System parameters
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Rotating machinery is commonly used in many mechanical systems, including electrical motors, machine tools, compressors, turbo machinery and aircraft gas turbine engines. Typically, these systems are affected by exogenous or endogenous vibrations produced by unbalance, misalignment, resonances, bowed shafts, material imperfections and cracks. Vibration can result from a number of conditions, acting alone or in combination. The vibration problems may be caused by auxiliary equipment, not just the primary equipment. Control of machinery vibration is essential in the industry today to increase running speeds and the requirement for rotating machinery to operate within specified levels of vibration.
Vibration caused by mass imbalance is a common problem in rotating machinery. Rotor imbalance occurs when the principal inertia axis of the rotor does not coincide with its geometrical axis and leads to synchronous vibrations and significant undesirable forces transmitted to the mechanical elements and supports. A heavy spot in a rotating component will cause vibration when the unbalanced weight rotates around the rotor axis, creating a centrifugal force. Imbalance could be caused by manufacturing defects (machining errors, casting flaws, etc.) or maintenance issues (deformed or dirty fan blades, missing balance weights, etc.). As rotor speed changes, the effects of imbalance may become higher. Imbalance can severely reduce bearing life-time as well as cause undue machine vibration. Shaft misalignment is a condition in which the shafts of the driving and driven machines are not on the same centre-line generating reaction forces and moments in the couplings. Flexible couplings are used to reduce the misalignment effects and transmit rotary power without torsional slip.
Many methods have been developed to reduce the unbalance-induced vibration by using different devices such as active balancing devices, electromagnetic bearings, active squeeze film dampers, lateral force actuators, pressurized bearings and movable bearings (see, e.g., Blanco et al., 2003, 2007, 2008, 2010a, 2010b; Chong-Won, 2006; Dyer et al., 2002; El-Shafei, 2002; Green et al., 2008; Guozhi et al. 2000; Hredzak et al., 2006; Sheu et al., 1997; Zhou y Shi, 2001, 2002). These active balancing control schemes require information of the eccentricity of the involved rotating machinery. On the other hand, there exists a vast literature on identification and estimation methods, which are essentially asymptotic, recursive or complex, which generally suffer from poor speed performance (see, e.g., Ljung, 1987; Soderstrom, 1989; and Sagara and Zhao, 1989, 1990).
Passive, semi-active and active control schemes have been proposed in order to cancel or attenuate the vibration amplitudes in rotating machinery. In passive control the rotating machinery is modified off-line, e.g. the rotor is stopped to adjust some of its parameters such as mass, stiffness or damping. Balancing consist of placing correction masses onto the rotating shaft (inertial disk) so that centrifugal forces due to these masses cancel out those caused by the residual imbalance mass.
Active vibration control (AVC) changes the dynamical properties of the system by using actuators or active devices during instantaneous operating conditions measured by the appropriate sensors. The main advantage of active control (compared to passive control) is the versatility in adapting to different load conditions, perturbations and configurations of the rotating machinery and hence, extending the system\'s life while greatly reducing operating costs.
Semiactive vibration control devices are increasingly being investigated and implemented. These devices change the system properties such as damping and stiffness while the rotor is operating. This control scheme is based on the analysis of the open loop response. Semi-active control devices have received a great deal of attention in recent years because they offer the adaptability of active control without requiring the associated large power sources.
This chapter deals with the active cancellation problem of mechanical vibrations in rotor-bearing systems. The use of an active disk is proposed for actively balancing a rotor by placing a balancing mass at a suitable position. Two nonlinear controllers with integral compensation are proposed to place the balancing mass at a specific position. Algebraic identification is used for on-line eccentricity estimation as the implementation of this active disk is based on knowledge of the eccentricity. An important property of this algebraic identification is that the eccentricity identification is not asymptotic but algebraic, in contrast to most of the traditional identification methods, which generally suffer of poor speed performance. In addition, a velocity control is designed to drive the rotor velocity to a desired operating point during the first critical speed.
The proposed results are strongly based on the algebraic parameter identification approach for linear systems reported in (Flies and Sira, 2003), which requires a priori knowledge of the mathematical model of the system. This approach has been used for parameter and signal estimation in nonlinear and linear vibrating mechanical systems, where numerical simulations and experimental results show that the algebraic identification provides high robustness against parameter uncertainty, frequency variations, small measurement errors and noise (Beltran et al., 2005, 2006, 2010).
Many methods for passive balancing have been proposed, such as single plane, two planes or multi-plane balancing. These off-line balancing methods are very common in industrial applications. In these methods, the rotor is modeled as a rigid shaft that without elastic deformation during operation. Rotors operating under 5000 rpm can be considered rigid rotors. For flexible rotors the modal balancing and influence coefficient methods were developed for off-line balancing. Figure 1 shows an inertial disk to be balanced by adding a mass in opposite direction to compensate the residual unbalance.
Inertial disk and eddy current probe displacement sensor.
Thearle (Thearle, 1932) developed a machine for dynamically balancing rotating elements or high speed rotors (figure 2), where an out-of-balance mass of a rotating element or body can quickly and easily be located, providing the exact amount and location of the balancing mass that should be placed or removed to reduce the vibration. The balancing machine contains a balancing head with a clutch which is first opened to release a set of balls to naturally take place in the balancing positions. Subsequently, the clutch is closed producing a clamping of the balls in the adjusted positions, while the body is being rotated above its critical speed and then released. Other automatic balancing devices have been proposed; essentially using one of the four balancing methods; two angular arms, two sliding arms, one angular and sliding arm, or, one spirally sliding arm (Chong-Won, 2006; Zhou y Shi, 2001).
Diagram of the automatic balancer using two masses.
The use of piezoelectric actuators as active vibration dampers in rotating machines has been considered in the past. Palazzolo, et al. (Palazzolo et al., 1993) first used the piezoelectric pusher for active vibration control in rotating machinery as it is shown in Figure 3.a. The pusher is soft mounted to the machine case to improve the electromechanical stability and connected to the squirrel cage-ball bearing supports of a rotating shaft, to actively control the unbalance, transient and subsynchronous responses of the test rotor, using velocity feedback. The piezoelectric actuators are modeled as dampers and springs. Recently, Carmignani et al. (Carmignani et al., 2001) developed an adaptive hydrodynamic bearing made of a mobile housing mounted on piezoelectric actuators to attenuate the vibration amplitudes in constant speed below the first critical speed. The actuators, arranged at 90 on a perpendicular plane to the shaft axis, exert two sinusoidal forces with a tuned phase angle to produce a balancing or, alternatively, a dampering effect. The authors presented experimental and numerical results.
Active Magnetic Bearings (AMBs) are the mostly used devices but their use in the industrial field is still limited due to a low stiffness and the need of additional conventional bearings for fault emergency. An AMB system is a collection of electromagnets used to suspend an object and stabilization of the system is performed by feedback control, see Figure 3.b. In recent decades, AMBs has been widely used as a non-contact, lubrication-free, support in many machines and devices. Many researchers (Lee, 2001; Sheu-Yang, 1997) have proposed a variety of AMBs that are compact and simple-structured. The AMB system, which is open-loop unstable and highly coupled due to nonlinearities inherited in the system such as the gyroscopic effect and imbalance, requires a dynamic controller to stabilize the system.
a) Piezoelectric actuator and b) active magnetic bearing.
Another device for AVC in rotating machinery is the one based on fluid film bearings. The dynamics of a rotor system supported by fluid film bearings is inherently a nonlinear problem and these fluid film bearings have been used in combination with other devices, such as piezoelectric actuators, magneto or electro-rheological fluids, etc. (see Figure 4).
Guozhi et al. (2000) proposed the use of a fluid bearing with rheological fluids to reduce the vibrations around the first critical speed. Magnetorheological (MR) or electrorheological (ER) fluids are materials that respond to an applied magnetic or electric field with a dramatic change in rheological behavior. To attenuate the vibration amplitudes around the first critical speed an on/off control is proposed to control the large amplitude around the first critical speed.
Hathout and El-Shafei (Hathout and El-Shafei, 1997) proposed a hybrid squeeze film damper (HSFD), (see Figure 4.b), to attenuate the vibrations in rotating machinery for both sudden unbalance and transient run-up through critical speeds. El-Shafei (El-Shafei, 2000) have implemented different control algorithms (PID-type controllers, LQR, gain scheduling, adaptive and bang-bang controllers) for active control of rotor vibrations for HSFD-supported rotors. Controlling the fluid pressure in the chamber, the bearing properties of stiffness and damping can be changed.
Fluid film bearings: a) using rheological fluids and b) using a pressure chamber.
Sun y Kroedkiewski (Sun and Krodkiewski, 1997, 1998) proposed a new type of active oil bearing, see Figure 5.a. The active bearing is supplied with a flexible sleeve whose deformation can be changed during rotor operation. The flexible sleeve is also a part of a hydraulic damper whose parameters can be controlled during operation as well. The oil film and the pressure chamber are separated by the flexible sealing. The equilibrium position of the flexible sleeve and the bearing journal is determined by load and pressure, which can be controlled during operation. Parameters of this damper can also be varied during operation to eliminate the self exciting vibration and increase the stability of the equilibrium position of the rotor-oil bearing system.
Recently, Dyer et al., (Dyer et al., 2002) developed an electromagnetically actuated unbalance compensator. The compensator consists of two rings as shown in Figure 5.b. These two rings are not balanced and can be viewed as two heavy spots. These two rings are held in place by permanent magnetic forces. When the balancer is activated, an electric current passes through the coil and the rings can be moved individually with respect to the spindle by the electromagnetic force. The combination of these two heavy spots is equivalent to a single heavy spot whose magnitude and position can change to attenuate the vibration amplitudes.
a) Fluid film bearing with flexible sleeve and b) electromagnetically actuated unbalance compensator.
The rotor-bearing system consists of a planar and rigid disk of mass M mounted on a flexible shaft of negligible mass and stiffness k at the mid-span between two symmetric bearing supports (see Fig. 6 when a=b). Due to rotor imbalance the mass center is not located at the geometric center of the disk S but at the point G (center of mass of the unbalanced disk), the distance between these points is known as disk eccentricity or static unbalance u (see Vance, 1988; Dimarogonas, 1996).
Rotor bearing system with active disk.
In the analysis, the rotor-bearing system has an active disk (Blanco et al., 2008) mounted on the shaft and near the main disk (see Fig. 6). The active disk is designed in order to move a mass
Schematic diagram and main elements of the active disk.
The mathematical model of the five degree-of-freedom rotor-bearing system with active disk was obtained using Euler-Lagrange equations, which is given by
Here c is the equivalent viscous damping provided by the isotropic bearings,
Defining the state variables as
with
The rotor-bearing system with active disk is then described by the five degree-of-freedom, highly nonlinear and coupled model (2). The proposed control objective consists of reducing as much as possible the rotor vibration amplitude, denoted in non-dimensional units by
for run-up, coast-down or steady state operation of the rotor system, even in presence of small exogenous or endogenous perturbations.
In the following table the rotor system parameters used throughout the chapter are presented.
System parameters
Here it is proposed to use an active disk for actively balancing of the rotor (see Fig. 8). It can be seen that if the mass
Main components of the active disk.
In order to design the position controllers for the balancing mass
From these equations, the exact linearization method (Sira et al., 2005) is applied and the following nonlinear controllers can be obtained with integral compensation to take the balancing mass to the equilibrium position
where
which can be handle to have the point:
are Hurwitz polynomials.
It is evident, however, that the controllers (4) and (5) require information of the disk eccentricity
In order to control the speed of the rotor, consider its associated dynamics, under the assumption that the effect of the unbalance was cancelled out by the active disk and that the disk eccentricity
From this equation, the following PI controller to asymptotically track a desired reference trajectory
The use of this controller yields the following closed-loop dynamics for the trajectory tracking error
Therefore, by selecting the design parameters
Consider the first two equations in (1), where measurements of the position coordinates of the disk
Multiplying (9) by the quantity
where
Using integration by parts, the following is obtained:
The above integral-type equations (11), after some algebraic manipulations, lead to the following linear equations system:
where
whose components are time functions specified as
From equation (12) it can be concluded that the parameter vector is algebraically identifiable if, and only if, the trajectory of the dynamical system is persistent in the sense established by Fliess and Sira-Ramírez (Fliess and Sira-Ramírez, 2003), that is, the trajectories or dynamic behavior of the system satisfy the condition
In general, this condition holds at least in a small time interval
In (Beltran, 2010) is described the application of an on-line algebraic identification methodology for parameter and signal estimation in vibrating systems. The algebraic identification is employed to estimate the frequency and amplitude of exogenous vibrations affecting the mechanical system using only position measurements. Some simulations and experimental results are presented using the on-line algebraic identification scheme for an electromechanical platform (ECP™ rectilinear plant) with a single degree-of-freedom mass-spring-damper system.
By solving equations (12) the following algebraic identifier for the unknown eccentricity parameters is obtained:
In Fig. 9 it is depicted the identification process of the eccentricity. A good and fast estimation (
Eccentricity (u) and angular position (β) identification.
Rotor speed and control torque.
Fig. 11 shows the dynamic behavior of the active disk controllers when the balancing mass is driven to the equilibrium position
Dynamic response of the balancing mass: radial position (y2=z₇), angular position (y3=z₉), control force (F) and moment force (τ2).
Unbalance response with automatic balancing and without active disk.
The active vibration control of rotor-bearing systems using active disks for actively balancing a rotor is addressed. This approach consists of locating a balancing mass at a suitable position. Since this active control scheme requires information of the eccentricity, a novel algebraic identification approach is proposed for the on-line estimation of the eccentricity parameters. This approach is quite promising, in the sense that from a theoretical point of view, the algebraic identification is practically instantaneous and robust with respect to parameter uncertainty, frequency variations, small measurement errors and noise. Thus the algebraic identification is combined with two control schemes to place the balancing mass in the correct position to cancel the unbalance of the rotor. A velocity control is designed to take the rotor velocity to a desired operating point over the first critical speed in order to show the vibration cancellation. The controllers were developed in the context of an off-line prespecified reference trajectory tracking problem. Numerical simulations were included to illustrate the proposed high dynamic performance of the active vibration control scheme proposed.
Research reported here was supported by grants of the Dirección General de Educación Superior Tecnológica, DGEST through PROMEP under Project "Vibration control of rotating machinery".
A significant amount of research and development is currently underway to improve oil sands water treatment processes to allow for higher levels of water recycle and to reduce the energy associated with water treatment and steam generation. Part of this water use reduction effort is focused on water consumption in the steam-assisted gravity drainage (SAGD) process. SAGD is a thermally enhanced heavy oil recovery method, which is widely practiced for bitumen extraction from oil sands in Alberta, Canada. In this process, steam is injected through a horizontal well into the bitumen-containing formation to decrease the viscosity of the bitumen and allow its extraction. An emulsion of steam condensate and heated bitumen flows down the periphery of the steam chamber to the production well, which is located below the injection well. This emulsion is pumped to the surface where the bitumen and water are separated, and the water subsequently treated for reuse as boiler feed water for steam generation.
In a typical SAGD plant (Figure 1), the produced emulsion is first sent through a series of gravity separation vessels to remove gases and separate the bitumen and water. The de-oiled produced water is mixed with make-up water (fresh and/or brackish) and recycled boiler blow-down (BBD) prior to treatment in a warm lime softener (WLS) to remove silica. Treated fluids from the WLS are further processed through ion exchangers (IX) to remove Ca2+ and Mg2+ to generate boiler feed water (BFW) suitable for steam generation. Unlike power generation and utility steam drum boilers, SAGD plants use robust, oilfield-style once-through steam generators (OTSG’s), which can tolerate high amounts of TDS (8000–12,000 mg/L) and TOC (300–1000 mg/L). Only hardness and silica removal are necessary for OTSGs, not desalination. To compensate for the relatively low-quality feedwater, OTSG’s typically produce a low-quality steam (75–80% steam), resulting in a large volumetric rate of boiler blowdown (BBD). A portion of the BBD is recycled back to the WLS, while the balance is sent to deep disposal wells, third-party waste disposal operators, or processing in zero liquid discharge (ZLD) facilities.
Main steps in SAGD-produced water treatment operations.
The conventional WLS-IX water treatment configuration does not reduce the amount of dissolved organic matter (DOM) or total dissolved solids (TDS) in the boiler feed water, and only partially removes silica. In spite of the robust nature of SAGD OTSGs, high levels of DOM and TDS in OTSG feed water can cause operational and maintenance problems due to fouling and scaling of steam generators and disposal wells [1, 2, 3]. Boiler feed water from WLS-IX processes requires blowdown rate management to mitigate scale formation; this causes a higher recycle of low-quality BBD water back to the process [3]. To reduce the volume of disposal water, evaporators are sometimes used as a downstream BBD water recovery process [4]. Evaporators are also used in SAGD to directly desalinate produced water for higher-quality BFW, allowing the use of more efficient, smaller oilfield drum or hybrid boilers. However, evaporation results in high operational costs (chemical cleaning and electrical energy). In light of the above, industry is pursuing replacement of the WLS-IX and produced water evaporator schemes with emerging membrane-based processes, which can separate almost all silica and divalent ions, and reject more than 90% of DOM and TDS in a single step, while consuming less energy than if desalination evaporators were used.
Membrane separation processes are an emerging technology for oil sands-produced water treatment due to their distinct advantages over traditional processes, primarily lower operating costs, compact design, and high filtrate quality [5]. Among membrane processes, nanofiltration (NF) is increasingly deployed for the removal of solutes ranging from colloidal particles and organic molecules to salts in a single unit operation. NF membranes provide a higher water flux and lower rejection of monovalent ions (<90%) as compared to reverse osmosis (RO) membranes. Tight NF membranes are similar to RO membranes, while loose ones can be categorized as ultrafiltration (UF) membranes [6]. NF membranes are the best candidates for water softening as they provide a high rejection of divalent ions (>99%). For SAGD-produced water or blowdown treatment, removal of scale-forming divalent ions such as hardness and silica is more important than NaCl removal when OTSG’s are used. Treatment with NF membranes may reduce operational costs of operating OTSG’s and WLS-IX processes, and also enable direct blowdown reuse as BFW instead of requiring disposal. Further treatment to drum boiler quality requires further research, but will likely require RO treatment to reach required TDS levels like those achievable by evaporators.
In this chapter, we aim at evaluating the performance of NF processes for the treatment of SAGD-produced water and blowdown streams. First, all emerging technologies that can be applied for the treatment of oilfield-produced water are presented. Then, a critical literature review on the application of NF for the treatment of oil sands-produced water is provided. After that, the methodology for a typical NF experiment and analysis of results are described. Finally, membrane permeation results are discussed on the basis of membrane characteristics including hydrophilicity, zeta potential, and roughness.
The potential technologies for oilfield-produced water treatment can be classified into five main groups [7, 8, 9]:
Physical treatment such as adsorption, media filtration (anthracite, sand, walnut shell), evaporation, distillation, gas floatation, and hydrocyclones
Chemical treatment such as precipitation (WLS), chemical oxidation (by chlorine, hydrogen peroxide, ozone, and permanganate), and electrochemical processes (electrocoagulation)
Biological treatment such as activated sludge, anaerobic reactors, aerated lagoons, and wetlands
Membrane filtration such as microfiltration (MF), ultrafiltration (UF), NF, RO, and electrodialysis (ED)
Hybrid processes such as membrane bioreactor (MBR), micellar-enhanced UF (MEUF), coagulation/MF, and oxidation/flocculation/membranes
Among these processes, adsorption (by activated carbon, zeolites, clays, resins, and synthetic polymers) [10, 11, 12], oxidation (chemical, photocatalytic, and sonochemical) [12, 13, 14], biological treatment [15, 16, 17], and membrane processes [18, 19, 20] represent emerging technologies in Canada’s oil sands industry. Adsorption processes are used for the removal of a broad range of compounds in oilfield-produced water, including DOM, oil, and heavy metals [21]. The principal shortcomings noted for adsorption processes are low adsorption capacity and the high costs for disposal, cleaning, and regeneration of spent media [7, 21]. In oxidation process, pollutants are degraded through a series of direct oxidation and radical reactions. Radicals are produced by using chemicals like ozone (ozonation), hydrogen peroxide (Fenton), chlorine, and permanganate. The formation can be intensified by UV light (photocatalytic oxidation) and ultrasound (sonochemical oxidation). The application of oxidation in oilfield water treatment is limited by inefficient radical generation, poor reaction kinetics, and interference from background TOC concentrations and high concentrations of salt and radical scavengers (chloride and bicarbonate) in oilfield-produced water. Incomplete pollutant removal and high energy costs limit the application of oxidative treatment [7, 21]. Biological treatment, primarily activated sludge, is widely used in the treatment of municipal and refinery wastewaters, but its application is limited for the treatment of more complex industrial effluents, especially those with high salinity high temperatures, and the presence of inhibitory organics [21]. Membrane processes have been broadly applied in industrial and municipal wastewater treatment. Numerous previous studies have mainly considered the use of looser MF and UF membranes for oily produced water treatment [22, 23, 24]. For the separation of DOM, salt, and silica from oil sands-produced water, it is essential to use tighter NF and RO membranes [25].
An overview of published studies on oil sands-produced water treatment using NF membranes is presented in Table 1. Although NF membranes are widely applied in water softening, there are few records in the literature for their application in oil sands-produced water treatment. This is mainly due to the high susceptibility of these membranes to fouling by the high TDS and TOC of oilfield-produced water. Meanwhile, these waters are mostly at high temperature and pH, which can affect the membrane integrity of current commercial membranes. In some applications, these streams must be cooled or pH tuned solely to accommodate a membrane separation process, after which the processed fluid will be readjusted back to an initial condition (e.g., pH) to optimize steam production reliability [26, 27, 28]. This temperature and pH adjustment requires a significant amount of energy and chemicals. Applying hydrophilic membranes with antifouling properties as well as thermal and chemical resilience (up to 70°C and pH 2–11), for example, sulfonated polyethersulfone (PES) developed by hydranautics, will facilitate the practice of NF in the oil sands-produced water treatment.
Ref | Produced water | Feed characteristics | Contaminant removal | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
pH | TDS (mg/L) | TOC (mg/L) | Ca/Mg (mg/L) | |||
[5] | SAGD BFW | 9.8–10.5 | 1800 | 500 | 0.84 | Up to 98% TOC, TDS, and silica rejection |
[25] | SAGD WLS inlet | 9.0 | 1200 | 420 | 2.5 | >86% rejection of the salt, silica, and DOM |
[29] | SAGD BBD | 11.6–12.2 | 14,900–36,200 | 2480–5060 | Up to 700 | Up to 80% DOC and 45% TDS removal |
[30] | Mining OSPW | 7.3–8.5 | 1549–4920 μS/cm | 46–85 | 30–80 | >95% rejection of TOC and divalent ions. |
[31] | Mining OSPW | 8.0–9.0 | 2477 | 48.3 | 73 | ~69% and 82% NaCl removal w/ and w/o pretreatment |
Overview of earlier studies on oilfield-produced water using NF membranes.
From the data presented in Table 1, it can be seen that NF was studied for the treatment of produced water generated from two main oil sands operations, namely open-pit mining and SAGD [5, 25, 29, 30, 31]. Sadrzadeh et al. [5] and Hayatbakhsh et al. [25] treated SAGD WLS inlet and BFW using various types of NF membranes. TOC, TDS, and silica rejection of up to 98% and divalent cation removal greater than 99% was obtained at different pH values from pH 7.0 to pH 10.5. Pulsation of pH was proposed as an effective technique for mitigation of membrane fouling and water flux recovery. Hurwitz et al. [29] investigated NF processes with and without upstream coagulation and pH adjustment for the treatment of SAGD BBD water. Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and TDS removal as high as 80 and 45%, respectively, were obtained. It was also found that neither coagulation nor acidification as pre-treatment processes improved the separation performance of the NF process. Peng et al. [30] and Kim et al. [31] worked on oil sands process-affected water (OSPW) associated with surface mining extraction of bitumen. OSPW is the water contained in tailings ponds in oil sands mining operations. Significant reductions in permeate hardness, TOC (>95%), and NaCl (up to 82%) was reported. In contrast to the Hurwitz et al. [29] study, Kim et al. [31] demonstrated that applying pre-treatment methods, for example, coagulation, resulted in improved desalination performance. As will be discussed further in subsequent sections of this chapter, the high native pH of the BBD stream (>11) compared to the lower pH of the OSPW streams (<9) was likely the main reason for the differences in the effectiveness of pretreatment. However, differences in the nature of the DOM may also have been important. Earlier studies revealed that the DOM in mining OSPW consists primarily of naphthenic acid-like compounds [32, 33, 34]. The type of DOM present is different for in situ processes compared to mining OSPW, likely due to the different water temperatures and pressures, as well as solvents used (diluent versus naphtha or paraffins). It was shown that the DOM in SAGD-produced water are more representative of humic acids than naphthenic acids [3, 35]. Each organic matter fraction has specific physicochemical properties, for example, charge and molecular conformation, which governs the fouling rate and thus the performance of membrane processes [36]. Hence, membrane fouling propensity changes vastly from mining to SAGD water treatment as the type and concentration of organic matter and produced water chemistry are significantly different.
Here we present the materials and methodologies (sections 4), as well as, experimental results (section 5) related to the treatment of SAGD produced water which have been already published in peer-reviewed journals [5, 25, 29].
SAGD-produced water was obtained from different SAGD water treatment plants located in the Athabasca oil sands region of Alberta, Canada. Concentrations of salt, organic matter, silica, and other inorganic ions were measured in the samples. Table 2 presents the properties of BFW, WLS inlet, and BBD as the main process-affected streams in a SAGD water treatment plant (Figure 1).
Elements | Units | WLS Inlet | BFWξ | BBDς |
---|---|---|---|---|
pH | — | 9 | 10.5 | 11.9 |
Conductivity | mS/cm | 1.68 | 3.50 | 15.4 |
TDS | mg/L | 1200 | 1800 | 14,900 |
TOC | mg/L | 420 | 500 | 2890 |
Dissolved Silica (Si) | mg/L | 89 | 21 | 331 |
Sodium (Na+) | mg/L | 350 | 880 | 2980 |
Calcium (Ca2+) | mg/L | 1.9 | 3.30 | 490 |
Magnesium (Mg2+) | mg/L | 0.59 | 0.37 | 212 |
Iron (total Fe) | mg/L | 0.39 | 2.12 | 11.4 |
Commercial NF membranes are mostly thin film composite (TFC) membranes consisting of three layers: a thin polyamide (PA) or sulfonated polyethersulfone (PES) active layer (100–300 nm), an intermediate microporous layer (~40 μm), and a mesoporous polyester fabric support (~100 μm) [37]. The active layer of TFC membranes governs the membrane separation performance and fouling behavior. The top active layer is typically synthesized by an interfacial polymerization reaction between two monomers (e.g., m-phenylenediamine and trimesoyl chloride for the synthesis of polyamide), which are dissolved in two immiscible solvents [38, 39]. The main characteristics of NF membranes, which have been used for SAGD-produced water treatment are summarized in Table 3.
Membrane properties | NF270 (Filmtec) [25] | NF90 (Filmtec) [25] | ESNA (Hydranautics) [25] | HYDRACoReξ (Hydranautics) [40] |
---|---|---|---|---|
Membrane type | TFC-PA | TFC-PA | TFC-PA | TFC-Sulfonated PES |
Maximum operation pressure (kPa) | 4136 | 4136 | 4136 | 4136 |
Maximum operation temperature (°C) | 45 | 45 | 45 | 70 |
pH range | 2.0–11.0 | 2.0–11.0 | 2.0–10.0 | 1.0–13.5 |
Salt rejection (%) | 40–60 | 85–95 | 75–92 | 10–70 |
MWCO (Da) | 330 ± 48 | 201 ± 25 | 223 ± 37 | 720–3000 [29] |
Contact angle (θ°) | 34 ± 5.5 | 62 ± 6.7 | 60 ± 6.2 | 62 ± 3.0 [41] |
Zeta potential (mV) | −12.1 at pH 4, −21.6 at pH 7, −24.0 at pH 9 | 5.1 at pH 4.5, −24.9 at pH 7, −27.3 at pH 9 | 0 at pH 4.5, −11.5 at pH 7, −11.0 at pH 9 | −85 mV over a pH range of 3–11 −36.8 at pH 7 [41] |
Isoelectric point (IEP, KCl 10−3 M) | 3.0 ± 0.2 | 4.0 | 4.9 ± 0.1 | N/A |
Mean roughness (nm) | 5 ± 0.25 | 65 ± 2.2 | 50 ± 3.5 | 9.8 [41] |
Properties of NF membranes tested for SAGD-produced water treatment.
The properties of this membrane are obtained from the membrane manufacturer’s published literature [40] unless otherwise stated.
The fouling propensity of a membrane primarily depends on its surface charge, roughness, hydrophilicity. The hydrophilicity and surface charge of membranes are obtained by measuring their zeta potential and contact angle. In general, more hydrophilic and more negatively charged membranes are less susceptible to fouling by more hydrophobic DOM and negatively charged organic and inorganic dissolved materials present in water. The surface roughness of a membrane also plays a significant role in fouling. Rougher surfaces cause the entrapment of more foulants in the eddy zones created behind the peaks. The blockage of valleys on the surface of NF membranes results in a substantial loss of water flux [25].
The NF experiments were conducted using bench scale cross-flow filtration systems (Figure 2). A typical system consisted of a feed tank, a membrane cell, a pump, a temperature controller to keep the feed temperature at a specific value, a back pressure regulator, and a bypass valve to adjust the applied pressure and cross-flow velocity. A weighing balance or a digital flowmeter were utilized to measure the permeate flow rate. Permeate and retentate are recycled to the feed tank to maintain a constant feed concentration over time.
Schematic of a bench scale cross-flow NF setup.
Water flux (JW) at steady state is obtained by measuring the mass or volume of water (ΔV) passed through the membrane with active surface area A during a certain period Δt:
The rejection of contaminants (TDS, TOC, silica, and divalent ions) is calculated by measuring their concentration in the permeate solution as follows:
where Cp and Cf are the constituent concentration in the permeate and feed solutions, respectively.
Membrane performance was evaluated based on permeation flux and removal of the target constituents. The fouling propensity of a membrane is typically evaluated by measuring the rate of flux decline over time. Fouling decreases the performance of a membrane by reducing the water permeation flux and ultimately shortening membrane life (complete replacement or increased cleaning interval) [36]. Therefore, fouling mitigation is a major challenge for sustainable application of membrane processes. A facile method to mitigate fouling during filtration is an abrupt change of operating conditions such as solution pH, temperature, and ionic strength [42]. The impact of changing pH on water flux and rejection of contaminants during SAGD water treatment has, therefore, been investigated [5, 25, 29].
Water flux through NF270, ESNA, and NF90 membranes and TDS/TOC rejection over 360 min at 50°C and pH of 9.0 are shown in Figure 3(a). The initial water flux of 35 LMH was adjusted for all membranes at transmembrane pressures of 276, 552, and 552 kPa for NF270, ESNA, and NF90, respectively. Water flux was found to decline gradually due to combined silica/organic matter/divalent ion fouling. Based on the data presented in Table 2, the concentration of divalent ions in the WLS inlet water is negligible compared to the total concentration of silica and organic matter (~500 mg/L). Hence, combined colloidal and organic fouling was the principal fouling mechanism in this study. The adsorption of silica and DOM onto the membrane surface reduced the permeate flux due to pore blocking, formation of silica/DOM gel, and induced hydrophobic properties [25].
(a) Water flux over time and (b) TOC/TDS rejection for WLS inlet water filtration using NF270, ESNA, and NF90 membranes at pH 9.0 and 50°C [25]. Copyright 2016, Reproduced with permission from Balaban Desalination Publications, Rome, Italy.
The bar chart in Figure 3(a) shows that the initial flux decline for the NF270 membrane was lower than the other NF membranes. Fouling is mainly affected by the feed properties (e.g., pH, ionic strength, and concentration) [43], operating conditions (e.g., pressure and cross-flow velocity) [44], and the physicochemical properties of the membrane (e.g., hydrophilicity and charge) [25]. Hence, at a constant initial permeate flux, feed flow rate, and feed solution chemistry, the rate of flux decline strongly relates to the surface properties of the membrane. The surface roughness and contact angle data in Table 3 shows that NF270 is smoother and more hydrophilic than ESNA and NF90. The zeta potential of NF270 is similar to NF90 and is more negative than that of ESNA [25]. It is widely accepted that membranes with higher hydrophilicity and more negatively charged surfaces are less prone to fouling by DOM and silica due to the lower hydrophobic interaction and higher electrostatic repulsion between the foulants and the membrane surface [45].
Figure 3(b) displays the variation of TOC/TDS rejection with time. For all NF membranes tested, TOC rejection increased over time. Earlier studies revealed that the adsorption of DOM on the membrane surface increases its hydrophobicity [45, 46]. This phenomenon enhances the layering attachment of DOM on previously deposited organic matter through hydrophobic interactions that subsequently increase TOC rejection. Rejection of TDS, however, remained constant for the tighter NF90 and ESNA membranes, and decreased for the looser NF270 membrane. Based on the cake-enhanced concentration polarization (CECP) mechanism, both flux and salt rejection should decrease as fouling progresses [47]. Deposited foulants on the membrane surface prevent back diffusion of salt from the surface to the bulk solution and thus increases the salt concentration at the membrane surface significantly. The enhanced concentration-gradient across the membrane increases the passage of salt ions toward the permeate side. In this study, however, TDS rejection remained constant for the denser NF membranes [25]. A possible explanation is that there was clogging of membrane hot spots (the valleys on the surface of membranes with the lowest thickness and the highest local water flux) by the DOM, which restricted the transport of salt [48, 49].
The effect of pH on the performance of the NF90 membrane was studied. The pH of WLS inlet water was progressively decreased from 9 to 7 after 120 min, then increased to 10 after 240 min. As can be seen in Figure 4(a), by reducing the pH from 9 to 7 the water flux declined sharply, then recovered by increasing the pH from 7 to 10. The variation of flux with pH can be attributed to a change in the surface properties of the membrane and by changes to the solution chemistry [25]. At lower pH values, the protonation of the functional groups of DOM, as the major constituent in the WLS inlet water (Table 2), decreases the negative charge and ultimately reduces the electrostatic repulsion between DOM molecules [50, 51, 52]. Changing the pH also affects the DOM/membrane interaction. In general, the zeta potential of membranes becomes less negative as pH decreases. The foulant/foulant and foulant/membrane attraction causes more deposition of foulants, and increases the thickness of the cake layer. These phenomena can explain the lower permeation flux observed at lower pH values [53]. It was also reported that pH varies the macromolecular conformation of DOM so that a smaller structure forms at a lower pH [50]. This leads to the formation of a denser cake layer and decreases the water flux accordingly.
Effect of pH on performance of NF90 membrane for the filtration of WLS inlet water at 50°C [25]. Copyright 2016, Reproduced with permission from Balaban Desalination Publications, Rome, Italy.
The effect of pH on TOC/TDS rejection is shown in Figure 4(b). As can be seen, TDS rejection increased after the pH was decreased from 9 to 7. The precipitation of silica and DOM at lower pH values has led to the formation of a closely-packed fouling layer that improved the TDS rejection. The effect of pH on TOC rejection was, however, insignificant. At pH 9, TOC rejection enhanced over time due to the cake filtration, then decreased marginally as pH decreased to 7. This rather contradictory result of TOC and TDS rejection is still unknown and calls for further investigation.
To select an appropriate membrane for the treatment of SAGD WLS inlet water, the trade-off relation between energy consumption and permeate water quality should be considered. Energy consumption in pressure-driven membrane processes is directly linked to the applied pressure. Therefore, a loose NF270 membrane is likely to be less energy-intensive than a tight NF90 or ESNA membrane. In this study, employing all NF membranes adequate Ca/Mg/Si removal is achieved to replace the current water treatment scheme. In addition, the NF270 membrane provided TOC/TDS rejection of more than 70% at pressures as low as 276 kPa. As a result, when highly purified water is not required, the NF270 membrane would be an excellent energy-efficient candidate. The ESNA and NF90 membranes provided 35 LMH water flux at the same transmembrane pressure of 552 kPa. The TOC/TDS rejection of the NF90, however, is slightly better than the ESNA (Figure 3b). Therefore, the NF90 membrane is proposed as the best candidate when a high water quality with reasonable energy efficiency is desired. In summary, replacing the current water treatment scheme with a properly designed cross-flow NF process (Figure 1) yields a higher quality of recycled water and consumes a lower amount of chemicals and energy. In addition, pH pulsation was found to be an efficient technique for the mitigation of membrane fouling and water flux recovery.
Water flux and TOC/TDS rejection of the NF90 membrane at 50°C and pH 10.5 (raw BFW pH) are shown in Figure 5(a). The normalized flux declined due to the combined fouling of silica and DOM in the model BFW (Table 2). In the treatment of model BFW, TDS rejection increased over time (from 80–95%), while TOC rejection remained constant (~98%), which is contrary to that observed for filtration of WLS inlet water [5]. This discrepancy demonstrates the effect of solution chemistry, primarily pH and ionic strength, on the rejection of salt and organic matter. Taking a closer look at Table 2 reveals that the model BFW has a significantly higher pH and slightly higher salt concentration as compared to the WLS inlet water. Higher pH leads to the increased solubility of organic matter in the feed solution and less tendency to precipitation on the membrane surface. On the other hand, high salt concentration reduces the thickness of electric double layer around silica particles and thus facilitates the precipitation of silica and co-precipitation of DOM [54]. The latter effect seems to be dominant and results in the formation of selective fouling layer, which increases the TDS rejection over time. Also, an increase of TDS rejection again confirms the significance of organic fouling (plugging of hot spots by DOM) in the treatment of SAGD-produced water.
Water flux and TOC/TDS rejection for model BFW filtration using NF90 at (a) constant pH = 10.5, and (b) variable pH 10.5−8.5−10.5 at 50°C [5]. Copyright 2015, Reproduced with permission from Elsevier Science Ltd., Oxford, UK.
Figure 5(b) shows the effect of a step change in pH on flux and rejection at 50°C. Decreasing the pH from 10.5 to 8.5 reduced the flux by 20%, but enhanced the TDS rejection. Returning the pH back to 10.5 has quickly returned the water flux and TDS rejection to the previous trend. For all pH values, >98% of the organic matter was removed by NF90. Dynamic pH experiments showed that a more stable flux with higher TDS rejection can be obtained at lower pH values. However, higher overall water flux at higher pH values was achieved. The rapid change of flux and salt rejection by injecting acid or basic solutions into the feed stream demonstrates the significant impact of pH on fouling, particularly, in the presence of both silica and organic matter [5]. This behavior can be explained by a rapid change in foulant/foulant and foulant/membrane interactions by altering the pH as described earlier.
The results of scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM/EDX) on NF90 membranes before and after filtration are shown in Figure 6. After NF, a layer of rejected solutes was formed on the membrane surface. More foulants were clearly deposited on the membrane when the pH of the solution was decreased to 8.5 (Figure 6c, d). Decreasing the pH resulted in precipitation of silica and co-precipitation of DOM, which were adsorbed on the surface of the membrane. EDX analysis revealed the presence of silica and iron in the fouling material. The iron peak became larger as the pH decreased from 10.5 to 8.5. This indicates precipitation of more solutes on the membrane surface at a lower pH. As expected based on solubility considerations, when the pH of the feed solution increased from 8.5 to 10.5 both silica and iron peaks shortened noticeably which shows re-dissolving of these materials at higher feed pH. This result implies that fouling is reversible by increasing the pH [5]. It is worth noting that the intense sulfur peak in all EDX results is related to the PES support layer of NF90 membrane.
FESEM-EDX of (a) virgin membrane, and fouled membranes at (b) pH = 10.5, (c) pH = 8.5, and (d) pH = 8.5 then 10.5 [5]. Copyright 2015, Reproduced with permission from Elsevier Science Ltd., Oxford, UK.
Removal of inorganic elements from model BFW was measured by inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES) analysis and the results are provided in Table 4. Almost 98% of the dissolved silica and more than 99% of divalent ions (Fe2+, Ca2+, and Mg2+) were removed by NF90 [5]. With 98% rejection of silica its content in the BFW becomes more than 90% lower than typical BFW and, therefore, would significantly reduce the fouling propensity in steam generation. Such a low level of DOM, salt, and scale-forming species in the permeate would significantly reduce the fouling/scaling propensity of the BFW if NF was employed as a polishing stage in the current SAGD process train (see Figure 1). Production of higher quality BFW may significantly reduce capital and operating costs through reducing the membrane area required for water treatment.
Elements (mg/L) | Model BFW | NF90 Permeate | Rejection (%) |
---|---|---|---|
Na+ | 880 | 53 | 94 |
Cl− | 510 | 15 | 97 |
Mg2+ | 0.18 | <0.02 | > 99 |
Ca2+ | 0.66 | <0.03 | > 99 |
Iron, total | 0.48 | <0.03 | > 99 |
SiO2, dissolved | 21 | 0.4 | 98 |
Rejection of inorganic materials by NF90 obtained by ICP-OES [5]. Copyright 2015, Reproduced with permission from Elsevier Science Ltd., Oxford, UK.
A further concern for oil sands producers is minimizing the volume of BBD water requiring disposal [55]. Therefore, a process configuration involving NF of BBD to remove silica, TOC, and TDS in which the permeate would be used for BFW with a reduced volume of concentrate sent to disposal. Hurwitz et al. [29] evaluated NF for this application. Direct NF treatment and NF with coagulation and acidification pre-treatment were evaluated. Direct nanofiltration of chemically unadjusted BBD at its original pH was found to be the optimal treatment option with respect to the flux stability and the removal of TOC and TDS. The high DOM concentration and high pH of the BBD made coagulation of the bulk DOM difficult. Without NF, a maximum DOC removal of 30–40% was possible, but this required either very high coagulant doses (>400 mg/L as Al) and/or very low pH (4–6) [29]. Although upstream removal of DOM can be beneficial in some membrane process configurations, in this case, neither pH reduction nor coagulation significantly improved the rejection of DOM or TDS. Additionally, acidification and/or coagulation consistently resulted in increased membrane surface fouling and flux decline. Because of the naturally high pH of the BBD, prolonged operation with at elevated fluxes and recoveries was possible, while maintaining solute removal as high as 80 and 45% for DOC and TDS, respectively.
A specially formulated sulfonated PES TFC membrane (HYDRACoRe) was used to treat the BBD. The high thermal and chemical stability of these membranes as well as their high negative surface charge (see Table 3) make them well suited to the treatment of BBD water. The HYDRACoRe membrane with a MWCO of 720 Da (the tightest membrane in this series of commercial membranes) was utilized for filtration studies. Dead-end NF tests were conducted to determine the effect of coagulation and BBD pH on the performance of the membrane. Stable operation was observed for water flux and DOC/TDS rejection across the range of initial fluxes tested (Figure 7). No flux decline was observed for the high, middle, and low initial fluxes (Figure 7b). A slight increase in the water permeability over time for low and intermediate initial fluxes was attributed to the swelling of membrane caused by electrostatic repulsion between the charged solutes (ions and charged DOM) and the membrane itself [29]. Likewise, neither elevated temperature nor initial flux had a significant effect on solute rejection (Figure 7b). Between 60 and 85%, DOC rejection was obtained over the range of initial fluxes. Interestingly, no loss in rejection was detected over the 60 min test period. This might be attributed to the very low total suspended solids (TSS) of BBD water (2 ppm) which mitigates the effect of cake enhanced concentration polarization and thus diffusion of organic matter toward permeate side. Applying a moderate initial flux of 60 LMH resulted in 80% DOC removal from BBD sample. Very high pH of BBD water minimizes the deposition of silica and DOM that reduces the effect of cake filtration on DOC rejection. In fact, NF membrane just strains out a certain molecular weight of organics without any deposition of foulants. Similarly, the TDS rejection was not significantly affected by the initial flux and feed solution temperature. Optimal TDS rejection was 40–50%, which obtained at a moderate initial flux. Operation at the middle initial flux, 60 LMH, was reported to provide the most sustainable combination of minimal fouling and maximum DOC/TDS rejection.
Effect of the initial flux on (a) the flux decline and (b) DOC/TDS rejection using 720 Da MWCO HYDRACoRe NF membrane at 70°C [29]. Copyright 2015, Reproduced with permission from ACS Publications, Washington, DC, USA.
The Alberta oil sands industry is actively developing and deploying technologies that reduce operating costs per barrel of product, as well as the amount of energy and fresh water consumed during resource extraction. Development of tailored NF membranes has created new interest in the application of membrane separation processes for the treatment of oil sands-produced water. In this chapter, several studies of NF membranes being tested for oil sands-produced water treatment were presented. Based on these studies, three scenarios for the application of NF membranes in the SAGD-produced water treatment train are suggested: (i) replacing the current WLS-IX process scheme with a cross-flow NF membrane softening process that gives higher-quality boiler feed water with lower energy consumption, (ii) integrating a NF process as a polishing stage downstream of the current WLS-IX processes to produce higher-quality BFW and thus increase the reliability of the boilers, and (iii) using NF to treat OTSG BBD water in the current WLS-IX scheme to increase the reuse of produced water and reduce BBD disposal rates. The major challenge for NF membrane processes in SAGD-produced water applications was found to be fouling by high concentrations of organic matter. pH pulsation was suggested as an effective method for the fouling reduction and water flux recovery. Treatment with loose NF membranes was found to remove more than 70% of the TDS and DOM. Tight NF membranes rejected more than 86% of the TDS and TOC. NF membranes for the treatment of SAGD-produced water should be selected based on the required trade-off between energy consumption and permeate water quality required for steam generation.
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support provided by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) and Canada’s Oil Sands Innovation Alliance (COSIA).
Suncor Energy Inc. and its affiliates (collectively “Suncor”) do not make any express or implied representations or warranties as to the accuracy, timeliness or completeness of the statements, information, data and content contained in this paper and any materials or information (written or otherwise) provided in conjunction with this paper (collectively, the “Information”). The Information has been prepared solely for informational purposes only and should not be relied upon. Suncor is not responsible for and is hereby released from any liabilities whatsoever for any errors or omissions in the Information and/or arising out of a person’s use of, or reliance on, the Information.
Edited by Jan Oxholm Gordeladze, ISBN 978-953-51-3020-8, Print ISBN 978-953-51-3019-2, 336 pages,
\nPublisher: IntechOpen
\nChapters published March 22, 2017 under CC BY 3.0 license
\nDOI: 10.5772/61430
\nEdited Volume
This book serves as a comprehensive survey of the impact of vitamin K2 on cellular functions and organ systems, indicating that vitamin K2 plays an important role in the differentiation/preservation of various cell phenotypes and as a stimulator and/or mediator of interorgan cross talk. Vitamin K2 binds to the transcription factor SXR/PXR, thus acting like a hormone (very much in the same manner as vitamin A and vitamin D). Therefore, vitamin K2 affects a multitude of organ systems, and it is reckoned to be one positive factor in bringing about "longevity" to the human body, e.g., supporting the functions/health of different organ systems, as well as correcting the functioning or even "curing" ailments striking several organs in our body.
\\n\\nChapter 1 Introductory Chapter: Vitamin K2 by Jan Oxholm Gordeladze
\\n\\nChapter 2 Vitamin K, SXR, and GGCX by Kotaro Azuma and Satoshi Inoue
\\n\\nChapter 3 Vitamin K2 Rich Food Products by Muhammad Yasin, Masood Sadiq Butt and Aurang Zeb
\\n\\nChapter 4 Menaquinones, Bacteria, and Foods: Vitamin K2 in the Diet by Barbara Walther and Magali Chollet
\\n\\nChapter 5 The Impact of Vitamin K2 on Energy Metabolism by Mona Møller, Serena Tonstad, Tone Bathen and Jan Oxholm Gordeladze
\\n\\nChapter 6 Vitamin K2 and Bone Health by Niels Erik Frandsen and Jan Oxholm Gordeladze
\\n\\nChapter 7 Vitamin K2 and its Impact on Tooth Epigenetics by Jan Oxholm Gordeladze, Maria A. Landin, Gaute Floer Johnsen, Håvard Jostein Haugen and Harald Osmundsen
\\n\\nChapter 8 Anti-Inflammatory Actions of Vitamin K by Stephen J. Hodges, Andrew A. Pitsillides, Lars M. Ytrebø and Robin Soper
\\n\\nChapter 9 Vitamin K2: Implications for Cardiovascular Health in the Context of Plant-Based Diets, with Applications for Prostate Health by Michael S. Donaldson
\\n\\nChapter 11 Vitamin K2 Facilitating Inter-Organ Cross-Talk by Jan O. Gordeladze, Håvard J. Haugen, Gaute Floer Johnsen and Mona Møller
\\n\\nChapter 13 Medicinal Chemistry of Vitamin K Derivatives and Metabolites by Shinya Fujii and Hiroyuki Kagechika
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'This book serves as a comprehensive survey of the impact of vitamin K2 on cellular functions and organ systems, indicating that vitamin K2 plays an important role in the differentiation/preservation of various cell phenotypes and as a stimulator and/or mediator of interorgan cross talk. Vitamin K2 binds to the transcription factor SXR/PXR, thus acting like a hormone (very much in the same manner as vitamin A and vitamin D). Therefore, vitamin K2 affects a multitude of organ systems, and it is reckoned to be one positive factor in bringing about "longevity" to the human body, e.g., supporting the functions/health of different organ systems, as well as correcting the functioning or even "curing" ailments striking several organs in our body.
\n\nChapter 1 Introductory Chapter: Vitamin K2 by Jan Oxholm Gordeladze
\n\nChapter 2 Vitamin K, SXR, and GGCX by Kotaro Azuma and Satoshi Inoue
\n\nChapter 3 Vitamin K2 Rich Food Products by Muhammad Yasin, Masood Sadiq Butt and Aurang Zeb
\n\nChapter 4 Menaquinones, Bacteria, and Foods: Vitamin K2 in the Diet by Barbara Walther and Magali Chollet
\n\nChapter 5 The Impact of Vitamin K2 on Energy Metabolism by Mona Møller, Serena Tonstad, Tone Bathen and Jan Oxholm Gordeladze
\n\nChapter 6 Vitamin K2 and Bone Health by Niels Erik Frandsen and Jan Oxholm Gordeladze
\n\nChapter 7 Vitamin K2 and its Impact on Tooth Epigenetics by Jan Oxholm Gordeladze, Maria A. Landin, Gaute Floer Johnsen, Håvard Jostein Haugen and Harald Osmundsen
\n\nChapter 8 Anti-Inflammatory Actions of Vitamin K by Stephen J. Hodges, Andrew A. Pitsillides, Lars M. Ytrebø and Robin Soper
\n\nChapter 9 Vitamin K2: Implications for Cardiovascular Health in the Context of Plant-Based Diets, with Applications for Prostate Health by Michael S. Donaldson
\n\nChapter 11 Vitamin K2 Facilitating Inter-Organ Cross-Talk by Jan O. Gordeladze, Håvard J. Haugen, Gaute Floer Johnsen and Mona Møller
\n\nChapter 13 Medicinal Chemistry of Vitamin K Derivatives and Metabolites by Shinya Fujii and Hiroyuki Kagechika
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I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. 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After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. 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He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). 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I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. 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