\r\n\tThe aim of this book is to provide a comprehensive outlook on the application of Diels-Alder reaction for the synthesis of thermo-reversible polymers and their application in material science.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c8440454614c578d980f7895468ea7e4",bookSignature:"Dr. Alfonso Martone and Mrs. Stefania Dello Iacono",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9940.jpg",keywords:"Diels-Alder Adducts, Anthracene, Selective Chemical Functionalization, Stereoselectivity, Thermo-Reversible Polymers, Shape Memory, Self-Healing Composites, Delamination, Self-Healing Coatings, Corrosion, Biomaterials, Drug Delivery",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 15th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 24th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 23rd 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 11th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 10th 2020",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"10 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"234302",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Martone",slug:"alfonso-martone",fullName:"Alfonso Martone",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/234302/images/system/234302.jpg",biography:"Dr. Alfonso Martone graduated in aerospace engineering at the University of Naples Federico II, Italy (2005), where he also received his Ph.D. degree in materials and structures engineering, in 2009. From 2006 to 2010, he worked at CNR-IMCB as a research fellow involved in the national grant ARCA, where an innovative material architecture was developed in order to enhance the passive damping features of advanced composite materials. From 2012-2013 he worked at CNR-IMCB as post-doc and was involved in several EU and national projects within the area of composite characterization and modeling. In 2015 he won the grant “CNR-Short Time Mobility 2015”, he worked in the laboratory of professor Pezzotti at Kyoto Institute of Technology on a research project on shelf healing composites. During this period he acquired experience on Raman piezo-spectroscopy of polymers.\r\nHe is currently working as a researcher at the Institute for Polymers, Composites and Biomaterials (IPCB) of the National Research Council (CNR), Italy. His current research interests include the study of carbon nanotube composites, hybrid advanced composites, viscoelasticity of polymers and composites, advanced composites manufacturing and thermos-mechanical characterization, structural health monitoring. 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Her current work involves developing self-healing thermosets based on Diels-Alder chemistry.",institutionString:"Institute of Polymers, Composites and Biomaterials",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Institute of Polymers, Composites and Biomaterials",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"8",title:"Chemistry",slug:"chemistry"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"304289",firstName:"Rebekah",lastName:"Pribetic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/304289/images/13255_n.png",email:"rebekah@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3621",title:"Silver Nanoparticles",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"silver-nanoparticles",bookSignature:"David Pozo Perez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3621.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6667",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Pozo",slug:"david-pozo",fullName:"David Pozo"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"70470",title:"Reliability-Oriented Design of Vehicle Electric Propulsion System Based on the Multilevel Hierarchical Reliability Model",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90508",slug:"reliability-oriented-design-of-vehicle-electric-propulsion-system-based-on-the-multilevel-hierarchic",body:'\n
\n
1. Introduction
\n
The rapid modern development of new technical systems in various areas of the industry is directly related to a significant increase in their complexity. In addition, the levels of integration of subsystems, units, and components and, accordingly, their mutual effect largely increase as well. This, in turn, has a very strong impact on the reliability, fault tolerance, and maintainability of the designed technical systems. Reliability concepts can be applied to virtually any engineered system. In its broadest sense, reliability is a measure of performance.
\n
All of the above fully applies to the traction drive of electric vehicles, the creation of which is a major challenge in the modern way to the electrification of the different types of vehicles: ships, planes, trains, helicopters, busses, and cars. For transport facilities that are safety-critical systems, the issues of assessing and optimizing reliability indicators are of particular importance.
\n
As can be seen in \nFigure 1\n, the magnitude of the level of technical excellence of an electric traction drive is determined by three comprehensive criteria: sustainable functioning, efficient functioning, and environmental level. It follows in \nFigure 1\nthat the maximum number of factors affects the amount of sustainable functioning criterion of the traction drive. Accordingly, the above criterion has the maximum potential to increase the value of the level of excellence of the traction electric drive and an electric vehicle as a whole. In addition, the most stringent requirements are imposed on reliability, fault tolerance, and survivability of electric vehicles, which are safety-critical systems.
\n
Figure 1.
Structure of the traction drive level of excellence.
\n
In this way, reliability-oriented design of the vehicle electric propulsion system and, accordingly, all its subsystems, units, and components is a very urgent and complex task while considering their interactions. In recent years, a multilevel approach in the development, design, and optimization of various technical systems and their particular parameters has become quite widespread. In addition, when using a multilevel approach in most cases, the various levels are interconnected hierarchically. Depending on the complexity of the system being developed, the multilevel hierarchical reliability model (MLHRM) may consist of a different number of levels. In the simplest case, it can consist of three levels.
\n
Attempts to develop the methods for solving such a problem were undertaken by various research groups. The first group of scientists, whose works are presented in [1, 2, 3, 4], uses the method of hierarchical decomposition of the technical system, better known as analytic hierarchy process (AHP). It was developed by Thomas L. Saaty in the 1970s and represents a structured technique to organize and analyze complex decisions, described in detail in [1]. This approach has significant advantages when important components of the decision are difficult to quantify or to compare or when communication between team members is made difficult by their different specializations, terminology, or perspectives. Due to the relatively simple mathematical formula, as well as the easy data collection, AHP has been widely applied by many researchers. The integral shortcoming of the AHP is the fact that the criteria are assumed to be completely independent, even though in real-world problems, the criteria are often dependent. In [2] the AHP approach was applied in the four-level hierarchical tree to identify the main attributes and criteria that affect the level of accuracy of the models used in probabilistic risk assessment. The main disadvantage of AHP approach is the inability to consider the uncertainties of the process. In order to overcome this limitation, the application of different hybrid combinations of fuzzy theory and AHP, the so-called fuzzy AHP, and analytic network process (ANP) method has been used in [3] for inter-criteria dependency definition and in [4] for the vehicle safety analysis. It should be noted that in real life, most of the decision problems are represented by a network and not only structured as a hierarchy.
\n
Various hierarchical stochastic models have proven to be a powerful tool for analyzing the reliability of complex technical systems for different applications. The authors in [5] described a method, called the hierarchical Markov modeling (HMM), which allows to perform the predictive reliability assessment of distribution electrical system. This method can be used not only to assess the reliability of existing distribution systems but also to estimate the reliability impact of several design improvement features. HMM creates a primary model based on the system topology, secondary models based on integrated protection systems, and tertiary models based upon individual protection devices. Once the tertiary models have been solved, the secondary models can be solved. In turn, solving the secondary models allows the primary model to be solved and all of the customer interruption information to be computed. An interesting approach to solving the complex problem of performance, availability, and power consumption analysis of infrastructure as a service (IaaS) clouds, based hierarchical stochastic reward nets (SRN), is presented in [6]. In order to use the resources of an IaaS cloud efficiently, several important factors such as performance, availability, and power consumption need to be considered and evaluated carefully. The estimation of these indicators is significant for cost–benefit prediction and quantification of different strategies, which can be applied to cloud management.
\n
Possible techniques and ways to solve the problem of a multistage reliability-based design optimization (MSRBDO) are based on Monte Carlo method and its application to aircraft conceptual design, which is described in detail in [7] and with subsequent corrections and development in [8]. In recent years, a multilevel (tiered) systematic approach has become increasingly widespread for analyzing and optimizing the various characteristics of technical systems, the theoretical foundations of which are described in detail in [9, 10, 11, 12]. In the work of [9], the four-level (system, subsystem, assembly, and device-component) representation of variable-speed drive systems is proposed for the analysis of reliability, availability, and maintainability. The calculations were performed analytically and step by step. Bolvashenkov et al. [10] describes the rules and properties of multilevel hierarchical representation of the vehicles’ propulsion system life cycles and the optimal types of stochastic methods and models for use at each individual level. A new look at solving the problem of assessing various system resilience, based on the three-level (tiered) approach, is proposed in [11]. Ref. [12] presents a systematic four-level approach to develop the reliability design of the mechanical system—the refrigerator, which is similar to the target of this chapter, but it does not present any analytical optimization.
\n
A significant amount of research works is related to the assessment of the reliability of particular units or component at one of the local levels of the multilevel model and the development of appropriate methods and models [13, 14, 15, 16]. In Refs. [13, 14], several options for assessing reliability at the component level are presented. In the first case [13], it is proposed to do this using failure mode and effect analysis (FMEA) with weighted risk priority number (RPN), and in the second case [14], it is proposed to do this based on a multistate Markov model, which allows to consider random environmental conditions. The hierarchical model for lithium-ion battery degradation prediction, discussed in [15], represents reliability assessment technique at the unit level of a multilevel model. The three-level (system, subsystem, and component) aircraft engine model’s hierarchical architecture is described in [16]. This paper concludes that in a large system, such as an aircraft engine, failure prognostics can be performed at various levels, i.e., component level, subsystem level, and system level. A similar approach for the estimation of the remaining useful life (RUL) for the multiple-component systems—when using the prognostics and health monitoring (PHM) technologies in modern aircraft—is proposed in papers [17, 18]. This methodology combines particular component RUL estimations into a single system level RUL estimation. This characteristic becomes more relevant when the number of components within the system increases.
\n
\n
\n
2. Methodology of a multilevel hierarchical reliability model
\n
In order to solve the problem of implementing the reliability-oriented design for electric propulsion system, the authors, based on previous own research and research of other scientists, developed the methodology for creating and using the MLHRM of electric vehicles’ functioning. The main features, techniques, and potentials of the model are presented below.
\n
The proposed method of reliability-oriented design of the vehicle electric propulsion system based on the MLHRM allows to solve a complete set of tasks related to the full range of indicators of comprehensive reliability for the safety-critical electric traction systems, such as failure-free operation probability, fault tolerance, availability, maintainability, durability, reliability associated cost, etc.
\n
The main advantages of the proposed methodology derive from the use of system approach principles for the development of the methodology and the bidirectional principle of the MLHRM functioning. In accordance with the principles of the system approach, the model allows to take into account the horizontal and vertical interaction of components of different levels of the MLHRM, considering the impact of the real operating conditions.
\n
The bidirectional structure of the model functioning allows to solve the problems of reliability and fault tolerance optimization of electric vehicles, both at the stage of designing and in the stage of operation.
\n
\n
2.1 Structure of MLHRM
\n
\n\nFigure 2\n shows the general view of the MLHRM structure. The number of levels of the model can vary depending on the complexity of the technical system and the tasks to be solved. The model presented in \nFigure 2\n has six levels, which correspond to the task of analyzing and optimizing the reliability characteristics of electric vehicles, taking into account their interaction in random environment.
\n
Figure 2.
General structure of the MLHRM.
\n
The coefficients K\n12–K\n56 determine the magnitude of the influence of the reliability of the lower level of the model on the neighboring upper level. The coefficients R\n21–R\n65 determine the ratio of the required values of the performance of the upper level of the model relative to the neighboring lower level.The coefficients K\n12–K\n56 from \nFigure 3\n can be defined by Eq. (1):
\n
Figure 3.
Algorithm for rapid analysis of the reliability characteristics of a technical system.
where Crni\n is the criticality value of the ith element of the nth level, Pni\n is the failure probability of ith element of the nth level, and mn\n is the number of elements of the nth level.
\n
The coefficients R\n21–R\n65 can be computed by Eq. (2):
where Y\n(n + 1) is the upper neighboring level performance, Xn\n is the lower neighboring level performance, and n is the number of level.
\n
The coefficients R\n21–R\n65 are used to calculate the required indicators of various levels of the MLHRM within the design of electric vehicles with the specified reliability and fault tolerance parameters.
\n
The coefficients K\n12–K\n56 are used to improve the reliability indicators of various levels of the model during the operational time of the electric vehicles.
\n
As noted above, the MLHRM shown in \nFigure 2\n includes six levels, namely, component level (CL), subunit level (SUL), unit level (UL), subsystem level (SSL), system level (SL), and multi-system level (MSL).At the CL, based on statistical reliability data, analytical calculations, or using Markov models for binary-state components, reliability characteristics of the element of the next level (SUL) are determined. In operational mode, component failures can lead to the degradation of the whole system performance. Respectively, the performance rate of any component can range from fully functioning up to complete failure. The failures that lead to a decrease in the element performance are called partial failures. After partial failure, the elements continue to operate at reduced performance rates, and after complete failure, the elements are totally unable to perform their missions.
\n
At the SUL the initial parameters for the analysis of reliability indicators of the red level are determined. As subunits, the independent functional parts of the next level (UL) can be considered. In turn, at the UL, an analysis and evaluation of independent functional units, which are integral parts of the next level, SSL, are carried out.
\n
The reliability indicators calculated at the UL are the input data for the models used within the next level—the SSL. In the case of electric vehicle simulation, the SSL corresponds to the level where the assessment of the reliability characteristics of the entire electric traction drive takes place. The basic model of the vehicle electric propulsion system at this level can be represented as stochastic model of multistate system with the change of discrete operating load modes. Each operational load mode complies with specific power characteristics, which have to be implemented with highest probability for safety operation of the vehicle. Thus, on the one hand, there are requirements for safe vehicle operation, which form a model of demand. On the other hand, there is the guaranteed generated electric power, which values form the model of performance. The combined performance-demand model allows to determine the characteristics of reliability, based on which it is possible to estimate the degree of fault tolerance of the vehicle’s electric propulsion system and to optimize its values according to the project requirements.
\n
At the SL, complex reliability indicators of electric vehicle are investigated. The input data for modeling at this level of the MLHRM are the output reliability characteristics, which are obtained at the SSL. In turn, the output characteristics of SL are the input data for models of the top-level MSL. At the MSL, the reliability-associated economical characteristics of the joint operation of a multiple number of electric vehicles under real operating conditions are estimated taking into account their interaction and random environment. The problems solved at this level were not the purpose of the present study and, therefore, are not considered in this chapter.Based on the presented MLHRM, an algorithm was developed for the accelerated estimation of the compliance of the propulsion system reliability indicators with the project requirements, which is shown in \nFigure 3\n.
\n
In accordance with the above algorithm, the main task of a simplified rapid assessment of reliability indicators is to determine the critical important components of each level of MLHRM and the degree of its influence on the reliability characteristics of the neighboring upper level.
\n
In this case, the critical important parts of each level can be determined based on risk priority number (RPN), failure mode and effects and criticality analysis (FMECA) or based on experimental data, as shown in \nFigure 4\n, which was previously presented in [19, 20, 21] for the main subunits of the traction electric motor: stator windings, power electronics, and bearings.
\n
Figure 4.
Critical importance analysis of the subunits [19].
\n
Depending on the task to be solved and the level of the model, the probability of failure-free operation, availability, degree of fault tolerance, etc. can be considered as indicators of reliability of the components.
\n
In order to meet the requirements of the project on reliability and fault tolerance of electric vehicles, it may be necessary to change the reliability parameters of the components and/or the structure of the electric propulsion system.
\n
The intervals of possible changes in the reliability parameters (failure rate, repair rate) of the propulsive system elements are determined preliminarily based on statistical data on the reliability of each element, given, for example, in the reference literature.
\n
From the results shown in \nFigure 4\n, it follows that the most sensitive parts to thermal effects in various operating conditions and in terms of reliability are the stator windings of the traction electric motor. In this case, for further investigations, the stator windings are accepted as a critical important subunit for the unit—the traction electric motor. Similarly, the critical important parts for the remaining levels of MLHRM can be defined.
\n
\n
\n
2.2 Goals, methods, and models
\n
At each level of the MLHRM, specific models are used to solve specific tasks in order to achieve the corresponding goals at each level. \nFigure 5\n graphically presents the problems associated with the reliability characteristics of electrical propulsion systems that can be solved by means of the MLHRM. In addition, \nFigure 5\n presents the methods and models recommended in order to assess the reliability indicators of different MLHRM levels.
\n
Figure 5.
Tasks and methods of their solutions for different MLHRM levels.
\n
Below, a detailed description of the tasks and methods for their solution, applied to each level of MLHRM, is given.
\n
\n
2.2.1 Component level
\n
The main tasks that are solved at the CL are the collection, analysis, and structuring of statistical data on the reliability of all components that affect the reliability of the neighboring top level of the MLHRM. It also identifies the critical important components and their degree of influence on the reliability features of the next level—the SUL. The possible methods for achieving these goals are fault tree analysis (FTA), failure mode and effects analysis (FMEA), FMECA, and RPN. Several examples of the reliability characteristic analysis of electric propulsion systems at CL of the MLHRM are described in [21, 22, 23].
\n
\n
\n
2.2.2 Subunit level
\n
As subunits, this chapter examines individual, relatively independent parts of units having a specific functional orientation. At the subunit level, based on the data obtained in the previous component level, it is advisable to determine the characteristics of reliability, maintainability, and fault tolerance of the subunit groups, forming the corresponding elements of the next level—the UL. The recommended methods for analyzing and evaluating the above reliability characteristics are FTA, FMEA, FMECA, and RPN using experimental failure and repair statistics. If there are blocks that are not binary, but multistate elements (elements with degraded states), the multistate system reliability Markov models (MSSR MM), described in detail in [20, 23, 24], can be applied for the computation.
\n
\n
\n
2.2.3 Unit level
\n
At the UL, the tasks of computation and optimization of reliability, maintainability, and fault tolerance of autonomous functional parts (units), within the propulsion system of electric vehicles, are solved. Taking into account that the units are elements with several degraded states, that is, multistate systems, it is advisable to use MSSR MM for their research. In addition, by means of MSSR MM, one can take into account the actual load modes of the units, regarding overloads capacity and the aging processes. The transition probabilities for MSSR MM can be calculated by means of the degree of fault tolerance DOFT [24] using statistical operational data or can be determined at the design stage based on the requirements to the safety and sustainable vehicle operations. In order to determine the critical important elements of the UL for further optimization, RPN, FMECA, FTA, and experimental test methods can be used.
\n
\n
\n
2.2.4 Subsystem level
\n
At the SSL the problems of determining and optimizing the reliability characteristics of operational availability, maintainability, fault tolerance, redundancy (functional and structural), and performance of entire electric propulsion system should be solved. In order to build the corresponding combined stochastic model of the electric vehicle propulsion system including electric energy source, the concept of balanced relationship between demand (required power) and performance (available power) has been applied. Hence, the model of the electric propulsion system operation can be represented as a MSSR MM with the change of discrete operating modes: start (takeoff), acceleration (climb), constant speed (cruise), deceleration (reduction of altitude), and stop (landing). Along with MSSR MM, Markov reward models (MRM) and Monte Carlo simulation (MCS) can be widely apply.
\n
\n
\n
2.2.5 System level
\n
At this level, the most preferred are the various stochastic models of the electric vehicle’s lifecycle, which allow to assess the reliability indices of repairable systems by optimizing maintenance strategies according to the intensity of the scheduled and unscheduled repairs, and the use of functional systems of monitoring, forecasting reliability, and diagnostics. These may be MSSR MM, MRM, MCS, and multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA). A definition of current and forecasted values of reliability indices are carried out, considering the external and internal operation conditions of the vehicle, as well as taking into account the availability of structural or functional redundancy. Thus, the study and optimization task of the so-called reliability associated costs (RAC) estimation, based on MRM, is most interesting and promised [20].
\n
In order to build such a model, the process of the vehicle operations can be represented by a chain of the lifecycles: operational, nonoperational, working, standing, etc. The data on the duration of each cycle are obtained based on the analysis of statistical operational data of a particular type of vehicle on certain routes and areas.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
3. Application case
\n
As an application example of the proposed MLHRM methodology for assessing and optimizing the reliability characteristics of electric traction drives, the propulsion system of icebreaking cargo ship is considered. Functionally, the MLHRM is presented in \nFigure 6\n. The new Arctic liquefied natural gas (LNG) tanker “Christophe de Margerie,” built in 2017 by Daewoo Shipbuilding & Marine Engineering in South Korea, was selected as the research object to investigate the reliability features of the overall electric propulsion system. The characteristics of the LNG tanker “Christophe de Margerie,” as well as its propulsion system are described in detail in [25].
\n
Figure 6.
MLHRM structure of icebreaking cargo ship with electric propulsion.
\n
Reliability indicators of lower levels have been calculated based on statistical data (failure rates, repair rates, etc.), and well-known analytical methods are not included to this chapter, however, are fully presented in [25]. This chapter concentrates on the upper levels, which are more complicated and interesting considering the overall electric vehicle reliability.
\n
As a MSL of the MLHRM in this case, the joint operation of several ships in a caravan with icebreakers, the joint operation of the whole fleet to deliver the similar type of cargo in corresponding directions, the operation of the shipping company, etc. can be considered.
\n
In \nFigure 6\n, the following notation is used: EES, electric energy source; EC, electric converter; EM, electric motor; CU, control unit; and λj, λk, λn, and λm, failures rates of various components.
\n
The main goal of the ship’s propulsion system is to ensure the safe and efficient transportation of cargo and/or passengers. Based on the stated main goal, the functions that should be performed at each level of the MLHRM are analyzed. Below is a detailed description of each model level applied to the ship’s electrical propulsion system. For a more complete understanding of the essence of the multilevel structure of the MLHRM, \nFigure 7\n shows the most simplified diagram of the fully integrated power system of the icebreaker LNG tanker.
\n
Figure 7.
Structure of the whole power system [25].
\n
The entire ship’s power system can be conventionally represented as three subsystems: the electric energy source system (EES), the ship’s electric propulsion system (EPS), and the subsystem of the ship’s consumers of electric energy (EEC). The first subsystem includes six diesel generators with a total power of 62 MW, which supply electric energy to a two-section main switchboard.
\n
The electric propulsion subsystem consists of three electric traction drives, including electric converters and three two-section electric traction motors, located in steering gondolas of the Azipod system. The ship’s consumer subsystem provides general ship needs, as well as the critical important consumer, namely, the gas liquefaction and storage system (LSS), consisting of 12 powerful motor compressors.
\n
When transporting LNG, specifically stringent requirements are imposed on the whole power system of the tanker in terms of safe and sustainable operation. On the one hand, in the heavy ice conditions of the Arctic, it is necessary to ensure the maximum possible power on all three propellers of the vessel, and on the other hand, in the same time, it is necessary to ensure uninterrupted functioning of the LSS for the safety and keeping of the cargo. This feature should be unconditionally observed during the simulation on SL and MSL. It should be noted that this requirement extends over 50% of the operating time of LNG tanker.
\n
\n
3.1 Component level and subunit level
\n
At the component level, based on available failure statistics [21, 22, 23] and the above methods of analytical reliability calculation (FTA, FMEA, RPN, etc.), the total failure rates of all components, of which the subunits are composed, can be analyzed and estimated. For EM, as the part of UL, the subunits are a stator with windings, a rotor with magnets, a bearing, and others, as shown in \nFigure 8\n.
\n
Figure 8.
Failures statistics of traction electric motor [21].
\n
Considering the above data in \nFigure 8\n, generally the reliability of electric motor λEM can be determined by the formula:
where λSi, λRj, and λBk are the failure rates of parts of all parts of the electrical machine, respectively, of stator, rotor, and bearing.
\n
For EC, as the part of UL, the subunits are the semiconductors, printed circuit boards (PCB), capacitors, and others, as shown in \nFigure 9\n.
\n
Figure 9.
Failures statistics of electric converter [21].
\n
Based on the above data in \nFigure 9\n, generally the failure rate of an electric power converter λEI can be estimated considering the reliability values of its components by the equation:
where λTi, λDj, λCk, and λBn are the failure rates of all components of electric inverter, respectively of transistor, diode, capacitor, and printed circuit board.
\n
Similar calculations are performed for all other subunits of the SUL, which are taken into consideration. Based on the results of the calculation, the sensitivity of changing the values of the reliability indicators at the subunit relatively to the change of the components’ failure rates is determined. The obtained results are used further in the models at UL and SSL.
\n
Increased reliability features on the CL can be performed using components and materials with higher reliability values and based on various methods of critical components redundancy. In order to achieve the required performance characteristics of the SUL, as shown in [21], it is necessary to optimize the type of stator windings, permanent magnets, bearings, semiconductors, etc. In addition, redundancy of critical important parts of subunits can be used.
\n
\n
\n
3.2 Unit level
\n
At this level of the MLHRM, the tasks of providing reliable performance of all functional elements, which form the subsystem of the electrical propulsion system presented in \nFigure 6\n, are solved. The detailed descriptions of the use of various techniques to improve the reliability and fault tolerance of electric energy sources, traction electric motors, electric converters, and control units at this MLHRM level are given in [19, 20, 23, 26].
\n
The correct choice of the type of electric machine, the methodology of which is presented in [21], has a significant impact on the reliability indicators of an electric propulsion system. Based on the completed studies, it was proposed to use a synchronous motor with permanent magnets as the most promising one in terms of reliability and fault tolerance. One of the most effective methods to improve the reliability and fault tolerance of traction electric motors is the use of a multiphase motor topology with concentrated windings and galvanically uncoupled phases, described in [19, 26]. A significant influence on the characteristics of fault tolerance and overload capacity of the traction electric motor is provided by the parameters and the location of the permanent magnets on the rotor. In the work of [21], it is shown that the most preferable design is the permanent magnet synchronous motor with internal v-shaped arrangement of permanent magnets on the rotor.
\n
The methods to analyze and improve the reliability of the electrical energy source and of the electric converter are discussed in [23, 27]. In order to meet the design requirements for reliability and fault tolerance as shown in [23], as electric energy sources, it is advisable to apply the energy storage, with a matrix topology of battery or fuel cells with more than 20% cells redundancy. Additionally, in order to improve the fault tolerance of the electric power converter in failure cases, it is proposed to use a multilevel cascaded converter topology. The reliability characteristics of all units, taking into account the specific load conditions and aging processes, are advisable to be computed by means of the MSSR MM, as shown in [20, 21, 23, 24].
\n
\n
\n
3.3 Subsystem level
\n
At this level, the entire spectrum of technical tasks, which are related to the most important subsystem of an electric vehicle, is solved. The results of solving these problems will allow at higher levels to determine the financial equivalent of an important indicator of the level of excellence of an electric propulsion system—the sustainable functioning. Such tasks include the analysis and optimization of reliability, operational availability, fault tolerance, maintenance strategies, reliability associated cost, and performance of the propulsion system.
\n
When analyzing the reliability characteristics at the SSL, it is necessary to take into account the operational load modes, the mutual influence between the units, the aging processes, the frequency, and the duration of maintenance and repairs, as well as the influence of structural and functional redundancy of the entire subsystem or its particular parts. The required degree of redundancy of the electric propulsion system of the icebreaker LNG tanker, depending on the requirements for the safety and fault tolerance, can be achieved on the SSL by using multi-power electric energy sources (MPEES) consisting of six diesel generator sets. The questions of features and the analysis of the reliability characteristics of MPEES are described in detail in [27, 28].
\n
High survivability and fault tolerance of the electric propulsion system of LNG tanker are especially important in the extremely difficult ice conditions of the Arctic. In order to ensure the safe and sustainable navigation in the ice conditions, on the SSL, it is necessary to provide the multi-motor electric drives with multiphase electric motors, whose features are discussed in [27, 29].
\n
The most comprehensive investigation of reliability indicators at the SSL is advised to be carried out by means of MSSR MM, MRM, and MCS. Moreover, taking into account the high complexity of Markov models with a high number of states for the entire electric power system, it is proposed to perform the calculations using the new powerful Lz-transform method, described in detail in [20], which drastically simplified the solution of multiple differential equations.
\n
\n
\n
3.4 System level
\n
At the SL, the operation of the ship with electric propulsion subsystem as a whole system is considered. The objective function of the icebreaker LNG tanker is the safely, sustainable, and efficient shipping in the specified Arctic operating conditions. In accordance with this, the main objectives are to increase the carrying capacity of the tanker and to minimize the total operating costs and damages. The reliability characteristics of the icebreaker LNG tanker influence the values of both components of the objective function of the ship. In order to solve these problems, it is advisable to use MCS and MCDA, considering the random environment of the Arctic navigation conditions and the number of uncertainties, along with MSSR MM and MRM.
\n
In this way, at the SL, it is recommendable to determine all reliability indicators of the whole tanker. Based on such reliability indices, the total cost can be calculated, which is needed to maintain sustainably the required level of performance during the operation of the tanker in real ice operating conditions. These are the operational availability, performance, deficiency of performance, maintainability, reliability associated cost, damages from unreliability, life cycle cost, risk probability, etc.
\n
In order to improve the reliability and fault tolerance of the electric propulsion system and the LNG tanker as a whole, at this level, it is possible to use several autonomous electric drives with their own screws, the propulsion system of gondola type with two screws, the optimization of the maintenance and repair strategy of the power system of the tanker during navigation, predictive reliability monitoring, and a control system of the ship electrical propulsion system.
\n
In order to build the model of the LNG tanker life cycle at the SL, the process of the icebreaker LNG tanker operations is represented by a chain of different operating modes. During the operation cycle depending on conditions of navigation, it is possible to distinguish four basic operating modes of an icebreaker LNG tanker. Each of them corresponds to a certain required number and power of the main engines. These operating modes are shown in \nFigure 10\n and they are:
Loading and unloading of LNG at the terminal. Each of these two modes usually takes about 24 h. The sustainability of the loading and unloading process is determined by the reliability of onshore and ship gas liquefying and pumping systems.
Navigation of a ship in ice-free water. The operation in this mode depends on the required velocity and needs of the greater part of the operational time 50–80% of the nominal generated power.
Autonomous movement in the ice without icebreaker support. The navigation in this mode depends on ice conditions and a wide power range from 50% up to 100% of the nominal power can be used.
Navigation of a ship in heavy ice supported by icebreakers. In order to realize sustainable joint operation with icebreakers in this mode, electric propulsion system needs 80–100% of the nominal generated power.
\n\n
Figure 10.
Operational modes of icebreaker LNG tanker.
\n
Considering the abovementioned features of operational modes of the icebreaker LNG tanker propulsion system, three demand levels were chosen for calculation: 100, 80, and 50% of the main traction electric motors power.
\n
For an accurate assessment of operational availability and performance of the electric propulsion system, it has been proposed to estimate the values separately for each of the above modes, followed by calculating the total impact on the value of the ship’s operating speed and, accordingly, the amount of cargo transported per unit of time.
\n
In order to analyze the reliability indicators at the system level of the MLHRM, the icebreaker LNG tanker power system—based on the decomposition principle—is presented in the form of four blocks: the electric energy source system (EES), the ship’s electric propulsion system (EPS), the subsystem of the ship’s consumers of electric energy (EEC), and LNG liquefaction and storage system (LSS). The simplified structure of the whole LNG tanker power system is shown in \nFigure 11\n.
\n
Figure 11.
Structure of the hybrid-electric power system of LNG tanker.
\n
As a result of calculating the comprehensive reliability indices of each functional block, indicated in \nFigure 11\n, based on the Lz-transform method [25, 29] to solve the system of differential equations of MSSR MM, a schedule of operational availability of the power system of LNG tanker for different demands was constructed, which is presented in \nFigure 12\n.
\n
Figure 12.
Operational availability of the power system of LNG tanker for different demands [25].
\n
The graph in \nFigure 12\n demonstrates the ability of the tanker’s power system to ensure sustainable functioning under the conditions of various operational demands. For this, the process of operating a fully loaded tanker during LNG delivery from the Sabetta terminal on the Russian Yamal Peninsula to the Chinese port of Shanghai was modeled. As can be seen in \nFigure 12\n, the Arctic LNG tanker has high operational availability for the maximum levels of demand. Its value is equal to 85.82%. This indicates that such multi-drive propulsion system is closely related to the conditions of ice navigation.
\n
\n
\n
\n
4. Conclusions
\n
The chapter proposed MLHRM and methodology of its application will allow to realize the comprehensive analysis an estimation of comprehensive reliability characteristics of the vehicle electric propulsion systems at the design stage. This means to implement the so-called reliability-oriented design of the traction electric drives. The suggested MLHRM of the vehicle’s life cycle allows for each level to solve specific technical and technical-economical optimization tasks, such as the optimization of the design of the electric machine, number of phases, number of electric motors, degree of fault tolerance, level of redundancy, maintenance strategy, topologies of electric converters, and electric energy sources.
\n
The MLHRM approach allows to provide a quantitative comparative analysis of methods for improving the comprehensive reliability of the vehicle electric propulsion systems at each MLHRM level. In other words, in order to quantify the impact on the integrated reliability of the electric propulsion system and vehicle as a whole, it is possible to use systems of diagnostics, fault detection, monitoring, fault prediction, varying degrees of redundancy of elements, and various maintenance strategies.
\n
As the application case, the new Arctic LNG tanker “Christophe de Margerie” is used to assess the value of the operational availability of the integrated electric power system during the summer-autumn period along the Northern Sea Route. The results of the research showed that regarding the sustainable operation during Arctic navigation of the icebreaking LNG tanker, the electric propulsion system has a significant potential to improve operational availability, technical performance, and consequently economic efficiency.
\n
For further studies, it is advisable to estimate the value of the reliability-associated costs, as well as life cycle costs of Arctic LNG tanker for different operational routes by using different maintenance strategies, considering the gradual deterioration of the ship’s icebreaking capacity during ice navigation.
\n
\n\n',keywords:"electric vehicle, reliability-oriented design, fault tolerance, electric propulsion system, multilevel hierarchical reliability model, Markov model",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/70470.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/70470.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70470",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70470",totalDownloads:168,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"February 13th 2019",dateReviewed:"November 15th 2019",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"April 1st 2020",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"This chapter describes a methodology of evaluation of the various sustainability indicators, such as reliability, availability, fault tolerance, and reliability-associated cost of the electric propulsion systems, based on a multilevel hierarchical reliability model (MLHRM) of the life cycles of electric vehicles. Considering that the vehicle propulsion systems are safety-critical systems, to each of their components, the strict requirements on reliability indices are imposed. The practical application of the proposed technique for reliability-oriented development of the icebreaking ship’s electric propulsion system and the results of computation are presented. The opportunities of improvement of reliability and fault tolerance are investigated. The results of the study, allowing creating highly reliable electric vehicles and choosing the most appropriate traction electric drive design, are discussed.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/70470",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/70470",book:{slug:"intelligent-and-efficient-transport-systems-design-modelling-control-and-simulation"},signatures:"Igor Bolvashenkov, Jörg Kammermann, Ilia Frenkel and Hans-Georg Herzog",authors:[{id:"15221",title:"Prof.",name:"Hans-Georg",middleName:null,surname:"Herzog",fullName:"Hans-Georg Herzog",slug:"hans-georg-herzog",email:"hg.herzog@tum.de",position:null,institution:null},{id:"295433",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Igor",middleName:null,surname:"Bolvashenkov",fullName:"Igor Bolvashenkov",slug:"igor-bolvashenkov",email:"igor.bolvashenkov@tum.de",position:null,institution:{name:"Technical University Munich",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"308350",title:"MSc.",name:"Jörg",middleName:null,surname:"Kammermann",fullName:"Jörg Kammermann",slug:"jorg-kammermann",email:"joerg.kammermann@tum.de",position:null,institution:{name:"Technical University Munich",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"308351",title:"Dr.",name:"Ilia",middleName:null,surname:"Frenkel",fullName:"Ilia Frenkel",slug:"ilia-frenkel",email:"iliaf@frenkel-online.com",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Methodology of a multilevel hierarchical reliability model",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Structure of MLHRM",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Goals, methods, and models",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"2.2.1 Component level",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"2.2.2 Subunit level",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"2.2.3 Unit level",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"2.2.4 Subsystem level",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"2.2.5 System level",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10",title:"3. Application case",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.1 Component level and subunit level",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"3.2 Unit level",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"3.3 Subsystem level",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"3.4 System level",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15",title:"4. Conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nBani-Mustafa T, Pedroni N, Zio E, Vasseur D, Beaudouin FA. Hierarchical tree-based decision making approach for assessing the trustworthiness of risk assessment models. In: Proceedings of the International Topical Meeting on Probabilistic Safety Assessment and Analysis (PSA’17); 24th–28th September 2017; Pittsburgh, PA. 2017. pp. 314-323\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nSaaty TL. Decision making with the analytic hierarchy process. International Journal of Services Sciences (IJSSci), Inderscience Publishers. 2008;1(1):83-98\n'},{id:"B3",body:'\nZiemba P. Inter-criteria dependencies-based decision support in the sustainable wind energy management. Energies. 2019;12:749\n'},{id:"B4",body:'\nGanji SRS, Rassafi AA, Kordani AA. Vehicle safety analysis based on a hybrid approach integrating DEMATEL, ANP and ER. KSCE Journal of Civil Engineering. 2018;22(11):4580-4592\n'},{id:"B5",body:'\nBrown RE, Gupta S, Christie RD, Venkata SS, Fletcher R. Distribution system reliability assessment using hierarchical Markov modeling. IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery. 1996;11(4):1929-1934\n'},{id:"B6",body:'\nAtaie E, Entezari-Maleki R, Rashidi L, Trivedi KS, Ardagna D, Movaghar A. Hierarchical stochastic models for performance, availability, and power consumption analysis of IaaS clouds. IEEE Transactions on Cloud Computing. 2019;7(4):1-18\n'},{id:"B7",body:'\nNam T, Mavris DN. Multistage reliability-based design optimization and application to aircraft conceptual design. Journal of Aircraft, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia. 2018;55(5):1-15\n'},{id:"B8",body:'\nPaulson EJ, Starkey RP. Development of a multistage reliability-based design optimization method. Journal of Mechanical Design. 2013;136(1):1-8\n'},{id:"B9",body:'\nWikström P, Terens LA, Kobi H. Reliability, availability, and maintainability of high-power variable-speed drive systems. IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications. 2000;36(1):231-241\n'},{id:"B10",body:'\nBolvashenkov I, Kammermann J, Herzog H-G. Research on reliability and fault tolerance of multi-phase traction electric motors based on Markov models for multi-state systems. In: Proceedings of 23rd International IEEE Symposium on Power Electronics, Electrical Drives, Automation and Motion (SPEEDAM); 22th–24th June 2016; Anacapri, Italy. pp. 1-6\n'},{id:"B11",body:'\nLinkov I, Fox-Lent C, Read L, et al. Tiered approach to resilience assessment. Journal Risk Analysis. USA. 2018;38(4):1-9. DOI: 10.1111/risa.12991\n'},{id:"B12",body:'\nWoo S, O’Neal DL. Reliability design and case study of mechanical system like a hinge kit system in refrigerator subjected to repetitive stresses. Engineering Failure Analysis. 2019;99:319-329\n'},{id:"B13",body:'\nXiao N, Huang N-Z, Li Y, He L, Jin T. Multiple failure modes analysis and weighted risk priority number evaluation in FMEA. Engineering Failure Analysis. 2011;18:1162-1170\n'},{id:"B14",body:'\nDing Y, Lin Y, Peng R, Zuo MJ. Approximate reliability evaluation of large-scale multistate series-parallel systems. IEEE Transactions on Reliability. 2019;68(2):1-15\n'},{id:"B15",body:'\nXuy X, Liz Z, Chen N. A hierarchical model for lithium-ion battery degradation prediction. IEEE Transactions on Reliability. 2016;65(1):310-325\n'},{id:"B16",body:'\nAbbas M, Vachtsevanos GJA. System-level approach to fault progression analysis in complex engineering systems. In: Proceedings of Annual Conference of the Prognostics and Health Management Society; September 27-October 1 2009; San Diego, CA. 2009. pp. 1-7\n'},{id:"B17",body:'\nGomes JPP, Rodrigues LR, Galvão RKH, Yoneyama T. System level RUL estimation for multiple-component systems. In: Proceedings of Annual Conference of the Prognostics and Health Management Society; 14th–17th October 2013; New Orleans, LA, USA. 2013. pp. 1-9\n'},{id:"B18",body:'\nRodrigues LR. Remaining useful life prediction for multiple-component systems based on a system-level performance indicator. IEEE/ASME Transactions on Mechatronics. 2018;23(1):1-10\n'},{id:"B19",body:'\nBolvashenkov I, Kammermann J, Willerich S, Herzog H-G. Comparative study of reliability and fault tolerance of multi-phase permanent magnet synchronous motors for safety-critical drive trains. In: Proceedings of the International Conference on Renewable Energies and Power Quality (ICREPQ’16); 4th–6th May; Madrid, Spain. 2016. pp. 1-6\n'},{id:"B20",body:'\nBolvashenkov I, Herzog H-G, Frenkel I, Khvatskin L, Lisnianski A. Safety-Critical Electrical Drives: Topologies, Reliability, Performance. Switzerland: Springer; 2018\n'},{id:"B21",body:'\nBolvashenkov I, Kammermann J, Willerich S, Herzog H-G. Comparative study for the optimal choice of electric traction motors for a helicopter drive train. In: Proceedings of the 10th Conference on Sustainable Development of Energy, Water and Environment Systems (SDEWES’15); 27th Sept.–3rd Oct. 2015; Dubrovnik, Croatia. 2015. pp. 1-15\n'},{id:"B22",body:'\nKammermann J, Bolvashenkov I, Herzog H-G. Reliability of induction machines: Statistics, tendencies, and perspectives. In: Proceedings of 26th IEEE International Symposium on Industrial Electronics (ISIE); 19th–21th June 2017; Edinburgh, UK. 2017. pp. 1843-1847\n'},{id:"B23",body:'\nBolvashenkov I, Frenkel I, Kammermann J, Herzog HG. Comparison of the battery energy storage and fuel cell energy source for the safety-critical drives considering reliability and fault tolerance. In: Proceedings of IEEE International Conference on Information and Digital Technologies (IDT); 5th–7th July 2017; Žilina, Slovakia. pp. 63-70\n'},{id:"B24",body:'\nBolvashenkov I, Kammermann J, Herzog H-G. Methodology for determining the transition probabilities for multi-state system markov models of fault tolerant electric vehicles. In: Proceedings of the Asian IEEE Conference on Energy, Power and Transportation Electrification; 25th–27th October 2016; Singapore. pp. 1-6\n'},{id:"B25",body:'\nBolvashenkov I, Kammermann J, Herzog HG, Frenkel I. Operational availability and performance analysis of the multi-drive multi-motor electric propulsion system of an icebreaker gas tanker for arctic. In: Proceedings of IEEE 14th International Conference on Ecological Vehicles and Renewable Energies (EVER’19); 8th–10th Mai 2019; Monaco. 2019. pp. 1-6\n'},{id:"B26",body:'\nBolvashenkov I, Kammermann J, Herzog H-G, Frenkel I, Ikar E, Khvatskin L. Investigation of reliability and fault tolerance of multiphase traction electric motor supplied with multi power source based on Lz-transform. In: Proceedings of IEEE International Conference on System Reliability and Safety (ICSRS’17); 20th–22th December 2017; Milano, Italy. 2017. pp. 303-309\n'},{id:"B27",body:'\nBolvashenkov I, Herzog H-G. Use of stochastic models for operational efficiency analysis of multi power source traction drives. In: Proceedings of the Second IEEE International Symposium on Stochastic Models in Reliability Engineering, Life Science and Operations Management, (SMRLO); 15th–18th February 2016; Beer Sheva, Israel. pp. 124-130\n'},{id:"B28",body:'\nFrenkel I, Bolvashenkov I, Herzog H-G, Khvatskin L. Operational Sustainability Assessment of Multi Power Source Traction Drive. Mathematics Applied to Engineering. London, UK: Elsevier; 2017. pp. 191-203\n'},{id:"B29",body:'\nBolvashenkov I, Kammermann J, Herzog H-G, Frenkel I. Fault tolerance assessment of multi-motor electrical drives with multi-phase traction motors based on LZ-transform. In: Proceedings of IEEE 14th International Conference on Ecological Vehicles and Renewable Energies (EVER’19); 8th–10th Mai 2019; Monaco. 2019. pp. 1-6\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Igor Bolvashenkov",address:"igor.bolvashenkov@tum.de",affiliation:'
Institute of Energy Conversion Technology, Technical University of Munich (TUM), Germany
Institute of Energy Conversion Technology, Technical University of Munich (TUM), Germany
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Sisiopiku",authors:[{id:"65403",title:"Prof.",name:"Virginia",middleName:null,surname:"Sisiopiku",fullName:"Virginia Sisiopiku",slug:"virginia-sisiopiku"}]},{id:"32784",title:"How to Provide Accurate and Robust Traffic Forecasts Practically?",slug:"how-to-provide-accurate-and-robust-traffic-forecasts-practically-",signatures:"Yang Zhang",authors:[{id:"71345",title:"Dr.",name:"Yang",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",fullName:"Yang Zhang",slug:"yang-zhang"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"72129",title:"Methods to Reduce Mercury and Nitrogen Oxides Emissions from Coal Combustion Processes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92342",slug:"methods-to-reduce-mercury-and-nitrogen-oxides-emissions-from-coal-combustion-processes",body:'\n
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1. Introduction
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In nature mercury is present in trace amounts only; due to its toxicity and the ability to join various natural cycles, it poses a threat to human health and life. Mercury exposure, even in small amounts, poses a threat to both people and the environment. A global study commissioned by United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) confirmed the high environmental impact of mercury, entirely justifying the actions implemented to combat its spread on the international level. In recent years, the European Union has been systematically tightening standards for permissible mercury concentrations in atmospheric air.
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According to UNEP data, in 2015 the global emissions from anthropogenic sources amounted to 2220 tons of mercury, accounting for almost 30% of the total atmospheric emissions of mercury. The remaining 70% comes from environmental processes and contemporary natural sources [1]. The technological processes with the largest share in mercury emissions are gold production, 38%; coal combustion, 21%; nonferrous metallurgy, 15%; cement plants, 11%; waste incineration plants processing mercury-containing waste, 7%; and combustion of other fuels, including biomass, 3%. Analyzing data on mercury emissions in the respective continents, it can be stated that we find the highest ones in Asia, with about 1084 tons p.a.; in South America, about 409 tons p.a.; Sub-Saharan Africa, 360 tons p.a.; and in the European Union, with 77.2 tons p.a. [1]. Therefore, we can see that the processes of burning fossil fuels form one of the most significant sources of global atmospheric emissions of mercury.
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Research on Polish coals [2] demonstrates that the average mercury content in hard coal ranges from 50 to 150 ppb and 120 to 370 ppb in the case of lignite. For comparison, the mercury content of American coals is about 30–670 ppb, with the average content for hard coal of 70 and 118 ppb for lignite. The mercury content in furnace waste indicates that it is mainly found in fly ash and only a small part of it in slag. Literature data indicates that in the result of burning coal, approximately 30–75% of the mercury, contained in the fuel, will be released into the atmosphere [3].
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In the process of coal combustion, a number of chemical reactions occur that lead to the decomposition of all chemical compounds containing mercury. In the result of these processes, at a temperature above 600°C, only the metallic mercury Hg0 in the form of vapor will be present in the exhaust gas [4]. As the exhaust gas is cooled below 540°C [5], this mercury can be oxidized by gas phase components such as NO2, HCl, SO2, H2O, and fly ash, producing various compounds of mercury (Table 1).
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No.
\n
Name
\n
Symbol
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Boiling point
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\n\n\n
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1.
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Mercury
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Hg
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356.6°C
\n
\n
\n
2.
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Mercuric chloride
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HgCl2\n
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302.0°C
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\n
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3.
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Mercuric bromide
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HgBr2\n
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322.0°C
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\n
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4.
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Mercury(II) iodide
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HgI2\n
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354.0°C
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\n
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5.
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Mercurous oxide
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Hg2O
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Decomposes at >100°C
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6.
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Mercuric oxide
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HgO
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Decomposes at >500°C
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7.
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Mercury(I) carbonate
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Hg2CO3\n
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Decomposes at >130°C
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8.
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Mercury(II) nitrate
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Hg(NO3)2\n
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Melting point 79°C
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9.
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Mercury(II) sulfate
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HgSO4\n
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Decomposes before reaching liquid phase
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Table 1.
Mercury compounds in flue gases from coal combustion processes.
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It was noticed that when burning coals containing significant amounts of chlorine, bromine, or iodine, the concentration of oxidized mercury increases with simultaneous decrease in concentration of metallic mercury. In the process of burning carbons containing chlorine, bromine, or iodine, the process of mercury oxidation is such that during this combustion salts containing chlorine, iodine or bromine is decomposed into HCl, HI, and HBr, whereby 0.5 ÷ 9% of these compounds are further decomposed to CL2, I2, and Br2. These react with metallic mercury to form HgCl2, HgBr2, and HgI2 salts, respectively, which are stable at high temperatures in vapor form. Oxidized mercury is removed from the flue gas both in dust collectors and in wet and semidry flue gas desulfurization units [6]. However, the efficiency of removal of metallic Hg0 in the aforementioned devices is low.
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The degree of the removal of mercury and its compounds depends mainly on the degree of transition of metallic mercury to oxidized mercury, with HgCl2 accounting for the main part of oxidized mercury. The value of Hg emissions depends on the combustion process and the method of exhaust gas purification; the mercury removal efficiency in an electrostatic precipitator is 30–40%, while in a wet desulfurization plant, as much as 80–90% of Hg2+ (divalent) mercury and mercury adsorbed by the solid phase will be removed, but in the case of elemental Hg0 mercury, far less is removed, with a removal efficiency of just 26.6% [3].
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The proportions between individual forms of mercury in the exhaust gas downstream the boiler depend mainly on the type of furnace and fuel characteristics (mercury, halides, and ash content of coal). The content of halides (fluorine, bromine, iodine, and chlorine) and mercury in fuel has the greatest impact on the amount of Hg2+, while the ash content determines the amount of Hg(p) [7]. For example, the proportions between elemental mercury, oxidized mercury, and ash-bound mercury in flue gas downstream of a pulverized coal boiler are on average 56% (8–94%), 34% (5–82%), and 10% (1–28%), respectively [7]. The type of furnace is not without significance for the mercury speciation in the exhaust gas. Circulating fluidized bed boilers generate the highest amount of Hg(p) (up to 65% of the so-called total mercury HgT defined as HgT = Hg0 + Hg2+ + Hg(p)) due to the extended contact time between gaseous mercury and fly ash and the low temperature of the exhaust gas downstream of the boiler [7].
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The European Commission (on July 31, 2017) established conclusions on the best available techniques (BAT) for large combustion plants (LCP). BAT conclusions tighten the regulations related to the emissions from combustion processes, including nitrogen and sulfur oxides, and introduce mercury emission limits (that were not present in the EU till that date). Table 2 contains the permissible concentrations of mercury and nitrogen oxides in the exhaust gas, resulting from the BAT conclusions. BAT conclusions include ranges of emission limit values for mercury and nitrogen oxides in exhaust gases, with maximum concentration values that will apply from 2021 onwards. Permissible mercury concentrations in exhaust gases resulting from BAT conclusions [8] are referred to as total mercury HgT. These values vary depending on the status of the source. For existing sources with a capacity of >300 MWt, they are 1–4 μg/m3\nUSR\n\n for hard coal and 1–7 μg/m3\nUSR\n\n for lignite. For new sources with a capacity of >300 MWt, they are 1–2 μg/m3\nUSR\n\n for hard coal and 1–4 μg/m3\nUSR\n\n for lignite. Concentrations are converted to standard USR means conditions: (dry gas at a temperature of 273.15 K and a pressure of 101.3 kPa, calculated for oxygen content in the flue gas O2 = 6 %).
BAT conclusions include the range of mercury emission limit values for exhaust gases while specifying maximum concentration values that will apply from August 18, 2021 onwards. The lower values indicate levels that can be obtained using best available techniques, and as long as these values are not required now, it can be expected that existing and new coal units will have to achieve them in near future [8]. This means that users of combustion plants should seek for methods to achieve lower emission levels resulting from the BAT conclusions. The implementation of BAT conclusions thus forms a significant challenge for coal energy in Europe and in particular for the Polish energy sector. The introduction of emission limits also necessitates the addition of HgT measurement devices to the pollution monitoring system [8].
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BAT conclusions also reduce the permissible levels of nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions. For existing sources, fired with hard coal and lignite, with a capacity of >300 MWt, these amount to 85 (65)–150 mg/m3, and for new sources with a capacity of >300 MWt to 50 (65)–85 mg/m3 in standard conditions.
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The above provisions are associated with the need to implement selective catalytic reduction (SCR) and selective non-catalytic reduction (SNCR) techniques as well as other techniques, including integrated exhaust gas treatment (multipollutant technologies), in which a single device is applied to remove at least two pollutants. In this study, we would like to point to the possibility of such integrated flue gas treatment in absorbers of the wet flue gas desulfurization method. The wet limestone method is a common SO2 removal technology used in power plants both in Europe and worldwide. The desulfurization efficiency of this method ranges from 90 to 95%. This technology is also very popular in Polish conditions, accounting for some 90% of the desulfurization installations.
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2. Methods for reducing mercury emissions
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2.1 Primary methods
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Enrichment of coal prior to the combustion process, e.g., by removing pyrite, can significantly reduce mercury emissions. It is estimated that 65–70% of mercury in Polish coals occurs in combination with pyrite.
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Coal enrichment methods are mainly based on physical separation of the mineral substance and involve the use of density differences (gravitational separation) or differences in the wettability of the components (flotation).
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One of the methods that do apply dry gravitational separation is the removal of pyrite in purpose-modernized coal mills. The technology is offered by Hansom [9].
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Primary methods also include changing the combustion process. For example fluidized bed furnaces to lower the exhaust gas temperature and ash grain composition or using of low emissions burners to lower exhaust gas temperature. Another solution is to replace the coal used for combustion and mixing high Hg and S content coals with those with lower contents of these elements [10]. What is also applied is the addition of halides, in the form of bromine, iodine, and chlorine salts, to the burning coal [11]. The oxidizing properties of these compounds contribute to the increase in the proportion of oxidized mercury in the exhaust gases, which in turn contributes to its more effective retention in existing aftertreatment devices. Unfortunately, these methods cannot guarantee the reduction of mercury to the level required by BAT conclusions.
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2.2 Secondary methods
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The degree of the removal of mercury and its compounds depends mainly on the degree of transition of metallic mercury to oxidized mercury. Secondary methods consist mainly of removing oxidized mercury adsorbed on ash particles or other adsorbent, e.g., activated carbon, in its form bound with particulates—Hg(p).
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An important group of secondary methods are the adsorptive mercury removal methods. They rely on binding of oxidized forms of mercury on the surface of adsorbents. What they use is the affinity of mercury vapors to various adsorbents. The most common adsorber is activated carbon in powdered form (powdered activated carbon). However, due to the limited efficiency of Hg0 reduction of this typical form of carbon, it is necessary to impregnate this medium with sulfur, iodine, chlorine, or bromine to improve the efficiency of mercury vapor retention. This increases the efficiency of mercury oxidation and its adsorption on PAC particles. Studies demonstrated that ordinary activated carbon can retain up to 80% of mercury in a higher oxidation state but only some 40–50% of elemental mercury. In contrast, carbon impregnated with sulfur, for example, adsorbs over 80% Hg0 and the iodine impregnated carbon virtually 100% [12].
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2.2.1 Injection of activated carbon (PAC) in exhaust gases
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Activated carbon is usually injected into the exhaust gas duct before the ESP or fabric filter (Figure 1). This technology is used in waste incineration facilities and coal-fired power plants. The effectiveness of this method depends primarily on the type and structure of PAC, the chemical properties of the sorbent surface, the amount of injected coal, and the temperature of the exhaust gas. The main disadvantage of this technology is the increase in the carbon content of ash, which significantly limits the possibilities of ash utilization. Sometimes it can also reduce dust collection efficiency, especially when particles of submicron scale are considered.
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Figure 1.
Diagram of activated carbon injection technology upstream of the ESP; APH—air heater and FGD—flue gas desulfurization installation.
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To tackle this issue, activated carbon injection downstream the ESP and further exhaust gas purification in the fabric filter are applied (Figure 2). However, this makes it necessary to dispose ash from two different locations [13].
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Figure 2.
Diagram of activated carbon injection technology downstream of the ESP; APH—air heater and FGD—flue gas desulfurization installation.
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Another solution for the injection of activated carbon into exhaust gases is the sorbent injection upstream the air preheater into the zone with a much higher temperature than in the solutions used so far downstream the air preheater or the electrostatic precipitator, i.e., the Alstom Mer-Cure™ technology [14] (Figure 3).
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Figure 3.
Diagram of the Mer-Cure™ technology for activated carbon injection; APH—air heater and FGD—flue gas desulphurization installation.
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2.2.2 The use of systems for catalytic reduction of nitrogen oxides (SCR) for the oxidation of mercury
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It was found, based on the research, that in flue gas denitrification installations based on the selective catalytic reduction method, the oxidation of Hg0 mercury to Hg2+ form occurs. The condition for this process, however, is the appropriate chlorine content in the flue gas. Typically, for hard coal, this content proves sufficient to trigger the oxidation process. Important for this process is the fact that the denitrification and oxidation reactions of mercury cannot occur simultaneously, because they depend on the same active centers. Research in industrial conditions indicates that the achievable degree of mercury oxidation is up to 78% [15].
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When lignite is burned, the absence of chlorine in the flue gas causes oxidation reactions not to occur. In this case, NH4Cl injection upstream of the SCR catalyst is proposed to allow mercury oxidation in the catalyst (Figure 4). NH4Cl or NH4OH injection takes place in a zone with a temperature of about 370–420°C, and then activated carbon is added to the exhaust gas, after which the exhaust gas is directed to a dust collector (ESP or fabric filter), and finally to the absorber of the wet desulfurization method [16].
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Figure 4.
Diagram of mercury emission reduction technology for lignite-fired boilers: SCR—catalytic flue gas denitrification reactor; APH—air heater; and FGD—flue gas desulphurization installation.
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\n
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2.2.3 Injection of oxidizing additives and the use of fly ash as the adsorbent
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Based on numerous studies [17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23], it was found that with use of chloride additives, it is possible to achieve high efficiency of mercury vapor adsorption on ordinary activated carbon or other sorbents (fly ash) [12, 24].
\n
The proposed method involves the injection of aqueous additive solutions based on chlorite and/or potassium permanganate into the exhaust duct upstream the electrostatic precipitator [25] (Figure 5).
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Figure 5.
Diagram of liquid additive injection technology upstream of the ESP: APH—air heater and FGD—flue gas desulphurization installation.
\n
The degree of mercury oxidation in this technology depends on numerous parameters; the most important of them are flue gas temperature; flue gas composition, including the SO2, SO3, and NO concentrations; pH; and the chemical composition of fly ash. The main oxidized mercury compounds are HgO and Hg (NO3)2. Part of the oxidized mercury is adsorbed on fly ash particles and as Hg(p) is removed with dust in the ESP unit. The remaining Hg2+ mercury in gaseous form is retained in the WFGD absorber and is removed along with the wastewater.
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2.3 Removal of oxidized mercury in flue gas purification devices
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2.3.1 Removal of mercury in electrostatic precipitators
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Tests of mercury content in fly ash upstream of the electrostatic precipitator demonstrate that it is several times higher than the mercury content of coal, which indicates a high sorption capacity of fly ash [26, 27]. The mechanism of mercury adsorption is as follows: in the boiler (temperature of above 1400°C), mercury is in the form of metallic mercury vapors, while the chlorine (HCl) contained in the flue gas activates carbon particles in the ash, and as the flue gas cools down, Hg0 adsorbs in the chlorinated carbon pores and undergoes oxidation. If there is no HCl (HBr, HI) in the flue gas, there is also no Hg0 sorption on the ash particles, and the sorption of oxidized HgCl2 mercury is also low.
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Research on mercury content in fly ash from hard coal combustion in both pulverized coal and grate boilers indicates a higher Hg content in fine grains. In Figure 6 we present the results of mercury content testing in individual fractions of fly ash grains from a pulverized coal boiler.
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Figure 6.
Mercury content in individual fractions of fly ash from an OP-230 pulverized coal boiler.
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The sorption of mercury and its compounds depends significantly on the flue gas temperature and the content of unburned carbon in fly ash particles. Thus, the removal efficiency of mercury and its compounds increases with the mercury oxidation efficiency and the increased dust removal efficiency, especially of fine particles.
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2.3.2 Removal of mercury in desulphurization installations
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2.3.2.1 Mercury removal in absorbers of wet flue gas desulfurization installations
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Oxidized mercury compounds contained in the flue gas (mainly the HgCl2) are removed in FGD absorbers, whereas the Hg2+ reacts with the sulfides in the exhaust gas, e.g., with H2S, to form mercury sulfide HgS, which is then precipitated. We also know the phenomenon of mercury re-emission from flue gas desulfurization absorbers. If the sulfide content in the suspension is too low, a chemical reduction of Hg2+ to Hg0 may occur, resulting in higher concentration of metallic mercury downstream the absorber than upstream of it.
\n
It is assumed that the efficiency of removing oxidized mercury in FGD absorbers reaches a value of up to 70%, while it can happen that almost all the oxidized mercury is removed in a dust collector, with only the metallic mercury reaching the absorber [6]. In this case, it is recommended to directly introduce oxidizing additive to the main FGD cycle [28].
\n
\n
\n
2.3.2.2 Removal of mercury in semidry flue gas desulfurization installations
\n
In semidry installations, the desulfurization process of the desulfurization reaction products (waste) remains dry. This process is implemented either by spraying lime milk in the upper part of the reactor (spray dryer) or using the so-called pneumatic reactor, where the sorbent and water are separately fed in its lower part. The resulting dry waste is most often recirculated, and the exhaust gases are dedusted in a fabric filter. The long residence time of sorbent particles in the reactor and the flow of exhaust gas through the filter cake in the bag filter allow for the additional benefit of removing quite a number of impurities, including mercury, provided that an appropriate sorbent is selected.
\n
The semidry method using a pneumatic reactor integrated with a fabric filter for desulfurization of flue gas demonstrated a significant mercury removal efficiency of about 96%, when feeding additional activated carbon together with the primary sorbent (hydrated lime) [29].
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
3. Methods for reducing nitrogen oxides (NOx)
\n
Methods for reducing nitrogen oxides from coal combustion in power plants can be divided into two main groups, i.e., the primary and secondary methods. Primary methods rely on the organization of the combustion process in the chamber, primarily through the use of low-emission burners, air staging, exhaust gas recirculation, or reduction of the combustion temperature (fluidized bed boilers). The second group of methods is the secondary method, i.e., the selective catalytic and non-catalytic reduction and oxidative methods.
\n
The latter group of secondary methods is applied in the integrated flue gas cleaning process. The basis for the operation of oxidative methods is the oxidation of sparingly soluble impurities in exhaust gases, i.e., nitric oxide and mercury to soluble forms, and their removal together with SO2 by means of absorption or condensation [30]. There are many oxidants that are applied in oxidative methods. The most recommended oxidizing agents are ozone (O3), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), and numerous compounds of chlorine (NaClO, NaClO2, Ca(ClO)2, ClO2) [31]. Whenever a gaseous oxidant is used, it may be fed directly to the flue gas duct; in the case of liquid oxidants, the conditions necessary for their evaporation should be provided, or, alternatively, they can be used as an additive to the sorption liquid in the absorber [18]. Comparison of the oxidizing potential of individual oxidants with respect to oxygen is presented in Table 2.
\n
As you can see, ozone has the highest oxidation potential, and it has the valuable advantage in that it enables oxidation of NO and NO2 to higher nitrogen oxides, while other oxidants oxidize it predominantly to NO2 only [31]. The fact that oxidation occurs in the gas phase, which affects the increase in reaction rate, is also significant. Oxidation methods allow for the simultaneous removal of nitrogen oxides, sulfur dioxide, and mercury from flue gases in a single installation, with an efficiency exceeding 90%. Due to the lower operating and investment costs, they form an alternative to the commonly used combination of SCR and FGD. The presence of dust in the flue gas affects the amount of oxidizer used, and therefore a high-performance dust collector should be used upstream of the installation. In the case of commercial pollutant removal installations, ozone is the main oxidizer used for nitrogen oxides. Removal of the reaction products of nitrogen oxides with ozone takes place by means of absorption, for example, by the Lextran [32, 33] and LoTOx methods [34, 35, 36]. In Lextran method ozone is added to the flue gas before the absorber feed by mixture of water and catalyst. In LoTOx method, ozone is introduced before FGD absorber.
\n
Another solution is to reduce pollution from flue gas with liquid oxidants. It involves their introduction into flue gas upstream of the wet or semidry flue gas desulphurization installations. Their task is to oxidize both the nitrogen oxide to NO2 and the metallic mercury to Hg2+. In the case of wet flue gas desulfurization installations, liquid oxidants may also be added to the sorption liquid tank. Hydrogen peroxide [37] is a very popular oxidant used in industry, having the valuable advantage in that it is not as harmful to the environment as chlorine compounds and, at the same time, it is relatively cheap. Exhaust gas treatment with hydrogen peroxide is an extremely promising process. Many researchers around the world are working to improve its effectiveness in relation to the oxidation of nitrogen oxides. Works are carried out on combining the dosing of hydrogen peroxide with metal oxides [38], activating hydrogen peroxide using ultraviolet rays [39], combining H2O2 injection with catalysts (Fe-Al, Fe2O3, Fe-Ti) promoting the formation of OH* radicals [40], and using a combination of two oxidants, e.g., H2O2/NaClO2 [41]. The results of these experiments are all very promising, and we can expect that future industrial flue gas cleaning installations will apply the presented processes. The achieved efficiency of NOx and Hg removal from the carrier gas, at least in lab scale tests, is at the level of 90% [42]. Work on the use of sodium chlorite was also carried out on a laboratory and pilot scale [43]. It achieved a removal efficiency of 99% for SO2 and Hg and 90% for NOx.
\n
\n
\n
4. Technologies for simultaneous removal of HgT and NOx: authors’ own research
\n
As already mentioned, the efficiency of mercury removal in flue gas cleaning installations depends on the speciation of mercury, and the mercury present in the flue gas occurs in both the Hg0 and the Hg2+ forms. Hg2+ oxidation increases with the increase in the content of halides (chlorides, bromides, and iodides) in carbon. In the absence of a natural oxidant, as is the case with lignite, liquid oxidative additive can be used for Hg0 oxidation. Absorbers of the wet flue gas desulfurization plant capture mercury in the Hg2+ gas form. In the result of cooperation between the Wrocław University of Technology and Rafako S.A., we developed an Hg emission reduction technology dedicated for hard coal and lignite-fired units. The method involves the injection of sodium chlorite into the exhaust duct upstream the WFGD absorber. In the result of injection of the oxidant, Hg0 is oxidized to Hg2+ and NO to NO2, and these oxidation products are captured from the flue gas together with SO2 in the WFGD absorber. The technology has been tested on an industrial scale in a 400 MWe lignite-fired unit.
\n
\n
4.1 Research on the impact of injection of oxidizer in exhaust gases on the efficiency of Hg and NOx reduction
\n
The tests were carried out using exhaust gases from a lignite-fired dust boiler (400 MWe) equipped with a selective non-catalytic NOx reduction installation, an electrostatic precipitator, and a wet flue gas desulfurization installation. The WFGD absorber is equipped with four levels of sprinkling and a system for feeding adipic acid into the suspension in order to increase the desulfurization efficiency. The test installation for injection of oxidizer (sodium chlorite) was built between the exhaust fan and the fan supporting the WFGD installation. The choice of the additive injection site upstream the booster fan guaranteed very good mixing of the additive with exhaust gases. The mercury content of the fuel during the tests varied between 0.215 and 0.701 mg/kg. A diagram of the installation, along with the location of the measuring points, is shown in Figure 7 [44].
\n
Figure 7.
Diagram of the research installation during tests on lignite flue gas. (A) Measuring cross section before oxidant injection. (B) Measuring cross section downstream the injection site. (C) Measuring cross section in the chimney.
\n
As part of the research, we performed continuous measurements of mercury concentration in exhaust gases (using two Gasmet mercury emission monitoring systems) in measuring cross sections located upstream the injection site (A) and in the chimney (C); we carried additional measurements of mercury speciation by the manual method (Ontario-Hydro) at the chimney (C), upstream the WFGD absorber (B), and upstream the oxidative additive injection site (A). Based on the continuous measurements of mercury concentration in the exhaust gas upstream of the absorber and in the chimney, the efficiency of removing mercury from the exhaust gas in the WFGD absorber was calculated with the following formula:
where HgT\nC is the mean total mercury concentration in the flue gas in the chimney (C), μg/m3\nUSR; and HgT\nA is the mean total mercury concentration in the exhaust gas upstream of the absorber (A), μg/m3\nUSR.
\n
To determine the NO to NO2 oxidation degree in a given measurement cross section, the volumetric share of NO2 in the flue gas in relation to the sum of nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide (NOx) was determined. The NO to NO2 oxidation degree was calculated by means of the relations:
where NO2\nB is the NO2 concentration in the flue gas in the measurement cross section (B), ppm; and NOx\nB is the NOx concentration in the flue gas in the measurement cross section (B), ppm.
\n
The effectiveness of NOx removal from the flue gas in the FGD absorber was determined based on the measurement of NOx concentration (sum of NO and NO2 calculated as NO2 [45]) in the cross section located in the chimney (C) and upstream the FGD absorber (A). The NOx removal efficiency was determined by means of the relation:
where NOx\nA is the average NOx concentration in the flue gas upstream the absorber (A), mg/m3\nUSR; and NOx\nC is the average NOx concentration in flue gas in the chimney (C), mg/m3\nUSR.
\n
To specify the number of moles of the oxidant to be applied in relation to the moles of nitrogen oxide in the flue gas, a molar ratio \n\nX\n\n was introduced:
Calculation of the molar ratio X was made for the concentration of NO in the flue gas measured in the chimney (C) in the period immediately prior to the oxidant injection.
\n
When the aqueous solution of sodium chlorite is sprayed in the flue gas upstream the absorber, first it evaporates (the temperature of the flue gas during the tests at the oxidant injection site (A) varies from 165 to 170°C) as a result of the reaction of gaseous sodium chlorite (initial pH of sodium chlorite solution was 11.5) with nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide, and sodium chloride being formed [46]:
Due to the significant share of moisture in the flue gas (from 28 to 29%), there were very good conditions for the formation of nitric and nitrous acids [47]:
The nitric acid formed in the flue gas reacted with the metallic mercury and oxidized it to the form Hg2+ (mercury(II) nitrate), which increases HgT removal efficiency from flue gas [43, 46]:
Because flue gas contains acidic gases such as SO2, HCl, and HF, they can be absorbed by oxidant droplet and drop its pH before evaporation which caused the release of ClO2 [48]. Chlorine dioxide can directly oxidized NO and Hg0; additionally emission of chlorine radical is possible, which enhanced Hg0 oxidation [15, 19]:
In such a complicated gas mixture as flue gases from lignite combustion, the presented mechanism can occur simultaneously. For example, the efficiency of NO to NO2 oxidation and the removal of HgT and SO2 during the tests carried out in a lignite-fired power plant (sodium chlorite fed to the exhaust gas prior to the FGD absorber) are shown in Figure 8.
\n
Figure 8.
Oxidation NO to NO2, NOx, SO2, and HgT removal efficiency in function of molar ratio X.
\n
The efficiency of HgT removal and oxidation of nitrogen oxides in exhaust gases depend on the stream of injected sodium chlorite to exhaust gases, which is illustrated by the molar ratio X. Changes in total mercury concentration in exhaust gases in the chimney (C) and NO, NO2, and NOx downstream the sodium chlorite injection site (B) are illustrated in Figure 9. The undoubted advantage of the presented method is the almost immediate reaction of the entire system to the injected sodium chlorite. An increase in the amount of injected additive (series I < series II) causes an immediate decrease in the HgT concentration in the chimney and an increase in the NO2 concentration in the exhaust gas downstream the injection site. The HgT concentration in the chimney during the presented tests was below the level required by the BAT conclusions, i.e., <7 μg/m3\nUSR.
\n
Figure 9.
NO, NO2, and NOx concentrations in the flue gas downstream the injection site (B) and HgT concentration in the chimney (C).
\n
Sodium chlorite injection into flue gas upstream of the WFGD absorber caused an increase in Hg2+ concentration in the flue gas, which translated into the efficiency of mercury removal. Unfortunately, in some cases, the increase in Hg2+ concentration in the exhaust gas intensified the phenomenon of re-emission [44].
\n
\n
\n
4.2 Increased Hg removal efficiency by limiting re-emissions
\n
The phenomenon of re-emission consists in chemical reduction of the Hg2+ absorbed in the suspension to the elemental Hg0 mercury emitted back into the atmosphere [49]. Sulfite ions (SO3\n2−), acting as a reducing agent, are responsible for this phenomenon [50]:
In FGD installations, where the addition of organic acids (formic, adipic and other) serves increasing the \n\n\nSO\n2\n\n\n removal efficiency, the following reaction takes place (14) [50]. Dosing organic acids increases the concentration of Ca2+, which improves the efficiency of SO2 removal from the exhaust gases. Many researchers also reported the clear effect of sulfite concentration in the suspension on Hg0 re-emission. Generally, an increase in SO3\n2− concentration increases the re-emission [51, 52, 53].
\n
The re-emission phenomenon is assessed on the basis of measurements of mercury concentration in exhaust gas both upstream and downstream the WFGD absorber. In order to find out the nature of the re-emission phenomenon, research was carried out on a lignite-fired unit. We assumed that the concentration of total mercury in the cross section (C) was higher than in the cross section (B) the phenomenon of mercury re-emission from the FGD absorber was present, and the intensity of this phenomenon was described using re-emission rate:
An example of variations in total mercury concentration in exhaust gases in the period when re-emission occurred is presented in Figure 10.
\n
Figure 10.
Total mercury concentrations in flue gas upstream the WFGD absorber (B) and in the chimney (C).
\n
The observed phenomenon of mercury re-emission from the absorber lasted for approx. 4 h. Based on the analysis of the presented graphs, we calculated the degree of mercury re-emission according to Eq. (5); the calculation results are presented in Figure 11.
\n
Figure 11.
The degree of mercury re-emission from the WFGD absorber during measurements for a lignite-fired unit.
\n
The observed degree of re-emission from the WFGD absorber reached 220%. In order to explain the mechanisms of this phenomenon, the results of the re-emission degree were compared with the operating parameters of the unit and the WFGD (Figure 12). Mercury re-emission occurred when the absorber operating parameters changed, and the pH and ORP proved to be the most significant of them. A detailed description of the parameters affecting the intensity of the phenomenon of re-emission from the WFGD absorber is presented in the publication [44].
\n
Figure 12.
Parameters of unit and WFGD absorber operation during measurements for a lignite-fired unit.
\n
Research demonstrated that re-emission can be reduced by changing the absorber’s operating parameters. We noticed that an increase in suspension temperature and pH increased re-emission, while the increase in chloride concentration in the suspension and the intensity of air flow through the suspension reduced it [54]. At the same time, numerous studies indicate that significant reductions of Hg0 re-emission can be obtained by adding various additives [53, 54, 55]. The most common are simple additions of \n\nNaHS\n\n and \n\n\nNa\n2\n\nS\n\n organic sulfides with a more complex structure. The goal is always the same, i.e., to remove from the solution (suspension) Hg2+ by formation \n\nHgS\n\n, which prevents re-emission. The effect of adding sodium sulfide (Na2S) to the suspension circulation in the WFGD absorber was studied for a lignite-fired unit, and the results are presented in Figure 13. 4 m3 of 10% solution of sodium sulfide were pumped directly into the tank under the absorber. In this way, the mercury concentration in the exhaust gas was reduced below the level required by the BAT conclusions (7 μg/m3\nUSR) for a period of approx. 4 h.
\n
Figure 13.
Total mercury concentration in the chimney and upstream the WFGD absorber after a one-time injection of 4m3 of sodium sulfide (10%).
\n
The phenomenon of mercury re-emission from the WFGD absorber is not always identifiable on the basis of measurements of total mercury concentration in exhaust gases. Hard coal tests were carried out for the WFGD absorber, purifying flue gas from two units with a capacity of 195 and 220 MWe. During the tests, both boilers operated at maximum power. Prior to the tests, measurements were performed with the Ontario-Hydro method revealing that the absorber is experiencing metallic mercury re-emission. The results of these measurements are presented in Figure 14.
\n
Figure 14.
Comparison of mercury concentration in flue gas for hard coal tests.
\n
The total mercury removal efficiency in the flue gas treatment installation (electrostatic precipitator and WFGD) was 72.4%. Mercury bound with the ash was virtually completely removed in the ESP. The flue gas downstream of the boiler contained a small amount of metallic mercury only (1.73 μg/m3\nUSR), which was a result of the high concentrations of halides in the fuel (Cl (0.110 ÷ 0.211%), Br (0.008 ÷ 0.011%), F (0.002 ÷ 0.004%)). The concentration of metallic mercury in the exhaust gas upstream of the absorber was lower than downstream the absorber, which meant that the absorber was the source of mercury re-emission. The total mercury removal efficiency in the ESP was 56.2% and another 36.9% in the WFGD absorber. Due to the fact that the proportion of oxidized mercury upstream the WFGD absorber is significant, sodium sulfide was fed to the absorber to reduce mercury emissions in the flue gas in the chimney. In Figure 15, we present the results of measurements of mercury concentration in exhaust gas upstream and downstream the WFGD absorber, during dosing of sodium sulfide. Measurements were carried out with two continuous emission monitoring systems and the Ontario-Hydro method.
\n
Figure 15.
Measurement results of mercury concentration in flue gas upstream and downstream the WFGD absorber (continuous and Ontario-Hydro measurements) during the addition of Na2S.
\n
The total mercury concentration in the exhaust gas before the administration of sodium sulfide was 4.3 μg/m3\nUSR, and after the addition of sodium sulfide, the concentration of total mercury in the exhaust gas dropped to 0.45 μg/m3\nUSR. The mercury removal efficiency for the exhaust gas in the WFGD absorber amounted to 25.5% without the addition of sulfide and increased to 90.5% after applying the additive. To sum up, due to the content of halides in coal, a considerable amount of Hg2+ is present in hard coal exhaust gas, which can be effectively removed in WFGD, as long as the phenomenon of re-emission is controlled.
\n
\n
\n
\n
5. Summary
\n
The chapter presents selected issues related to Hg and NOx emissions from coal combustion processes, in the aspect of regulations related to limiting permissible emissions of pollutants, as contained in the BAT conclusions. The review of methods applied to reduce mercury emissions demonstrates that the specific technology should be selected individually for each facility considered. There is no single, universal, cost-effective solution. In order to choose an effective method for reducing mercury emissions, it is first and foremost necessary to hold the knowledge of the speciation of mercury in the exhaust gas downstream the boiler. In the case of low concentration of oxidized mercury, there are no devices that can be installed in order to secure sufficient limiting of mercury emissions. In such a case, one should first consider the solutions that consist in supplementing the exhaust gas with additives to oxidize the metallic mercury first.
\n
Among the methods used for denitrification of exhaust gases, attention has been given to oxidative methods, which form an opportunity to simultaneously reduce NOx and Hg emissions. The results of the author’s own research in industrial conditions confirmed the usefulness of injection of the oxidant (sodium chlorite) to the exhaust gas upstream the WFGD absorber to reduce mercury emission. Under favorable conditions for lignite flue gases, up to 70% Hg removal efficiency was achieved, coupled with 17% NOx removal efficiency and an unchanged SO2 removal efficiency. Whenever there is the phenomenon of re-emission of mercury from the WFGD absorber, appropriate measures must be undertaken to limit it. Again, test results on lignite and hard coal exhaust gas indicate that it is possible to reduce re-emissions to such an extent, as to ensure compliance with emission standards in line with BAT conclusions.
\n
By using mercury oxidation technologies with simultaneous application of flue gas purification devices (DeNOx, DeSOx, and dedusting) and effectively combating re-emissions, we can achieve total mercury concentrations at the level required by BAT conclusions, i.e., in the order of 1–7 (4) μg/m3\nUSR.
\n
\n
\n
List of abbreviations
\n
\n\n\nAPH\n\n
air (pre)heater
\n\n\n\nBAT\n\n
best available techniques
\n\n\n\nESP\n\n
electrostatic precipitator
\n\n\n\nFGD\n\n
flue gas desulphurization
\n\n\n\nPAC\n\n
powdered activated carbon
\n\n\n\nSCR\n\n
selective catalytic reduction
\n\n\n\nWFGD\n\n
wet flue gas desulphurization
\n\n\n\n
\n
\n\n',keywords:"Hg emissions, NOx emissions, combustion, industrial pollution, heavy metals",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/72129.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/72129.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72129",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72129",totalDownloads:137,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"December 19th 2019",dateReviewed:"March 31st 2020",datePrePublished:"May 11th 2020",datePublished:"January 7th 2021",dateFinished:"May 11th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The chapter presents the issue of reducing mercury and nitrogen oxides emissions from the flue gas of coal-fired boilers. The issue is particularly relevant due to the stricter regulations regarding exhaust gas purity. A brief review of the methods for reducing Hg and NOx emissions has been made, pointing out their pros and cons. Against this background, the results of the authors’ own research on the injection of selected oxidants into flue gases to remove both of these pollutants are presented. The injection of sodium chlorite solution into the flue gas (400 MWe lignite fired unit) upstream the wet flue gas desulphurization (WFGD) absorber contributed to the oxidation of both metallic mercury and nitric oxide and enhanced their removal efficiency. The results of tests on lignite and hard coal flue gases indicate that in order to reduce the unfavorable phenomenon of mercury re-emission from WFGD absorbers, in some cases, it is necessary to add selected chemical compounds (e.g., sulfides) to the desulfurization system. The results of field tests for flue gas from lignite (400 MWe unit) and hard coal-fired boilers (195 and 220 MWe units) confirmed the usefulness of oxidizer injection technology to reduce mercury emissions below the level required by BAT conclusions.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/72129",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/72129",signatures:"Maria Jędrusik, Dariusz Łuszkiewicz and Arkadiusz Świerczok",book:{id:"10178",title:"Environmental Emissions",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Environmental Emissions",slug:"environmental-emissions",publishedDate:"January 7th 2021",bookSignature:"Richard Viskup",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10178.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"103742",title:"Dr.",name:"Richard",middleName:null,surname:"Viskup",slug:"richard-viskup",fullName:"Richard Viskup"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"317074",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Jedrusik",fullName:"Maria Jedrusik",slug:"maria-jedrusik",email:"maria.jedrusik@pwr.edu.pl",position:null,institution:null},{id:"317075",title:"Dr.",name:"Dariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Luszkiewicz",fullName:"Dariusz Luszkiewicz",slug:"dariusz-luszkiewicz",email:"dariusz.luszkiewicz@pwr.edu.pl",position:null,institution:null},{id:"317076",title:"Prof.",name:"Arkadiusz",middleName:null,surname:"Swierczok",fullName:"Arkadiusz Swierczok",slug:"arkadiusz-swierczok",email:"arkadiusz.swierczok@pwr.edu.pl",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Methods for reducing mercury emissions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Primary methods",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Secondary methods",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"2.2.1 Injection of activated carbon (PAC) in exhaust gases",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"2.2.2 The use of systems for catalytic reduction of nitrogen oxides (SCR) for the oxidation of mercury",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"2.2.3 Injection of oxidizing additives and the use of fly ash as the adsorbent",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"2.3 Removal of oxidized mercury in flue gas purification devices",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"2.3.1 Removal of mercury in electrostatic precipitators",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"2.3.2 Removal of mercury in desulphurization installations",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_4",title:"2.3.2.1 Mercury removal in absorbers of wet flue gas desulfurization installations",level:"4"},{id:"sec_9_4",title:"2.3.2.2 Removal of mercury in semidry flue gas desulfurization installations",level:"4"},{id:"sec_13",title:"3. Methods for reducing nitrogen oxides (NOx)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"4. Technologies for simultaneous removal of HgT and NOx: authors’ own research",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"4.1 Research on the impact of injection of oxidizer in exhaust gases on the efficiency of Hg and NOx reduction",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"4.2 Increased Hg removal efficiency by limiting re-emissions",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17",title:"5. Summary",level:"1"},{id:"sec_18",title:"List of abbreviations",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nGlobal Mercury Assessment. UN Environment Programme. Geneva, Switzerland: Chemicals and Health Branch; 2018. ISBN: 978-92-807-3744-8\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nWojnar K, Wisz J. Rtęć w polskiej energetyce. Energetyka. 2006;4:280-283 (in Polish)\n'},{id:"B3",body:'\nPavlish JH et al. Status review of mercury control options for coal-fired power plants. Fuel Processing Technology. 2003;82:89-165\n'},{id:"B4",body:'\nNiksa S, Fujiwara N. The impact of wet flue gas desulfurization scrubbing on mercury emissions from coal-fired power stations. Air & Waste Management Association. 2005;55:970-977\n'},{id:"B5",body:'\nGale T, Lani B, Offen G. Mechanisms governing the fate of mercury in coal-fired power systems. Fuel Processing Technology. 2008;89:139-151\n'},{id:"B6",body:'\nNguyen YV, Pessione GF. A three-year assessment of mercury mass balance from Lambton’s coal fired boilers equipped with FGD and SCR. In: Power Plant Air Pollution Control Symposium, Baltimore, August 28-31, 2008\n'},{id:"B7",body:'\nZhang L, Wang S, Wu Q , Wang F, Lin C, Zhang L, et al. Mercury transformation and speciation in flue gases from anthropogenic emission sources: A critical review. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics. 2016;16:2417-2433\n'},{id:"B8",body:'\nEU Parliament Decision. Commission Implementing Decision (EU) 2017/1442 of 31 July 2017 Establishing Best Available Techniques (BAT) Conclusions, under Directive 2010/75/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council, for large combustion plants (notified under document C(2017) 5225)7\n'},{id:"B9",body:'\nAvailable from: http://www.hepaus.com/images/PDFs/hep_FPCS_MAPS_Desander_h.pdf\n\n'},{id:"B10",body:'\nGuidance on Best Available Techniques and Best Environmental Practices Coal-Fired Power Plants and Coal-Fired Industrial Boilers [Internet]. 2016. Available from: https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org\n\n'},{id:"B11",body:'\nVosteen B et al. Hg-Oxidation durch Chlor, Brom und Iod in Braunkohle-Kesseln. In: 51. Kraftwerkstechnisches Kolloquium—Annual Conference of the Energy Industry and Power Plant Industry, 22-23 October 2019. Dresden: International Congress Center; 2019\n'},{id:"B12",body:'\nOleniacz R. Oczyszczanie gazów odlotowych ze spalania odpadów niebezpiecznych. Inżynieria Środowiska. 2000;5(2):85-94 (in Polish)\n'},{id:"B13",body:'\nLindau L, Durham M, Bustard J, Cameron M. Mercury: Myths and realities. Modern Power Systems. 2003;3:30-32\n'},{id:"B14",body:'\nAvailable from: www.alstom.com/mercury-emissions-technology\n\n'},{id:"B15",body:'\nKrotla K. Wykorzystanie systemów katalitycznego oczyszczania spalin do redukcji emisji rtęci—Podstawy teoretyczne i przykłady z praktyki. In: VI Forum dyskusyjne ENERGOPOMIAR, Tatrzańska Łomnica, 16-19 kwietnia. 2013 (in Polish)\n'},{id:"B16",body:'\nNakamoto T, Kato Y, Nagai Y, Neidig K. SCR Catalyst, A Low Cost Technology for Mercury Mitigation, Hitachi Paper_Neidig_100213, Library: Mitsubishi Hitachi, Technical Papers\n'},{id:"B17",body:'\nJak W. EPA, No. ICR: Information Collection Request for Electric Utility Steam Generating Unit Hg Emissions, Information Collection Effort. 1858; 1999\n'},{id:"B18",body:'\nKrzyżyńska R, Hutson ND. Effect of solution pH on SO2, NOx, and Hg removal from simulated coal combustion flue gas in an oxidant-enhanced wet scrubber. Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association. 2012;62:212-220\n'},{id:"B19",body:'\nWilcox J et al. Mercury adsorption and oxidation in coal combustion and gasification processes. International Journal of Coal Geology. 2012;90-91:4-20\n'},{id:"B20",body:'\nHower JC et al. Mercury capture by native fly ash carbons in coal-fired power plants. Progress in Energy and Combustion Science. 2010;36:510-529\n'},{id:"B21",body:'\nWilcox J. A kinetic investigation of high-temperature mercury oxidation by chlorine. The Journal of Physical Chemistry. 2009;113(24):6633-6639\n'},{id:"B22",body:'\nSenior CL, Johnson SA. Impact of carbon-in-ash on mercury removal across particulate control devices in coal-fired power plants. Energy & Fuels. 2005;19:859-863\n'},{id:"B23",body:'\nCauch B, Silcox GD, Lighty JAS, JOL W, Fry A, Senior CL. Confounding effects of aqueous-phase impinger chemistry on apparent oxidation of mercury in flue gases. Environmental Science & Technology. 2008;42(7):2594-2599\n'},{id:"B24",body:'\nGostomczyk MA, Jędrusik M. Doświadczalna instalacja do redukcji emisji SO2, NOx i rtęci ze spalin kotłowych. Archiwum Energetyki. 2008;38(2):97-104. (in Polish)\n'},{id:"B25",body:'\nJędrusik M, Świerczok A, Krzyżyńska R. Usuwanie rtęci w elektrofiltrach. Przemysl Chemiczny. 2014;93(11):1885-1888 (in Polish)\n'},{id:"B26",body:'\nLee SJ et al. Speciation and mass distribution of mercury in a bituminous coal-fired power plant. Atmospheric Environment. 2006;40:2215-2224\n'},{id:"B27",body:'\nZhang L et al. Mercury emission from six coal-fired power plants in China. Fuel Processing Technology. 2008;89:1033-1040\n'},{id:"B28",body:'\nUS 2002/0068030A1. Method for Controlling Elemental Mercury Emission. Patent US 2002/0068030A1, June 6, 2002\n'},{id:"B29",body:'\nKnura P. Półsucha metoda odsiarczania spalin z zastosowaniem reaktora pneumatycznego zintegrowanego z filtrem tkaninowym (metoda RP + FT)—Kierunki rozwoju technologii, potencjał i możliwości. In: VI Forum dyskusyjne ENERGOPOMIAR, Tatrzańska Łomnica, 16-19 kwietnia 2013 (in Polish)\n'},{id:"B30",body:'\nCarpenter AM. Advances in Multi-Pollutant Control. IEA Clean Coal Centre; 2013. Available from: https://www.usea.org/sites/default/files/112013_Advances%20in%20multi-pollutant%20control_ccc227.pdf\n\n'},{id:"B31",body:'\nOzonek J. Analiza procesów wytwarzania ozonu dla potrzeb ochrony środowiska. Lublin: Państwowa Akademia Nauk; 2003 (in Polish)\n'},{id:"B32",body:'\nUdasin S. Firm to test out technology for purifying emissions. The Jerusalem Post. 2012. Available from: www.jpost.com/Sci-Tech/Article.aspx?id=269347\n\n'},{id:"B33",body:'\nLextran. Lextran Retrofit/Upgrade Solution: Effectively Controlling the Emissions and the Expenses. Israel: Lextran; 2012. Available from: www.lextran.co.il/objects/Retrofit-upgrade20-9-12.pdf\n\n'},{id:"B34",body:'\nOmar K. Evaluation of BOC’s Lotox process for the oxidation of elemental mercury in flue gas from a coal-fired boiler. United States; 2008. DOI: 10.2172/993830\n'},{id:"B35",body:'\nJarvis JB, Day AT, Suchak NJ. LoTOx™ process flexibility and multi-pollutant control capability. In: Combined Power Plant Air Pollutant Control Mega Symposium, Washington, DC, USA, 19-22 May 2003. Pittsburgh, PA, USA, Air and Waste Management Association, Paper 147. 2003\n'},{id:"B36",body:'\nA pioneering NOx removal technology for the power industry. Modern Power Systems. 2015;35(5):32-33\n'},{id:"B37",body:'\nCrapsey K. Eco Power Solutions Multi-Pollutant Emissions Control Systems. Northfield, IL, USA: The Mcllvaine Company; 2012. Available from: www.mcilvainecompany.com/Universal_Power/Subscriber/PowerDescriptionLinks/Kevin%20Craspey%20-%20Eco%20Power%20Solutions%208-17-12.pdf\n\n'},{id:"B38",body:'\nLiu YX, Wang Q , Yin YS, Pan JF, Zhang J. Advanced oxidation removal of NO and SO2 from flue gas by using ultraviolet/H2O2/NaOH process. Chemical Engineering Research and Design. 2014;92:1907-1914\n'},{id:"B39",body:'\nHuang XM, Ding J, Zhong Q. Catalytic decomposition of H2O2 over Fe-based catalysts for simultaneous removal of NOx and SO2. Applied Surface Science. 2015;326:66-72\n'},{id:"B40",body:'\nDing J, Zhong Q , Zhang S. Catalytic efficiency of iron oxides in decomposition of H2O2 for simultaneous NOx and SO2 removal: Effect of calcination temperature. Journal of Molecular Catalysis A: Chemical. 2014;393:222-231\n'},{id:"B41",body:'\nZhao Y, Hao RL, Guo Q , Feng YN. Simultaneous removal of SO2 and NO by a vaporized enhanced-Fenton reagent. Fuel Processing Technology. 2015;137:8-15\n'},{id:"B42",body:'\nHao R, Zhao Y, Yuan B, Zhou S, Yang S. Establishment of a novel advanced oxidation process for economical and effective removal of SO2 and NO. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 2016;318:224-232\n'},{id:"B43",body:'\nKrzyżynska R, Hutson ND. The importance of the location of sodium chlorite application in a multi pollutant flue gas cleaning system. Journal of the Air and Waste Management Association. 2012;62(6):707-716\n'},{id:"B44",body:'\nJędrusik M, Gostomczyk MA, Świerczok A, Łuszkiewicz D, Kobylańska M, et al. Fuel. 2019;238:507-531. DOI: 10.1016/j.fuel.2018.10.131\n'},{id:"B45",body:'\nPolish Standard PN93/Z-04009/06. Air Purity Protection. Examination of the Content of Nitrogen and Its Compounds. 1993 (in Polish)\n'},{id:"B46",body:'\nLee HK, Deshwal BR, Yoo KS. Simultaneous removal of SO2 and NO by sodium chlorite solution in wetted-wall column. Korean Journal of Chemical Engineering. 2005;22:208-213. DOI: 10.1007/BF02701486\n'},{id:"B47",body:'\nSun Y, Hong X, Zhu T, Guo X, Xie D. The chemical behaviors of nitrogen dioxide absorption in sulfite solution. Applied Sciences. 2017;7(4):377. DOI: 10.3390/app7040377\n'},{id:"B48",body:'\nHao R, Wang X, Liang Y, Lu Y, Cai Y, Mao X, et al. Reactivity of NaClO2 and HA-Na in air pollutants removal: Active species identification and cooperative effect revelation. Chemical Engineering Journal. 2017;330:1279-1288. DOI: 10.1016/j.cej.2017.08.085\n'},{id:"B49",body:'\nOchoa-Gonzales R et al. Control of Hg0 re-emission from gypsum slurries by means of additives in typical wet scrubber conditions. Fuel. 2013;105:112-118\n'},{id:"B50",body:'\nHeidel B, Hilber M, Scheffknecht G. Impact of additives for enhanced sulfur dioxide removal on re-emissions of mercury in wet flue gas desulfurization. Applied Energy. 2014;114:485-491\n'},{id:"B51",body:'\nKeiser B, et al. Improving Capture of Mercury Efficiency of WFGDs by Reducing Mercury Re-Emission. US8110163B2. 2012\n'},{id:"B52",body:'\nWo J et al. Hg2+ reduction and re-emission from simulated wet flue gas desulfurization liquors. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 2009;165(2-3):1106-1110\n'},{id:"B53",body:'\nOmine N et al. Study of elemental mercury re-emission in simulated wet scrubber. Fuel. 2012;91:93-101\n'},{id:"B54",body:'\nWang Y, Liu Y, et al. Experimental study on the absorption behaviors of gas phase bivalent mercury in Ca-based wet flue gas desulfurization slurry system. Journal of Hazardous Materials. 2010;183:902-907\n'},{id:"B55",body:'\nTang T, Xu J, Lu R, Wo J, Xu X. Enhanced Hg2+ removal and Hg0 re-emission control from wet flue gas desulfurization liquors with additives. Fuel. 2010;89(12):3613-3617\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Maria Jędrusik",address:"maria.jedrusik@pwr.edu.pl",affiliation:'
Faculty of Mechanical and Power Engineering, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Wrocław, Poland
Faculty of Mechanical and Power Engineering, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Wrocław, Poland
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He received a PhD from the School of Electrical Engineering, Xi’an Jiaotong University, China, in 1994. Currently, he is Professor in the Department of Electrical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China. He has worked on gas insulation systems, electrical equipment online monitoring, and fault diagnosis for more than 20 years. His current focus is on environmental friendly substitutes for the insulating medium SF6. He has presided over a number of projects supported by the Natural Science Foundation of China and has published more than 150 papers.",institutionString:"Shanghai Jiao Tong University",institution:{name:"Shanghai Jiao Tong University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"202012",title:"Dr.",name:"Joao",surname:"Batista Rosolem",slug:"joao-batista-rosolem",fullName:"Joao Batista Rosolem",position:"Researcher",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"235941",title:"MSc.",name:"Sender",surname:"Rocha dos Santos",slug:"sender-rocha-dos-santos",fullName:"Sender Rocha dos Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"238954",title:"Mr.",name:"Rodrigo",surname:"Peres",slug:"rodrigo-peres",fullName:"Rodrigo Peres",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"239244",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Cristina",surname:"Fernández-Diego",slug:"cristina-fernandez-diego",fullName:"Cristina Fernández-Diego",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"239248",title:"Dr.",name:"Inmaculada",surname:"Fernández",slug:"inmaculada-fernandez",fullName:"Inmaculada Fernández",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"239584",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Wagner",surname:"Francisco Rezende Cano",slug:"wagner-francisco-rezende-cano",fullName:"Wagner Francisco Rezende Cano",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"251904",title:"Dr.",name:"Isidro Alfonso",surname:"Carrascal",slug:"isidro-alfonso-carrascal",fullName:"Isidro Alfonso Carrascal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"251905",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Javier",surname:"Renedo",slug:"carlos-javier-renedo",fullName:"Carlos Javier Renedo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"251906",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",surname:"Delgado",slug:"fernando-delgado",fullName:"Fernando Delgado",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]},generic:{page:{slug:"OA-publishing-fees",title:"Open Access Publishing Fees",intro:"
The Open Access model is applied to all of our publications and is designed to eliminate subscriptions and pay-per-view fees. This approach ensures free, immediate access to full text versions of your research.
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As a gold Open Access publisher, an Open Access Publishing Fee is payable on acceptance following peer review of the manuscript. In return, we provide high quality publishing services and exclusive benefits for all contributors. IntechOpen is the trusted publishing partner of over 118,000 international scientists and researchers.
\n\n
The Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) is payable only after your full chapter, monograph or Compacts monograph is accepted for publication.
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OAPF Publishing Options
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1,400 GBP Chapter - Edited Volume
\n\t
10,000 GBP Monograph - Long Form
\n\t
4,000 GBP Compacts Monograph - Short Form
\n
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*These prices do not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT as long as provision of the VAT registration number is made during the application process. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
\n\n
Services included are:
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An online manuscript tracking system to facilitate your work
\n\t
Personal contact and support throughout the publishing process from your dedicated Author Service Manager
\n\t
Assurance that your manuscript meets the highest publishing standards
\n\t
English language copyediting and proofreading, including the correction of grammatical, spelling, and other common errors
\n\t
XML Typesetting and pagination - web (PDF, HTML) and print files preparation
\n\t
Discoverability - electronic citation and linking via DOI
\n\t
Permanent and unrestricted online access to your work
What isn't covered by the Open Access Publishing Fee?
\n\n
If your manuscript:
\n\n
\n\t
Exceeds 20 pages (for chapters in Edited Volumes), an additional fee of 40 GBP per page will be required
\n\t
If a manuscript requires Heavy Editing or Language Polishing, this will incur additional fees.
\n
\n\n
Your Author Service Manager will inform you of any items not covered by the OAPF and provide exact information regarding those additional costs before proceeding.
\n\n
Open Access Funding
\n\n
To explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication, go to our Open Access Funding page. IntechOpen offers expert assistance to all of its Authors. We can support you in approaching funding bodies and institutions in relation to publishing fees by providing information about compliance with the Open Access policies of your funder or institution. We can also assist with communicating the benefits of Open Access in order to support and strengthen your funding request and provide personal guidance through your application process. You can contact us at oapf@intechopen.com for further details or assistance.
\n\n
For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
\n\n
Added Value of Publishing with IntechOpen
\n\n
Choosing to publish with IntechOpen ensures the following benefits:
\n\n
\n\t
Indexing and listing across major repositories, see details ...
\n\t
Long-term archiving
\n\t
Visibility on the world's strongest OA platform
\n\t
Live Performance Metrics to track readership and the impact of your chapter
\n\t
Dissemination and Promotion
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Benefits of Publishing with IntechOpen
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Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
\n\t
+4,800 OA books published
\n\t
Most competitive prices in the market
\n\t
Fully compliant with OA funding requirements
\n\t
Optimized processes, enabling publication between 8 and 12 months
\n\t
Personal support during every step of the publication process
\n\t
+108,170 citations in Web of Science databases
\n\t
Currently strongest OA platform with over 130 million downloads
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