Typical properties of commercially available 3 main piezoelectric materials [30]
\r\n\tMethadone maintenance treatment (MMT) has become the main pharmacological option for the treatment of opioid dependence. Methadone remains the gold standard in the substitution treatment, which is a harm reduction intervention, because the patient does not become abstinent, but there are a series of positive changes. Currently, the surveillance of methadone substitution treatment is considered an ongoing challenge, given the need for the individualization and the increasing of the therapy efficiency. Methadone has been also studied as an analgesic for the management of cancer pain and other chronic pain conditions.
\r\n\r\n\tThe complexity of methadone pharmacology, the high inter-individual variability in methadone pharmacokinetics, the risk of opioid diversion, the overdose and other adverse events pose many challenges to clinicians.
\r\n\tThe aim of the proposed book is to update and summarize the scientific knowledge on the opioid dependence, including the mechanism of opioid dependence, the misuse of prescription opioids and the substitution therapy of opioid dependence.
Energy harvesting is the process of extracting, converting and storing energy from the environment that can also be described as a response of smart materials when they are subjected to an external stimulus such as pressure, vibrations, motion and temperature emanating from wind, rain, waves, tides, light and so on. The efficiency of devices in capturing trace amounts of energy from the environment and transforming it into electrical energy has increased with the development of new materials and techniques. This has sparked interest in the engineering community to establish more and more applications that utilize energy harvesting technologies for power generation.
Some of the energy harvesting systems which use different sources to generate electrical energy and their efficiencies are given below; [1]
mechanical energy into electricity-generators (20-70% efficiency), piezoelectric systems (0,5-15% efficiency)
chemical into electricity; fuel cells (25-35% efficiency), primary batteries, rechargeable batteries
heat/cold into electricity; seebeck-elements (2-5% efficiency)
electromagnetic radiation into electricity; photovoltaic systems.
Piezoelectric effect is a unique property that allows materials to convert mechanical energy to electrical energy and conversely, electrical energy to mechanical energy. The stimuli for piezoelectric materials can be human walking, wind, rain, tide and wave etc. This effect can be an inherent property of the material or it can be imparted to an existing non-piezoelectric material. However, not every material can be made piezoelectric, only certain ceramics and polymers have the ability to become piezoelectric. Therefore, the chapter will contain fundamentals of piezoelectric effect, a historical review on piezoelectric energy harvesting and recent developments such as flexible piezoelectric fibres which can be integrated or embedded into flexible structures.
Since the sun is the most abundant renewable energy source in the world and the solar energy the earth receives in an hour is greater than the energy consumed in a year. This makes the photovoltaic (solar) materials one of the most significant alternative energy harvesters. This chapter will contain the statistics for solar cell production in EU countries between 2000 and 2010 and also the electricity generated by photovoltaic cells in Europe in 2010 will also be highlighted. The fundamentals of photovoltaic materials and different cell types such as organic, inorganic, dye-sensitized and tandem will be reviewed in this chapter. The chapter will also contain an historical review on the photovoltaic energy harvesters, their efficiencies and the most recent developments are included.
One of the most widely used smart materials is piezoelectric materials because of their wide band width, fast electro mechanical response, relatively low power requirements and high generative forces. Figure 1 presents a market review on piezoelectric materials corresponding to their applications and market share (%) in 2007.
Piezoelectric devices market share overview on applications [
As it can be seen in Figure 1, information technology/robots is the leader of the market with 31.7% global market share while acoustic devices and resonators have the lowest share in the market with 3.1%. The others in the global market between these two applications can be given from high market share to low; semiconductor manufacturing and precision machines (18.6%), sonar (12.5%), bio/medical (11.1%), ecology and energy harvesting (7%), accelerators and sensors (5.8%), non-destructive testing (5.7%) and miscellaneous which includes gas igniters, piezo printing heads and telecommunication devices (4.5%). It has been reported by Innovative Research and Products (iRAP) Inc. that the global market for piezoelectric devices equals to US$10.6 billion and a high growth is expected over a 5-year period and to reach a value of US$19.5 billion by 2012.
Energy harvesting applications for piezoelectric devices is less than 10% however it can change dramatically if the importance of piezoelectric materials is recognised for alternative energy from nature with zero carbon foot print.
Piezoelectric behaviour was first found in some crystals. According to historical reviews on piezoelectricity [3-4] Charles Coloumb was the first person who theorized in 1817 that electricity may be produced by the application of pressure to certain types of materials. However, it was only a notion until the actual discovery of the “direct-piezoelectric phenomenon” on quartz by Pierre and Jacque Curie [5]. They placed weights on the crystals and detected some charges on the surface and also observed that the magnitude of detected charge was proportional to the applied weight.
Lippmann [6] predicted that if a material could generate electrical charge when a is pressure applied, the reverse effect may be possible so that a mechanical strain could be developed when an electrical charge is applied and this notion was then supported by Curie brothers’ experimental results [7]. These two domains had been known as “direct pressure-electric effect” and “converse pressure-electric effect” until Hankel [3] suggested the name “piezoelectricity”. Piezoelectricity comes from the Greek words “piezo” and “electricity” that the word “piezo” is a derivative of a Greek word which means “to press” and “electricity” has the same meaning as English word “electricity”.
Piezoelectric effect exists in two domains; namely, direct piezoelectric effect and converse piezoelectric effect. Direct piezoelectric effect describes the ability to convert mechanical energy to electrical energy which is also known as generator or transducer effect while the converse piezoelectric effect describes the ability of transforming electrical energy to mechanical energy which is also known as motor/actuator effect. The electrical energy generated by direct piezoelectric effect can be stored to power electronic devices and it is known as “energy/power harvesting”.
Piezoelectric materials are member of ferroelectrics so that the molecular structure is oriented such that the material exhibits a local charge separation, known as electric dipole. Electric dipoles in the artificial piezoelectric materials composition are randomly oriented, so the material does not exhibit the piezoelectric effect. However, the electric dipoles reorient themselves when a strong electrical field is applied as shown in Figure 2.
The orientation is dependent on the applied electrical field which is known as poling. Once the electric field is extinguished, the dipoles maintain their orientation and the material then exhibit the piezoelectric effect so that an electrical voltage can be recovered along any surface of the material when the material is subjected to a mechanical stress [8]. However, the alignment of the dipole moments may not be perfectly straight because each domain may have several allowed directions. The piezoelectric property gained is stable unless the material is heated to or above its Curie temperature (Tc). However, it can be cancelled by the application of an electric field that is opposite to the direction of the material.
Orientation of dipoles by polarization, (a) random orientation of polar domains, (b) application of high DC electric field (polarization), (c) remnant polarization after the electric field is extinguished.
According to the definition of “direct piezoelectric effect”, when a mechanical strain is applied to crystals by an external stress, an electric charge occurs on the surface(s) of the crystal and the polarity of this observed electric charge on the surface(s) can be reversed by reversing the direction of the mechanical strain applied as shown in Figure 3.
Schematic of direct piezoelectric effect; (a) piezoelectric material, (b) energy generation under tension, (c) energy generation under compression
On the other hand, according to the definition of “converse piezoelectric effect”, when an electric field is applied to a crystal or a crystal is subjected to an electric field, a mechanical deformation on the surface is observed which is generally seen as a change in dimensions of the crystal. The direction of the mechanical strain can also be reversed as shown in Figure 4, by reversing the applied electric field.
Schematic of converse piezoelectric effect; (a) piezoelectric material, (b) dimensional change when an electrical charge applied, (c) dimensional change when an opposite electrical charge applied.
Piezoelectricity can be seen in different structures;
Naturally occurring biological piezoelectric materials
Naturally occurring piezoelectric crystals
Quartz [5]
Rachell salt
Tourmaline
Man made piezoelectric ceramics
Man made piezoelectric polymers
Polyvinylidene fluoride – PVDF [27]
Polyparaxylene
poly-bischloromethyuloxetane
Aromatic polyamides
Polysulfone
Polyvinyl fluoride
Synthetic polypeptide
Polymeric materials can be produced as large thin sheets and then can be cut or stamped into nearly any shape. They also exhibit high mechanical strength and high impact resistance when compared to ceramic materials. Although the piezoelectric charge constant of polymers are lower than that of ceramics, they have much higher piezoelectric voltage constant than that of ceramics which indicates better sensing characteristic.
Polymers consist of two regions; crystalline and amorphous. The percentage of crystalline region in a polymer matrix determines the piezoelectric effect. However, crystallites are dispersed in amorphous region in semi-crystalline polymers as shown in Figure 5.
Amorphous and crystalline regions in the polymer matrix; from melt cast (a), during mechanical orientation (b) and electrically poling (c) [
The melting temperature of a polymer is dependent on the percentage of crystalline region in the polymer while the amorphous region designates the glass transition temperature and mechanical properties of the polymer. As it is seen in Figure 5 crystalline structures and so the molecular dipoles are locked in the amorphous region. Broadhurst et al. [29] studied the molecular and morphological structure of PVDF and its pyroelectric and piezoelectric properties. If a DC voltage is applied across the polymeric piezoelectric material, the material becomes thinner, longer and wider in proportion to the voltage, conversely the film generates a proportional voltage when a mechanical stress is applied either by compression or stretching. The relationship between applied mechanical stress and generated voltage can be defined by stress constants.
As it can be seen from the Table 1 the piezoelectric constant is lower for polymers as compared to ceramic based piezoelectric materials. Therefore, when the same amount of voltage applied to polymer and ceramic piezoelectric materials, the shape change of ceramic based materials are larger than polymers. Although PVDF has a lower piezoelectric charge coefficient, its piezoelectric voltage coefficient is about 21 times higher than that of PZT and 40 times higher than that of BaTiO3, therefore PVDF is better for sensor applications. Due to being a polymer, PVDF is flexible, light weight, tough, readily manufactured into large areas and can be cut and formed into complex shapes.
The electromechanical coupling constants (k31) of PZT is approximately 2.5 times larger than the electromechanical constant of PVDF which means it is able to convert 2.5 times more mechanical stress into electrical energy than that PVDF.
103 kg/m3 | 5.7 | 7.5 | 1.78 | |
ε/ε0 | 1,700 | 1,200 | 12 | |
10-12 C/N | 78 | 110 | 23 | |
10-3 Vm/N | 5 | 10 | 216 | |
V/µm K | 0.05 | 0.03 | 0.47 | |
%@1 kHz | 21 | 30 | 12 | |
(106)kg/m2-sec | 30 | 30 | 2.7 |
Typical properties of commercially available 3 main piezoelectric materials [30]
One of the very early studies of energy harvesting by piezoelectric materials was performed in a biological environment by Hausler and Stein [31]. They claimed that a piezoelectric PVDF film and a converter could transform the mechanical energy caused by respiration of a mongrel dog to electrical energy. The piezoelectric material was fixed to the ribs of the dog and a peak voltage of 18V was produced by motions of the ribs during the spontaneous breathing. However, the power generated was about 17µW which was not enough to operate an electronic device.
More than a decade after the study on animals, Starner [32] studied the possibility of energy harvesting from body motions by using piezoelectric materials. He claimed that a human body could be a source for harvestable electric energy. Starner studied different part of the body, such as walking, upper limb motion, finger movements, blood pressure etc., and analysed the possibility of harvestable power from these locations. He claimed that the amount of power lost during walking was about 67W and by mounting a PZT device inside a shoe with an efficiency of 12.5%, up to 8.4W electrical energy could be generated. He also, suggested the possibility of storing the harvested energy by using a capacitor.
Parasitic energy harvesting from walking of a human being to power a radio frequency identification transmitter was studied by Kymissis et al. [33]. They used three different devices which were a thunder actuator consisting of a ceramic based piezoelectric composite material, a rotary magnetic generator and a PVDF stave. Former two structures were integrated into the heel of a shoe to harvest the impact energy while the PVDF stave was integrated into the sole to absorb the bending energy. The researchers constructed a prototype to investigate and compare the energy generation performance of these three different materials. The peak power generated by PZT unimorph structure was 4 times higher than PVDF stave, 80mW and 20mW respectively. However, the peak power generated by the rotary generator was found to be only 0.25mW which was found not to be sufficient to power a radio frequency identification transmitter.
Shenck [34] demonstrated the harvestable power generation from a rigid bimorph piezoceramic transducer, which was integrated into the sole of a shoe. Different regulation systems were evaluated. One of the findings was that the use of a second piezoelectric material leads to more energy generation. Furthermore, it was found that a bimorph transducer was more effective for the application since it was better adapted to various distributions of body weight and footfall velocity. Shenck and Paradiso [35] also studied piezoelectric PVDF and PZT structures embedded in a shoe. A power storage circuit which was designed to power a radio frequency tag was also mounted in a shoe and an offline forward switching DC-DC converter was developed. The experimental results showed that the switching converter harvested energy more efficiently –about twice as much- than the original linear regulator circuit. The whole set-up was successful to power low energy electronic devices since the switching circuit provided continuous power during walking.
Churchill et al. [36] investigated the power harvesting capability of a piezoelectric fibre composite structure consisting of unidirectionally aligned PZT fibres of 250μm diameter embedded in a resin matrix. It was found that 7.5mW of power could be harvested from a piezoelectric fibre composite material - with a length of 130 mm, a width of 13 mm and a thickness of 0.38 mm – when a vibration of 180 Hz was applied. In another work the possibility of power harvesting was performed by Renaud et al. [37].They studied the wrist and arm motions during walking. They found that a spring mass resonant system was not appropriate for energy harvesting from arm since motions caused by arm movements were low in frequency. An analytic model for a non-resonant system was developed and it showed that a maximum power of 40 μW could be generated from the wrist movements during walking.
Granstrom et al. [38] developed a theoretical model of an energy harvesting backpack that can generate electrical energy from flexible piezoelectric PVDF films integrated into the straps. It was found that 45.6mW of power could be generated from a complete backpack with two piezoelectric straps with an efficiency of more than 13%. Swallow et al. [39] developed a micropower generator using micro composite based piezoelectric materials for energy reclamation in glove structures. They developed fibre composite structures by using different fibre diameters embedded between two copper electrodes and both the effect of fibre diameter and the materials thickness were investigated. Their results showed that the composite structure was able to produce a voltage up to 6 volts. Siores and Swallow [40] developed an apparatus for detection and suspension of muscle tremors.
A multi-material piezoelectric fibre production has been reported by Egusa et al. [41] however it was produced by a multi-process method where a copolymer of PVDF, P(VDF-TrFE) and polycarbonates were used, which makes the fibre expensive and difficult to scale up for production. The first flexible piezoelectric fibre has been produced successfully by Siores et al. [42] via a continuous process on a customised melt extruder. This is a cost effective process since the polarisation of the fibre is carried out during the fibre production and the process is easy to scale up for production.
The sun is the most abundant renewable energy source in the World. The solar energy which the Earth receives in an hour is greater than the energy consumed in a year. If we need to present the situation by numbers, the received solar power is about 120,000 Terawatts while the global energy consumption is about 13 Terawatts [43].
Number of solar cell production between 2000 and 2010 in European Countries [
The importance of renewable energy generation increases significantly with an increase in global warming, air and water pollution etc. The most of the European countries have started using PV cells for their electrical energy need. Figure 6 clearly shows the dramatic increase in the PV cell production in Europe over a 10-year period. Increasing demand on the solar cell production has shown a steady increase since 2000. This may be a result of the increased awareness of global warming and the need for using environmentally friendly materials and techniques. The number of solar cell production in EU countries was more than doubled in a year between 2009 and 2010.
Figure 7 shows the projected solar power generation in European countries. It is clear that the largest solar power generator is Germany followed by Italy, Czech Republic and France. Although Spain is known as a sunny country, the production of power from solar cells is almost 20 times less than that of Germany. Mostly dull and cloudy countries like Latvia and Estonia pointed as “Rest of the EU” in the figure and United Kingdom have much lower solar power generation and their portion is under 1%.
Photovoltaic effect was first observed by Alexandre-Edmond Becquerel in 1839 when he subjected an AgCl electrode in an electrolyte solution to the light. The word “photo” is a Greek word used for light and “voltaic” named after Alessandro Volta. The beam of sunlight contains photons which may contain different amount of energy related to the different wavelengths of the solar spectrum. When a photovoltaic material is exposed to sunlight, photons may be reflected, absorbed or transmitted. Only the absorbed photons with energy greater than the bandgap energy can generate electricity by causing the breakage of covalent bonds and dislodging of the electrons from the atoms of the cell. The free electrons start moving through the cell and during this movement they create and fill in the cell’s vacancies to generate electricity. The ability of materials to absorb photons and convert into electricity is known as
PV market share (MW, %) in EU in 2010 and evaluation until 2015 [
The proportion of sunlight energy is significant for the conversion efficiency of a PV cell which converts sunlight energy to electrical energy. The efficiency of PV energy is important to make PV energy competitive with more traditional sources of energy, such as fossil fuels. For comparison, the earliest PV devices converted about 1%-2% of sunlight energy into electric energy. Today, it is likely to produce photovoltaic structures made of pure silicon with 24.7% efficiency [48-49] however, due to the rigidity of silicon based solar cells and pursuit of light weight and flexible photovoltaic materials for curved structures, applications are limited. Photovoltaic materials based on conjugated polymers, due to ease of processing, low-cost fabrication, being light weight and flexible, are evolving into a promising alternative to silicon based solar cells [50-51].
The best example for inorganic photovoltaic material is silicon. It is the most commonly used material which absorbs light and creates electron-hole pairs. The individual inorganic solar cells are designed with a positive (p-junction) and a negative (n-junction) layer to create an electric field. When n-type layer is doped, the element with an extra electron, generally phosphorous, is used to give a negative charge to the layer. On the other hand, when p-type layer is doped, the element with a less electron, generally boron, is used to give a positive charge to the layer. The place in between these two layers is called p-n cell junction.
Electrons in n-type layer are free and travel through the material to lower energy levels while holes travel to higher energy levels when the photovoltaic cell is exposed to the sunlight. Free electrons jump across the p-n cell junction. These electrons then return to the n-type layer when the two sides of the cell are connected with a wire and this electron flow is known as “the electric current”. The Figure 8 clearly presents the layers of an inorganic PV cell and the generation of electric current by flowing electrons.
Layers and working principle of a silicon solar cell
Crystalline, multi-crystalline, amorphous and microcrystalline silicon, copper indium gallium diselenide (CIGS), the III-V compounds and alloys, CdTe, InP, Cu2Se, WSe2, GaAs etc. are mostly used as inorganic semiconductor materials for PV cells [52-53]. These semiconductor materials, used for inorganic PV cell fabrication, have energy bandgaps within the range of 1.1-1.7 eV which make them desirable due to being near to the optimum energy bandgap of 1.5 eV for PV energy conversion by a single junction solar cell [54]. Many researchers have concentrated on increasing the efficiency and achieving maximum power. Recorded efficiency for a free-standing 50μm thin film monocrystalline silicon solar cell is 17% [55], for 47μm thin film silicon cell is 21.5% [56] and maximum recorded efficiency for inorganic solar cells is 24.7% [57].
Semiconducting polymers with suitable bandgaps, absorption characteristics and physical properties can be used for the fabrication of organic photovoltaic materials. They are cheaper raw materials as compared to silicon based inorganic solar cells and they can also be fabricated by using cheap processing techniques. Photovoltaic effect of organic PV cells is based on electron transfer from donor-type semiconducting conjugated polymers to acceptor-type conjugated polymers or acceptor molecules, such as fullerenes [58]. These materials have donor-acceptor heterojunctions to achieve separation of the electron-hole pairs. Most of the semiconducting polymers are hole-conductors and known as electron donor polymers.
There are six basic operational principles for a polymer solar cell [59-60] as listed below:
Coupling of the photons
Photon absorption by active layer, ηabs,
Electron-hole pair creation (excited state) and diffusion, ηdiff,
Charge separation, ηtc,
Charge transportation within the respective polymer to the respective electrodes, ηtr,
Charge collection, ηcc
Donor-acceptor heterojunction configurations in a typical organic solar cell
When the photoconductive properties of organic polymers was first observed, the most widely studied polymer was poly(vinyl carbazole), PVK [61]. Other suitable electron donor polymers for organic photovoltaics include;
poly(3-hexylthiophene), P3HT,
po5ly(3-octylthiophene), (P3OT)
polyphenylenevinylene, (PPV)
polyfluorene, (PFO)
poly[2,7-(9,9-dioctyl-fluorene)-alt-5,5-(4,7’-di-2-thienyl-2’,1’,3’,-benzothiadiazole), (PFO-DBT)
poly[2-methoxy-5-(2’-ethyl-hexyloxy)-1,4-phenylene vinylene], (MEH-PPV)
poly[2-methoxy-5-(3,7-dimethyloxy)]-1,4-phenylenevinylene), (MDMO-PPV)
poly[N-9’-hepta-decanyl-2,7-carbazole-alt-5,5-(4’,7’-di-thienyl-2’,1’,3’-benzothiadiazole, (PCDTBT)
Semiconducting polymers have lower dielectric constant but higher extinction constant than that of inorganic PV materials. To absorb the most incident light about 300nm thickness is enough for a film material [62]. However, the optimized thickness for most polymer solar cells is less than 100nm [63] due to the low carrier mobility.
Electron acceptors with high electron mobility are the most suitable materials for polymer solar cells. Due to exhibiting 1cm2V-1s-1 electron mobility [64], ultrafast photo induced charge transfer and derivatives of C60 and C70 are the best electron acceptors so far. Suitable electron acceptor polymers for organic photovoltaics include;
6,6-phenyl-C61-butric acid methyl ester, (PC60BM)
6,6-phenyl-C71-butric acid methyl ester, (PC70BM)
poly(9,9’-dioctylfluorene-co-bis-N,N’-(4-butylphenyl)-bis-N,N’-phenyl-1,4-phenylenediamine, (F8TB)
poly-[2-methoxy-5,2’-ethylhexyloxy]-1,4-(1-cyanovinylene)-phenylene,(CN-MEH-PPV)
The dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSC or DSC) are thin film photovoltaic materials. They are also known as “the 3rd generation solar cells”. The first DSSCs were studied by Gerischer et al in late 1960s who illustrated that organic dyes can generate electricity at oxide electrodes in electrochemical cells [65]. The first actual work on DSSCs was carried out with a chlorophyll sensitized zinc oxide (ZnO) electrode. In this work, photons were converted into an electric current by charge injection of excited dye molecules into a wide bandgap semiconductor for the first time [66]. DSSCs have slightly different working principle than traditional silicon solar cells. Light absorption and charge carrier transport processes are separated in DSSCs. Light is absorbed by a sensitizer, which is affixed to the surface of a wide band semiconductor. Charge separation takes place at the surface via photo-induced electron injection between dye, semiconductor and electrolyte [67-68].
When a DSSC is exposed to the sun light, photons pass through the transparent electrode into the dye (active) layer and excite electrons. Excited electrons move toward the transparent electrode where they are collected. Once an electron completes its travel through the external circuit, it is re-induced into the DSSC on the back electrode and flows into the electrolyte and then it is transported back to the dye molecules [69].
After the discovery of DSSCs in late 1960s and early 1970s, DSSCs have attracted many researchers’ attention and a significant number of works have been carried out on suitable transparent electrodes [70-71], and electrolytes [72] but mostly on increasing the efficiency of DSSCs [73-78].
DSSCs have some advantages over inorganic solar cells as given below:
low cost materials,
the electron is injected from a dye into TiO2, there is no electron-hole pair,
DSSCs can work even in low density light conditions which make them possible to be used for some indoor applications,
DSSCs can operate at lower internal temperatures even in a hot environment.
Dye-sensitized solar sell structure; transparent electrode coated transparent substrate and over it a TiO2 layer sensitized by a monolayer of adsorbed dye (photo-electrode), electrolyte and counter electrode.
On the other hand, the power conversion efficiency of DSSCs is lower than silicon based inorganic solar cells. There is also a possibility of breakdown of the dye material and leakage of liquid electrolyte.
Tandem solar cells (TSCs) are developed to overcome some drawbacks of conventional solar cells. Each active material used to fabricate a solar cell can only convert certain wavelength of the light to electricity. To achieve better photon absorption efficiency, two or more active materials with different bandgaps are linked to built-up a TSC. Two or more heterojunction solar cells are deposited on top of each other to create a TSC. One of the photo-active materials with a higher bandgap collects photons with higher energy while the other with a lower bandgap absorbs photons with lower energy (Figure 11).
Since solar cells with different bandgaps are used, when the structure is built-up, semiconductor material with a wide band gap is used as the first active layer and semiconductor material with a smaller band gap is used as the second active layer. When the individual cells are connected in series to create a TSC, the open-circuit voltage (Voc) of tandem cell is increased to the sum of the Voc of individual cells [79]. The maximum efficiency calculated for a tandem solar cell consisting of 2 sub-cells is 42% with band gaps of 1.9 and 1.0 eV and calculated maximum efficiency for a tandem solar cell consisting of 3 sub-cells is 49% with band gaps of 2.3, 1.4 and 0.8 eV [80]. However, experimental studies on tandem solar cells consisting of GaInP/GaInAs/GaInAs showed only an efficiency of 33.8% [81] and 38.9% [82]. The maximum efficiency calculated for organic tandem solar cells consisting of 2 sub cells is close to 14% [83].
Tandem solar cell structure consisting of two photovoltaic cells having different band gaps
To combine the unique properties of inorganic semiconductor nanoparticles with organic polymeric materials, both organic and inorganic nanostructures are combined and named as “hybrid solar cell” (HSC). Organic materials absorb light as a donor and transport holes while inorganic materials act as an acceptor to transport electrons. The combination of organic and inorganic photoactive materials provides some advantages over individual organic and inorganic solar cells. The overall cost of the solar material is reduced by using organic thin film technology which is low cost, easy to manufacture and versatile while inorganic nanoparticles add high absorption coefficient and bandgap tenability [84].
The idea of making hybrid solar cells has attracted many researchers who then worked on different concepts of HSC manufacturing by using bulk heterojunction concept with different nanoparticles such as TiO2 [85], PbS [86-87], ZnO [88-89], CdS [90], CdSe [91-92], CdTe [93] and CuInS2 [94]. Although HSCs provide some advantages over inorganic solar cells, such as low cost, reduced thickness (being thin film), easy manufacturing, versatility, tuneable nanoparticle size thus tuneable bandgap etc., the power conversion efficiency of HSCs is still lower than that of silicon based inorganic solar cells.
Since the discovery of photovoltaic effect by Becquerel, researchers have studied and worked on various photoactive materials and methods of making photovoltaic cells. The first solar cell was developed at Bell Laboratories [95], which was silicon based inorganic solar cell with power conversion efficiency of 6%. The highest reported power conversion efficiency for inorganic solar cells today is 24.7% [96].
Polymers including poly(sulphur nitride) and polyacetylene were investigated for their photoelectric property in the 1980s. Using a donor and an acceptor material in a cell was a real breakthrough for organic photovoltaics. A donor - acceptor cell may consist of dye - dye, polymer - dye, polymer - polymer or polymer - fullerene blends [97]. Due to having high electron affinity, fullerenes have become the most widely used acceptor materials in organic solar cells and thus polymer - fullerene blends have received a particular interest from researchers. Photophysics of various conjugated polymer/C60 blends have been extensively studied and reported [98-104].
MEH-PPV:C60 and MDMO-PPV:PCBM were the most predominant active layer materials. However, due to exhibiting large bandgap and low mobility of the PPV type polymers, efficiencies are limited to 3% [105-108]. Therefore, researchers have started to work on different polymers and P3HT has become the most predominant active layer material for OPVs and also its blends with PCBM.
Probably, the starting point of the rapid developments on P3HT:PCBM based OPVs was the work published in 2002 [109]. These researchers investigated the short-circuit current density of P3HT:PCBM based organic solar cells with a weight ratio of 1:3 in active layer. They also recorded that it was the largest short-circuit current density (8.7mAcm-2) observed in OPVs at that time.
A number of studies have been carried out to increase the efficiency of P3HT:PCBM cells by thermal annealing [109-116]. It was found that the Voc was usually slightly decreased after annealing process while both the Isc and FF increased significantly [117] and provides optimum charge carrier creation and extraction.
The morphology and the optimization of the weight ratios for donor and acceptor are also important for a desirable performance. Studies showed that morphology of P3HT and PCBM can be modified upon [118-120]. Padinger et al. [121] applied a post-treatment to P3HT:PCBM based solar cell by annealing and applying an external voltage greater than the open-circuit voltage, simultaneously. They reported that the post treatment increased all the parameters, such as Isc, Voc and FF, thus the overall efficiency reached 3.5% from 0.4% (without any post treatment).
There have been other approaches to control the morphology of P3HT:PCBM blends. It has been reported by Li et al. [122] that controlling the morphology of P3HT and PCBM in the blend is possible by slow drying. It has also been reported that additives, such as n-hexylthiol, n-octylthiol, or n-dodecylthiol [123], can also contribute to the hole mobility enhancement slightly and charge-carrier lifetime significantly. Another approach to control the morphology was addition of nitrobenzene to P3HT:PCBM solution (in chlorobenzene) that increased the efficiency as high as 4% without thermal annealing [124-125].
The effect of weight ratio of P3HT and PCBM on the power conversion efficiency of OPVs has been extensively studied. Reports from various researchers confirmed each other’s work and the optimum weight ratio is considered as 1:1 [122, 126-129]. Table 2-4 shows the improvements in the efficiencies of P3HT:PCBM based organic photovoltaic materials.
One of the most recent approaches is based on the growth of fibres by slow cooling of P3HT solutions [124]. The crystalline fibres are isolated from the amorphous material by centrifugation and filtration and then reformulated in dispersions with PCBM.
The highest PCE reported recently is just than 6% for OPV [130]. Researchers used a co-polymer,poly[
There are also a significant number of approaches to produce solar cells in fibre form. However, Konarka Technologies, Inc. was the first one who announced and patented the idea of producing a flexible photovoltaic fibre via a continuous process in 2005 [133]. They have used an electrically conductive fibre core which passes through a titania (TiO2) suspension and thus coated with the interconnected nanoparticles. The interconnected nanoparticle coated fibre is dried and passed through a dye solution and dried again. The dried fibre is then passed through a polymeric electrolyte and thus coated with the transparent electrode.
Kuraseko et al [134] reported flexible fibre-type poly-Si solar cell. Glass fibre was used in the core of the fibre like photovoltaic structure and p-type poly-Si and n-type poly-Si was deposited onto the core. They studied two different methods; atmospheric thermal CVC and microwave PECVD and the top (TCO) and bottom (metal) electrodes were deposited by thermal evaporation technique. There are also more recent works on the design of OPV based fibres [135-137] and DSSC based fibres [138-140].
Renewable energy sources are endless but not available at all times at a given location. For instance, the electrical energy generation by a photovoltaic material is dependent on the light density and the number of photons absorbed by the photoactive layer. If the solar radiation is scarce in a region, for example on a cloudy day, the electrical energy generation will be affected. If flexible solar cells are coupled with flexible piezoelectric materials in a combined structure, then the hybrid structure can generate energy from solar radiation as well as mechanical energy, such as wind, rainfall, waves etc.
A novel technology has been developed by Siores et al. [141] that integrates piezoelectric polymer substrate and photovoltaic coating system to create a film or a fibre structure (Figure 12) which is able to transform both mechanical energy (by using the piezoelectric part) and light energy (by using organic photovoltaic part). Since the organic photovoltaic material system is made in a normal atmospheric environment and the usage of ITO is eliminated, the cost associated with the whole structure is manifold less than silicon based photovoltaic. The resultant material system is flexible and can be incorporated in textiles for a wide variety of applications, under different environments on earth, underwater and possibly space.
Sketch (a) and photograph (b) of hybrid fibre: OPV cell layers developed onto Al evaporated piezoelectric fibre
The HPP materials are able to produce electrical energy from the environment and provide almost uninterrupted energy generation to power small electronic devices. The flexible HPP structure can be part of any material such as sail, window curtain, tent etc. to generate renewable energy even in the absence of sunlight. One possible configuration for land-based applications of hybrid fibre is a pine tree like structure where the needles are made of HPP fibres. Such a structure may replace the conventional photovoltaic parks that require large panels and sun tracking devices to operate. The surface area that fibres provide is substantially more compared to the solar panels, thus they may be able to generate more energy in a confined area. The tree structure also costs less to manufacture and can harvest energy not only through the photovoltaic but also through the piezoelectric material. Furthermore, the aesthetic aspects of parks incorporating them cannot be overstated. Once flexible fibres are incorporated in textile structures, a plethora of opportunities exist, limited only by the imagination.
Since the HPP structures produce combined piezoelectric technology which converts mechanical energy to fluctuating electrical energy (AC) and organic photovoltaic technology which converts solar energy to constant electrical energy (DC), an associated rectifying circuit consisting of 4 diodes and a capacitor can be used to rectify the fluctuating voltage of various frequencies to a constant DC voltage. The constant voltage generated and rectified can then be either stored in an electrical storage device such as batteries and super capacitors or can be utilised on-line directly.
The term “global warming” has been highlighted more and more every day since it is considered as one of the biggest dangers to life on earth. It is a fact that one of the factors which cause global warming is high carbon emission. Growing population and the increasing technology consumerism contribute to the enhanced usage of energy from coal, oil, electricity etc. However, sooner or later the mankind is anticipated to run out of the coal and oil reserves since they are finite and are not renewable. Energy harvesting properties of both piezoelectric and photovoltaic materials have been known for a long period of time however recently more attention has been paid to produce usable materials for energy generation in the form of electricity to decrease carbon foot print.
Piezoelectric materials can convert almost any kind of mechanical energy to electrical energy. The most suitable piezoelectric material is chosen for a particular application depending on the properties needed. Thus, the maximum energy output, with minimum carbon emission, can be provided to power an electronic device on-line or to be stored. Photovoltaic materials use the biggest energy source to generate green energy and many countries, including Germany and Italy, are well aware of the advantages of using green energy. Furthermore, the increasing solar cell production in general is considerably promising for a cleaner world. Hybrid photovoltaic and piezoelectric structures are capable of converting photons to electrical energy by using photovoltaic part and mechanical energy to electrical energy by using piezoelectric part, in the presence of rain, wind etc, where there is not enough sunlight for photo-conversion. The advantages of the hybrid photovoltaic/piezoelectric materials are their flexibility, light weight, low production cost and the possibility of almost undisturbed energy generation from nature, such as sunlight, wind, rain and other mechanical resources.
The smart materials discussed in this chapter are responsive to many natural resources for green energy generation. The increase in the use of alternative resources for renewable energy can substantially decrease carbon foot print and consequently the effects of global warming.
Current medicine is based in an important way on two wrong assumptions: (1) The oxygen present inside the body comes from the atmosphere because theoretically it can cross the thin alveolar membrane and reach the bloodstream, which distributes it to all the cells of the body [1]. (2) Oxygen from the atmosphere is used by cells to produce energy, by combining it with glucose or its intermediate metabolites, something like graduated combustion [2].
However, the passage from atmospheric oxygen to the blood circulation through the pulmonary alveoli has not been demonstrated so far in addition to going against the behavior of gases. Therefore, the first error gives rise to a second mistake: the combination of oxygen with glucose to produce energy.
Both concepts are entirely theoretical, and concepts so far-fetched and tangled that it is not possible to contrast them experimentally. Thereby, we do not have definitive and complete answers to important questions behind the simple picture that in mammals, oxygen is extracted from the atmospheric air in the lungs and carried by the bloodstream through the circulation to the tissue, where it is utilized mainly within the mitochondria [3].
The brain is an organ whose normal function depends critically on an uninterrupted delivery of oxygen. Unlike skeletal muscle that can survive for hours without oxygen, brain cells show irreversible damage within minutes from the onset of oxygen deficiency. Thus, theoretical studies (they cannot be otherwise) have special importance for understanding how oxygen is distributed in different structures of the brain under normal and hypoxic conditions [4].
Theoretical work on oxygen transport in the brain began with applications of the Krogh Equation [5] and the extension of the Krogh model to hexagonal space-filling tissue cylinders [6]. A systematic analysis of oxygen transport in the brain with the Krogh model was performed by Reneau and his coworkers [7]. Note that they all are theoretical in their entirety (Figure 1).
Krogh Cylinder (simplified). The concepts handled by Krogh’s models are so complex and far-fetched that they cannot even be experimentally contrasted. I quote few names: Anoxic lethal corner, O2 radial vectors, capillary radius, capillary X-section, cylinder radius, cylinder X-section, anoxic tissue, axial kick, augmented O2 radial vectors, OPF range, average ptO2, hypercapnic lethal corner, normal intracapillary blood flow velocity.
However, the architecture of the capillary network in the brain does not provide support for the Krogh model [8]. The oxygen consumption rate within the neuron is about ten times higher than in the glial cells, and that has a significant effect on oxygen distribution [9]. There is experimental evidence that significant precapillary loss of oxygen occurs in the cerebral circulation [10].
The problem of oxygen loading in the blood capillaries of the lung is, in a sense, inverse to the problem of oxygen unloading in other tissues. Therefore, for a better understanding of oxygen transport, simultaneous analysis of oxygen and carbon dioxide transport is necessary [11].
At present none of the models of oxygen transport (including Krogh’s model) has been carefully tested against experimental data. The main reason appears to be the lack of accurate measurements of oxygen tension and hemoglobin saturation
The mathematical and statistical models that are used to try to explain biological processes, such as gas exchange, usually do not work because, in biology, the variables are continuous random (nonlinear behavior). When the phenomena to be studied are discrete variables (linear behavior), mathematical models work better, as is the case of predicting the production of a factory, the possibility that manufacturing processes produce wrong parts, etc. But this is not the case in biology, because the values that variables can take change from one moment to the next, and it is not understood why.
Hence, Krogh’s equation of 1919, which is a mathematical (imaginary) model, has been added to other equations by different authors until reaching about 120 equations (Figure 2).
A sample of the first 32 equations of already 120 described that have been implemented with the aim of building Krogh’s acceptable theoretical (imaginary) model about oxygen transportation theory.
The result is a set of mathematical operations so far-fetched and tangled that it is impossible to contrast them in the laboratory. And we are talking about Krogh or Krogh–Erlang equation, which has been the basis of most physiological estimates for the last 70 years.
Some models assumed that tissue is spatially homogeneous. Tissue consists of cells and extracellular spaces. Further, there are intracellular heterogeneities, for example, those caused by discrete oxygen consumption by mitochondria. These heterogeneities may affect the distribution of oxygen in the tissue. Theoretically, inside the cell, oxygen is consumed almost exclusively within mitochondria [13].
It has been proposed that oxygen is transported from blood to mitochondria along channels of high solubility; the endoplasmic reticulum could serve to channel oxygen [14]. The cytosol is largely free of oxygen because of its low solubility. However, theoretical and experimental validation of this hypothesis (1980) remains to be done. It is frustrating that the bases of oxygen transport and gas exchange, which constitute the foundations of the clinic, cannot be experimentally contrasted because of how tangled they are.
Supposedly, the brain is an organ whose normal function depends critically on an uninterrupted delivery of oxygen. However, the element of real value for cell metabolism is hydrogen and it is produced at the same time than oxygen; both come from water dissociation. It is relatively simple to show that melanin dissociates the molecule from water, generating both molecular hydrogen and oxygen (Figures 3 and 4). It is difficult to measure the levels of molecular hydrogen inside the cells; it is more practical to determine molecular oxygen levels. Thereby, oxygen levels are indirect markers of hydrogen levels because both elements come from the dissociation of water that occurs inside the cell, thanks to melanin and other pigments. It can be said that both hydrogen and oxygen are produced at the same time and in the same place.
The melanin in the banana peel, illuminated with polychromatic (white) light.
When the same specimen of
Unlike skeletal muscle that can survive for hours without oxygen, brain cells show irreversible damage within minutes from the onset of oxygen deficiency that reflects low level of hydrogen by impairment of water dissociation mechanisms.
Theoretical work on oxygen transport in the brain began with applications of the Krogh Equation [5] and the extension of the Krogh model to hexagonal space-filling tissue cylinders [6]. A systematic analysis of oxygen transport in the brain with the Krogh model using the numerical finite-difference method to obtain solutions to steady and unsteady problems of physiological importance was performed in 1967 [15]. As expected, the architecture of the capillary network in the brain does not provide support for the Krogh model. Thereby, other models have been formulated trying to reflect the heterogeneity of capillary architecture and hemodynamics [8].
It is interesting that the oxygen consumption rate within the neuron is about ten times higher than in the glial cells [9], but this finding tells us that the intensity of water dissociation is 10 times more in glial cells than in neurons, because the neuron or any cells do not consume oxygen to produce energy, because the power requirements of the cells are based on the hydrogen that is released when water is dissociated, and molecular hydrogen (H2) is the element that carries energy, not only in cells but throughout the universe. In AD patients, there is chronic hypoxia that, in turn, indicates a chronic lack of hydrogen, and therefore a generalized lack of energy. The source of the problem is that the brain tissues are not able to dissociate the water at the necessary rate, and then the liquid water accumulates characteristically in the ventricles.
In most studies of oxygen transport, the governing differential equations are solved numerically by a discretization method, either finite difference or finite element, which is typical of imaginary models and that can hardly become a representation of reality due, among other things, that biological processes are made up of continuous random variables.
There is experimental evidence that significant precapillary loss of oxygen occurs in the cerebral circulation [16], which for us means that water dissociation decreases in that region normally.
So far, Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is considered an incurable neurodegenerative disease [17]. Recent studies suggest that the neurobiology of AD pathology could not be explained solely by an increase in beta-amyloid levels. In fact, success with potential therapeutic drugs that inhibit the generation of beta amyloid has been low. Therefore, due to therapeutic failure in recent years, scientists are looking for alternative hypotheses to explain the causes of the disease and the cognitive loss. These early changes affect several key metabolic processes related to glucose uptake and insulin signaling, cellular energy homeostasis, mitochondrial biogenesis, and increased Tau phosphorylation by kinase molecules, such as mTOR and Cdk5 [18].
The condition involves a progressive deterioration in memory, cognition, and mobility. Numerous studies have demonstrated a critical role of dysregulated glucose metabolism in its pathogenesis. The already described metabolic alterations in the aging brain and AD-related metabolic deficits are associated with glucose metabolism dysregulation, glycolysis dysfunction, tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle, oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) deficits, and pentose phosphate pathway impairment. There are numerous biochemical alterations that occur simultaneously.
AD pathophysiology is extremely complex and heterogeneous, entailing accumulation of senile plaques caused by abnormal amyloid β (Aβ) metabolism, and neurofibrillary tangles caused by tau hyperphosphorylation. The cerebrovascular system is seriously damaged, including the disturbance of the blood–brain barrier (BBB) and cerebral amyloid angiopathy [19]. Functional failures and anatomical changes are multiple and varied, as they do not follow a definite pattern, which is compatible with energy failure.
Supposedly, increased levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) induce the transcription of pro-inflammatory genes and the release of cytokines (e.g., interleukin-1β [IL-1β], IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha [TNF-α]) and chemokines that cause neuroinflammation. Furthermore, reactive microglia and astrocytes and other pathological events also contribute to the dysfunction and deprivation of synapses and, ultimately, neuronal death [20]. It seems that the cells lose for some reason, the complex order that characterizes them even though neurons have done their job for millions of years, millions of times, every day.
It could be said that both functional and anatomical failure of the brain’s human body is widespread. And in any system, when the faults are so extensive, one must first think about energy [21].
The brain consumes the greatest amount of energy of all the organs in the body, except the retina photoreceptor layer [22]. There is an age-related decrease in glucose utilization in most human brains [23].
However, it is conflicting that oxygen consumption is studied by determining the levels of mitochondrial nitric oxide synthase when synthases are enzymes that do not use ATP as an energy source to carry out their function [24].
The pathological metabolic alterations in aging (e.g., cerebral glucose hypometabolism) are early and consistent events in the progression of AD. Glucose, the main transportation form of carbohydrate in our blood, is also the crucial and primary energy substrate for the brain under physiological conditions [25]. Glucose is the universal precursor of any organic molecule, but it cannot provide the energy that its own metabolism requires [26], thereby, the prevalent dogma about glucose as source of biomass and energy at the same time now is broken down into thousands of pieces after our discovery of the unexpected capacity of the human body to take oxygen from the water molecule, like plants.
Alternative substrates, such as glycogen, ketone bodies, and amino acids, are also important, but only as a source of carbon chains that our body uses to build up other organic molecules. Energy hypometabolism, particularly a decline in glucose metabolism, is one of the earliest and most common anomalies observed in patients with AD [27], but glucose should not be considered an energy substrate, but a metabolic intermediate that requires energy from the dissociation of water.
Statistically, our body begins to lose its capacity to take oxygen from water at 26 years old, at approximately 10% rate each decade; and after the fifties, goes into free fall. This is an important date because the decline in glucose use capacity by the cells observed with aging is congruous with the loss of capacity to take oxygen from water. Remember that glucose metabolism requires oxygen, this is: energy.
Despite those, the main intracellular energy metabolism pathways, (theoretical all of them) occurring in our brains are necessarily complicated and include anaerobic glycolysis and the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) in the cytoplasm, as well as oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) in mitochondria and the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle (also known as the citric acid cycle and Krebs cycle) [28], these neuronal metabolic pathways are controversial in circa 98% like in other cells and tissues [29]. CNS biology is no exception to collective mistakes in regards to the wrong double role of glucose as a source of biomass and energy at the same time. No way.
Metabolic processes are regulated by a series of key enzymes. Indeed, a growing body of evidence suggests the presence of organic impairment of mitochondria [30] and damage to related metabolic enzymes [31]. In addition, oxygen and glucose metabolic rates are drastically changed in many neurodegenerative diseases, including AD due to marked alterations in the glycolytic pathway and TCA cycle [32]. Again, it seems like a generalized failure.
The picture is a metabolic dysregulation in many senses, it is a typical generalized fault. Traditionally, glucose is metabolized to ATP, an unstable high-energy compound. An entirely theoretical dogma. If we analyze the energy required by all the components that are described for glucose to end up in ATP, there would be nothing left for the cell.
Researchers are determined to explain the flow of energy where there is none, because it is not possible to obtain more energy than the molecule as is the case of glucose. They forget that the energy needs of the cell are constant, day and night. So, our discovery erases everything theoretically, because when the cell obtains oxygen from water, at the same time it obtains energy, which is transported by hydrogen, the main carrier of energy in the entire universe.
So, oxygen is important for life, it is fundamental; but not in the role that had been assigned to it —combustion of glucose—but to form the cellular scaffolding, of tissues, organs, and systems, which optimizes the use of energy that comes from the sun, but not through food as had been believed to date, but our body is able to capture it directly, like plants.
There is a deeply rooted dogma that oxygen from the atmosphere passes through lung tissues by simple diffusion and reaches the bloodstream, which distributes them to all cells of the body. But from the mid-nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, intense controversy was generated due to the works of Carl Ludwig, Christian Bohr, Haldane, and others, who sought experimentally, both in man and other lung animals, the mechanism by which the %SpO2 rises to more than 95%. And not only did they not find it, but they realized that diffusion alone (the theory in vogue) could not explain the gas exchange in the lungs [33].
So, if the source of oxygen in the body is the water it contains, then the water of the cerebral-spinal fluid (CSF) acquires unusual importance. Well, it is the source of oxygen and hydrogen in the CNS.
Our finding that the human body has several molecules capable of transforming light power into chemical energy, through the dissociation of water [34], like plants, is a disruptive discovery.
It is not known if oxygen is transported in blood mainly by pure convection. The roles of diffusion and chemical kinetics are not defined yet. The importance of the resistances to oxygen transport by various membranes is unknown. It is uncertain that oxygen cross cell membranes (red blood cells, endothelial cell, and parenchymal cell) by pure diffusion or if it is facilitated by a carrier. The mechanisms of oxygen transport inside the cells are not known. It is not possible, so far, to identify active transport in oxygen delivery. It is unknown the supposed main site of oxygen exchange between the blood and tissue (arterioles, capillaries, or venules). Sadly, we do not have definitive and conclusive answers to these fundamental questions due to the experiments that are required to do so, in regards to Krogh’s model technically are not possible to date. A clear understanding of the physical mechanisms of oxygen transport throughout the pathway is a way beyond, starting because oxygen does not come from the atmosphere, and therefore is not transported.
Krogh laid the wrong foundation for the theory of oxygen transport to the tissue [35]. He proposed, without experimental foundations and based only on theoretical (imaginary) models, that oxygen is transported in the tissue by passive diffusion driven by gradients of oxygen tension (PO2). Krogh tissue cylinder or simply Krogh’s model is a simple geometrical model of the elementary tissue unit supplied by a single capillary. Krogh formulated a differential equation governing oxygen diffusion and uptake in the tissue cylinder assisted by Erlang, a mathematician.
The solution to this equation theoretically expresses oxygen tension in the tissue as a function of spatial position within the tissue cylinder. This simple assumption so-called Krogh equation, known as the Krogh or Krogh–Erlang equation, has been the basis of most physiological estimates for the last 70 years, but now it breaks into a thousand pieces thanks to the discovery of the unsuspected ability of the human body to take oxygen from the water it contains [36], just as plants do.
Only a decade ago, the picture of oxygen delivery from cells to the sites of oxygen consumption, even though it became unnecessarily complex, had not differed qualitatively from that described by Krogh in 1919. In the past 10 years, theoretical Krogh’s concept of radial PO2 gradients in the tissue from the capillary has undergone drastic changes and has all but reversed. Indeed, it is now proposed, in yet another attempt to explain to exploit with mathematical models a theory that cannot be tested experimentally, that the dominant PO2 gradients on the pathway from hemoglobin to mitochondria occur not in the tissue but inside the vessels. These new concepts, also entirely theoretical; require further and highly complex experimental validation and new theoretical developments. However, if they are valid, then much of our understanding of oxygen transport to tissue will have to be reassessed.
In any case, the models based on the Krogh theorems and the recent trend of non-Krogh models will continue to be futile, as they try to explain how oxygen from the atmosphere passes through the lungs and reaches the bloodstream to be distributed throughout the body.
The discovery of the human body’s unsuspected ability to take oxygen from the water contained within cells, such as plants, constitutes the beginning of a new era in the study and treatment of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s.
This work was supported by Human Photosynthesis™ Research Centre. Aguascalientes 20000, México.
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In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"117248",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Macnab",slug:"andrew-macnab",fullName:"Andrew Macnab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",slug:"juan-a.-gonzalez-sanchez",fullName:"Juan A. Gonzalez-Sanchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"41",type:"subseries",title:"Water Science",keywords:"Water, Water Resources, Freshwater, Hydrological Processes, Utilization, Protection",scope:"\r\n\tThe environment is subject to severe anthropic effects. Among them are those associated with pollution, resource extraction and overexploitation, loss of biodiversity, soil degradation, disorderly land occupation and planning, and many others. These anthropic effects could potentially be caused by any inadequate management of the environment. However, ecosystems have a resilience that makes them react to disturbances which mitigate the negative effects. It is critical to understand how ecosystems, natural and anthropized, including urban environments, respond to actions that have a negative influence and how they are managed. It is also important to establish when the limits marked by the resilience and the breaking point are achieved and when no return is possible. The main focus for the chapters is to cover the subjects such as understanding how the environment resilience works, the mechanisms involved, and how to manage them in order to improve our interactions with the environment and promote the use of adequate management practices such as those outlined in the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/39.jpg",keywords:"Anthropic Effects, Overexploitation, Biodiversity Loss, Degradation, Inadequate Management, SDGs Adequate Practices"},{id:"38",title:"Pollution",scope:"\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",keywords:"Human Activity, Pollutants, Reduced Risks, Population Growth, Waste Disposal, Remediation, Clean Environment"},{id:"41",title:"Water Science",scope:"