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Attama",authors:[{id:"142947",title:"Prof.",name:"Anthony",middleName:null,surname:"Attama",fullName:"Anthony Attama",slug:"anthony-attama"}]},{id:"47162",title:"Nanoparticle Insulin Drug Delivery — Applications and New Aspects",slug:"nanoparticle-insulin-drug-delivery-applications-and-new-aspects",signatures:"Hatice Kübra Elçioğlu and Ali Demir Sezer",authors:[{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer"},{id:"169323",title:"Dr.",name:"Kubra",middleName:null,surname:"Elcioglu",fullName:"Kubra Elcioglu",slug:"kubra-elcioglu"}]},{id:"46807",title:"Polymer Nanoparticles for Smart Drug Delivery",slug:"polymer-nanoparticles-for-smart-drug-delivery",signatures:"Devasier Bennet and Sanghyo Kim",authors:[{id:"170171",title:"Dr.",name:"Sanghyo",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",fullName:"Sanghyo Kim",slug:"sanghyo-kim"},{id:"170816",title:"Dr.",name:"Devasier",middleName:null,surname:"Bennet",fullName:"Devasier Bennet",slug:"devasier-bennet"}]},{id:"46789",title:"Mannan as a Promising Bioactive Material for Drug Nanocarrier Systems",slug:"mannan-as-a-promising-bioactive-material-for-drug-nanocarrier-systems",signatures:"Songul Yasar Yildiz and Ebru Toksoy Oner",authors:[{id:"169329",title:"Dr.",name:"Songul",middleName:null,surname:"Yasar Yildiz",fullName:"Songul Yasar Yildiz",slug:"songul-yasar-yildiz"},{id:"169330",title:"Dr.",name:"Ebru",middleName:null,surname:"Toksoy",fullName:"Ebru Toksoy",slug:"ebru-toksoy"}]},{id:"47076",title:"Nanoflora — How Nanotechnology Enhanced the Use of Active Phytochemicals",slug:"nanoflora-how-nanotechnology-enhanced-the-use-of-active-phytochemicals",signatures:"Fadwa Odeh, Hala Al-Jaber and Dima Khater",authors:[{id:"169318",title:"Dr.",name:"Fadwa",middleName:null,surname:"Odeh",fullName:"Fadwa Odeh",slug:"fadwa-odeh"},{id:"171763",title:"Dr.",name:"Hala",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Jaber",fullName:"Hala Al-Jaber",slug:"hala-al-jaber"},{id:"171905",title:"Ms.",name:"Dima",middleName:null,surname:"Khater",fullName:"Dima Khater",slug:"dima-khater"}]},{id:"46638",title:"Electroporation – Advantages and Drawbacks for Delivery of Drug, Gene and Vaccine",slug:"electroporation-advantages-and-drawbacks-for-delivery-of-drug-gene-and-vaccine",signatures:"Azam Bolhassani, Afshin Khavari and Zahra Orafa",authors:[{id:"169317",title:"Dr.",name:"Azam",middleName:null,surname:"Bolhassani",fullName:"Azam Bolhassani",slug:"azam-bolhassani"}]},{id:"46800",title:"Prodrugs for Masking the Bitter Taste of Drugs",slug:"prodrugs-for-masking-the-bitter-taste-of-drugs",signatures:"Rafik Karaman",authors:[{id:"169319",title:"Dr.",name:"Rafik",middleName:null,surname:"Karaman",fullName:"Rafik Karaman",slug:"rafik-karaman"}]},{id:"47114",title:"Organic Nanotubes: Promising Vehicles for Drug Delivery",slug:"organic-nanotubes-promising-vehicles-for-drug-delivery",signatures:"Utpal Bhadra, Manika Pal Bhadra, Jagannadh Bulusu and J.S. Yadav",authors:[{id:"169328",title:"Dr.",name:"Utpal",middleName:null,surname:"Bhadra",fullName:"Utpal Bhadra",slug:"utpal-bhadra"}]},{id:"46941",title:"Pharmacokinetic Properties and Safety of Cadmium-Containing Quantum Dots as Drug Delivery Systems",slug:"pharmacokinetic-properties-and-safety-of-cadmium-containing-quantum-dots-as-drug-delivery-systems",signatures:"Lourdes Rodriguez-Fragoso, Ivonne Gutiérrez-Sancha, Patricia\nRodríguez-Fragoso, Anahí Rodríguez-López and Jorge Reyes-\nEsparza",authors:[{id:"141589",title:"Prof.",name:"Lourdes",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Fragoso",fullName:"Lourdes Rodriguez-Fragoso",slug:"lourdes-rodriguez-fragoso"}]},{id:"45772",title:"Anticipating Market Introduction of Nanotechnology-Enabled Drug Delivery Systems",slug:"anticipating-market-introduction-of-nanotechnology-enabled-drug-delivery-systems",signatures:"Haico Te Kulve",authors:[{id:"169327",title:"Dr.",name:"Haico",middleName:null,surname:"Te Kulve",fullName:"Haico Te Kulve",slug:"haico-te-kulve"}]},{id:"46864",title:"Current Status and Future Scope for Nanomaterials in Drug Delivery",slug:"current-status-and-future-scope-for-nanomaterials-in-drug-delivery",signatures:"Biswajit Mukherjee, Niladri Shekhar Dey, Ruma Maji, Priyanka\nBhowmik, Pranab Jyoti Das and Paramita Paul",authors:[{id:"73326",title:"Prof.",name:"Biswajit",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",fullName:"Biswajit Mukherjee",slug:"biswajit-mukherjee"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"68698",title:"Nanofibrous Scaffolds for Skin Tissue Engineering and Wound Healing Based on Nature-Derived Polymers",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88602",slug:"nanofibrous-scaffolds-for-skin-tissue-engineering-and-wound-healing-based-on-nature-derived-polymers",body:'\nNanofibrous scaffolds are one of the most promising materials for skin tissue engineering and wound dressing, because they resemble nanoarchitecture of the native extracellular matrix (for a review, see [1]). Therefore, they can serve as suitable carriers of cells for tissue engineering and also as suitable wound dressings, which are able to protect the wound from external harmful effects, mainly microbial infection, and at the same time, they can keep appropriate moisture and gas exchange at the wound site.
\nNanofibrous scaffolds for skin tissue engineering have been fabricated from a wide range of synthetic and nature-derived polymers, which can be either biostable or degradable within the human body. Biostable synthetic polymers used in nanofiber-based skin regenerative therapies include, for example, polyurethane [2], polydimethylsiloxane [3], polyethylene terephthalate [4], polyethersulfone [5], and also hydrogels such as poly(acrylic acid) (PAA, [6]), poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA, [7]), and poly[di(ethylene glycol) methyl ether methacrylate] (PDEGMA, [8]). Degradable synthetic polymers typically include poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL, [9]) and its copolymers with polylactides (PLCL, [10]), polylactides (PLA, [11]) and their copolymers with polyglycolides (PLGA, [12]), and also so-called auxiliary polymers, such as poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG), poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO, [13]) or poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA, [14]), which facilitated the electrospinning process and improved the mechanical properties and wettability of the chief polymer. However, the synthetic polymers, although they are well-chemically defined and tailorable, are often bioinert, hydrophobic and thus not promoting cell adhesion, and also not well-adhering to the wound site. Therefore, they need to be combined with other bioactive substances, particularly nature-derived polymers.
\nThis chapter is focused on nature-derived polymers used for fabrication of nanofibrous scaffolds for skin tissue engineering and wound healing. The advantages of most of these polymers are their better bioactivity, flexibility, wettability, and adhesion to the wound site. Similarly as synthetic polymers, also nature-derived polymers can be divided into polymers with none or limited degradability, when implanted into human tissues, and polymers well-degradable in human tissues. The first group includes glucans, such as cellulose, schizophyllan, dextran, starch, and other polysaccharides and proteins, such as pullulan, xylan, alginate, pectin, gum tragacanth, gum arabic, silk fibroin, and sericin. The second group of polymers degradable in human tissues includes collagen and its derivative gelatin, elastin, keratin, glycosaminoglycans such as hyaluronic acid, heparin and chondroitin sulfate, and also polymers not produced in the human body, namely chitosan, gellan gum, zein, and poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-
Some of the polymers degradable in human tissues, such as collagen, gelatin, elastin, keratin, and glycosaminoglycans, contain specific cell-binding motifs in their molecules, for example, specific amino acid sequences in proteins and oligosaccharide domains in glycosaminoglycans, which are recognized by cell adhesion receptors of integrin and non-integrin families (for a review, see [15, 16]). These molecules are often used in allogeneic or xenogeneic form, thus they can be associated with pathogen transmission or immune reaction. However, some synthetic polymers, for example PLA and PCL, have been reported to induce a more pronounced inflammatory reaction than gelatin [17].
\nThis review chapter summarizes earlier and recent knowledge on skin tissue engineering and wound dressing applications, based on nanofibrous scaffolds made of nature-derived polymers, including our results.
\nNature-derived nondegradable polymers or polymers with limited degradability in human tissues include polymers not occurring in the human body and synthesized by other organisms, such as plants, algae, fungi, insects, and bacteria.
\n\n
Nanofibrous cellulose can be prepared in three basic forms: bacterial cellulose, which contains cellulose nanofibrils, synthesized by bacteria, nanofibrillar cellulose prepared from plants, particularly from wood, by hydrolysis, oxidation, and mechanical disintegration, and cellulose nanofibers created by electrospinning (for a review, see [19]). For electrospinning, cellulose should be solved. Well-known solvent of cellulose is N-methylmorpholine-N-oxide (NMMO). Another possibility is N-alkylinidazolium-derivate ionic liquid and N,N-dimethylacetamide containing 8 wt% of LiCl. However, any of them did not prove to be a good solvent for needleless electrospinning. The most favorable solvent of cellulose was found to be trifluoroacetic acid (TFA). However, TFA causes severe skin burns and is toxic for aquatic organisms even in low concentrations [20]. These problems, which limit the use of cellulose for creation of electrospun scaffolds for biomedical applications, can be solved by substituting the natural cellulose by its derivatives. The mostly used derivative of cellulose is cellulose acetate (CA), mainly due to its easier solubility and biocompatibility. CA can be dissolved in several solvents, however the best ones for electrospinning proved to be acetic acid (AA), and mixtures of acetone and N,N-dimethylacetamide (DMAC). Some results of successfully spun fibers by needleless electrospinning in our experiments can be found in \nFigure 1\n, demonstrating differences in the fiber morphology. The 95% aqueous mixture of AA showed the best results in comparison with acetone/DMAC mixtures due to production of smoother fibers and lower cytotoxicity.
\nScanning electron microscopy of nanofibrous layers produced by wire needleless electrospinning using different solvents, namely 12 wt% of CA in acetone/DMAC (9:1) (left) or 14 wt% of CA in 95% AA (right).
All the mentioned forms of cellulose have been widely applied as wound dressings releasing various bioactive agents into wounds (antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidative agents, cytokines, and growth and angiogenic factors), as transparent wound dressings for direct optical monitoring of wounds, for systemic transdermal drug delivery (analgesics, antiphlogistics, corticoids, and antihypertensives) and for construction of epidermal electronics for monitoring wound healing or physiological status of the organism. Non-degradable nanocellulose has also been used as a temporary carrier for delivery of keratinocytes, dermal fibroblasts, and mesenchymal stem cells into wounds (for a review, see [19]).
\nHowever, for use as direct scaffolds for skin tissue engineering, cellulose should be rendered degradable in human tissues. Cellulose is degradable by cellulase enzymes (exoglucanases and endoglucanases), which hydrolyze 1,4-beta-D-glycosidic linkages. These enzymes are not synthesized in human tissues, but they can be incorporated into cellulose scaffolds in order to degrade them gradually [21, 22]. These enzymes are believed to be non-toxic for mammalian cells [23, 24]. Moreover, the final product of cellulose degradation by these enzymes is glucose, which is a natural nutrient for the cells, by contrast with the acidic by-products of the standard currently used biodegradable PLA or PLGA scaffolds [25]. Another possibility how to use cellulase enzymes in skin tissue engineering (and in tissue engineering in general) is cell sheet technology. First, cells can be grown on the top of non-degradable cellulose substrates. After reaching the cell confluence, self-standing cell sheets can be released by exposure of the cellulose substrates to cellulases. Unlike the proteolytic enzymes conventionally used for detaching cells from their growth supports, cellulases do not disintegrate the extracellular matrix (ECM) formed by cells and do not cleave extracellular parts of cell adhesion receptors binding the ECM [26]. The cell sheets can be then replanted in the wound bed.
\nAnother interesting approach how to render the cellulose degradable was metabolic engineering of
Other approaches how to render the cellulose degradable, at least partially, is its oxidation and other chemical modifications of cellulose, such as its conversion into regenerated cellulose or 2,3-dialdehydecellulose. In addition, cellulose of animal origin, that is, from tunicates, degraded more quickly than plant cellulose. For example, when cellulose films from
\n
Other glucans used for fabrication of nanofibrous scaffolds for skin tissue engineering and wound healing include dextran, starch and pullulan. According to the type of their glycosidic bonds, these polysaccharides belong to α-glucans.
\n\n
Dextran was also used as component of a bilayer scaffold for skin tissue engineering. The upper part of the scaffolds was made of electrospun blend of poly(ε-caprolactone-
Dextran is degradable by dextranases, enzymes hydrolyzing (1 → 6)-alpha-D-glycosidic linkages. This enzyme is produced mainly by bacterial and fungi, but it was also detected in animal and human tissues, namely liver and spleen. Therefore, dextran is often chosen for biomedical applications, particularly drug delivery, because it is slowly degradable in human organism. Dextran molecules with Mw higher than 40 kDa are sequestered in the liver and spleen, and then hydrolyzed by endo- and exodextranases. Dextran molecules with Mw lower than 40 kDa can be eliminated through renal clearance [32]. However, dextran hydrogels implanted subcutaneously or intramuscularly into rats did not show signs of degradation 6 weeks post-implantation and were surrounded by a thin fibrous capsule and some macrophages and giant cells, which is a response typical for a number of non-degradable materials [32].
\n\n
\n
\n
\n
The degradability of alginate in human organism is limited. Alginate is naturally degraded by alginate lyases or alginate depolymerases, which have been isolated from marine algae, marine animals, bacteria, fungi, viruses, and other microorganisms, but are not present in the human organism. Degradability of alginate can be increased by its oxidation and at low pH. Also the hydrophilicity and water uptake capacity of alginate can help in its removal from the wound site (for a review, see [48]).
\n\n
Other polysaccharides explored for creation of nanofibrous scaffolds for skin tissue engineering and wound healing are gum tragacanth and gum arabic, both polysaccharides of plant origin, degradable by bacteria and fungi, for example, in soil [57, 58].
\n\n
\n
\n
In biomaterial science, silk fibroin is considered to be degradable, but in mammalian organism, this degradation is long-lasting and can take more than 1 year. As a kind of biomaterial approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for medical use, silk is defined by United States Pharmacopeia as non-degradable for its negligible tensile strength loss
The degradation behavior of fibroin scaffolds depends on the preparation method and structural characteristics, such as processing condition, pore size, and silk fibroin concentration (for a review, see [65]). For example, three-dimensional porous scaffolds prepared from silk fibroin using all-aqueous process degraded within 2–6 months after implantation into muscle pouches of rats, while the scaffolds prepared using an organic solvent, hexafluoroisopropanol (HFIP), persisted beyond 1 year. It was probably due to a lower original silk fibroin concentration, larger pore size, and a higher and more homogeneous cellular infiltration of aqueous-derived scaffolds than in HFIP-derived scaffolds [66].
\nFor skin tissue engineering and wound healing, silk fibroin has been combined with various synthetic and natural polymers and other bioactive substances. The polymers included, for example, PCL, [67], poly(L-lactic acid)-
\n
Nature-derived polymers degradable in human tissues include, in particular, polymers that are synthesized in the human body and usually act as components of ECM. These polymers are proteins (collagen and its derivative gelatin, elastin, fibrinogen and fibrin, keratin) or polysaccharides in non-sulfated form (hyaluronic acid) and sulfated form (heparin-like glycosaminoglycans). In addition, some natural polymers synthesized by other organisms, such as bacteria, fungi, insects, crustaceans or plants, are degradable in human tissues, because they are susceptible to enzymes present in human tissues, such as lysozyme and esterases. These polymers include chitosan, gellan gum, zein, and PHBV.
\n\n
Collagen is one of the most widely used natural proteins for creation of nanofibrous scaffolds for skin tissue engineering and wound healing. However, these scaffolds are usually mechanically weak, and therefore they need crosslinking or blending with synthetic polymers. Collagen crosslinking with conventionally used agents, particularly glutaraldehyde, is associated with the risk of the scaffold cytotoxicity. More benign crosslinkers used recently include, for example, citric acid [95] or quaternary ammonium organosilane, a multifunctional crosslinking agent, which improved the electrospinnability of collagen by reducing its surface tension, endowed the collagen nanofibers with potent antimicrobial activity and promoted the adhesion and metabolic activity of primary human dermal fibroblasts without any cytotoxicity, at least in a lower concentration of 0.1% w/w [97].
\nSynthetic polymers used for combination with collagen in nanofibrous scaffolds included PLA [98], PLGA [99, 100], and particularly PCL, which was either blended with collagen [101, 102, 103, 104] or served as substrate for subsequent deposition of collagen [105]. Collagen has also been combined with natural polymers, such as silk fibroin [73] or chitosan in a form of blends [106] or in a form of bilayered scaffolds, where collagen was electrospun onto the chitosan scaffolds [107]. Collagen was also grafted on the surface of composite electrospun PVA/gelatin/alginate nanofibers [41]. Collagen-based or collagen-containing nanofibers have been loaded with a wide range of bioactive substances, such as vitamin C, vitamin D3, hydrocortisone, insulin, triiodothyronine, and epidermal growth factor [100], transforming growth factor-β1 [102], plant extracts such as
\n
Similarly as collagen, also gelatin is the most promising for skin tissue engineering and wound healing applications in combination with various synthetic and natural polymers. For example, gelatin was combined with polyurethane [109], PLA [11, 17], and particularly with PCL, where it was incorporated into core-shell PCL/gelatin nanofibers as the core polymer [110] or electrospun independently of PCL using a double-nozzle technique, which resulted in creation of two types of nanofibers in the scaffolds, either mixed [111] or arranged in separate gelatin and PCL layers [112]. Gelatin was also combined with a copolymer of lactic acid and caprolactone P(LLA-CL) in the form of blends [113] or in the form of coaxial nanofibers with P(LLA-CL)/gelatin shell and albumin core containing epidermal growth factor, insulin, hydrocortisone, and retinoic acid [114]. Natural proteins combined with gelatin included dextran [31], pullulan [38], alginate [41], silk fibroin [74], and hyaluronan with chondroitin sulfate [86].
\nFor combination with synthetic and natural polymers, for example, with PCL [115], and chitosan and keratin [116], gelatin was also used in the form of photocrosslinkable gelatin methacrylate hydrogel (GelMA). On PCL nanofibers, GelMA showed a higher decoration level in comparison with native gelatin [116]. Self-standing nanofibrous matrices electrospun from GelMA enabled tuning of their water retention capacity, stiffness, strength, elasticity, and degradation by changing the exposure time to UV light [117].
\n\n
\n
Developing a bilayer construct of keratinocytes and fibroblasts on a PLLA nanofibrous membrane with fibrin and collagen hydrogel. Left: schematic design; right: real construct.
Also fibrinogen was used for modification of synthetic polymeric nanofibers in order to enhance the cell adhesion and growth. Nanofibrous scaffolds electrospun from blends of PCL and fibrinogen improved the adhesion, proliferation, and epidermal differentiation of adipose tissue-derived stem cells (ADSCs) in comparison with pure PCL scaffolds. Composite PCL/fibrinogen scaffolds seeded with ADSCs also markedly improved healing of full-thickness excisional wounds created in rats in comparison with acellular dermal matrix or acellular dermal matrix with ADSCs [124].
\n\n
In most studies dealing with keratin-containing nanofibers, keratin was combined with other natural or synthetic polymers in order to improve the spinnability of keratin, or to improve the bioactivity of the co-electrospun polymer. For example, in a study by Cruz-Maya
\n
Hyaluronic acid stimulated infiltration of nanofibrous scaffold composed of hyaluronan, silk fibroin and PCL [75], and can help to promote cell proliferation [129]. Electrospinning of pure hyaluronic acid is not simple because of solubility characteristics of this polymer. Hyaluronic acid is well-soluble in water but less-soluble in most organic solvents, which can be solved by mixtures of solvents as water/ethanol or water/dimethylformamide [130]. Increasing of evaporation and decreasing of solution surface tension by the solvent mixing helps to electrospinning process. Another possibility is electrospinning of hyaluronic acid together with a suitable water-soluble polymer such as PVA [131] or PEO. The solution of pure hyaluronic acid [132] or with relatively small amount of carrier PEO was successfully spun into nanofibrous material by air-assisted electrospinning technology, that is, electroblowing [133]. For creation of nanofibrous scaffolds, hyaluronic acid was also used in combination with PCL [134], PLA [135] or gelatin, chondroitin sulfate and sericin [86].
\n\n
\n
However, electrospinning of chitosan is difficult due to its polycationic characters. Due to the presence of amine groups in the chitosan molecule, acidic aqueous solutions are the best solvents for this polymer. The best candidates for solvent system seem to be mixture of acetic acid (AA) and formic acid (FA) or trifluoroacetic acid (TFA); however, TFA is highly toxic. Electrospinning of pure chitosan has very low productivity because it requires very concentrated polymeric solutions [141]. Therefore, for creation of nanofibrous scaffolds for skin tissue engineering, chitosan has been mixed with other natural or synthetic polymers, such as collagen [142], gelatin [143], keratin [116], cellulose [144], pectin [54, 55], silk fibroin [69], PHBV [145], PCL [142], PLA [146], PLGA [147], PEO, [148], and also with PVA, which was used in our studies (\nFigure 3\n). Chitosan has also been mixed with various nanoparticles, such as halloysite nanotubes [149], graphene oxide [150] or nanodiamonds [144]. The reason of all these mixtures was to improve the stability, spinnability, wettability, mechanical properties, and biofunctionality of chitosan-containing scaffolds for skin tissue engineering. Combination of chitosan with various polymers also enabled creation of bilayer scaffolds for reconstruction of two main skin layers, that is, epidermis containing keratinocytes and dermis containing fibroblasts [116, 142]. In order to enhance the antimicrobial and wound healing activity of chitosan, this polymer was electrospun together with extract from Henna leaves [151]. In addition, chitosan nanoparticles have been incorporated in nanofibrous scaffolds as carriers for controlled drug delivery, for example, delivery of growth factors, cytokines and angiogenic factors, such as platelet-derived growth factor [152], granulocyte colony-stimulating factor [153] or angiogenin [147]. Nanofibrous scaffolds promising for skin tissue engineering and wound healing were also prepared directly from chitin, which was electrospun either alone with further modifications with fibronectin, laminin and particularly with type I collagen [154], or in combination with silk fibroin [70].
\nScanning electron microscopy of nanofibrous layers produced by needle electrospinning from PVA/chitosan solution.
\n
\n
\n
Nanofibrous scaffolds made of nature-derived polymers hold a great promise for skin tissue engineering and wound healing. These scaffolds are created from biological matrices, and from this point of view, they resemble the extracellular matrix more closely than synthetic polymers. Some of these polymers, such as collagen, gelatin, elastin, keratin, nonsulfated and sulfated glycosaminoglycans, and also nonmulberry silk fibroin, contain motifs that are recognized and bound by cell adhesion receptors. Therefore, nature-derived polymers can increase the bioactivity of synthetic polymers, when combined with them in nanofibrous scaffolds. Conversely, synthetic polymers can improve the electrospinnability and mechanical properties of the natural polymers. Similarly as synthetic polymers, nature-derived polymers can be more or less degradable in human tissues. Degradable polymers include collagen, gelatin, elastin, keratin, glycosaminoglycans, but also chitosan, gellan gum and PHBV, that is, polymers produced by other than mammalian organisms. Polymers produced by other organisms, such as bacteria, fungi, algae, plants or insects, are usually nondegradable in human tissues, or their degradability is limited due to lack of appropriate enzymes. These polymers include glucans, such as cellulose or dextran, and other polysaccharides and proteins, such as pullulan, alginate, pectin, and silk fibroin. Well-degradable polymers are recommended as direct scaffolds for tissue engineering, while less-degradable polymers are suitable for “intelligent” wound dressing for drug delivery and cell delivery.
\nThis review article was supported by the Grant Agency of the Czech Republic (grants No. 17-02448S and 17-00885S).
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I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. 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