Number of oil spills over 7 tonnes from 1970 to 2013 (http://www.itopf.com/stats.html).
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IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
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\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
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\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
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\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
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\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
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Understanding the nature of these observations is one of the major challenges of modern Particle Cosmology. This is a discipline of fundamental research developed to address fundamental questions about the origin and the structure of the Universe, incorporating concepts from High Energy Particle Physics. A cornerstone of modern astroparticle theories is the paradigm of inflation, which succeeds to overcome the horizon and flatness problems of the Standard Big Bang Cosmology and to provide a mechanism for the generation of the primordial fluctuations that seed the observed structure of the universe.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book will gather the work of leading experts in this field and provide a broad view of some of the most fascinating advances in cosmic inflation and its intersections relevant topics such as supersymmetry breaking and spectroscopy, dark matter, cosmological defects, baryogenesis via leptogenesis (most usually) and neutrino data.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"3a41decca20fde69134f56fe21753e64",bookSignature:"Dr. Constantinos Pallis",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10762.jpg",keywords:"Cosmic Inflation, Supersymmetry and Cosmology, Supergravity Models, Physics of the Early Universe, Particle Physics - Cosmology Connection, Cosmology of Theories beyond the Standard Model, Baryon Asymmetry of the Universe, Non-Thermal Leptogenesis, Neutrino Physics, Cosmological Defects, Horizon and Flatness Problems, Gravitational Waves",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 14th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 12th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 11th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 29th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 28th 2021",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a year",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Pallis is a researcher in the field of Particle Cosmology, currently at the Faculty of Engineering of the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, with postdoctoral experience of about eighteen years. He has rich international experience as he was a research fellow at the University of Manchester, at the Huelva, and Patras Universities. Moreover, as a postdoctoral researcher, he worked at the University of Cyprus for two different periods and as a senior researcher at the University of Valencia.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"154011",title:"Dr.",name:"Constantinos",middleName:null,surname:"Pallis",slug:"constantinos-pallis",fullName:"Constantinos Pallis",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/154011/images/system/154011.jpg",biography:"Dr. Constantinos S. Pallis holds a degree in Physics (1994) and a Ph.D. in Particle Physics Phenomenology and Cosmology (2000) from the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki. After his (obligatory) military service he has worked as a postdoctoral researcher at SISSA (Italy) and as a research associate at The University of Manchester (United Kingdom). He was also a research fellow at the Huelva (Spain) and Patras Universities (Greece). Moreover, he has worked as a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Cyprus (Cyprus) for two different periods and as a senior researcher at the University of Valencia (Spain). He is currently working at the Faculty of Engineering of Aristotle University of Thessaloniki (Greece). His research covers a large area of topics in Particle Cosmology, such as Cold Dark Matter candidates within the standard and non-standard cosmological settings, phenomenology of Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model, Supersymmetry breaking, quintessence Dark Energy, inflationary model building within Grand Unified Theories, baryogenesis via non-thermal leptogenesis and its connection to neutrino physics.",institutionString:"Aristotle University of Thessaloniki",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Aristotle University of Thessaloniki",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"10",title:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",slug:"earth-and-planetary-sciences"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"252211",firstName:"Sara",lastName:"Debeuc",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252211/images/7239_n.png",email:"sara.d@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. 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This is because petroleum hydrocarbons are toxic to all forms of life and harm both aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. The pollution of marine habitats has caught the attention of researchers and environmentalists. This is due to the serious impact of oil spills on marine life, as well as on people whose career relies on the exploitation of the sea’s resources. Additionally, marine life may be affected by clean-up operations. It may also be indirectly affected by the physical damage to the habitats in which plants and animals live in.
Petroleum marine fuel spills, which result from damage, transportation accidents and various other industrial and mining activities, are classified as hazardous waste [1]. They are considered to be the most frequent organic pollutants of aquatic ecosystems [2-3].
In recent years, there have been numerous studies regarding the levels of contamination of the seawater by hydrocarbons. The majority of these studies were conducted following the Gulf War of 1991 [4-11] and after, the BP Deepwater Horizon (DWH) oil spill on 20th April, 2010 [12-14].
In the current manuscript, we discuss the effects of petroleum oil spills on marine life. It incorporates different sections that outline the major petroleum oil spills associated with the marine environment, chemical composition of crude oil, toxicity of oil and oil dispersants. We discuss the major petroleum oil spills associated with the chemical and physical states of crude oil and their impact on microbial, plant and animal marine life. We also consider the economic impact of oil spills on coastal activities and on the people who exploit the resources of the sea.
Saltwater bodies are referred to as ‘marine environments’, with the oceans covering about 70% of the earth. Statistics estimate that 3.2 million tonnes of oil per year are released from all sources into the environment. The majority of this oil is due to general shipping and industrial activities [15]. During the Iran-Iraq war (1980-1988), approximately 2 million barrels of oil were discharged into the Arabian Gulf sea water. These included 1.5 million barrels from the Nawruz blow-out in 1983 [16]. Following the Gulf War in 1991, between 4 and 8 million barrels (1,000 tonnes = 7,500 barrels) were released into the Gulf and the Kuwaiti Desert, making this the largest oil spill in history at that time [17]. When compared to other major spills, the size of this spill attracted global attention. For example, the
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\n\t\t | \n
1970-1974 | \n\t189 | \n\t125 | \n\t1114 | \n
1975-1979 | \n\t342 | \n\t117 | \n\t2012 | \n
1980-1984 | \n\t221 | \n\t41 | \n\t570 | \n
1985-1989 | \n\t124 | \n\t48 | \n\t513 | \n
1990-1994 | \n\t165 | \n\t48 | \n\t907 | \n
1995-1999 | \n\t108 | \n\t25 | \n\t194 | \n
2000-2009 2010-2013 | \n\t182 28 | \n\t- - | \n\t213 22 | \n
Number of oil spills over 7 tonnes from 1970 to 2013 (http://www.itopf.com/stats.html).
During the 1990s, the average number of large spills per year was about a third of the amount that was witnessed during the 1970s. When looking at the quantities of oil spilled, it should be noted that 1, 133, 000, 213, 000 tonnes of oil were lost in the 1990s and 2000s, respectively. In a four-year period, 2010-2013, there were 22,000 tonnes of oil lost. Table 2 shows a brief summary of the top 22 major oil spills since 1967.
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t
Torrey Canyon | \n\t\t1967 | \n\t\tScilly Isles, UK | \n\t\t119 | \n\t
Sea Star | \n\t\t1972 | \n\t\tGulf of Oman | \n\t\t115 | \n\t
Jakob Maersk | \n\t\t1975 | \n\t\tOporto, Portugal | \n\t\t88 | \n\t
Urquiola | \n\t\t1976 | \n\t\tLa Coruna, Spain | \n\t\t100 | \n\t
Hawaiian Patriot | \n\t\t1977 | \n\t\t300 nautical. miles off Honolulu | \n\t\t95 | \n\t
Amoco Cadiz | \n\t\t1978 | \n\t\tOff Brittany, France | \n\t\t223 | \n\t
Atlantic Empress | \n\t\t1979 | \n\t\tOff Tobago, West Indies | \n\t\t287 | \n\t
Independenta | \n\t\t1979 | \n\t\tBosphorus, Turkey | \n\t\t94 | \n\t
Irenes Serenade | \n\t\t1980 | \n\t\tNavarino Bay, Greece | \n\t\t100 | \n\t
Castillo de Bellver | \n\t\t1983 | \n\t\tOff Saldanha Bay, South Africa | \n\t\t252 | \n\t
Novo | \n\t\t1985 | \n\t\tOff Kharg Island, Iran | \n\t\t70 | \n\t
Odyssey | \n\t\t1988 | \n\t\t700 nautical. miles off Nova Scotia, Canada | \n\t\t132 | \n\t
Khark 5 | \n\t\t1989 | \n\t\t120 nautical. miles off Atlantic coast of Morocco | \n\t\t70 | \n\t
Exxon Valdez | \n\t\t1989 | \n\t\tPrince William Sound, Alaska, USA | \n\t\t37 | \n\t
ABT Summer | \n\t\t1991 | \n\t\t700 nautical miles off Angola | \n\t\t260 | \n\t
Haven | \n\t\t1991 | \n\t\tGenoa, Italy | \n\t\t144 | \n\t
Aegean Sea | \n\t\t1992 | \n\t\tLa Coruna, Spain | \n\t\t74 | \n\t
Katina P. | \n\t\t1992 | \n\t\tOff Maputo, Mozambique | \n\t\t67 | \n\t
Braer | \n\t\t1993 | \n\t\tShetland Islands, UK | \n\t\t85 | \n\t
Sea Empress | \n\t\t1996 | \n\t\tMilford Haven, UK | \n\t\t72 | \n\t
Prestige | \n\t\t2002 | \n\t\tOff Galicia, Spain | \n\t\t63 | \n\t
Hebel Spirit | \n\t\t2007 | \n\t\tSouth Korea | \n\t\t11 | \n\t
Top 22 major oil spills since 1967 (http://www.itopf.com/stats.html).
The BP Deepwater Horizon (DWH) oil spill on 20th April, 2010, initiated the discharge of more than 2.6 million gallons (over 800 million litres) of oil into the Gulf of Mexico (Figure 1) over approximately three months. This oil spill was the second largest in human history [19-21]. During the 1991 Gulf War, the deliberate release of over 6 million barrels of oil [22] into the marine environment was considered as the largest in history.
The Site of the Gulf Spill: Closed Areas as of 22nd October, 2010 [
Crude oil is a complex mixture of organic compounds. These mainly consist of hydrocarbons, in addition to heterocyclic compounds and some heavy metals. The different hydrocarbons that make up crude oil come in a wide range of molecular weights and structure compounds. These compounds include methane gas, high molecular weight tars, asphaltenes, resins, waxes and bitumens. They also include straight and branched chains, single or condensed rings and aromatic rings such as the monocyclic (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylene). They additionally include polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) such as naphthalene, anthracene and phenanthrene. Examples of the chemical structure of some common components of crude petroleum are shown in Figure 2.
Structure of selected components of petroleum [
The general effects of oil toxicity depend on a multitude of factors. These include the oil composition and characteristics (physical and chemical), condition (i.e., weathered or not), exposure routes and regimen, and the bioavailability of the oil [24]. One major effect of oil is narcosis, a reversible anaesthetic effect caused by the oil partitioning into the cell membrane and nervous tissue. This causes dysfunctions of the central nervous system [25].
The additive toxic effect of hydrocarbons can lead to mortality, if the levels exceed the threshold concentration [24]. When oil hydrocarbons are ingested by marine animals, they travel to the liver where enzymes activate PAHs to become more toxic and reactive products. The metabolites of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and aliphatic hydrocarbons can be highly toxic and carcinogenic [26]. In particular, PAHs are the major contributors to toxicity, with different metabolic pathways producing metabolites. These have oxidative and carcinogenic properties due to their ability to attack and bind to DNA and proteins [24]. Hydrocarbons have a volatile nature and, therefore, inhalation of them results in respiratory tract irritation and narcosis of mammals and birds.
Physical contact is the major route of exposure and usually affects birds and furred mammals. These animals rely on their outer coats for buoyancy and warmth. Consequently, they often succumb to hypothermia, drowning and smothering when oil flattens and adheres to the outer layer [24]. A second general exposure route is through the ingestion or inhalation of the hydrocarbon by organisms that reside on the surface [24]. Exposure by these routes leads to absorption into the bloodstream via the gastrointestinal or respiratory tracts.
Oil dispersants (57 chemical ingredients approved for use by the US EPA) are a common tool used after oil spills in marine environments. They break up oil slicks on the water surface and increase the oil\'s rate of biodegradation. Oil dispersants are quickly used when other means, such as oil containment and removal, are insufficient. However, consequences of the toxicity of oil spill dispersants alone or in the presence of oil must be evaluated. Generally, undispersed oil poses the greatest threat to shorelines and surface dwelling organisms. However, most dispersed oil remains in the water column where it mainly threatens pelagic and benthic organisms [27]. A complete and updated list of used oil dispersant is available from the US EPA at the website http://www2.epa.gov/emergency-response/alphabetical-list-ncp-product-schedule-products-available-use-during-oil-spill.
Several studies have compared the toxicity of oil spill dispersants alone or in the presence of oil. Analyses of tests conducted on a variety of species of aquatic life showed that crustaceans are more sensitive to oil dispersant exposure, compared with fish [28]. A study by [29] indicated that the species with the least amount of protective shell or external tissue is the most sensitive to oil dispersant exposure.
It has been shown that the use of oil dispersants increases the exposure and uptake of PAHs by fish. This is particularly the case with fish that live throughout the water column of coastal areas, the ocean and lakes. Researchers found that ‘the risk of PAH toxicity... especially to sensitive life stages, such as eggs and larvae, is enhanced by chemical dispersion’ [30]. In addition, ‘concentrations of LMWPAHs and HMWPAHs (low and high molecular weight PAHs) were found to be higher in the water column following the application of chemical dispersants to the surface slicks’ [31]. ‘For example, see [31]’. They reported that chemical dispersants mobilize PAHs to toxic concentrations as the biomarker ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase (EROD) activity is increased after exposing newly-hatched mummichog (
Reference [29] compared the toxicity of a new dispersant, Superdispersant-25 (SD-25), to Corexit 9527 using four species of marine invertebrates at 15 C. The most sensitive species was the snakelocks anemone
Moreover, in a study by [32], adults of four species of wild-caught Newfoundland nearshore fishes were exposed for four days in flow-thru conditions to the dispersant Corexit 9527 alone, water accommodated fraction (WAF) of Hibernia light crude oil alone and dispersed Hibernia crude oil. Test toxicants (20 to 50 ml) were added daily to 300 L tanks for four days, followed by up to six weeks in clean water. The investigators did not report exposure temperatures or toxicant concentrations except to note that initial daily concentrations were 50-100 ppb for Hibernia water-accommodated fraction (WAF). On the first day, the caplein responded to the dispersant by swimming erratically. On the second and subsequent days, they responded by death accompanied by hemorrhaging of the gill lamellae.
After oil is spilled at sea and with the effect of wind and water current, the oil spreads out and moves on the water surface as a slick a few millimetres thick. At the same time, it undergoes a series of chemical and physical changes [13]. These processes are collectively termed ‘weathering’. Weathering causes the spilled oil to break down and become heavier than water. Some of these processes, like the natural dispersion of oil into water, lead to the removal of the oil from the sea surface and facilitate its natural breakdown in the marine environment. Others, particularly the formation of water-in-oil emulsions, cause the oil to become more persistent and remain at sea or on the shoreline for prolonged periods of time. The speed and relative importance of these processes depend on a number of factors. These include the quantity spilled, the oil’s initial physical and chemical characteristics, weather and sea conditions and whether the oil remains at sea or is washed ashore. Ultimately, the marine environment usually eliminates spilled oil through the long-term process of biodegradation. (http://www.itopf.com/knowledge-resources/data-statistics/statistics/).
The natural actions, which are always at work in aquatic environment, are summarized in the US EPA archive document (http://www.epa.gov/oem/docs/oil/edu/oilspill_book/chap1.pdf). These include weathering, evaporation, oxidation and biodegradation.
Ultimately, the impact of oil on marine organisms depends on the fate of the oil. As previously described, when oil is present in the environment, it is either dispersed in the top layer of the water (littoral zone) or remains on the surface and, consequently, on the coastal areas. If the oil is not dispersed, it remains on the surface. In this case, currents bring the oil towards coastal areas which harms coastal organisms like invertebrates, mammals and birds. However, if the oil is dispersed, organisms, such as fish, plankton and larvae, are immediately subjected to oil toxicity.
Zooplankton is a particularly important food resource, especially for baleen whales. It can influence or control the primary productivity by top-down effects [33] in return. Its population dynamic change can influence the biomass of other marine animals like fish by bottom-up effects [34]. Some zooplankton, such as copepods, euphausiids and mysids, assimilate hydrocarbons directly from seawater and by ingesting oil droplets and oil contaminated food [35 as cited by 36]. The ingestion of oil by these organisms often causes mortality, while surviving organisms often show developmental and reproductive abnormalities [37].
The impact of petroleum pollution on marine plankton has been a great cause for concern. Reference [37] summarized the reports regarding the toxic effects of oil water accommodated fraction (WAF) on marine phytoplankton, zooplankton and the early life stages of animals. Generally, oil WAF toxicity enhances with increasing carbonic chain length and benzene ring number. The paper summarized the research results regarding the influence of oil WAF on marine plankton. It also suggested future study points to further promote the quantified evaluation of the damage by oil pollution to marine ecology.
For the oil WAF, [37] reported that plankton are capable of accumulating PAH due to their great lipophilic abilities. They, therefore, stimulate various harmful effects. The investigators reported that marine plankton is highly sensitive to the petroleum WAF, as the order of median effective/lethal concentration is as low as lg/L or mg/L. Examinations of the toxicity effect of 10 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons associated with the Prestige fuel oil spill on adult copepods (
Benthic invertebrates and higher forms, such as the sand eel and
Bivalve molluscs tend to accumulate petroleum hydrocarbons to higher concentrations and retain them longer than other taxa [41-42 as cited by 36]. This is essentially due to the lack of a mixed function oxygenase (MFO) system [43 as cited by 36] that makes them unable to metabolize the compounds to execrable polar metabolites. Thus, they are likely to transfer them to their predators. Marine mammals that rely heavily on bivalve molluscs for food, such as the walrus and otter, share a higher risk of ingesting petroleum hydrocarbons [44 as cited by 36]. Benthic amphipods are quite sensitive to spilled oil. They are among the first marine animals killed and the slowest to recover [45 as cited by 36]. However, most marine crustaceans have a well-developed MFO system [43 as cited by 36]. As a result, they are able to metabolize and excrete accumulated hydrocarbons quite rapidly.
Previous studies have explored the recovery of the invertebrate populations after oil spills [46-47]. In the intertidal habitat, the biological recovery of the exposed shores is faster than the sheltered shores. This is because strong wave action promotes the removal of contamination and the animals and plants of exposed shores tend to be severely affected. Thus, they are better able to re-colonize an impacted shore quickly. Sublittoral habitats are generally contaminated by sedimentation of oiled particulate material and clean-up for these habitats is not practiced. As a result, the recovery of subtidal communities impacted by oil spills usually takes a longer time. For example, the
Invertebrate populations, such as the amphipod sand hopper,
In other studies on oil spill accidents, it has been shown that six months after the Prestige oil spill and clean-up campaign, invertebrate populations of the exposed sandy beaches, notably the isopod
Marine invertebrates are unique living organisms in different aspects. They have been explored as a model for several biological markers as a result of oil spill pollution. Reference [50] surveyed the marine invertebrate mussels
In addition, recreational attractions for divers, coral reefs are considered to be important constituents of marine ecosystems. This is because they are important nurseries for shrimp, fish and other animals [51]. The aquatic organisms that live within and around the coral reefs are at risk of exposure to the toxic substances within oil, as well as smothering. They are rapidly deteriorating because of a variety of environmental and anthropogenic pressures. Thus, they are suffering significant changes in diversity, species abundance and habitat structure worldwide [52].
Oil dispersants are potentially harmful to marine life including coral reefs [53]. In a study using coral nubbins in coral reef ecotoxicology testing, [54] found that dispersed oil and oil dispersants are harmful to soft and hard coral species at early life stages. The investigators also employed a ‘nubbin assay’ on more than 10, 000 coral fragments to evaluate the short- and long-term impacts of dispersed oil fractions (DOFs) from six commercial dispersants (Slickgone, Petrotech, Inipol, Biorieco, Emulgal and Dispolen) and the dispersants and water-soluble-fractions (WSFs) of Egyptian crude oil on two Indo-Pacific branching coral species,
Due to the well-developed hepatic mixed function oxygenase (MFO) system, in addition to the reactivity of the metabolites that would not be released in a toxic form during digestion and absorption, most fish, even in heavily oil-contaminated environments, do not accumulate and retain high concentrations of petroleum hydrocarbons. Thus, they are not likely to transfer them to predators. Thus, no serious threat is predicted [55 as cited by 36].
Generally, marine carnivores are inefficient assimilators of petroleum compounds in food. For this reason, and because all prey species are able to release hydrocarbons from their tissues [41 as cited by 36], the marine food chain biomagnification does not occur. Thus, there is an indirect correlation between a marine mammal\'s trophic level and the concentration of residues that it might consume. In fact, as top carnivores that feed on large pelagic fish and seals, polar bears and killer whales are less likely to be exposed to petroleum in their food than other species, such as walrus and baleen whales, which feed on zooplankton and benthic invertebrates.
Experiments that explain the effect of oil spills on the early stages of fish were demonstrated by [56]. They found that chronic exposure of juvenile pink salmon (
As one of the major routes of exposure, physical contact usually affects birds. For example, thousands of African penguins (
An evaluation of the impact of oil spills on seabirds has not been fully appreciated during incidents, despite pressure from the public concern, media and other interested parties for precise and up-to-date information on the damage. Consequently, the approximate numbers of seabird casualties involved in many major spills have only been estimated, while impacts at the population level have been difficult to determine. Natural variation and the huge range of factors that influence bird population statistics make it difficult to assess the impact of oil spill on sea birds.
In reference [57], in their efforts to assess the impact of oil spills on seabirds in Europe and in North America, the investigators reported that there are two inter-linked aspects to dealing with oiled seabirds during major spills. The first is a relatively expensive and logistically complicated process. This involves birds found alive and the humanitarian efforts made to clean, rehabilitate and successfully release them into the wild. The second involves assessing the likely impact of the spill on the populations of those species affected.
The relation between the size of an oil spill and the number of seabird casualties is not directly proportional. Moreover, estimates of the number of seabird deaths from oil slicks are highly speculative. This is because an unknown number of oiled birds may die at sea and not reach the coast. For example, following the
Researchers argued that the rapid recovery of the murre breeding colonies in Alaska and the number of dead birds might be lower than was estimated. They also suggested that breeding pairs may have been replaced by younger birds that came in from the open sea [60]. On the other hand, [61] argued that the impacts of the spill may have been diffused over a large area, permitting local recovery and making it difficult to detect any changes in local abundance or habitat occupancy. Nine years after the Exxon Valdez oil spill, in their long-term effects observation, [62] claimed that the populations of most bird species have not recovered and others still show potential population effects. However, the report is at variance with other findings [63-64].
During the winter season of 2003, approximately 64,000 tonnes of Prestige heavy fuel oil spilled off Galacia, Spain. As a result, 10 % of the European shag (cormorants,
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t
Sea ducks (eiders, etc.) | \n\t\t1440 | \n\t\t167 | \n\t
Mergansers | \n\t\t121 | \n\t\t1 | \n\t
Loons | \n\t\t395 | \n\t\t14 | \n\t
Grebes | \n\t\t462 | \n\t\t0 | \n\t
Heron | \n\t\t1 | \n\t\t3 | \n\t
Geese/swans | \n\t\t9 | \n\t\t0 | \n\t
Gulls | \n\t\t696 | \n\t\t74 | \n\t
Kittiwakes | \n\t\t1225 | \n\t\t133 | \n\t
Cormorants/shags | \n\t\t836 | \n\t\t864 | \n\t
Shearwaters | \n\t\t3399 | \n\t\t0 | \n\t
Fulmars | \n\t\t870 | \n\t\t31 | \n\t
Guillemots/murres | \n\t\t20562 | \n\t\t220 | \n\t
Other auks | \n\t\t2174 | \n\t\t29 | \n\t
Bald eagles | \n\t\t125 | \n\t\tNA | \n\t
Other birds | \n\t\t3152 | \n\t\t0 | \n\t
Total | \n\t\t35467 | \n\t\t1536 | \n\t
Comparison of the number of dead seabirds recovered following the
Marine mammals include bottlenose dolphins, fins, humpbacks, rights, sei whales, sperm whales, manatees, cetaceans, seals, sea otters and pinnipeds. As previously indicated, the physical contact of oil with furred mammals usually affects these animals because they rely on their outer coats for buoyancy and warmth. Consequently, these animals often succumb to hypothermia, drowning and smothering when oil flattens and adheres to the outer layer [24].
As part of their activities, all marine mammals spend a considerable amount of time at the surface. Here, they swim, breathe, feed or rest. Thus, the possibility of their contact with a surface slick, water-in-oil emulsion, or tar balls, is high. In heavy pelage marine mammals, such as fur seals, sea otters and polar bears, this contact may lead to fouling. Polar bears and otters groom themselves regularly as a means of maintaining the insulating properties of the fur and may, thereby, ingest oil. Animals with smooth surfaces or relatively little to no pelage, such as whales, dolphins, manatees and most seals, have an advantage as oil would have fewer tendencies to adhere to their surface [36].
Some baleen whales are skim-feeders, i.e., they eat at the surface [67 as cited by 36]. When in an area of slick or tar balls, this behaviour can lead to foul in the feeding apparatus. Tarry residues, in particular, can coat the baleen plates.
Animals, such as narwhals, belugas, ringed seals, walruses and polar bears in Polar Regions, spend most of their time at the ice edge in leads, polynyas and breathing holes. This is where spilled oil tends to accumulate.
Oil that contaminates a shore is likely to severely affect pinnipeds. Pinnipeds require such areas for nursery and, to a lesser extent, otters and bears. Some of the oil is eventually returned in subtidal sediments, where it may transfer to gray whales, walrus and some seals. Such species feed heavily on benthic animals.
When marine mammals encounter fresh oil, they are likely to inhale volatile hydrocarbons evaporating from the surface slick. These volatile fractions contain toxic monoaromatic hydrocarbons (benzene, toluene and xylenes) and low molecular weight aliphatics with anaesthetic properties. The inhalation of these volatile hydrocarbon compounds is potentially harmful [68-69 as cited by 36]. The inhalation of concentrated petroleum vapours can cause the inflammation of and damage to the mucus membranes of airways, lung congestion or even pneumonia [70 as cited by 36]. Volatile benzene and toluene, which can be inhaled, can be transferred rapidly from the bloodstream into the lungs. Furthermore, they can accumulate from the blood into the brain and liver, causing neurological disorders and liver damage [71 as cited by Neff 36].
Marine mammals are probably poor accumulators to oil directly from the solution or dispersion in the water column. This is because the skin of cetaceans is relatively impermeable to oil [72 as cited by 36]. Additionally, most marine mammals do not drink large volumes of seawater. Thus, a significant accumulation of hydrocarbons by this route is unlikely to occur.
There is an extensive and diverse database regarding subjects that deal with effects of oil on marine mammals and those aspects of an animal\'s life history vulnerable to exposure of spilled oil. This database is summarized in a publication by the Department of Interior/Minerals Management Service (MMS 88-0049)/Atlantic OCS region, Canada [72]. ‘For example, see [36]’, described the effects of oil on marine mammal populations. At the same time, [73] described the physiological and toxicological effects of oil on each of the marine mammal groups.
Reference [73], in his study of ‘Physiologic and Toxicologic Effects on Pinnipeds’, indicated that pinnipeds are inappropriately sensitive to the harmful properties of oil. Incidental ingestion during feeding, exposure to vapour concentrations and surface contamination with relatively fresh oil does not appear to cause a disaster. However, Pinnipeds trapped near the source of a spill or those which are forced to emerge in heavy accumulations of oil in leads and around rookeries exhibit the most severe effects. Experimental studies by the same investigators on fur seals indicated that surface fouling decreases the insulation value of the pelt. This can potentially lead to thermal and energetic stress. Furthermore, the sensitivity to the effects of oil exposure may be high in species and groups that are compromised by pre-existing disease, or stressed by pressures of an unfavourable habitat, intra-specific competition or unusual environmental conditions. [73].
In several aspects, aquatic plants are important to the functioning of ecosystems. These include the fact that they are oxygen producers, their ability to sequester carbon and for their base position in aquatic food chains. In addition, they serve as nursery, feeding and breeding habitats for a variety of animal and plant species, including recreationally and commercially important fish.
Plants and animals are affected by the oil in which they come into contact with as a result of an oil spill. In their review of toxicities of oils, dispersants and dispersed oils to algae and aquatic plants, [74] summarized the reported phytotoxicities of oils, dispersants and their combinations to aquatic plants. They assessed the ability of the reviewed database to support toxicity predictions and evidence-based risk assessments. The phytotoxicity database mainly includes the results of research conducted after oil spills to marine waters. The toxicity of at least 41 crude oils and 56 dispersants were recorded. At least 107 response parameters were monitored for 85 species of unicellular and multicellular algae, 28 wetland plants, 13 mangroves and nine seagrasses. Due to experimental diversity, the effect concentrations available from this toxicity database are varied and diverse. As a result, there are restricted phytotoxicity predictions and identification of sensitive species, life stages and response parameters. Thus, the impact of toxicity of petrochemicals and dispersants on aquatic plants was not supported by this database.
Reference [74] recommended a proactive and experimentally-consistent approach to provide the threshold toxic effect concentrations for sensitive life stages of aquatic plants inhabiting diverse ecosystems.
The effects of heavy fuel oil contamination on the growth and the development of
In 1986, more than 8 million litres of crude oil spilled into a complex region of mangroves, seagrasses and coral reefs, just east of the Caribbean entrance to the Panama Canal [76]. Intertidal mangroves, sea grasses, algae and associated invertebrates were covered by oil and died soon after. Investigators reported that seedlings of red mangrove,
Another example of the oil spill effect on mangrove plants is December, 2000. In this case, 500 mangrove saplings in a 6.34 ha reserve in Hong Kong were subjected to a smuggled fuel oil spill. More than 80% died in root-zone sediments containing 60 - 80 ug/g total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH). However, one year later (December, 2001), the injured survivors had recovered and re-grown, with root-zone sediment TPH concentrations approaching urban ‘background’ values of 40 ug/g TPH [77].
There are numerous factors that determine the microbial response to marine oil spills. These include the oil composition and degree of weathering, as well as the environmental conditions, particularly temperature and nutrient concentrations. Reference [13, 78-80], for example, reviewed the different factors affecting the biodegradation of the petroleum hydrocarbons by microorganisms and how environmental and biological factors could determine both the rate at which and extent to which hydrocarbons are removed from the environment.
When crude oil is introduced into seawater, the microbial community changes and consists of multiple co-existing species. These can be explained by resource sharing [81]. In reference [13], in their review paper, reported that the diverse array of hydrocarbons present in crude oil requires resource partitioning by microbial populations, as well as microbial modification of oil components and the surrounding environment, will lead to temporal succession. The reviewers observed a network of direct and indirect interactions within and between species, even when just one type of hydrocarbon is present. They also provided a schematic illustration (Figure 3) of some of the interactions involved in hydrocarbon biodegradation. Elements of these interactions were stated in several studies reviewed by them.
Schematic illustration of some of the interactions involved in hydrocarbon biodegradation [
Multiple co-existing species and/or temporal succession are typically observed when
At the molecular level, studies by the microarray analysis of 16S rRNA genes have revealed that Gamma-proteobacteria were enriched in marine environments that are historically exposed to frequent, episodic, natural ‘oil spills’ [97]. This analysis also revealed that marine water exposed to oil spills enriches indigenous oil degrading bacteria, where members of the order
Following the 1991 Gulf War environmental disaster, an extensive formation of cyanobacterial mats was observed to colonize most of the oil polluted shores. Although most of the intertidal cyanobacterial mats were severely affected by the oil spill, these organisms were the first to re-colonize the destroyed habitats [99]. This initial massive growth of cyanobacteria, especially on sites where they did not occur before the oil spill, indicated the preference of the cyanobacterial mats to the absence of bioturbation (i.e., destabilizing the sediment surface caused by crabs and polychaetes) of the sediment for their growth. Cyanobacteria do not usually occur where bioturbation has been carried out and - together with the grazing pressure by benthic animals - prevents the establishment of cyanobacterial mats. The extensive growth of cyanobacteria following the oil pollution of the shores can be explained by destroying most of the crab colonies in the mudflats and immediately stopping the bioturbation process, as well as grazing by gastropods. Reference [100] explained this colonization by three different processes. The first one is the desiccation, cracking and peeling of the cyanobacterial mats. This removes the uppermost part of the oiled sediment. The second is the resettlement of burrowing macrofauna like crabs and benthic animals, such as gastropods, which outcompete the cyanobacteria again. The third is further extensive growth of cyanobacteria building thick laminated mats. These layers completely seal the surface and hence, produce an anaerobic zone which inhibits oil degradation. As long as such a bloom of cyanobacteria exists, microbial oil degradation will be prevented. They will also prevent any resettlement by macrofauna.
The threatening of marine environments with the petroleum oil spills has caught the attention of many communities, encouraging them to develop their own plans and policy issues. These have ranged from permitting or prohibiting increased oil transport volumes, to developing the capacity to respond to and recover from potential spill disasters.
A comprehensive literature review was conducted by [101], who covered 300 academic, governments and industry papers and reports relating to oil spills and their environmental and societal consequences, with emphasis on economic impacts. Reference [14], in their report of the ‘Consequences of Oil Spills from Tanker Accidents’, provided a review and structured framework that supports the efforts of such communities to anticipate the spectrum of issues, factors, stakeholders and strategies that may be involved. The review presented an initial and important input into the larger process of addressing the risk of oil spill disasters. The research was based on two premises. The first was that, although previous disasters provide an essential information source for anticipating future events, not all lessons may be transferrable across locales and the key to successful planning and learning from experience is that it be based on systematic assessment activities’ [102]. The second premise was that developing realistic expectations of oil spill consequences requires an understanding of the full range of impacts and interactions within and across the affected systems. These include the marine ecosystems and socioeconomic systems.
The purpose of the summary literature review and overview framework provided by [14] was to help communities systematically consider the factors and linkages that would influence consequences of a potential oil spill. Studying previous oil spill disasters has assisted communities to focus on several main domains of interest. These include the nature of the oil spill itself, how to manage the disaster, the physical marine environment, marine biology, human health, economy and policy. Key factors that influence the severity of the impact were identified and significant interactions between variables were recognized. By using this framework, it is suggested that communities can clarify the complexity of oil spill impacts, develop experience for planning from other oil spill disasters and develop the capacity to respond to and recover from potential spill disasters. Furthermore, such a framework encourages debates about risk analysis and policy to understand and reduce the susceptibility of their localities to potential spill disasters. The investigators concluded that a comprehensive overview can help clarify the complexity of oil spill disasters, make comparisons across events, identify data gaps and develop planning scenarios in preparation for future oil spill disasters.
Local communities that depend on the fishing industry, aquaculture and tourism should realize that the impact of an oil spill is governed by complex factors. These include the oil spill’s volume and location relative to fishing/cultivation areas, currents, tides and wave action. Other factors include whether species harvested in the region are sedentary or mobile, as well as government decisions relating to fishing bans and compensation schemes.
During the 1930s and 1940s, the discovery of oil in the Gulf led to a massive increase in shipping. This discovery is principally responsible for the huge economic wealth and strategic importance associated with the region today. Thus, the socio-economic development of the Gulf region is highly dependent on its marine environmental quality.
In 1991, the second Gulf War led to the largest oil spill in human history. Around 6 million barrels of oil were discharged into the Gulf [22]. Moreover, 770 km of coastline from southern Kuwait to Abu Ali Island (Saudi Arabia) were smothered with oil and tar, erasing most of the local plant and animal communities. Many of these communities were internationally significant. For example, a number of bird species, green and hawksbill turtles and dugongs are endemic to the region. Such species were harmed and disturbed [100].
Considering that approximately 49% of the world’s oil production comes from the Gulf States and passes through the Gulf, its liability to pollution is about 48 times that of any other similar area on earth [103]. Hence, the Gulf is possibly the most chronically oil-polluted marine area in the world, even before the war [104].
Due to the different anthropogenic activities relating to oil spills, in addition to the natural environmental stresses of the Gulf, i.e., enclosed and shallow nature, a number of socio-economic impacts are predicted:
Fisheries as a multi-million dollar industry and the artisanal fisheries as a resource of great social significance are threatened. This is because oil spills are harmful to coral reefs, mangrove areas and seagrass. These organisms provide a support and grounds for a number of commercially significant fish and shrimp species.
Desalination plants that provide most of the population’s freshwater supply for the Gulf region are threatened.
Disruption to the fishing industry and a reduction in scuba diving tourism [105]. Consequently, people who have a career in this industry will lose their jobs, which they have had for a long time.
Disruption of the coastal and marine environments which are internationally significant for a number of bird species, green and hawksbill turtles and dugongs. These are endemic to the region.
Marine oil spills can have a serious impact on marine life, as well as on the economic coastal activities and the communities that exploit the resources of the sea. Generally, the effects of oil toxicity depend on a multitude of factors, including the oil composition and characteristics (physical and chemical), condition (i.e., weathered or not), exposure routes and regimen, and bioavailability of the oil. Oil dispersants, which are a common tool used after oil spills, are also toxic and threaten pelagic and benthic organisms, as well as fish. Marine life can also be affected by clean-up operations or indirectly through the physical damage to the habitats in which plants and animals live. Communities that are threatened by marine oil spills have realized the risk and have, therefore, developed their own plans and policy issues to counteract the risk of marine oil contamination. Due to the different anthropogenic activities relating to oil spills, in addition to the natural environmental stresses of the Gulf, a number of socio-economic impacts are predicted. These are summarized by the threatening of the fish industry and desalination plants that supply most of the populations’ freshwater for the Gulf region, in addition to the scuba diving tourism.
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http://www.epa.gov/oem/docs/oil/edu/oilspill_book/chap1.pdf (Accessed 27 Dec. 2014).
http://cybercemetery.unt.edu/archive/oilspill/20121210200431/http://www.oilspillcommission.gov/final-report
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http://www.vancouvereconomic.com/userfiles/file/Attachments/VEC%20Report%20%20Impacts%20of%20Oil%20Tanker%20Spills%20Relevant%20to%20Vancouver.pdf (Accessed accessed 19 Dec. 2014).
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The author would like to thank the University of Sharjah for its administrative support. Special thanks are also extended to Dr. Ammira Sarah Akil, for reading the manuscript.
It was recently proposed [1] to use the human visual system’s ability to perform photon counting in order to devise a new biometric authentication scheme, which was called “quantum.” The claim made in [1] was that the scheme offers unbreakable security, not unlike the security offered by quantum cryptography [2, 3] against a potential impostor wishing to eavesdrop during the transmission of information. In our case, the “fingerprint” is a physical property of the visual system, including the eyeball, retina and brain. The “fingerprint” is registered and probed using weak-intensity light and the subject’s conscious perception thereof.
In this chapter we will further elaborate in intuitive terms on the workings of the quantum biometric methodology as were outlined in [1]. To do so, we will summarize a recently proposed authentication algorithm [4], which is straightforward to understand, as compared to more elaborate algorithms discussed in [1]. We will then address some basic issues of the authentication methodology. One has to do with the very first registration of one’s “fingerprint.” Another issue is related to aging effects on this “fingerprint,” which have to do with the visual acuity degrading with age. We will also address the central issue of the variability of the “fingerprint” among different individuals.
We will then review recent progress made towards the experimental realization of the quantum biometric methodology using laser light [5]. Finally, we will summarize a recent proposal [4], to use quantum light in order to enhance the method’s performance in terms of the required time to run the authentication algorithm, for given desired values of the false-negative and false-positive authentication probability.
As a short introduction to the basics of our biometric authentication methodology, we first recapitulate the original experiment of Hecht et al. [6], eloquently described by Bialek [7]. In particular, Hecht et al. were the first to unambiguously demonstrate that rod cells, the scotopic photoreceptors in our retina, are efficient photon detectors. Additionally, they obtained the threshold in the number of detected photons for the perception of vision to take place. We denote this threshold by
In more detail, the three authors in [6] exposed their eyes to very weak-intensity light pulses, with the photon number within each pulse being so small, that the visual perception became a probabilistic event. Let
However, when the mean number of photons per pulse incident on the eyeball is
Hence the probability that the number of photons detected by the illuminated patch of the retina is exactly
As noted by Bialek [7], this formula expresses the (perhaps surprising) fact that the probabilistic nature of our visual perception, which is a systemic effect concerning the retina and the brain, is fundamentally governed by the quantum statistical properties of the stimulus light.
To further understand the experiment of Hecht et al., we plot in Figure 1 examples of the dependence of the probability
Probability of seeing a light pulse having mean photon number per pulse
What is interesting to note is that the change of
The experimental apparatus used by Hecht et al. looks rather primitive from our modern technological perspective. Yet these authors managed to make a remarkable case: even though a subjective observable, as the optical loss parameter
Whereas the variability of the parameter
There are three ways to get several light paths to the retina. For all three we suppose that the stimulus light source consists of distinct laser beams, which can illuminate the cornea at several different spots (as shown in Figure 2a), either one at a time, or many. These laser beams are supposed to propagate in parallel from the light source to the cornea. Then, for an emmetropic individual (i.e., somebody not having any refractive errors) all these laser beams will be focused on the same spot on the retina. Instead, for a myopic individual these laser beams focus before the retina and thus will illuminate different spots on the retina, while for a hyperopic individual they focus behind the retina, and again illuminate different spots.
A simplified presentation of the idea behind the biometric authentication using the photon counting capability of the human visual system. (a) We suppose to have a light stimulus source, which can provide for parallel laser beams patterned in an array. For simplicity, this is here shown as a
Now, as observed in Section 2, the
In Figure 2 we show the crux of the matter: suppose we have an array of, for example, nine laser beams, patterned in a
To describe the workings of the methodology in more detail, we first note that the prerequisite is that the
The
To avoid amplifying the error made in the estimation of
Let us denote by
This number of interrogations is clearly impractical. In [1] the first authentication algorithm proposed follows a similar route of estimating
This observation had motivated [1, 4] authentication algorithms that, rather than using the precise
When the subject wishes to be authenticated, for example, in order to enter a high-security facility, the biometric device must implement a measurement protocol in order to positively authenticate the subject. As already apparent, we have restricted the discussion to authentication. That is, we assume that when asking to be authenticated, the subject announces who he or she is. Then the device must make sure that the subject indeed is who he or she claims to be. So henceforth we suppose the biometric device is “aware” of the subject’s
The result of the authentication protocol is either positive or negative, and two central quantifiers of its performance are the false-negative and false-positive probability, denoted by
Let us call Alice the subject who appears and wishes to be positively authenticated. Eve will be an impostor who maliciously claims to be Alice. Now, the biometric device knows Alice’s high-
Now, we will suppose that Eve is not aware of Alice’s
However, what should be allowed as a scenario is for the impostor to have technology that would allow her to estimate the “fingerprint” under consideration by physical means, which do not require access to the fingerprint database nor do they require use of force. For example, one could imagine when discussing, for example, face recognition, that Eve could take an image of Alice’s face without Alice noticing (e.g., from a distance using a high resolution camera) and then use this image to construct a face mask. This scenario is not prevented by physical laws. Nor is there any physical law preventing the face recognition test from being bypassed by an artificial face mask. So in comparing the security of various biometric methodologies, one should study what is in principle possible in terms of bypassing the biometric device, given the laws of physics. Based on current quantum technology, it is inconceivable how Eve would be able to infer Alice’s
In other words, it seems that even in principle, that is, based on the laws of physics and in particular the physics of quantum measurements, Eve cannot physically obtain Alice’s
A crucial detail is that the device illuminates every spot, no matter of what kind it is, with a light pulse
We will now elucidate all of the above using the specific authentication protocol outlined in [4].
This protocol is a variant, which is intuitively simpler to understand than the protocols discussed in [1]. We assume that the biometric device simultaneously illuminates
Now the probability that an impostor called Eve, pretending to be Alice, correctly responds to such an interrogation is
because Eve is not aware of what kind of spots are being illuminated, and
where
Now, as previously mentioned, one interrogation is not enough to achieve adequate performance with respect to the false-positive and false-negative probabilities. Therefore a number of sequential interrogations is used. This number is actually a random variable, coming about as follows [4]. We define an integer success variable
For relatively small values of the parameter
The reader might have inquired how the photon number per pulse per illuminated pixel is chosen. This is easily shown by considering the fact that the probability of Alice’s successful response,
One question recurring in presentations of the above scheme is the effect of aging, namely, it is reasonable to assume that the
Measurement of the visual field using differential threshold perimetry. Figure reproduced from [
The subject fixates at the center of a half-sphere, the inner surface of which has a light background illumination (Figure 3a). Then, several spots are illuminated with varying intensity (on top of the background), and the subject reports whether he or she perceives the illuminated spot (Figure 3b), this leading to the threshold of perception. The position of each spot is defined with two angles, one accounting for the temporal vs. nasal position, and the other for the superior vs. inferior position (Figure 3c). The measured threshold as a function of these two angles defines the hill of vision (Figure 3d).
Now, as seen in Figure 4 depicting perimetric data [17], the visual field sensitivity indeed appears to degrade with age. We will use such data to comment on how age can affect the
Sensitivity threshold decreasing with age. Plotted is the average threshold versus age for a particular position (3° nasal, 15° superior) for 74 individuals. Despite the scatter, the downward slope is obvious. Based on such data, it is reasonable to expect that the values of an individual’s
Another crucial issue is the variability of the
(a) Intra-subject variability the differential perimetric threshold for the central
Figure 5a depicts the variability of the differential threshold of one particular individual for various viewing angles in the central
Finally, related to the inter-subject variability is the question of how many different subjects would our methodology be able to authenticate without the possibility of a random coincidence of one’s
The stimulus light source required to realize an authentication algorithm such as the one described above was recently reported in [5]. It consists of two laser beams, one at 532 nm and one at 850 nm, which are combined in a fiber into a single beam. As the laser power at the exit of the fiber combiner fluctuates, in [5] a feedback loop was used to stabilize the power of the 532 nm, which is used as stimulus light. The infrared light is used for pointing, as will be described shortly. In order to create different patterns of pixels across the laser beam’s cross section, the laser beam was propagated through a liquid crystal display (LCD) in a multi-pass configuration. The activated dots of the LCD produced an optical loss in the laser beam, corresponding to dark pixels, whereas the inactivated dots produced the illuminated pixels. In order for the contrast between illuminated versus dark pixels to be acceptable, the beam went through the same configuration of LCD dots five times, as shown in Figure 6a. The five passes where chosen because the relative optical loss obtained from one pass between activated and inactivated LCD dot is 0.35. Now, since we need photon numbers up to 200 photons per illuminated pixel per pulse in order to scan the probability-of-seeing curve, the number of photons going through the inactivated LCD dots should be negligible compared to 200. Since
Optical setup producing a laser beam consisting of an array of pixels, which can be independently illuminated by computer control. The laser beam has two colors combined in a fiber combiner, one at 532 nm used for stimulating the visual system, and the other at 850 nm used as pointing light. (b, c) Pixel patterns are produced by a multi-pass configuration through a liquid crystal display. (d, e) The optoelectronic feedback system stabilizing the intensity of the 532 nm light exiting the fiber combiner leads to Poissonian photon statistics for the time scale and photon number of interest to the interrogation pulsed used in our methodology. (f-h) Examples of various patterns illuminating the eye. What is seen is the reflection of the infrared light off a glass plate before the eye. Reproduced with permission from Springer Nature [
In Figure 6d we show that indeed the photon statistics of the stimulus light at 532 nm are Poissonian. In particular, this is accomplished by the aforementioned intensity feedback, without which the photon number distribution is wider than the Poissonian. In Figure 6e we show that for photon numbers at least equal to 200 the variance of the photon number is equal to the mean photon number per pulse, hence our stimulus light exhibits Poissonian statistics for all photon numbers of interest for the biometrics protocol. It should also be noted that the control over the number of photons, that is, the ability to change the mean number of photons per illuminated pixel per pulse resides in the feedback system used to stabilize the stimulus light. By changing a voltage within the feedback system, we can scan the number of photons, for example, from 20 to 200 photons.
Finally, we discuss the role of the infrared light. The infrared light is used for pointing, that is, for providing information on the geometry of incidence of the stimulus light on the cornea. As can be seen in Figure 6a, the laser beam illuminates the eye through a beam splitter, so that the camera sitting behind the beam splitter can image the subject’s eye. Moreover, just before the eye we place a glass plate, so that the laser beam is reflected backwards into the camera, since the reflections off the spherical surface of the eye would miss the camera. However, the green stimulus light is too weak (maximum 200 photons per illuminated pixel per pulse) for its reflection to be detected by the camera. Here comes in the infrared light, which is not perceived by the visual system, thus its intensity can be high enough for its reflection to be visible in the camera. This is what is seen in Figure 6f–h, where we depict various examples of patterns of pixels incident on the eye. The large bright pixel on the top left part of each image is the reflection of an infrared lamp providing for ambient light for the camera. The other pixels are the infrared reflections of the illuminated pixels of the laser beam. Due to the spatial overlap of the stimulus and the infrared light, these infrared reflections convey the exact position of the stimulating pixels at 532 nm.
One might wonder if there is some advantage to be gained by using quantum light sources for the stimulus light instead of laser light. Indeed, in [4] it was theoretically shown that a single-photon source, for example, a heralded single-photon source [18, 19, 20, 21] can lead to a quantum advantage. In particular, it was shown that the total interrogation time is reduced by using single photons. The advantage comes about because the narrower distribution of the incident photon number affects the probabilities
The fact that we can use a single-photon source producing a number of, for example, 200 photons in a light pulse stimulating the visual system rests on the rather large temporal summation window [22], which is the time span within which the visual system cannot temporally resolve the perceived light. Were that not the case, one would need Fock states with up to 200 photons, which so far cannot be produced. In contrast, a heralded-single photon source working at 1 kHz rate would do.
It is interesting to note that the quantum advantage obtained, that is, the required number of required interrogations, is reduced by slightly more than 10% compared to laser light. This figure is at first sight not significant, the main reason being that the statistics of the detected photons differ only slightly [4] between quantum light and laser light, because of the high optical losses suffered by light. It is actually these losses that we take advantage of to define the fingerprint of this method. Since these losses are rather large (typical values of
We have elaborated on a new biometric authentication method, which is based on the human visual system’s ability to perform photon counting. The method works with weak light, in order for the effect of visual perception to take place when the light intensity is close to the visual threshold. In such a regime, optical losses suffered by light when propagating from the cornea to the retina are crucial in determining the outcome of perception of weak light flashes. These losses form the biometric “fingerprint” of our biometric authentication methodology. We have described an intuitive authentication algorithm based on illuminating a number of retinal spots being associated with either high optical losses or low optical losses, and used this algorithm to discuss basic features of our methodology, like aging effects, and the fingerprint’s inter-subject and intra-subject variability.
We then reviewed recent experimental progress towards developing a laser light stimulus source which provides for light patterns with the desired properties needed for the realization of the authentication protocols. Finally, we presented recent work in exploring a possible quantum advantage that could be obtained by using a quantum light source instead, like a heralded single-photon source.
From a broader perspective, this work further demonstrates the scientific potential of the emerging field of quantum vision, that is, the possibilities for exploring the human and animal visual system using modern photonic and quantum-optical tools [23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28].
IK and ML acknowledge co-financing of this work by the European Union and Greek national funds through the Operational Program Competitiveness, Entrepreneurship and Innovation, under the call “RESEARCH-CREATE- INNOVATE,” with project title “Photonic analysis of the retina’s biometric photo-absorption” (project code: T1EDK-04921). OEM acknowledges financial support from the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TÜBITAK), grant No. 120F200.
IntechOpen - where academia and industry create content with global impact
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Human errors in this works and decisions made big effect on last product quality and profitability are not able to be risked. This chapter deal with valuable information on the latest challenges and key innovations affecting the animal husbandry. Also, innovative approaches and applications for animal husbandry are tried to be summarized with detail latest research results.",book:{id:"6384",slug:"animal-husbandry-and-nutrition",title:"Animal Husbandry and Nutrition",fullTitle:"Animal Husbandry and Nutrition"},signatures:"Serap Göncü and Cahit Güngör",authors:[{id:"215579",title:"Prof.",name:"Serap",middleName:null,surname:"Goncu",slug:"serap-goncu",fullName:"Serap Goncu"},{id:"218971",title:"Dr.",name:"Cahit",middleName:null,surname:"Güngör",slug:"cahit-gungor",fullName:"Cahit Güngör"}]},{id:"58486",title:"Quality of Chicken Meat",slug:"quality-of-chicken-meat",totalDownloads:3351,totalCrossrefCites:19,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:"Chicken meat is considered as an easily available source of high-quality protein and other nutrients that are necessary for proper body functioning. In order to meet the consumers’ growing demands for high-quality protein, the poultry industry focused on selection of fast-growing broilers, which reach a body mass of about 2.5 kg within 6-week-intensive fattening. Relatively low sales prices of chicken meat, in comparison to other types of meat, speak in favor of the increased chicken meat consumption. In addition, chicken meat is known by its nutritional quality, as it contains significant amount of high-quality and easily digestible protein and a low portion of saturated fat. Therefore, chicken meat is recommended for consumption by all age groups. The technological parameters of chicken meat quality are related to various factors (keeping conditions, feeding treatment, feed composition, transport, stress before slaughter, etc.). Composition of chicken meat can be influenced through modification of chicken feed composition (addition of different types of oils, vitamins, microelements and amino acids), to produce meat enriched with functional ingredients (n-3 PUFA, carnosine, selenium and vitamin E). By this way, chicken meat becomes a foodstuff with added value, which, in addition to high-quality nutritional composition, also contains ingredients that are beneficial to human health.",book:{id:"6384",slug:"animal-husbandry-and-nutrition",title:"Animal Husbandry and Nutrition",fullTitle:"Animal Husbandry and Nutrition"},signatures:"Gordana Kralik, Zlata Kralik, Manuela Grčević and Danica Hanžek",authors:[{id:"207236",title:"Dr.",name:"Gordana",middleName:null,surname:"Kralik",slug:"gordana-kralik",fullName:"Gordana Kralik"},{id:"227281",title:"Prof.",name:"Zlata",middleName:null,surname:"Kralik",slug:"zlata-kralik",fullName:"Zlata Kralik"},{id:"227283",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuela",middleName:null,surname:"Grčević",slug:"manuela-grcevic",fullName:"Manuela Grčević"},{id:"227284",title:"BSc.",name:"Danica",middleName:null,surname:"Hanžek",slug:"danica-hanzek",fullName:"Danica Hanžek"}]},{id:"56453",title:"Goat System Productions: Advantages and Disadvantages to the Animal, Environment and Farmer",slug:"goat-system-productions-advantages-and-disadvantages-to-the-animal-environment-and-farmer",totalDownloads:4379,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:20,abstract:"Goats have always been considered very useful animals. Goats success is related to its excellent adaptability to the difficult mountain conditions, extreme weather and low value feed acceptance, versatile habits and high production considering their size. These are some reasons because goats are among the first animals to be domesticated. In terms of evolution, goats could be separated by their dispersion area in three large groups: the European, the Asian, and the African. Global goat populations, mainly in Africa and in Asia, have increased for centuries but very strongly in the past decades, well above the world population growth. They are also used for forest grazing, an integrated and alternative production system, very useful to control weed growth reducing fire risk. Despite some exceptions, no large‐scale effort to professionalize this industry has been made so far. There are consumers for goat dairy products and there is enough global production, but misses a professional network between both. Regarding goat meat, the world leadership also stays in Africa and Asia, namely in China, and there is a new phenomenon, the spreading of goat meat tradition through Europe due to migrants from Africa and other places with strong goat meat consumption.",book:{id:"5987",slug:"goat-science",title:"Goat Science",fullTitle:"Goat Science"},signatures:"António Monteiro, José Manuel Costa and Maria João Lima",authors:[{id:"190314",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"Cardoso",surname:"Monteiro",slug:"antonio-monteiro",fullName:"António Monteiro"},{id:"203680",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria João",middleName:null,surname:"Lima",slug:"maria-joao-lima",fullName:"Maria João Lima"},{id:"203683",title:"MSc.",name:"José Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Costa",slug:"jose-manuel-costa",fullName:"José Manuel Costa"}]},{id:"70760",title:"Induction and Synchronization of Estrus",slug:"induction-and-synchronization-of-estrus",totalDownloads:1750,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Estrus cycle is a rhythmic change that occur in the reproductive system of females starting from one estrus phase to another. The normal duration of estrus cycle is 21 days in cow, sow, and mare, 17 days in ewe, and 20 days in doe. The species which exhibit a single estrus cycle are known as monstrous and species which come into estrus twice or more are termed polyestrous animals. Among them some species have estrus cycles in a particular season and defined as seasonal polyestrous. It includes goats, sheep, and horses. On the other hand, cattle undergo estrus throughout the year. The estrus inducers can grossly be divided into two parts, that is, non-hormonal and hormonal. Non-hormonal treatments include plant-derived heat inducers, mineral supplementation, uterine and ovarian massage, and use of Lugol’s iodine. The hormones that are used in estrus induction are estrogen, progesterone, GnRH, prostaglandin, insulin, and anti-prolactin-based treatment. Synchronization can shorten the breeding period to less than 5 days, instead of females being bred over a 21-day period, depending on the treatment regimen. The combination of GnRH with the prostaglandin F2α (PGF2α)- and progesterone-based synchronization program has shown a novel direction in the estrus synchronization of cattle with the follicular development manipulation.",book:{id:"8545",slug:"animal-reproduction-in-veterinary-medicine",title:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",fullTitle:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine"},signatures:"Prasanna Pal and Mohammad Rayees Dar",authors:[{id:"299126",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad Rayees",middleName:null,surname:"Dar",slug:"mohammad-rayees-dar",fullName:"Mohammad Rayees Dar"},{id:"311663",title:"Dr.",name:"Prasanna",middleName:null,surname:"Pal",slug:"prasanna-pal",fullName:"Prasanna Pal"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"25",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82991",title:"Diseases of the Canine Prostate Gland",slug:"diseases-of-the-canine-prostate-gland",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105835",abstract:"In dogs, the most frequent diseases of the prostate gland are benign prostate gland hyperplasia (BPH), acute and chronic prostatitis, squamous metaplasia, and prostate tumors. New diagnostic tools comprise diagnostic markers in the blood and urine, as well as advanced imaging methods. The therapy can be initialized with the 5α-reductase-inhibitor finasteride or an anti-androgenic compound, and prolonged with a long-acting gonadotropin-releasing-hormone (GnRH)-agonist such as deslorelin. In case of prostatitis, effective antibiotics must be applied for weeks. Antibiotics must be able to penetrate into the prostate tissue; fluoroquinolones, clindamycin, and erythromycin are good choices and are in addition effective against mycoplasms. The chronical prostatitis cannot be differentiated from a neoplasia by sonography; a biopsy, histological, and bacteriological examination are required. Tumors of the prostate gland are seldom and mostly occur in castrated but in intact dogs. For the final diagnosis, a biopsy must be taken. Partial and total resection of the prostate gland by use of laser technique is possible but coincedes with many side effects and the prognosis is still futile. Immunotherapy combined with NSAIDs, targeted noninvasive thermotherapy, BRAF gene inhibitors, or prostate artery chemoembolization are promising methods.",book:{id:"11580",title:"Recent Advances in Canine Medicine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11580.jpg"},signatures:"Sabine Schäfer-Somi"},{id:"82956",title:"Potential Substitutes of Antibiotics for Swine and Poultry Production",slug:"potential-substitutes-of-antibiotics-for-swine-and-poultry-production",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106081",abstract:"Early of the last century, it was detected that antibiotics added to the animal feeds at low doses and for a long time can improve technical performances such as average daily gain and gain-to-feed ratio. Since then, the antibiotics have been used worldwide as feed additives for many decades. At the end of the twentieth century, the consequences of the uses of antibiotics in animal feeds as growth promoters were informed. Since then, many research studies have been done to find other solutions to replace partly or fully to antibiotic as growth promoters (AGPs). Many achievements in finding alternatives to AGPs in which probiotics and direct-fed microorganism, prebiotics, organic acids and their salts, feed enzymes, bacteriophages, herbs, spices, and other plant extractives (phytogenics), mineral and essential oils are included.",book:{id:"11578",title:"Antibiotics and Probiotics in Animal Food - Impact and Regulation",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11578.jpg"},signatures:"Ho Trung Thong, Le Nu Anh Thu and Ho Viet Duc"},{id:"82905",title:"A Review of Application Strategies and Efficacy of Probiotics in Pet Food",slug:"a-review-of-application-strategies-and-efficacy-of-probiotics-in-pet-food",totalDownloads:15,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105829",abstract:"In companion animal nutrition, probiotics (direct-fed microbials) are marketed as functional ingredients that add value to pet foods due to the impact they have on gastrointestinal and immune health of dogs and cats. The nature of the beneficial effect each probiotic strain exerts depends on its metabolic properties and perhaps most importantly, the arrival of a sufficient number of viable cells to the large bowel of the host. Pet food manufacturing processes are designed to improve food safety and prolong shelf-life, which is counterproductive to the survival of direct-fed microbials. Therefore, a prerequisite for the effective formulation of pet foods with probiotics is an understanding of the conditions each beneficial bacterial strain needs to survive. The aims of this chapter are: (1) To summarize the inherent characteristics of probiotic strains used in commercial pet foods, and (2) To review recently published literature on the applications of probiotics to pet foods and their associated challenges to viability.",book:{id:"11578",title:"Antibiotics and Probiotics in Animal Food - Impact and Regulation",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11578.jpg"},signatures:"Heather Acuff and Charles G. Aldrich"},{id:"82773",title:"Canine Transmissible Venereal Tumor: An Infectious Neoplasia in Dogs",slug:"canine-transmissible-venereal-tumor-an-infectious-neoplasia-in-dogs",totalDownloads:14,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106150",abstract:"Canine transmissible venereal tumor is the oldest cancer in dogs and is transplanted via viable cancer cells. This cancer has a specific host, easy transmission, noticeable gross lesions, a predictable growth pattern, an immunologic relative host response, unique molecular characteristics, and is responsive to chemotherapeutic treatment. These points make researchers and practitioners interested in this cancer. Genital cases are noticeable and therefore easier to diagnose and treat than extragenital cases. By contrasting the anatomical features of the two types of cases, we highlight the uniqueness of canine transmissible venereal tumors and discuss the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of this ancient cancer.",book:{id:"11580",title:"Recent Advances in Canine Medicine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11580.jpg"},signatures:"Chanokchon Setthawongsin, Somporn Techangamsuwan and Anudep Rungsipipat"},{id:"82797",title:"Anatomical Guide to the Paranasal Sinuses of Domestic Animals",slug:"anatomical-guide-to-the-paranasal-sinuses-of-domestic-animals",totalDownloads:7,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106157",abstract:"Paranasal sinuses are paired cavities within the skull, which develop by evagination into the spongy bone between the external and internal plates of the cranial and facial bones. Thus, each sinus is lined by respiratory epithelium and has direct or indirect communication to the nasal cavity. The purpose of this chapter is to present an anatomical reference guide of the paranasal sinuses in domestic animals, including large and small ruminants (cattle, buffalo, sheep, and goats), camels, canines (dog) and equines (horse and donkey), appropriate for use by anatomists, radiologists, clinicians, and veterinary students. Topographic descriptions and the relationships between the various air cavities and paranasal sinuses have been visualized using computed tomography and cadaver sections images. The anatomical features (including head bones, muscles, and soft tissues) have been compared using both dissected heads and skulls and computed tomography images. This chapter will therefore be useful as a normal reference guide for clinical applications.",book:{id:"10665",title:"Updates on Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10665.jpg"},signatures:"Mohamed A.M. Alsafy, Samir A.A. El-Gendy and Catrin Sian Rutland"},{id:"81844",title:"Typical Changes in Carbon and Nitrogen Stable Isotope Ratios and Mercury Concentration during the Lactation of Marine Mammals",slug:"typical-changes-in-carbon-and-nitrogen-stable-isotope-ratios-and-mercury-concentration-during-the-la",totalDownloads:4,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103067",abstract:"The increase and decrease in the δ15N values of offspring owing to the suckling of δ15N-enriched milk (nursing) and the feeding shift from milk to solid food (weaning), respectively, are thought to be common traits observed in mammals. However, there are a few studies on lactation in marine mammals, especially large whales, because samples of calf, lactating mother, and milk are difficult to obtain. In this chapter, we review the studies on reproduction of marine mammals using δ13C and δ15N values analyzed in several tissues and describe the typical changes reported to date in those values and Hg concentrations in offspring and milk during lactation. Next, we present data on ontogenetic changes in δ15N and δ13C profiles and Hg concentration, especially focusing on the lactation period, in muscle samples of hunted bowhead whale, and stranded common minke whale (mysticetes), Dall’s porpoise (odontocete), and the harbor seal (phocid). Finally, we compare the δ15N and δ13C values in muscle samples of calves from common mink whale, Dall’s porpoise, and killer whale and suggest that these values could be excellent proxies for maternal forging habits and trophic levels.",book:{id:"11335",title:"Marine Mammals",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11335.jpg"},signatures:"Tetsuya Endo and Mari Kobayashi"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:25},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 2nd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/3.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"205604",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomas",middleName:null,surname:"Jarzembowski",slug:"tomas-jarzembowski",fullName:"Tomas Jarzembowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKriQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-06-16T11:01:31.jpg",biography:"Tomasz Jarzembowski was born in 1968 in Gdansk, Poland. He obtained his Ph.D. degree in 2000 from the Medical University of Gdańsk (UG). After specialization in clinical microbiology in 2003, he started studying biofilm formation and antibiotic resistance at the single-cell level. In 2015, he obtained his D.Sc. degree. His later study in cooperation with experts in nephrology and immunology resulted in the designation of the new diagnostic method of UTI, patented in 2017. He is currently working at the Department of Microbiology, Medical University of Gdańsk (GUMed), Poland. Since many years, he is a member of steering committee of Gdańsk branch of Polish Society of Microbiologists, a member of ESCMID. He is also a reviewer and a member of editorial boards of a number of international journals.",institutionString:"Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland",institution:null},editorTwo:{id:"484980",title:"Dr.",name:"Katarzyna",middleName:null,surname:"Garbacz",slug:"katarzyna-garbacz",fullName:"Katarzyna Garbacz",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003St8TAQAZ/Profile_Picture_2022-07-07T09:45:16.jpg",biography:"Katarzyna Maria Garbacz, MD, is an Associate Professor at the Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland and she is head of the Department of Oral Microbiology of the Medical University of Gdańsk. She has published more than 50 scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals. She has been a project leader funded by the National Science Centre of Poland. Prof. Garbacz is a microbiologist working on applied and fundamental questions in microbial epidemiology and pathogenesis. Her research interest is in antibiotic resistance, host-pathogen interaction, and therapeutics development for staphylococcal pathogens, mainly Staphylococcus aureus, which causes hospital-acquired infections. Currently, her research is mostly focused on the study of oral pathogens, particularly Staphylococcus spp.",institutionString:"Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland",institution:null},editorThree:null},{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amidou Samie is an Associate Professor of Microbiology at the University of Venda, in South Africa, where he graduated for his PhD in May 2008. He joined the Department of Microbiology the same year and has been giving lectures on topics covering parasitology, immunology, molecular biology and industrial microbiology. He is currently a rated researcher by the National Research Foundation of South Africa at category C2. He has published widely in the field of infectious diseases and has overseen several MSc’s and PhDs. His research activities mostly cover topics on infectious diseases from epidemiology to control. His particular interest lies in the study of intestinal protozoan parasites and opportunistic infections among HIV patients as well as the potential impact of childhood diarrhoea on growth and child development. He also conducts research on water-borne diseases and water quality and is involved in the evaluation of point-of-use water treatment technologies using silver and copper nanoparticles in collaboration with the University of Virginia, USA. He also studies the use of medicinal plants for the control of infectious diseases as well as antimicrobial drug resistance.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Venda",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. 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