title:"Dr.",name:"Evon",middleName:"M.O.",surname:"Abu-Taieh",slug:"evon-abu-taieh",fullName:"Evon Abu-Taieh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9534",title:"Banking and Finance",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"af14229738af402c3b595d7e124dce82",slug:"banking-and-finance",bookSignature:"Razali Haron, Maizaitulaidawati Md Husin and Michael Murg",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9534.jpg",editors:[{id:"206517",title:"Prof.",name:"Razali",middleName:null,surname:"Haron",slug:"razali-haron",fullName:"Razali Haron"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"2160",title:"MATLAB",subtitle:"A Fundamental Tool for Scientific Computing and Engineering Applications - Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dd9c658341fbd264ed4f8d9e6aa8ca29",slug:"matlab-a-fundamental-tool-for-scientific-computing-and-engineering-applications-volume-1",bookSignature:"Vasilios N. Katsikis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2160.jpg",editors:[{id:"12289",title:"Prof.",name:"Vasilios",middleName:"N.",surname:"Katsikis",slug:"vasilios-katsikis",fullName:"Vasilios Katsikis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5126},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6be076ccf3a3f8bd2ca52d86d4506b",slug:"welding-modern-topics",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. Absi",surname:"Alfaro",slug:"sadek-crisostomo-absi-alfaro",fullName:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi Alfaro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9139",title:"Topics in Primary Care Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea774a4d4c1179da92a782e0ae9cde92",slug:"topics-in-primary-care-medicine",bookSignature:"Thomas F. Heston",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9139.jpg",editors:[{id:"217926",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas F.",middleName:null,surname:"Heston",slug:"thomas-f.-heston",fullName:"Thomas F. Heston"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8697",title:"Virtual Reality and Its Application in Education",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ee01b5e387ba0062c6b0d1e9227bda05",slug:"virtual-reality-and-its-application-in-education",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8697.jpg",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9785",title:"Endometriosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f457ca61f29cf7e8bc191732c50bb0ce",slug:"endometriosis",bookSignature:"Courtney Marsh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9785.jpg",editors:[{id:"255491",title:"Dr.",name:"Courtney",middleName:null,surname:"Marsh",slug:"courtney-marsh",fullName:"Courtney Marsh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9343",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",subtitle:"New Approaches and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ae07e345bc2ce1ebbda9f70c5cd12141",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar, Hugo Saldarriaga-Noreña and Agnieszka Saeid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9343.jpg",editors:[{id:"255959",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Murillo-Tovar",slug:"mario-alfonso-murillo-tovar",fullName:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8468",title:"Sheep Farming",subtitle:"An Approach to Feed, Growth and Sanity",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"838f08594850bc04aa14ec873ed1b96f",slug:"sheep-farming-an-approach-to-feed-growth-and-sanity",bookSignature:"António Monteiro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8468.jpg",editors:[{id:"190314",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"Cardoso",surname:"Monteiro",slug:"antonio-monteiro",fullName:"António Monteiro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8816",title:"Financial Crises",subtitle:"A Selection of Readings",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6f2f49fb903656e4e54280c79fabd10c",slug:"financial-crises-a-selection-of-readings",bookSignature:"Stelios Markoulis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8816.jpg",editors:[{id:"237863",title:"Dr.",name:"Stelios",middleName:null,surname:"Markoulis",slug:"stelios-markoulis",fullName:"Stelios Markoulis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7831",title:"Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c924420492c8c2c9751e178d025f4066",slug:"sustainability-in-urban-planning-and-design",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed, Asaad Almssad and Linh Truong - Hong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7831.jpg",editors:[{id:"110471",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9376",title:"Contemporary Developments and Perspectives in International Health Security",subtitle:"Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b9a00b84cd04aae458fb1d6c65795601",slug:"contemporary-developments-and-perspectives-in-international-health-security-volume-1",bookSignature:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki, Michael S. Firstenberg, Sagar C. Galwankar, Ricardo Izurieta and Thomas Papadimos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9376.jpg",editors:[{id:"181694",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislaw P.",middleName:null,surname:"Stawicki",slug:"stanislaw-p.-stawicki",fullName:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7769",title:"Medical Isotopes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f8d3c5a6c9a42398e56b4e82264753f7",slug:"medical-isotopes",bookSignature:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi and Muhammad Babar Imrani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7769.jpg",editors:[{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8468",title:"Sheep Farming",subtitle:"An Approach to Feed, Growth and Sanity",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"838f08594850bc04aa14ec873ed1b96f",slug:"sheep-farming-an-approach-to-feed-growth-and-sanity",bookSignature:"António Monteiro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8468.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"190314",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"Cardoso",surname:"Monteiro",slug:"antonio-monteiro",fullName:"António Monteiro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9523",title:"Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5eb6ec2db961a6c8965d11180a58d5c1",slug:"oral-and-maxillofacial-surgery",bookSignature:"Gokul Sridharan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9523.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82453",title:"Dr.",name:"Gokul",middleName:null,surname:"Sridharan",slug:"gokul-sridharan",fullName:"Gokul Sridharan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9785",title:"Endometriosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f457ca61f29cf7e8bc191732c50bb0ce",slug:"endometriosis",bookSignature:"Courtney Marsh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9785.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"255491",title:"Dr.",name:"Courtney",middleName:null,surname:"Marsh",slug:"courtney-marsh",fullName:"Courtney Marsh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9018",title:"Some RNA Viruses",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a5cae846dbe3692495fc4add2f60fd84",slug:"some-rna-viruses",bookSignature:"Yogendra Shah and Eltayb Abuelzein",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9018.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"278914",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Yogendra",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"yogendra-shah",fullName:"Yogendra Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8816",title:"Financial Crises",subtitle:"A Selection of Readings",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6f2f49fb903656e4e54280c79fabd10c",slug:"financial-crises-a-selection-of-readings",bookSignature:"Stelios Markoulis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"237863",title:"Dr.",name:"Stelios",middleName:null,surname:"Markoulis",slug:"stelios-markoulis",fullName:"Stelios Markoulis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9585",title:"Advances in Complex Valvular Disease",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef64f11e211621ecfe69c46e60e7ca3d",slug:"advances-in-complex-valvular-disease",bookSignature:"Michael S. Firstenberg and Imran Khan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9585.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"64343",title:null,name:"Michael S.",middleName:"S",surname:"Firstenberg",slug:"michael-s.-firstenberg",fullName:"Michael S. Firstenberg"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10150",title:"Smart Manufacturing",subtitle:"When Artificial Intelligence Meets the Internet of Things",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"87004a19de13702d042f8ff96d454698",slug:"smart-manufacturing-when-artificial-intelligence-meets-the-internet-of-things",bookSignature:"Tan Yen Kheng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10150.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"78857",title:"Dr.",name:"Tan Yen",middleName:null,surname:"Kheng",slug:"tan-yen-kheng",fullName:"Tan Yen Kheng"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9386",title:"Direct Numerical Simulations",subtitle:"An Introduction and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"158a3a0fdba295d21ff23326f5a072d5",slug:"direct-numerical-simulations-an-introduction-and-applications",bookSignature:"Srinivasa Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9386.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6897",title:"Dr.",name:"Srinivasa",middleName:"P",surname:"Rao",slug:"srinivasa-rao",fullName:"Srinivasa Rao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9139",title:"Topics in Primary Care Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea774a4d4c1179da92a782e0ae9cde92",slug:"topics-in-primary-care-medicine",bookSignature:"Thomas F. Heston",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9139.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"217926",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas F.",middleName:null,surname:"Heston",slug:"thomas-f.-heston",fullName:"Thomas F. Heston"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6be076ccf3a3f8bd2ca52d86d4506b",slug:"welding-modern-topics",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. Absi",surname:"Alfaro",slug:"sadek-crisostomo-absi-alfaro",fullName:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi Alfaro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"795",title:"Algorithm Analysis",slug:"industrial-engineering-and-management-algorithm-analysis",parent:{title:"Industrial Engineering and Management",slug:"industrial-engineering-and-management"},numberOfBooks:1,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:1,numberOfWosCitations:51,numberOfCrossrefCitations:40,numberOfDimensionsCitations:89,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"industrial-engineering-and-management-algorithm-analysis",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"3596",title:"Multiprocessor Scheduling",subtitle:"Theory and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"multiprocessor_scheduling_theory_and_applications",bookSignature:"Eugene Levner",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3596.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"25544",title:"Prof.",name:"Eugene",middleName:null,surname:"Levner",slug:"eugene-levner",fullName:"Eugene Levner"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:1,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"610",doi:"10.5772/5212",title:"Cyclic Scheduling in Robotic Cells: An Extension of Basic Models in Machine Scheduling Theory",slug:"cyclic_scheduling_in_robotic_cells__an_extension_of_basic_models_in_machine_scheduling_theory",totalDownloads:5975,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:18,book:{slug:"multiprocessor_scheduling_theory_and_applications",title:"Multiprocessor Scheduling",fullTitle:"Multiprocessor Scheduling, Theory and Applications"},signatures:"Eugene Levner, Vladimir Kats and David Alcaide Lopez De Pablo",authors:null},{id:"625",doi:"10.5772/5227",title:"Hybrid Job Shop and Parallel Machine Scheduling Problems: Minimization of Total Tardiness Criterion",slug:"hybrid_job_shop_and_parallel_machine_scheduling_problems__minimization_of_total_tardiness_criterion",totalDownloads:6052,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:15,book:{slug:"multiprocessor_scheduling_theory_and_applications",title:"Multiprocessor Scheduling",fullTitle:"Multiprocessor Scheduling, Theory and Applications"},signatures:"Frederic Dugardin, Hicham Chehade, Lionel Amodeo, Farouk Yalaoui and Christian Prins",authors:null},{id:"611",doi:"10.5772/5213",title:"Combinatorial Models for Multi-Agent Scheduling Problems",slug:"combinatorial_models_for_multi-agent_scheduling_problems",totalDownloads:2851,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:12,book:{slug:"multiprocessor_scheduling_theory_and_applications",title:"Multiprocessor Scheduling",fullTitle:"Multiprocessor Scheduling, Theory and Applications"},signatures:"Alessandro Agnetis, Dario Pacciarelli and Andrea Pacifici",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"614",title:"Minimizing the Weighted Number of Late Jobs with Batch Setup Times and Delivery Costs on a Single Machine",slug:"minimizing_the_weighted_number_of_late_jobs_with_batch_setup_times_and_delivery_costs_on_a_single_ma",totalDownloads:3095,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:10,book:{slug:"multiprocessor_scheduling_theory_and_applications",title:"Multiprocessor Scheduling",fullTitle:"Multiprocessor Scheduling, Theory and Applications"},signatures:"George Steiner and Rui Zhang",authors:null},{id:"620",title:"Solving a Multi-Objective No-Wait Flow Shop Problem by a Hybrid Multi-Objective Immune Algorithm",slug:"solving_a_multi-objective_no-wait_flow_shop_problem_by_a_hybrid_multi-objective_immune_algorithm",totalDownloads:3427,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"multiprocessor_scheduling_theory_and_applications",title:"Multiprocessor Scheduling",fullTitle:"Multiprocessor Scheduling, Theory and Applications"},signatures:"R. Tavakkoli-Moghaddam, A. Rahimi-Vahed and A. Hossein Mirzaei",authors:null},{id:"618",title:"A Hybrid Genetic Algorithm for the Re-Entrant Flow-Shop Scheduling Problem",slug:"a_hybrid_genetic_algorithm_for_the_re-entrant_flow-shop_scheduling_problem",totalDownloads:3144,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"multiprocessor_scheduling_theory_and_applications",title:"Multiprocessor Scheduling",fullTitle:"Multiprocessor Scheduling, Theory and Applications"},signatures:"Jen-Shiang Chen, Jason Chao-Hsien Pan and Chien-Min Lin",authors:null},{id:"613",title:"Scheduling with Communication Delays",slug:"scheduling_with_communication_delays",totalDownloads:2534,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"multiprocessor_scheduling_theory_and_applications",title:"Multiprocessor Scheduling",fullTitle:"Multiprocessor Scheduling, Theory and Applications"},signatures:"R. Giroudeau and J.C. Koenig",authors:null},{id:"626",title:"Identical Parallel Machine Scheduling with Dynamical Networks using Time-Varying Penalty Parameters",slug:"identical_parallel_machine_scheduling_with_dynamical_networks_using_time-varying_penalty_parameters",totalDownloads:2779,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"multiprocessor_scheduling_theory_and_applications",title:"Multiprocessor Scheduling",fullTitle:"Multiprocessor Scheduling, Theory and Applications"},signatures:"Derya Eren Akyol",authors:null},{id:"610",title:"Cyclic Scheduling in Robotic Cells: An Extension of Basic Models in Machine Scheduling Theory",slug:"cyclic_scheduling_in_robotic_cells__an_extension_of_basic_models_in_machine_scheduling_theory",totalDownloads:5975,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:18,book:{slug:"multiprocessor_scheduling_theory_and_applications",title:"Multiprocessor Scheduling",fullTitle:"Multiprocessor Scheduling, Theory and Applications"},signatures:"Eugene Levner, Vladimir Kats and David Alcaide Lopez De Pablo",authors:null},{id:"622",title:"Integral Approaches to Integrated Scheduling",slug:"integral_approaches_to_integrated_scheduling",totalDownloads:2552,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"multiprocessor_scheduling_theory_and_applications",title:"Multiprocessor Scheduling",fullTitle:"Multiprocessor Scheduling, Theory and Applications"},signatures:"Ghada A. El Khayat",authors:null},{id:"628",title:"A Geometric Approach to Scheduling of Concurrent Real-time Processes Sharing Resources",slug:"a_geometric_approach_to_scheduling_of_concurrent_real-time_processes_sharing_resources",totalDownloads:2017,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"multiprocessor_scheduling_theory_and_applications",title:"Multiprocessor Scheduling",fullTitle:"Multiprocessor Scheduling, Theory and Applications"},signatures:"Thao Dang and Philippe Gerner",authors:null},{id:"612",title:"Scheduling under Unavailability Constraints to Minimize Flow-time Criteria",slug:"scheduling_under_unavailability_constraints_to_minimize_flow-time_criteria",totalDownloads:2837,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"multiprocessor_scheduling_theory_and_applications",title:"Multiprocessor Scheduling",fullTitle:"Multiprocessor Scheduling, Theory and Applications"},signatures:"Imed Kacem",authors:null},{id:"616",title:"A NeuroGenetic Approach for Multiprocessor Scheduling",slug:"a_neurogenetic_approach_for_multiprocessor_scheduling",totalDownloads:2395,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"multiprocessor_scheduling_theory_and_applications",title:"Multiprocessor Scheduling",fullTitle:"Multiprocessor Scheduling, Theory and Applications"},signatures:"Anurag Agarwal",authors:null}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"industrial-engineering-and-management-algorithm-analysis",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/253229/kullaya-takkavatakarn",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"253229",slug:"kullaya-takkavatakarn"},fullPath:"/profiles/253229/kullaya-takkavatakarn",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var m;(m=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(m)}()