Total activity and the mass of radioactive cesium, strontium, and iodine released from F1NPP.
\r\n\t1. Emphasizing the unique power of the molecular docking method in new drug discovery;
\r\n\t2. Demonstration of how the molecular docking technique has led to the discovery of new molecules in cancer therapy, proteasome, and STAT3 inhibition, and the treatment of Alzheimer's disease;
\r\n\t3. Underlining the importance of molecular docking-based modeling methods in the various branches of biotechnology
\r\n\tWe hope that this book will be a common point where researchers working in the fields of life sciences and drug development will eventually meet.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-468-5",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-467-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-469-2",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"8c918a1973786c7059752b28601f1329",bookSignature:"Dr. Erman Salih Istifli",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11451.jpg",keywords:"Protein-Ligand Interaction, Lead Discovery, Molecular Recognition, Enzyme-Ligand Interaction, Mutant Enzymes, Alanine Screening, Proteasome Inhibitors, Signal Transducers, Transcription Activators (STATs), DNA Recognition Motifs, Neoplastic Cells, Amyloid-Beta Proteins",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 3rd 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 4th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 3rd 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 21st 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 20th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A multidisciplinary researcher working in the fields of cytogenetics, molecular genetics, and bioinformatics-based molecular modeling (currently on the structural biology of COVID-19 and the treatment of Alzheimer’s disease). 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During his period of doctoral research, he joined the molecular cytogenetics group at the Max Planck Institute for Molecular Genetics in Berlin, Germany, and he focused there on investigating the molecular cytogenetic causes of some human rare diseases. During these studies, he contributed experimentally to the identification of four candidate genes (GRIA2, GLRB, NPY1R, and NPY5R) responsible for intelligence and obesity. He was assigned as an expert and rapporteur on eight candidate projects in the Marie-Sklodowska Curie-Actions Innovative Training Networks in 2016. In 2017, he completed the online theoretical and practical course 'Introduction to Biology - The Secret of Life', run by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) on the edX platform. In April 2019, within the framework of Erasmus+ staff mobility program, he gave seminars on 'DNA microarrays and their use in genotoxicity' at Tirana University in Tirana, Albania. 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From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copy-editing and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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This damage led to release of a large amount of radioactive matter into the environment, estimated at 11.6 EBq (exa Bq: 1018 Bq) [1]. Radioactive xenon (Xe-133) was the most abundant material discharged, at 11.3 EBq, followed by iodine (I-131, I-132, I-133, and I-135), tellurium (Te-127m, Te-129m, Te-131m, and Te-132), and cesium (Cs-134 and Cs-137). In addition to these, radioactive strontium (Sr-89 and Sr-90), barium (Ba-140), yttrium (Y-91), and plutonium (Pu-238, Pu-239, Pu-240, Pu-241) were also released among others. Among these radionuclides, cesium, strontium, and iodine gained the most attention because of their biophilic properties, in addition to the high amount of the discharged activity, which was 33 PBq (peta Bq: 1015 Bq), 200 PBq, and 2.1 PBq in total, 10–37 PBq, 150 TBq (tera Bq: 1012 Bq), and 90–500 PBq in the air, and 1.9 PBq, 90–500 TBq, and 2.7 PBq in the ocean, respectively [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]. However, eventually the attention focused solely on cesium because iodine and Sr-98 have relatively short half-lives and so their levels decreased to below detectible levels at an early stage (50.5 days for Sr-98 and 8 days for I-131, which is the longest half-life period among radioactive iodine released by the accident) [1]. For strontium, in addition to the early decrease in the contamination levels of Sr-98, the total discharged activity of Sr-90 was comparatively small, and the polluted area was limited to near the surroundings of the F1NPP due to its low volatility [6]. However, radioactive strontium and iodine still need to be monitored and decontaminated because 140 TBq of Sr-90, with a half-life 29.1 years, was released into environment, and I-129, with a half-life of 16 million years, could be produced from 3.3 PBq of Te-129m in the polluted environment [7, 8]. I-129 is derived from Te-129m, and small amounts of I-129 produced in the reactor were also released during the accident [9].
High-level radiation-contaminated water in the reactor building and the accessory facilities of F1NPP was treated by various chemical and physiological methods including the SARRY system (simplified active water retrieve and recovery system) for cesium removal and the ASPS system (advanced liquid processing system) for multinuclide removal [12, 13]. However, the decontamination of the surrounding area was not as simple because of the wide area of contamination and the low concentrations of the radioactive materials.
However, the total mass of the radioactive material was not as high as the total activity from F1NPP, which was calculated by following equation (Table 1) [10, 11]:
where w is the total mass (g), B is the total activity (Bq), M is the radionuclide atomic weight, and T is the half-life period (hour).
Nuclide | Half-life period | Total activity (Bq) | Mass (g)* |
---|---|---|---|
Cs-134 | 2.1 years | 1.8 × 1016 | 373 |
Cs-137 | 30.0 years | 1.5 × 1016 | 4753 |
Sr-89 | 50.5 days | 2.0 × 1015 | 1.8 |
Sr-90 | 29.1 years | 1.4 × 1014 | 27.7 |
I-131 | 8.0 days | 1.6 × 1017 | 35.5 |
I-132 | 2.3 hours | 1.3 × 1013 | 3.4 × 10−5 |
I-133 | 20.8 hours | 4.2 × 1016 | 1.0 |
I-135 | 6.6 hours | 2.3 × 1015 | 1.7 × 10−2 |
Total activity and the mass of radioactive cesium, strontium, and iodine released from F1NPP.
Mass was calculated from the total activity, radionuclide atomic weight, and half-life using the equation in the text below.
Even when calculating the total mass of all the biophilic elements, it did not exceed 6 kg. On the other hand, the polluted area exceeded over 10,000 km2, which included forests, field, lakes, rivers, and houses, with a rate of 0.5 μSv h−1 in the air recorded on April 1, 2011 [14]. Ten years later, the area would still cover around 3000 km2 due to the half-life period of Cs-137, which is 30 years [14]. The physiological and chemical methods for decontamination are costly and difficult to apply for such a weak and widespread contamination. Hence, the biological method, called bioremediation, is a good candidate for decontamination [10]. Bioremediation is a method that uses living organisms to accumulate or degrade a contaminating material. This method has many advantages because it allows for the possibility to treat various pollutants thanks to its biological diversity. It is effective for trace levels of pollutants; it can reduce the cost of remediation because of the low energy usage. However, in addition to the disadvantage of it being both temperature- and weather-dependent, the speed of the remediation method is limited. Despite this, bioremediation is considered to be the remediation technology for the next generation.
Cesium, strontium, and iodine were regarded as the most hazardous of the radionuclides diffused into the environment by the F1NPP accident. These elements are easily absorbed by living organisms through water and air or indirectly through food and result in an increased health risk by internal exposure. The indirect uptake of these nuclides through food is more serious because the strength of the activity may be increased by biological concentration via food chain [10]. Therefore, the number of radionuclides, such as Cs-137, Sr-90, and I-131, as well as Ru-106 and K-40, has been monitored by the United States (Food and Drug Administration), Japan (Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare), and other countries in addition to toxic metals, pesticides, and chemicals [11].
Of the different radionuclides, radioactive cesium has attracted the most attention for the following reasons: (i) the total amount of released radioactivity for Cs-134 and Cs-137 was very high, (ii) the long half-life of cesium (2.1 and 30.0 years for Cs-134 and Cs-137, respectively) means it remains in environment for many years, (iii) the area contaminated by cesium was considerably large with respect to its volatility, and (iv) cesium is easily absorbed and accumulated in the body of living organisms.
Cesium is absorbed by the body as an analog of potassium, which is one of the essential elements of living cells, and is accumulated in the parenchyma of the muscles and organs [12]. However, the biological concentration factor of cesium is not very high, unlike for heavy metals, and is in the range of one to two orders of magnitude in large predatory fish [13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19]. The effective half-life is considered to be the same level as biological half-life in humans, about 100 days, because of the long half-life of Cs-134 and Cs-137 [20]. Cesium is thought to be taken up by the potassium assimilation system, which includes the potassium transporter, the sodium/potassium pump, and the potassium channel. In animals, cesium is absorbed in the intestinum tenue, stored partially in the liver, and used in the cells and organs across the whole body, including muscles, bones, brain, etc. In plants, potassium also has important physiological roles, such as the extension and division of the cell, the opening and closing of stoma, and signal transduction between organelles. On the other hand, it has been previously reported that over 200 μM of cesium can inhibit plant growth by disturbing the potassium uptake and jasmonate signaling [21, 22]. Many potassium transporting systems have been identified, and cation and/or calcium-transporting systems are thought to be involved in cesium transport in plants [23].
Figure 1 is a schematic diagram of a charging and discharging system of cesium in a plant root cell [23, 24]. Plant roots have several reported systems for potassium intake, including K+/H+ symporters (KUP) and inward-rectifying K+ channels (KIRCs) [25]. Cesium is transported into the cell by these systems. The KUP system belongs to the KT/KUP/HAK family. AtHAK5 and AtKUP/HAK/KT9 were identified in
Cesium charging and discharging system in a plant root cell. DACCs: depolarization-activated Ca2+ channel, HACC: hyperpolarization-activated Ca2+ channel, KIRC: inward-rectifying K+ channels, KORC: outward-rectifying K+ channels, KUP: K+ uptake, NORC: nonselective outward-rectifying K+ channel, VICC: voltage-independent cation channel. The arrows and their widths indicate the direction of transport and their relative activity, respectively.
The importation of Cs in plants is also carried out by other cation efflux systems. One of these are the voltage-independent cation channels (VICCs) [23]. The AtCNGC (
Radioactive strontium received the least attention of the three biophilic elements released by the F1NPP because the total discharged radioactivity was the lowest, at 2.1 PBq, that is, 1/10th of that of radioactive cesium. Moreover, Sr-89, with a half-life of 50.5 days, made up about 2 PBq of this, and hence the majority of the strontium in the environment decayed early on. The area polluted by radioactive strontium was limited because of its nonvolatility, and detection was difficult because both Sr-89 and Sr-90 have low-range radiation as low-energy beta-ray nuclides [1, 10]. Strontium is taken up by cells in the intestine as an analog of calcium and is stored in the bones [28]. Once strontium is absorbed, it is not easily excreted from the body due to its long biological half-life of 30–50 years. This poses a serious health risk due to long-term internal exposure to radiation. Furthermore, high levels of strontium were reported in predatory freshwater fish, with a concentration factor of 103 [29]. Therefore, radioactive strontium should receive equal if not greater attention than the other radionuclides. Calcium is the most abundant metal element and mostly exists in bones in animals. In plants, calcium is the second most abundant metal element after potassium and exists in the extracellular space in its insoluble form. It binds to cell wall components to form part of the support system of the plant structure. In the cell, calcium is stored in organelles such as mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum, or chloroplasts and vacuoles in plants. The concentration of calcium in the cytosol is kept in at very low levels (10−7 M) because calcium plays an important role for signal transduction in cells and acts as a secondary messenger. Therefore, there are constitutive calcium excretion systems on the surface of the cell, including CAX1 and CAX2 as the H+/Ca2+ antiporter, ECA and ACA as the calcium pump, and TPC1 and VICCs as the ion channels [30].
Figure 2 is a schematic diagram of the absorption mechanism of calcium in the small intestine of animals. There are two types of absorption, paracellular absorption and transcellular absorption, which function to transport calcium passively under high calcium concentrations and actively under low calcium concentrations, respectively [31]. In the paracellular pathway, small molecules and ions such as Ca2+ are selectively allowed to a pass through a very narrow space between the cells of the intestinal epithelium, i.e., the tight junctions [32]. For transcellular absorption, there are two active pathways for Ca2+ absorption. One is mediated by a calcium channel called Cav 1.3, and the other is mediated by a calcium transporter called TRPV6. The calcium transported into the intestinal epithelium cell by Cav 1.3 is thought to be released into the bloodstream vesicles. On the other hand, calcium incorporated into the cell is secreted into the plasma by the vesicular transport pathway or via PMCA1b, a calcium pump (Ca2+ ATPase). Calcium ions are delivered to the pump by simple diffusion of free Ca2+or by the facilitated diffusion pathway with a vitamin D-dependent calcium-binding protein, calbindin-D9K [31].
The calcium uptake system in the small intestine of animals. The arrows and their widths indicate the direction of transport and their relative activity, respectively. ER: endoplasmic reticulum, TJ: tight junction. Solid and dashed lines indicate active transport and diffusion, respectively.
Radioactive iodine is easily absorbed by the body as the main component of the thyroid hormone. Iodine is focally accumulated and concentrated at the thyroid gland, which increases the risk of developing goiter, especially in infants and small children. As a result of the F1NPP accident, radioiodide was spread into a wide area due to its high volatility. Radioactivity was detected not only in many places and food but also in the drinking water, because of its high solubility. For these reasons, it attracted the most attention immediately after the F1NPP accident. After several months, the attention shifted to radioactive cesium due to the early decay of iodine as a result of its short half-life (half-life of 8.0 days for I-133). However, radioactive iodine I-129 still poses a great health risk as it was both directly released from the reactor and can be formed indirectly via Te-129m [7, 8, 9]. Even though the release of I-129 was small and the concentration is currently not at a level that would pose a risk to human health [33, 34], because of its extremely long half-life of 16 M years, it could be deposited in the long-term by its continuous release from the nuclear power station or nuclear fuel reprocessing facilities, by another serious accident in the nuclear facility, or by the use of the nuclear weapons.
In higher animals, iodine is concentrated and located in the thyroid glands. Iodine is incorporated into the thyroid glands during the biosynthesis of thyroid hormone, namely triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). Iodide ions (I−) brought to thyroid epithelial cells by the blood are oxidized into iodinium ions (I+) by thyroperoxidase. This is activated by the thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). The subsequent iodination of tyrosyl residues of the thyroglobulin protein produces iodotyrosines, monoiodotyrosine (MIT), and diiodotyrosine (DIT) by an electrophilic substitution reaction. T4 and T3 are then synthesized and stored in thyroglobulin following an MIT and DIT coupling reaction. Finally, the thyroid hormone-binding protein is hydrolyzed into water-soluble amino acids by the activation of TSH [35].
Brown algae are known to accumulate iodine at rates 10,000 times more than that in seawater. Figure 3 shows the schematic diagram of the absorption mechanism of iodine by brown algae [36]. Iodide ions (I−) in the seawater are oxidized into hypoiodous acid (HIO) by haloperoxidase in the apoplastic space in the cell wall. Oxidized iodine passes through the cell membrane, by facilitated diffusion in HIO form, or reacts with other I− or organic substances to produce molecular I2 or organic iodine, respectively, and crosses the membrane by diffusion. The iodine transported as HIO, I2, or organic iodine is then reduced or deiodinated in the cytosol and stored in the cell in I− form, binding noncovalently with carbohydrates, polyphenols, and proteins [33].
Iodine uptake system in the brown algae.
Bioremediation using plants is called phytoremediation, and its use for the decontamination of radioactive elements has been previously reported. For cesium decontamination, Dushenkov et al. reported on the bioaccumulation of cesium, strontium, and uranium by sunflowers in which over 90% of the polluting substances were removed from a solution within 24, 28 and 24 hours, respectively [37]. Broadley et al. showed that dicotyledons (
The bioaccumulation of strontium by higher plants was surveyed comprehensively among 670 species in 138 families [39], although the individual species names were not specified. Sasmaz and Sasmaz selected
There are few reports on the uptake of iodine by higher plants because iodine is not an essential element for growth. Instead, it is considered to be a toxic element that causes growth inhibition. For example, type III Akagare disease is caused by the inhibition of photosynthesis due to high concentrations of iodide (>1 ppm) [42]. Therefore, the screening of iodine tolerant plants may be required for the effective phytoremediation and subsequent decontamination of radioactive iodine, unlike cesium and strontium.
Subsequently, decontamination was tested using higher plants, including sunflowers and 12 plant species in Fabaceae and Poaceae, to remove radioactive cesium from contaminated soils in the area polluted by the F1NPP accident [43]. However, a significant rate of removal was not achieved because only 1/2000 of the radioactive cesium in the soil was removed by sunflower [44]. Phytoremediation by higher plants is considered to be an effective method for the decontamination of low- and middle-level radio-polluted soils. However, the screening and breeding of a radionuclide hyperaccumulator is required, in addition to the optimization of the culture conditions and application, according to the localization of the target nuclides [43].
Phytoremediation using algae, also called phycoremediation, has the following advantages, in particular when using microalgae [45]:
Fast remediation because of the high growth rates of microalga.
Remediation with lower energy costs because of autotrophy.
High and effective remediation because of the biological concentration function.
Volume reduction of polluted material/water because of the single cellular or simple structure.
In particular, volume reduction by microalgae is considered to be an important advantage in the F1NPP case.
The ability to remove the radioactive cesium, strontium, and iodine from the solution was comprehensively examined to cover broad phylogenic variation by Fukuda et al. [46]. These aquatic plants and algae were consisted from 188 strains of algae and aquatic plants including 91 seawater, 86 freshwater, and 11 terrestrial strains, which covered almost all phylogenic group, i.e., 45 classes, 21 divisions, and 7 super groups such as cyanobacteria, Opisthokonta, Excavata, Archaeplastida, Rhizaria, Alveolata, and Stramenopiles in two domains (Table 2).
Domain | Super group | Divisions | Nutrient condition |
---|---|---|---|
Prokarya | Bacteria | Cyanobacteria | A |
Eukarya | Opisthokonta | Fungi | A/H |
Choanozoa | H | ||
Excavata | Metamonada | H | |
Euglenozoa | A/H | ||
Percolozoa | H | ||
Archaeplastida | Rhodophyta | A | |
Chlorophyta | A | ||
Mesostigmatophyta | A | ||
Chlorokybophyta | A | ||
Klebsormidiophyta | A | ||
Zygnematophyta | A | ||
Charophyta | A | ||
Land plants | A | ||
Cryptophyta | A/H | ||
Hacrobia | Haptophyta | A | |
Rhizaria | Cercozoa | A/H | |
Alveolata | Dinophyta | A/H | |
Stramenopiles | Bicosoecacea | H | |
Pseudofungi | H | ||
Ochrophyta | A/H |
The phylogenic position of experimental organisms (phylum level).
A, H, and A/H, nutrient conditions indicating “mostly autotrophic,” “mostly heterotrophic,” and “a mixture of A and H,” respectively.
These organisms show various advantageous features in their morphology, physiology, biochemical properties, and nutritional properties, namely autotrophy and/or heterotrophy. Most of these strains were obtained from the culture collections of the Laboratory of Plant Diversity and Evolutionary Cell Biology, University of Tsukuba, Japan, and the Microbial Culture Collection at the National Institute for Environmental Studies (NIES Collection, Tsukuba, Japan). Several other strains were collected from the surrounding area of the University of Tsukuba or were purchased from the local market.
The strains were inoculated in a 70 mL scale plastic culture bottle containing 15 mL of medium under a fluorescent light at 20°C. The strains were inoculated in 15 mL of fresh medium in the plastic culture bottle 1 day before the addition of artificial radionuclide, Cs-137, Sr-85, or I-125, with a concentration of 1 kBq/mL. The same medium was used for the preparative and the experimental culture, except for the cesium removal assay in which potassium was excluded. An aliquot was obtained, and the radioactivity contained in the medium fraction and the cell fraction was assayed using a gamma-ray counter by silicone oil layer methods [47]. The medium fraction was only assayed for the macroscopic algae and aquatic plants, which do not fit the silicone oil layer methods.
For the comprehensive examination of the radionuclide elimination ability of algae and aquatic plants, 167 strains out of 188 strains showed this activity (Figure 4a). From the 167 strains, the 15 strains that showed an elimination activity of over 40% were reexamined in a second screening (Figure 4b). As a result of the second screening, four strains possessing an elimination activity of 30% were selected as high radioactive cesium eliminators. These were the freshwater eustigmatophycean algae
Elimination activity of Cs-137 from the culture medium by algae and aquatic plants. (a) Global screening. Average values were ranked in descending order. (b) Second screening by selected algae and aquatic plants.
For the elimination of strontium, activity was confirmed in 181 of 188 strains (Figure 5a). By the second screening, 10 strains were identified, which had an elimination ability over 30% (Figure 5b). From these, three strains were selected as the highest strontium eliminators, namely the freshwater cyanobacterium
The elimination activity of Sr-85 from the culture medium by algae and aquatic plants. (a) Global screening. Average values are ranked in descending order. (b) Second screening by selected algae and aquatic plants by the global screening.
For the elimination of radioactive iodine, all strains except the green alga
Elimination activity of I-125 from the culture medium by algae and aquatic plants. (a) Global screening. Average values are ranked in descending order. (b) Second screening by selected algae and aquatic plants by the global screening.
All the selected strains were either freshwater or terrestrial strains. This is apt because of the competitive inhibition of the stable elements in the seawater medium, which contained 10, 10 mM, and 0.5 μM of potassium, calcium, and iodine, respectively [48, 49]. Likewise, for heterotrophic algae, the absorption and elimination of radionuclides were inhibited by the potassium and calcium in the yeast extract used for the medium (data not shown). Interestingly, the cyanobacterium
The high-cesium bioaccumulating alga
Elimination of Cs-137 from the medium by
In addition to
Elimination of Cs-137 from the medium by
In this chapter, we introduced a biological mechanism for the uptake of cesium, strontium, and iodine. Phytoremediation is a method that utilizes biological functions such as substance accumulation by biological concentration and biodegradation. Screening for a hyperaccumulator was carried out to apply phytoremediation technology in the decontamination of polluted land and water by radioactive substances released by the F1NPP accident. Global and secondary screening was used to identify several candidates of algae and aquatic plants for the phytoremediation and elimination of cesium, strontium, and iodine, respectively. In particular for cesium decontamination, the high-cesium bioaccumulating alga, novel eustigmatophytes
Is ethics a matter of conscience or a matter of management? The answer to this question may be found in the old adage that teaches us that prevention is better than cure. You will hardly find an organisation saying that they do not bother about ethics or corporate social responsibility. Still, you will see that the repetitions of unethical practices have not stopped. Rather, we frequently come to know about the unethical practices of organisations involving a fairly large amount of money. When these unethical practices are committed by the employees or management of Multinational Corporations (MNCs), it is definitely an issue of concern because MNCs are believed to shape global values and culture in the business world as they are the ‘primary agents of justice’ (Wettstein, cited in [1], p. 193). It is very interesting to note that most of the unethical practices of the MNCs so far unearthed occurred in either emerging or developing economies and were committed by the MNCs of the rich countries [2]. In this chapter, I try to examine one facet of unethical practices, that is, bribery practices of three MNCs from the viewpoint of Human Resource Management (HRM). It is necessary to think about the issue from an HRM perspective because it is not the organisations themselves that commit unethical practices but the people of the organisation who are the perpetrators.
Before proceeding further, let us try to clarify the role of HRM in this field by defining the boundary of bribery as an unethical practice. In defining the boundary of bribery as an issue of ethics, we should consider another related concept and its counterpart—law. The basic difference between law and ethics is that if you violate the law, you will definitely be prosecuted. However, if you commit an unethical practice, you may not be prosecuted. So far, the initiatives taken by the organisations and the governments to curb the unethical practices of the people in the organisations have been proved absolutely futile. The reason is that people are not learning from the exemplary and condign punishments of the people convicted and sentenced for committing unethical activities. Law and other similar mechanisms that are in practice are like negative reinforcements and act as
In this chapter, the role of HRM is examined in devising the instruments for positive checks for curbing unethical practices like bribery. This is done by examining three different cases. With the help of available secondary data, we show how appropriate HR actions could prevent the occurrence of unethical practices. In each of the cases, the following points are addressed to facilitate the understanding of the role of HRM in curbing the unethical practices:
Relevant facts about the country and its government;
Relevant facts about the MNCs and involved personnel(s);
Relevant information about the case;
Enablers of unethical behaviour;
HR lacunae in the case.
We conclude the chapter by identifying the particular and appropriate HR actions that could prevent the people involved from committing unethical activities. We also recommend how these HR activities can be implemented in the MNCs.
The official name of the country is the Federal Republic of Nigeria [4].
It has a population of 170,123,740 [5].
The total literacy rate of the population is 68% [5].
The country spends 0.9% of its GDP on education [6].
Seventy percent of the population of the country lives below the poverty line [5].
The most important natural resources of the country include natural gas, petroleum, tin, iron ore, coal, limestone, niobium, lead, zinc, and arable land [5].
The country was ranked 156th on Human Development Index in 2011 [7].
The country was ranked 143rd in the Corruption Perceptions Index in 2011 (Transparency International, cited in [8]).
The country has a federal republic type of government [5].
Major political parties in the country include Peoples Democratic Party (PDP), the All Nigeria Peoples Party (ANPP), and Action Congress (AC) [5].
The president is both the chief of state and head of government. The president is elected by popular vote for a 4-year term. The cabinet is called the Federal Executive Council [5].
The country has a bicameral National Assembly. The members are elected by popular vote to serve 4-year terms [5].
The judicial system comprises the Supreme Court (judges recommended by the National Judicial Council and appointed by the president) and the Federal Court of Appeal (judges are appointed by the federal government from a pool of judges recommended by the National Judicial Council) [5].
In the country, the executive branch and the office of the president retained strong federal powers. The legislature and judiciary have suffered years of neglect and they needed to be rebuilt as institutions for exercising their constitutional roles in the balance of power. For many reasons, Nigeria’s security services have been unable to respond effectively to the security threat, which is both political and criminal. As Nigeria has been trying to work out representational democracy, there have been conflicts between the executive and legislative branches over major appropriations and other proposed legislation. There is a restraint on allowing the legislative and judicial branches to operate relatively freely [4].
The bribery took place from the period 1995 to 2004 during the regimes of General Sani Abacha, Abdulsalami Abubakar, and Olusegun Obasanjo.
The legal system is mixed and composed of English common law, Islamic law (in 12 northern states), and traditional law [5]. The legal system is highly corrupted [4].
Four MNCs were involved in the bribery case in the form of a consortium named TSKJ. The MNCs are Technip of France, Snamprogetti of Italy, Kellogg Brown and Roots (KBR), a subsidiary of Halliburton Energy Services, and Japan Gas Corporation ([9], p. 20).
Halliburton Energy Services is a multinational corporation with operations in over 120 countries. This company started as Halliburton Oil Well Cementing Company in 1920, became incorporated in 1924, and became listed on the New York Stock Exchange in 1948 [10].
The following two paragraphs have been excerpted from the complaint lodged by the Securities and Exchange Commission to the US District Court Southern District of Texas Houston Division. They describe the basic information about the company:
KBR owned 25% share in the TSKJ ([12], p. 20). Analysis of the following excerpts from the complaint lodged by the Securities and Exchange Commission to the US District Court Southern District of Texas Houston Division leads to the conclusion that executives of KBR played the first fiddle in devising and implementing the bribery scheme. In other words, they were the mastermind.
The company’s ‘Code of Business Conduct’ states that the company policy requires directors, employees and agents to observe high standards of business ([12], p. 19).
Halliburton Energy Services knew about the schemes of bribery and had indulgence in the matter because the CEO of KBR, Inc. used to report directly to the Chief Operating Officer of Halliburton Energy Services [13].
Four people from Halliburton’s subsidiary and one person from Technip were mainly involved in the bribery practices. Their profiles are described below:
Mr. Dick Cheney was Halliburton’s CEO for 5 years before becoming vice-president to Mr. George W. Bush in 2001 [14]. While Mr. Dick Cheney was the CEO of Halliburton, the company thrived. As a politician, he is highly spoken of in regards to his political endeavours [10].
Mr. Albert Jack Stanley was the former CEO of KBR. He was said to have met with three former holders of a top-level office in the executive branch of the Nigerian government on different occasions, luring them into designating representatives with whom they could embark on the joint venture, under the shadow of which transactions relating to the bribes to be paid to government officials could safely be conducted [15]. He was with KBR for years. He served there as chairman and then a consultant. He acted as the representative of the TSKJ consortium ([16], p. 506). One Halliburton spokesperson said that during the years Mr. Albert Jack Stanley ran KBR, Mr. Albert Jack Stanley reported to Mr. David Lesar, Halliburton’s chief operating officer at the time and later CEO. Mr. David Lesar reported to Mr. Dick Cheney when Mr. Dick Cheney was the CEO [13].
Mr. Jeffrey Tesler, a U.K lawyer, was the person who acted as the go-between in the payment of bribes [17]. He was the main facilitator and monitor of all the bribe disbursements [15]. This was done through his firm. Mr. Jeffrey Tesler set up a firm called Tri Star Investment to facilitate the fund transfer [15].
Mr. Wojciech Chodan, a citizen of the UK with Polish roots and a former executive at M.W. Kellogg Company and later a consultant for KBR kept detailed diaries of the bribery transaction and worked for TSKJ in the capacity of a bribe conduit [15]. M.W. Kellogg Company employed him as Sales Vice-President from 1988 until December 1998, after which he became a Consultant to M.W. Kellogg Company until June 2004. Both as sales Vice-President and as Consultant, he reported to Mr. Albert Jack Stanley and other KBR employees [18]. He was also the former manager of the London office of M. W. Kellogg Company ([16], p. 506).
Mr. Georges Krammer, former Director of Technip—a member of the TSKJ Consortium [15]. He was the person who leaked the involvement of Mr. Jeffrey Tesler and others in the bribery scheme [13].
The bribery case came into the limelight when a French magistrate initiated the investigation of suspicious payments made by TSKJ after Mr. Georges Krammer said Mr. Jeffrey Tesler is ‘directly linked to corruption in Nigeria’. [13].
Later on, the case was investigated by the Economic and Financial Crimes Commission of Nigeria [18] and the Securities and Exchange Commission of the USA ([12], p. 20).
The bribe was paid to the top government officials of Nigeria, including two former presidents, one minister of petroleum, and one inspector general of police [18].
The amount of the bribe was US$180 million ([16], p. 504 and [19]).
Between 1995 and 2004, senior executives at KBR and others, devised and implemented a scheme to bribe Nigerian government officials to assist in obtaining multiple contracts worth over $6 billion to build Liquefied Natural Gas (‘LNG’) production facilities on Bony Island, Nigeria ([11] at 2).
The bribe money was paid into the accounts in UPB Geneva, HSBC Monaco, and Swiss bank ([11, 18] at 6).
The bribe was transferred over a 10-year period from 1995 to 2004 ([11] at 2).
Halliburton also investigated the matter internally [20].
The bribe was channelled through an external consultant to the company ([11] at 2).
The bribe was transferred in the form of a consultation fee ([11] at 2).
KBR, Inc. acted as the lead partner in the TSKJ consortium [13].
Mr. Tesler was reappointed by the consortium in 1999 at Halliburton’s insistence [13, 21].
From the above information of the case, we can easily deduce that the unethical behaviours were facilitated by the following forces:
Unethical leadership: It is proven that Mr. Dick Cheny had indulgence and consent in the corrupt practices of Mr. Albert Jack Stanley because the latter reported directly to the former regarding major business decisions. The unethical leadership of Mr. Dick Cheney allowed Mr. Albert Jack Stanley to make unethical decisions in this case.
Political clout of leaders: Mr. Dick Cheney’s political clout acted as a support for Mr. Albert Jack Stanley to embark upon unethical practices in Nigeria.
Inaction of top management of other consortium partners from Japan, France, and Italy: The leaders or the top management of the other partners in the TSKJ consortium remained silent on the adoption of unethical practices of the lead partner Halliburton. The lack of active involvement and voice of the partners from Japan and Italy paved the way for committing the unethical practices by Halliburton.
Organisational structure: The organisational structure acted as a camouflage to hide unethical practices. The multi-layered complicated relationship between Tri Star Investment and TSKJ, between TSKJ and KBR, and between KBR and Halliburton was nebulous enough to facilitate the commitment of any unethical practice by the TSKJ Consortium.
Corporate governance failure: After its acquisition of Dresser, Halliburton, KBR’s parent corporation, failed to devise adequate internal controls relating to foreign sales agents and the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act, and failed to maintain and enforce those internal controls it had. Halliburton, therefore, failed to detect, deter or prevent KBR’s violations ([11] at 2).
Improper way of reappointment of Mr. Tesler as a consultant: The HR Department of the organisation or the HR manager of the TSKJ consortium should have a voice in the reappointment of Mr. Tesler. The reappointment should have been based on a careful review of the previous performance, ability, etc. of Mr. Tesler.
Appointment of Mr. Albert Jack Stanley and Mr. Wojciech Chodan: Like Mr. Tesler, the appointment of Mr. Albert Jack Stanley and Mr. Wojciech Chodan should have been done with the help of input from the HR department.
Terms of reference and performance appraisal etc. of Mr. Stanley, Mr. Tesler, and Mr. Chodan: Their accountability and performance could be ensured through a rigorous and thorough appraisal and appropriate terms of reference. HRM could have helped assess their eligibility for the assignments from an ethical point of view.
Lack of human due diligence in appointing Mr. Stanley, Mr. Tesler, and Mr. Chodan: A thorough assessment of past track record, attitude, aptitude, qualification, and capability could be done by completing a human diligence process.
Training of Mr. Stanley, Mr. Tesler, and Mr. Chodan: These people have served the company for a long time. However, it is very apparent that they could not develop an attitude of employee engagement and commitment to the firm. They could not develop an ethical mindset throughout their career. The HR department of the company in which they served could provide them training on ethics and other matters that could improve their morality.
The official name is the Republic of Ghana [22].
It has a population of 25,241,998 [23].
The total literacy rate of the population is 57.9% [23].
The country spends 5.4% of its GDP on education [23].
28.5% of the population of the country lives below the poverty line [23].
The most important natural resources of the country include gold, timber, industrial diamonds, bauxite, manganese, fish, rubber, hydropower, petroleum, silver, salt, and limestone [23].
The country was ranked 135th on Human Development Index in 2011 [24].
The country was ranked 69th in the Corruption Perceptions Index in 2011 (Transparency International, cited in [25]).
The country has a democratic type of government [23].
Major political parties of the country include the New Patriotic Party, National Democratic Congress, Convention People’s Party, and People’s National Convention [22].
The president is popularly elected for a maximum of two 4-year terms [22].
There is a Council of State, a consultative body of 25 members appointed by the president. It is required by the constitution [22].
There is a unicameral Parliament and the members are popularly elected for 4-year terms [22].
There are independent Supreme Court justices nominated by the president with the approval of Parliament [22].
The country has been politically stable since 1993. The present political party in power enjoys broad support among the Ghanaian population as it pursues the domestic political agenda entitled ‘Better Ghana.’ [22]
The bribery took place in 2000 during the regime of Flt. Lt. Jerry John Rawlings, who was the president of Ghana from 1979 to 2001.
The legal system is mixed and composed of English common law and customary law [23].
Basic information on the company may be found in the following translated version of the full judgement given by Judge Trine Standal of the Asker and Baerum District Court:
According to the records, as of 1991, the Government of Ghana’s (GoG’s) share in Ghacem, was 75%. The rest 25% was held by Scancem of Oslo, Norway (24.5%) together with Dr. J.A. Addison (0.5%) [27]. Sounding critical of Scancem’s activities in Ghana since 1992, when the Government of Ghana began selling its 75% stake in it to the Norwegians, the journalists who could not see any ethical examples worth emulating from that Norwegian company, demanded from the country’s minister of international development what his government intends doing about the social impact of the imbalances that Ghacem’s unfair industrial practices have had on Ghana [28].
The news of the bribery was published simultaneously in several newspapers, namely, Dagens Naeringlsiv Magasinet, Det Norske Magazine, and Crusading Guide. However, it was first reported by two Norwegian journalists who jointly authorized the story entitled ‘Grey Cement, Black Money’ in the April 21, 2007 edition of their newspaper, ‘Dagens Naeringlsiv Magasinet’ [29].
The bribe was intended to be paid to former President of Ghana Flt. Lt. Jerry John Rawlings, his wife Mrs. Nana Konadu Agyeman-Rawlings, and his special advisor Mr. PV Obeng [30].
The amount of bribe was at least US$4.1 million and maybe double as part of the money was actually paid to the government officials [30].
The bribe money was paid into two foreign accounts in Switzerland and Luxembourg [31].
The bribe was transferred 2 months before the general election in Ghana in 2000 [32].
The bribe was paid to the three political leaders to secure Scancem’s monopoly in the cement industries in Ghana [31].
The alleged multi-million-dollar bribery came to light when ownership of Scancem changed hands in 2000, from Aker RGI of Norway to German Heidelberger Cement through the process of an internal audit [33].
The whole bribe was not paid to the politicians. A part of the money was embezzled by Mr. Tor Egil Kjelsaas amounting to US$4.1 million [30].
The Asker And Baerum District Court maintains in its judgment: “It is part of the nature of the culture of bribes that it will not be possible to trace this, either by the tax authorities or by those for whom those receiving the money are acting or working. As such, it is impossible to provide proof by the party handing over the money in cash that the money actually has been handed over” [26].
The bribe was transferred in the form of a consultation fee [33].
Dysfunctional code of ethics: This is evident from the following observation of Judge Trine Standal of the Asker and Baerum District Court:
“Scancem itself established a system of bribery and corruption. The system required payments to be untraceable. The system can only be based on trust, and producing evidence in retrospect can be difficult. Kjelsaas finds it hard to prove he is innocent, and Scancem has a problem proving him guilty. Any doubt as to the evidence must go against Scancem” [26].
Dysfunctional Control System: This is evident from the following observation of Judge Trine Standal of the Asker and Baerum District Court:
“The company failed to establish any kind of control system, accepting on the contrary, a system which meant that cashflows were hard to trace, partly because the money was handed over in cash and partly because it was transferred to bank accounts which could neither be traced nor controlled. Seen in this light, there was no way of documenting who handed the money over in cash or that money was actually handed over” [26].
Dysfunctional Culture: It became a culture of Scancem International ANS to pay bribery in the countries it operated [26].
Ambiguity in Law: The judge, Trine Standal, held that ‘the two parties’ in the case ‘agree that the bribery had not been contrary to Norwegian, Ghana or Nigerian law’. [26]. However, The Statesman newspaper stated that the criminal laws in both Ghana and Nigeria have since the 1960s been clear against corruption [34]. This clearly smacks of the ambiguity of law that made different interpretations and lacunae and paved the way for committing unethical practices.
Failure of expatriate management including selection and performance management: Basing the selection of Mr. Tor Egil Kjelsaas simply on trust is never an HR approach. Every selection of expatriates must base on a thorough selection procedure and due diligence. The performance management of senior people with greater autonomy should have been done more carefully and rigorously.
Lack of adequate measures to appraise the performance of senior managers: The performance appraisal system was replaced with trust. This is true that the performance appraisal of senior expatriates is a challenging task. However, HR could devise some tactful mechanism in doing so.
Lack of control of expatriates through position description: The position description or the terms of reference could have curbed the unethical behaviour of Mr. Tor Egil Kjelsaas.
Training of Mr. Tor Egil Kjelsaas: If the company had provided training to Mr. Tor Egil Kjelsaas on ethics and other matters like culture, he would have applied his judgement, conscience, and cultural intelligence in performing his job.
The official name is the People’s Republic of Bangladesh [35].
It has a population of 161,083,804 [36].
The total literacy rate of the population is 47.9% [36].
The country spends 2.4% of its GDP on education [36].
31.5% of the population of the country lives below the poverty line [36].
The most important natural resources of the country include natural gas, arable land, timber, and coal [36].
The country was ranked 146th on Human Development Index in 2011 [37].
The country was ranked 120th in the Corruption Perceptions Index in 2011 (Transparency International, cited in [38]).
The country has a democratic type of government (parliamentary democracy) [36].
Major political parties in the country include the Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP), the Awami League (AL), the Jatiya Party, and the Jamaat-e-Islami Party [35].
The president is the chief of state. The president is elected by National Parliament for a 5-year term [35].
The Prime minister is the head of government [35].
The cabinet is selected by the prime minister and appointed by the president [35].
There is a unicameral Parliament (345 members) [35].
Each Member of Parliament is elected by popular vote for 5-year terms from single territorial constituencies [35].
The civil court system is based on the British model [35].
The chief justices and other judges of the Supreme Court are appointed by the president [35].
The country has been politically stable since 1990. The present political party in power enjoys broad support among the Bangladeshi population as it pursues ‘Vision-2021: Digital Bangladesh’.
The bribery took place in 2005 during the regime of Prime Minister Khaleda Zia.
The legal system is mixed and composed of mostly English common law and Islamic law [36].
The agreed statement of facts regarding the case Her Majesty the Queen v. Niko Resources Ltd. gives the following information on the company [39]:
Niko Resources Ltd. (hereinafter referred to as Niko Canada) is a Canadian company and is headquartered in Calgary, Alberta.
It is a publicly-traded oil and natural gas exploration and production company with international operations and is listed on Toronto Stock Exchange.
The company was incorporated in 1987.
Mr. Bob Ohlson was the CEO of the company till his death. After his death, Mr. Edward Sampson assumed the leadership role of the company.
The company had no previous record of bribery practices in any other country.
The company first became involved in Bangladesh in 1997.
The Bangladesh operation was named Niko Bangladesh.
Niko Bangladesh was actually owned by Niko Resources Caymans, which was a wholly-owned subsidiary of Niko Canada.
Although Niko Bangladesh operated only in Bangladesh, it was not incorporated there. Rather, it was incorporated in Barbados. However, it maintained an office in Dhaka, the capital city of Bangladesh.
Niko Bangladesh was funded solely by Niko Canada. However, the funds used to be transferred through a long chain. Niko Canada used to transfer funds from its Calgary bank account to the account of Niko Resources Caymans, which then transferred funds to Niko Bangladesh’s account in Barbados, and finally, Niko Bangladesh’s office in Barbados used to transfer funds to Niko Bangladesh’s office in Dhaka.
As a matter of corporate governance, Niko Canada closely monitored the activities of Niko Bangladesh and it is proved by the presence of the CEO of Niko Canada on the board of Niko Bangladesh. Most transactions and even smaller ones were monitored from Canada. The subsidiary could not ask for any money from Canada without properly stating the reasons.
Niko Bangladesh involved itself in a joint venture with Bangladesh Petroleum Exploration and Production Company Limited (BAPEX), a local company wholly owned by the government of Bangladesh.
The main person involved in the bribery case was Mr. Qasim Sharif. The agreed statement of facts regarding the case Her Majesty the Queen v. Niko Resources Ltd. gives the following information on him [39]:
He was the in-country agent of the company till 2003 and later was employed as the president of the company by Niko Canada immediately after signing the joint venture with BAPEX.
Mr. Sharif was an American citizen but was ethnically a Bengali person.
He was employed by Niko Canada to look after the Bangladesh operation based on the expectation that his background would be such that he would have the expertise to navigate the often complex relationship between business and government officials that existed in Bangladesh at the time (Bangladesh was the most corrupt country in the world in which to do business, as per Transparency International).
Mr. Sharif used to report directly to both Mr. Bob Ohlson and Mr. Edward Sampson till the death of Mr. Ohlson. After the death of Mr. Ohlson, Mr. Sharif used to report to Mr. Edward Sampson through Bangladesh Country Manager Brian Adolph, who in turn, reported to William Bill Hornaday.
The agreed statement of facts regarding the case Her Majesty the Queen v. Niko Resources Ltd. gives the following information on the case [39]:
The news of the bribery first came to the limelight on June 15, 2005, through an article published in The Daily Star (the leading English National Daily in Bangladesh) titled ‘Niko gifts minister luxurious car’.
The bribe was paid to obtain or retain an advantage in the course of Niko Bangladesh’s business in Bangladesh. More particularly, the bribe was paid in order to influence the minister in dealings with Niko Bangladesh within the context of ongoing business dealings.
The bribe was paid to the former state minister for energy and mineral resources Mr. AKM Mosharraf Hossain.
The bribe was made in kind in the form of an expensive vehicle and defraying the expenditure of foreign tours to two countries.
The approximate total monetary value of the bribe was 195,984 Canadian Dollars.
The bribe was paid on or between the 1st of February, 2005 and the 30th of June, 2005.
The company tried to disguise the bribe by giving it to the minister via BAPEX.
The bribe was initially denied and dismissed by Niko Bangladesh as a gift and a commonplace part of doing business in Bangladesh.
Failure of corporate governance mechanism: The corporate governance mechanisms employed by the parent firm, particularly the board of directors and its ethics committee and internal control system failed because these mechanisms could not see through the actual purpose of buying the vehicle by its Bangladesh office and could not inform the parent firm in advance about the possible violations of code of ethics.
Violation of corporate governance principles: The fact that the CEO of Niko Canada was a member of the board of Niko Bangladesh and that the company was not registered in Bangladesh was a clear violation of certain globally established corporate governance principles like transparency and board effectiveness ([40], p. 77 and 151).
Misunderstanding of culture: The parent company misunderstood the culture of Bangladesh as akin to those prevailing in some of the African countries.
Failure to distinguish between acceptable and unethical practices: The parent company could not distinguish between gift and bribe.
Organisational structure: The complicated structure and indirect ownership led towards dysfunctional monitoring and control system. Dual reporting of Mr. Sharif to both Mr. Bob Ohlson and Mr. Edward Sampson and then indirect reporting relationship through multiple tiers caused difficulty in communication ([41], p. 331) between the top management and Mr. Sharif.
Faulty selection of expatriate: Selection of Mr. Sharif simply on the basis of his nationality was a clear mistake from the HR point of view. This type of assignment should have reviewed the capability and experience of the expatriates to deal with similar situations in a similar type of cultural and political environment.
Lack of adequate measures to appraise the performance of senior managers: The performance appraisal system should have followed some disciplines. The direct reporting of Mr. Sharif to Mr. Bob Ohlson and Mr. Edward Sampson and then indirect reporting through a chain of command and also multiple subordination of Mr. Sharif rendered the performance appraisal ineffective.
Lack of control of expatriate through position description: The position description or the terms of reference could have made Mr. Sharif more careful and tactful in discharging his duties.
Training of Mr. Qasim Sharif: If the company had provided training to Mr. Qasim Sharif on ethics and other matters like culture, he would have applied his judgement, conscience, and cultural intelligence in performing his job.
All the above cases involve the big people who either paid or received bribes. The HR lacunae identified in each of the cases may seemingly appear as funny and impracticable. Apparently, it seems that it is beyond the capability of HRM to streamline or direct the attitude and behaviour of those people towards an ethical orientation. The reason is that HRM is traditionally supposed to be applicable to the general employees who work in the organisations. It is not for those who make strategic decisions like the Chairman, CEO or Directors, or other senior executives.
However, I believe that HRM can play an all-encompassing role that pervades throughout the organisation from top to bottom to combat corruption. HRM can promote mediating forces that will create a culture of bottom-up pressure in the organisation and will compel the top executives to behave in an ethical way. Following is the model for understanding the role of HR in curbing corruption (Figure 1):
Role of HR in curbing unethical behaviours.
Following are some of the HR actions that help to create the positive-mediating forces:
Sustainable leadership ([42], p. 30): HRM can help develop sustainable leadership like the Rhineland model in companies. All the above cases were caused by Anglo/US model of leadership that is far from sustainability. Such leadership can jeopardise the very survival of the company in the long run.
Ethical leadership ([43], p. 34, Grojean et al., cited in [44], p. 111 and [45], p. 12): HRM can help develop ethical leadership among the top management in the companies. Buller and McEvoy [46] have shown how HRM works together with transformational leadership practice and ongoing organisational learning in creating and sustaining ethical capability in the MNCs.
Values-based leadership ([47], p. 1): The values-based leadership among the top executives will act as a moral compass for the other members of the organisation. HRM can promote values-based leadership through selection, induction, and training.
Leadership development ([48], p. 311): HRM can help develop leaders who can become examples for the rest of the members of the organisations. PricewaterhouseCoopers have adopted this leadership development through Genesis Park Leadership Program and Project Ulysses ([49], p. 3–4, [50], p. 10 and [51], p. 61).
Employee engagement ([52], p. 3): Employee engagement can enhance the emotional connection of people to the organisation, work, and workplace by going above and beyond the call for duty. It makes them conscientious towards their organisation through a culture of information sharing, innovation, the reputation of integrity, flexibility, and self-efficacy. HRM can promote employee engagement among the people.
Knowledge management and learning ([53], p. 208): It helps people to think and behave ethically and to learn from mistakes. HRM can play a vital role in creating, transferring, and sharing knowledge throughout the organisation.
Cultural intelligence ([54], p. 76): HRM can act as a source of cultural intelligence with the help of the social capital ([48], p. 220), which can be used for assessing the political, socio-cultural, and economic environment before entering into a country.
Selection ([55], p. 39 and [56], p. 125): The selection of the right employee with relevant experience is a
Expatriate agreement ([57], p. 4): Lack of expatriate agreement would lead towards consequences similar to that of Scancem and Halliburton.
Compensation and rewards ([55], p. 36 and [58], p. 635): All the cases of bribery are about money and people. Designing the compensation and reward system for the expatriates could minimise the frequent repetition of such unethical practices.
Preparation and orientation ([56], p. 128): Lack of preparation and orientation would lead to similar consequences as was faced by Niko Resources Ltd. in Bangladesh.
Pre-departure training on culture, ethics, and diversity issues ([55], p. 40 and [59], p. 657): If expatriates are not given adequate training on culture, ethics, and diversity, this would lead towards consequences similar to that of Niko Resources Ltd.
Following the expatriates until repatriation ([60], p. 39): If expatriates are not closely monitored during their assignment period, this would lead towards a situation called ‘out of sight, out of mind’ attitude ([61], p. 38). This type of attitude would lead to consequences similar to that of Scancem.
Development of a suitable and sustainable expatriation model based on the most appropriate taxonomy as suggested by Baruch and Altman [62]: As it is clear from the cases, different countries were characterised by the different political, legal, economic, and socio-cultural environment. This diversity of the host countries entails the development of different expatriation models for making the assignment successful.
Mentoring ([63], p. 275): Mentoring would have refrained Mr. Tesler, Mr. Sharif, and Mr. Tor in the above cases to engage in unethical practices.
Job description ([64], p. 669): It is very clear how important a job description or terms of reference is in controlling the expatriates.
Alternative to long-term placement/assignment/Shorter Assignments ([60], p. 36): All the people in the above cases were posted in their workplace for a long time. This has enabled them to develop linkage with government officials and to find out ways to commit unethical activities because they became familiar with the environment, practices, and people to commit unethical activities.
Psychological contract ([65], p. 15 and 21): This refers to trust, fairness, and commitment to the organisation. It also promotes employee engagement. The ethical orientation of Mr. Tesler, Mr. Albert, or Mr. Sharif in the above cases would have been different had they developed a psychological contract with their organisations.
Employment security ([66], p. 58): Employment security would refrain the managers from committing unethical activities and from abetting the top management. If top management puts pressure on expatriates to engage in unethical business practices, then the expatriates can simply decline the request because they do not have the fear to lose their job. Rather, it may backfire upon the top management. Another way of using employment security is that if an employee protests the unethical activities of the senior management and is engaged in whistle-blowing, then the senior management will not be able to commit unethical practices. The employees will garner the courage to protest because he or she does not have the fear to lose their job.
Selective hiring ([66], p. 58): The more the employees will know that they have been selected as the best of the best, they will have a self-dignity, which will prevent them from committing unethical activities.
Investment in training ([67], p. 43 and [58], p. 635): A study conducted by MacKewn and VanVuren [68] confirmed that training on ethics is correlated with ethical behaviour in a statistically significant way. Training is not a cost but an investment, which will save the organisation in the future. Ethical training of the involved people in the above cases would have curbed their unethical behaviour. Training among the new employees will foster an ethical culture throughout the organisation in the long run ([69], p. 26) and will enable the creation of a bottom-up pressure for the top management to behave ethically.
Participation in decision making ([66], p. 60): This will result in employee empowerment. Thus, their engagement would be increased. This would
Sharing of information ([66], p. 60): Sharing of information would result in transparency and would put pressure on senior management to behave ethically.
Reduction in status symbol ([66], p. 63): This would result in low power distance and would result in the production of moral courage to raise voice against unethical leadership and corrupt management practices.
Comprehensive recruitment and selection procedure ([58], p. 635): Emphasising the ethical orientation of the candidates during the selection process would have resulted in the selection of honest employees. Psychological assessments including the personality type are very helpful in this regard.
Managing performance ([70], p. 509 and [58], p. 635): Lack of managing performance would result in a situation faced by Scancem, Halliburton and Niko Resources Ltd.
Conscience for the organisation ([71], p. 88): The HR department works as an ethics auditor for an organisation. It holds and conveys the ethical orientation that shapes the culture of the organisation.
Formulation and implementation of organisation-wide ethics program ([72], p. 424): The HR department can formulate and implement the ethics program involving everyone in the organisation under the auspices of the leaders, board of directors, and top management.
Ethical steward for the organisation ([73], p. 173): The HR department can act as an ethical steward for the organisation and can help direct the resources towards an ethical use. It can guide the organisation members towards ethical attitude and behaviour.
Moral compass for the organisation [74]: The HR department can act as moral intelligence and can provide information for the organisation members as to the right or wrong practice. The example of Niko Resources Ltd. is an example of a lack of moral intelligence as the expatriate manager could not differentiate between acceptable and unethical practices.
It takes two to make a quarrel but it takes many to either commit or combat corruption. This is evident from the above cases where the involvement of different parties from different organisations bought about the unethical practices.
The HR actions are almost the same for any bribery practices. However, these HR actions need to be applied in a concerted way across different organisations to combat corruption successfully. In this chapter, the issue has been discussed mainly from the HRM perspective of MNCs. However, it should be borne in mind that MNCs represent only one party in the game. Thus, the HRM of MNCs is not self-sufficient to combat corruption.
In the above case of bribery practices, we have seen that the boundary of law begins where the boundary of ethics ends. Thus, it is the Hamletian dilemma or decision to behave ethically or not is where HRM can exert its influence in the form of a positive check.
It is not only about the HRM of the MNCs but also the HRM of the public sector of the host countries as well as the HRM of the intermediaries that must be actively involved in designing the positive check mechanisms to combat unethical practices like bribery. It is not the democracy or dictatorship that indulges or checks bribery in the government machinery. Rather, it is the HRM in the public sector that can positively check these unethical practices. Thus, the HR actions identified above should be carried out by public sector HRM for combating corruption successfully ([75], p. 123 and [76], p. 172).
Governments and regulatory authorities of both countries should actively and jointly monitor the activities of MNCs. They should proactively forecast the possible areas of bribery and the venal people in the MNCs and the government. Obviously, HRM has a role to play in terms of performance appraisal and employee record maintenance.
Ice-breaking cum training sessions after every major change in the management of MNCs or government administration can be jointly organised by the governments of both counties and the MNCs. This would lead towards fostering and promoting an ethical environment and would really make it difficult to engage in bribery practices by the government or MNCs. The training session could be on ethics, culture of countries, idea exchange, and culture of the MNC, etc.
Research has indicated that the founders and/or the heads of the organisations have a profound impact on the ethical orientation and culture of the companies. For example, the founders of IBM, Sony, Disney, Microsoft, and Hewlett-Packard ([77], p. 340) had a profound impact on shaping the ethical culture of the organisations. Similarly, the exemplary simple lifestyles of Ingmar Kamprad (founder of IKEA) and Nagawara Ramarao Narayana Murthy (founder of Infosys) have become an inspiration for the employees of the organisations and have shaped their values and culture ([48], p. 241). As such, regulatory bodies of the home and host country governments must take into account and must assess the personal integrity, morality, etc. of the founder and/or the heads of the organisations in granting license to set up a business, to raise funds from the market or to operate overseas. This can be done through a due diligence process.
Spirituality in the workplace, the practice of religion, and the dominance of religious mindset and orientation in day-to-day activities will help create compunction of conscience among the employees. Rendering religious rituals in everyday business activities. For example, the everyday congregation at the beginning of the day and discussion about activities to be righteous, consequences of not being righteous, etc. As is pointed out by Barrett [78], this is becoming an increasingly important issue on the board.
Comprehensive human due diligence at every stage of an organisation’s life cycle and transitional stages ([79], p. 124).
The implementation of the strategy to combat corruption requires the concerted effort of different organisations.
In most of the cases of bribery practices of MNCs in the host countries, three parties are mainly involved, viz., the MNC, the host country government, and an intermediary. In the Halliburton case, UPB Geneva, HSBC Monaco, and Swiss bank acted as financial intermediaries to transfer funds from the donor to the recipient ([11, 18] at 6). In the case of Scancem, Unibank SA Luxembourg and Barclays Bank SA in Geneva, Switzerland acted as the intermediary [31].
A model may be used in combating corruption that involves the three parties working together for deploying a positive check mechanism by which HRM of those organisations can promote positive mediating forces that will create a culture of bottom-up pressure in the organisation and will compel the top executives to behave in an ethical way. Usually, banks are not actively involved in the transactions, rather they are facilitators of transactions.
Let us know about the mechanism with the help of an analogy. It is like a soccer game. The ball may be thought of as the ethics. Organisations are like teams playing with ethics with several members. The CEO of MNC or the Prime Minister of the host country acts as the captain and the Chairman or President acts as the coach. The activities of the organisations are constantly monitored by several referees, such as Banks, Transparency International (TI). Any player playing foul with ethics will be warned by the referee through institutional whistleblowing. Thus, a system of check and balance will be established through the mechanism. The model becomes effective only when the referees are granted authority and power to rule over the MNCs and governments.
The three parties can be brought together with the help of a tripartite HR alliance. The HR departments of the three organisations may develop necessary mechanisms to make the alliance effective. They will jointly carry out various HR initiatives identified above in the three organisations to promote positive mediating factors to combat corruption.
The implementation model is explained below with the help of a diagram (Figure 2).
Model for implementing recommended strategies.
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She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Univeristy of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"332914",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saad",middleName:null,surname:"Shaikh",slug:"muhammad-saad-shaikh",fullName:"Muhammad Saad Shaikh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jinnah Sindh Medical University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"315775",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"feng-luo",fullName:"Feng Luo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"423519",title:"Dr.",name:"Sizakele",middleName:null,surname:"Ngwenya",slug:"sizakele-ngwenya",fullName:"Sizakele Ngwenya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419270",title:"Dr.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Chianchitlert",slug:"ann-chianchitlert",fullName:"Ann Chianchitlert",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419271",title:"Dr.",name:"Diane",middleName:null,surname:"Selvido",slug:"diane-selvido",fullName:"Diane Selvido",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419272",title:"Dr.",name:"Irin",middleName:null,surname:"Sirisoontorn",slug:"irin-sirisoontorn",fullName:"Irin Sirisoontorn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"355660",title:"Dr.",name:"Anitha",middleName:null,surname:"Mani",slug:"anitha-mani",fullName:"Anitha Mani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"355612",title:"Dr.",name:"Janani",middleName:null,surname:"Karthikeyan",slug:"janani-karthikeyan",fullName:"Janani Karthikeyan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334400",title:"Dr.",name:"Suvetha",middleName:null,surname:"Siva",slug:"suvetha-siva",fullName:"Suvetha Siva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"22",type:"subseries",title:"Applied Intelligence",keywords:"Machine Learning, Intelligence Algorithms, Data Science, Artificial Intelligence, Applications on Applied Intelligence",scope:"This field is the key in the current industrial revolution (Industry 4.0), where the new models and developments are based on the knowledge generation on applied intelligence. The motor of the society is the industry and the research of this topic has to be empowered in order to increase and improve the quality of our lives.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11418,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). 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