\\n\\n
IntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\\n\\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\\n\\nLaunching 2021
\\n\\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\\n\\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\\n\\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\\n\\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\\n\\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\\n\\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\\n\\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\\n\\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/132"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'With the desire to make book publishing more relevant for the digital age and offer innovative Open Access publishing options, we are thrilled to announce the launch of our new publishing format: IntechOpen Book Series.
\n\nDesigned to cover fast-moving research fields in rapidly expanding areas, our Book Series feature a Topic structure allowing us to present the most relevant sub-disciplines. Book Series are headed by Series Editors, and a team of Topic Editors supported by international Editorial Board members. Topics are always open for submissions, with an Annual Volume published each calendar year.
\n\nAfter a robust peer-review process, accepted works are published quickly, thanks to Online First, ensuring research is made available to the scientific community without delay.
\n\nOur innovative Book Series format brings you:
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will also publish a program of research-driven Thematic Edited Volumes that focus on specific areas and allow for a more in-depth overview of a particular subject.
\n\nIntechOpen Book Series will be launching regularly to offer our authors and editors exciting opportunities to publish their research Open Access. We will begin by relaunching some of our existing Book Series in this innovative book format, and will expand in 2022 into rapidly growing research fields that are driving and advancing society.
\n\nLaunching 2021
\n\nArtificial Intelligence, ISSN 2633-1403
\n\nVeterinary Medicine and Science, ISSN 2632-0517
\n\nBiochemistry, ISSN 2632-0983
\n\nBiomedical Engineering, ISSN 2631-5343
\n\nInfectious Diseases, ISSN 2631-6188
\n\nPhysiology (Coming Soon)
\n\nDentistry (Coming Soon)
\n\nWe invite you to explore our IntechOpen Book Series, find the right publishing program for you and reach your desired audience in record time.
\n\nNote: Edited in October 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"9430",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Sustainable Energy Investment - Technical, Market and Policy Innovations to Address Risk",title:"Sustainable Energy Investment",subtitle:"Technical, Market and Policy Innovations to Address Risk",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book examines the technical, market, and policy innovations for unlocking sustainable investment in the energy sector. While finalizing this book, the COVID-19 pandemic is cutting a devastating swath through the global economy, causing the biggest fall in energy sector investment, exacerbating the global trade finance gap, worsening signs of growing income inequality, and devastating the health and livelihoods of millions. What is the parallel between the COVID-19 pandemic and the climate change crisis? The impacts of the global pandemic are expected to last for a few years, whereas those associated with the climate crisis will play out over several decades with potentially irreversible consequences. However, both show that the cost of inaction or delay in addressing the risks can lead to devastating outcomes or a greater probability of irreversible, catastrophic damages. In the context of sustainable energy investment and the transition to a low-carbon, climate-resilient economy, what ways can financial markets and institutions support net-zero-emission activities and the shift to a sustainable economy, including investment in energy efficiency, low-carbon and renewable energy technologies? This book provides students, policymakers, and energy investment professionals with the knowledge and theoretical tools necessary to address related questions in sustainable energy investment, risk management, and energy innovation agendas.",isbn:"978-1-83880-198-4",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-197-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-508-4",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86093",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"sustainable-energy-investment-technical-market-and-policy-innovations-to-address-risk",numberOfPages:260,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"944911e9a2154a0bf8b358cafc971f42",bookSignature:"Joseph Nyangon and John Byrne",publishedDate:"March 10th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9430.jpg",numberOfDownloads:3988,numberOfWosCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitations:5,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:8,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:15,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 28th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 30th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 30th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 30th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 30th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!0,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"225597",title:"Dr.",name:"Joseph",middleName:null,surname:"Nyangon",slug:"joseph-nyangon",fullName:"Joseph Nyangon",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225597/images/system/225597.jpg",biography:"Dr. Joseph Nyangon is a senior researcher at the Center for Energy and Environmental Policy, University of Delaware. He is also a senior research fellow at the Foundation for Renewable Energy and Environment, a non-resident fellow of the Payne Institute at the Colorado School of Mines, and a research fellow in the Initiative for Sustainable Energy Policy at the Johns Hopkins University’s School of Advanced International Studies (SAIS). He holds a Ph.D., two master’s degrees, and an undergraduate degree focusing on energy economics, public policy, energy systems engineering and computing systems from Columbia University, the University of Delaware, among others. Dr. Nyangon’s practice focuses on applying optimization methods and econometric modeling techniques to evaluate electricity systems and generate insights to inform policy, risk pricing strategies, and planning decisions.",institutionString:"University of Delaware",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Delaware",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"245796",title:"Prof.",name:"John",middleName:null,surname:"Byrne",slug:"john-byrne",fullName:"John Byrne",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/245796/images/system/245796.jpeg",biography:"Dr. John Byrne has contributed to Working Group III of the United Nations-sponsored Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) since 1992. Dr. Byrne is an advisor to the “Solar City Seoul” initiative, which is building 1 GWp of solar power on public buildings, parking facilities, and residential and commercial buildings. He is co-editor-in-chief of the invitation-only journal, WIREs Energy and Environment. He has published nineteen books and more than 170 research articles.",institutionString:"University of Delaware",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Delaware",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"770",title:"Renewable Energy",slug:"engineering-energy-engineering-renewable-energy"}],chapters:[{id:"73728",title:"Introductory Chapter: Sustainable Energy Investment and the Transition to Renewable Energy-Powered Futures",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94320",slug:"introductory-chapter-sustainable-energy-investment-and-the-transition-to-renewable-energy-powered-fu",totalDownloads:336,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Joseph Nyangon and John Byrne",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73728",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73728",authors:[{id:"225597",title:"Dr.",name:"Joseph",surname:"Nyangon",slug:"joseph-nyangon",fullName:"Joseph Nyangon"},{id:"245796",title:"Prof.",name:"John",surname:"Byrne",slug:"john-byrne",fullName:"John Byrne"}],corrections:null},{id:"73085",title:"Tackling the Risk of Stranded Electricity Assets with Machine Learning and Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93488",slug:"tackling-the-risk-of-stranded-electricity-assets-with-machine-learning-and-artificial-intelligence",totalDownloads:387,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The Paris Agreement on climate change requires nations to keep the global temperature within the 2°C carbon budget. Achieving this temperature target means stranding more than 80% of all proven fossil energy reserves as well as resulting in investments in such resources becoming stranded assets. At the implementation level, governments are experiencing technical, economic, and legal challenges in transitioning their economies to meet the 2°C temperature commitment through the nationally determined contributions (NDCs), let alone striving for the 1.5°C carbon budget, which translates into greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) gap. This chapter focuses on tackling the risks of stranded electricity assets using machine learning and artificial intelligence technologies. Stranded assets are not new in the energy sector; the physical impacts of climate change and the transition to a low-carbon economy have generally rendered redundant or obsolete electricity generation and storage assets. Low-carbon electricity systems, which come in variable and controllable forms, are essential to mitigating climate change. These systems present distinct opportunities for machine learning and artificial intelligence-powered techniques. This chapter considers the background to these issues. It discusses the asset stranding discourse and its implications to the energy sector and related infrastructure. The chapter concludes by outlining an interdisciplinary research agenda for mitigating the risks of stranded assets in electricity investments.",signatures:"Joseph Nyangon",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73085",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73085",authors:[{id:"225597",title:"Dr.",name:"Joseph",surname:"Nyangon",slug:"joseph-nyangon",fullName:"Joseph Nyangon"}],corrections:null},{id:"69358",title:"Risk Mitigation in Energy Efficiency Retrofit Projects Using Automated Performance Control",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89476",slug:"risk-mitigation-in-energy-efficiency-retrofit-projects-using-automated-performance-control",totalDownloads:338,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Performance gap concerns limit investment in the building energy efficiency retrofit market. In particular, the ability of projects to deliver on promised energy savings is commonly drawn into question. Performance risk mitigation mainly occurs through energy saving performance guarantees. Contractual stipulations arrange the conditions of the guarantee, and ceteris paribus, a higher energy saving guarantee should reduce project performance risk. Therefore, methods that yield a higher energy saving guarantee could help accelerate the market. We review the ability of “smart,” automated, and connected technologies to: (a) intelligently monitor and control the performance of energy-consuming devices to reduce performance variations, (b) provide additional degrees of control over the project’s performance, and, by doing so, (c) motivate the energy services company (ESCO) to raise the energy saving guarantee. Our analysis finds that use of such automated performance control could significantly raise the energy saving guarantee, making projects more likely to succeed.",signatures:"Job Taminiau, John Byrne, Daniel Sanchez Carretero, Soojin Shin and Jing Xu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69358",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69358",authors:[{id:"306657",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Job",surname:"Taminiau",slug:"job-taminiau",fullName:"Job Taminiau"},{id:"309663",title:"Prof.",name:"John",surname:"Byrne",slug:"john-byrne",fullName:"John Byrne"},{id:"310457",title:"Mr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Sanchez Carretero",slug:"daniel-sanchez-carretero",fullName:"Daniel Sanchez Carretero"},{id:"310458",title:"Ms.",name:"Soojin",surname:"Shin",slug:"soojin-shin",fullName:"Soojin Shin"},{id:"310459",title:"Ms.",name:"Jing",surname:"Xu",slug:"jing-xu",fullName:"Jing Xu"}],corrections:null},{id:"72927",title:"Assessing Renewable Energy Loan Guarantees in the United States",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93288",slug:"assessing-renewable-energy-loan-guarantees-in-the-united-states",totalDownloads:250,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Conceived as an idea to push financing toward underdeveloped clean energy technology to improve the environment, promote economic growth, and produce a more secure energy supply, the Title XVII loan guarantee program has likely failed to meet these objectives. Instead, it has been used as a political tool, exposed taxpayers to unnecessary risk, diverted funding from alternative clean energy investments, and primarily benefitted large, politically connected corporations.",signatures:"Ryan M. Yonk",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72927",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72927",authors:[{id:"196259",title:"Dr.",name:"Ryan Merlin",surname:"Yonk",slug:"ryan-merlin-yonk",fullName:"Ryan Merlin Yonk"}],corrections:null},{id:"71285",title:"Innovative Circular Business Models: A Case from the Italian Fashion Industry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91277",slug:"innovative-circular-business-models-a-case-from-the-italian-fashion-industry",totalDownloads:339,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Transition to a sustainable economy signed by a circular vision and culture asks firms for huge investments to innovate their own management, strategies, business models, products, and marketing approaches. The Agenda 2030 and the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) are an important framework for businesses to change their approach and contribute positively to the global movement to fight climate change. The question is what and how micro, small, and medium enterprises (MSMES) can contribute to reduce their impacts while creating more value for them and their stakeholders. This paper aims to answer to this question presenting a case study from Italy where an artisan small firm is innovating to create more positive impacts in circular terms. The focus will be on circular economy and the firms’ material and energy strategies. In doing so, the paper will try to answer the following questions: how easy is for micro and small firms to apply circular economy strategies to contribute to reduce their environmental impacts? Does their strategy coherently compose energy and material flows? The case study will refer to the fashion system in Italy.",signatures:"Marco Tortora and Giuseppe Tortora",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71285",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71285",authors:[{id:"303546",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",surname:"Tortora",slug:"marco-tortora",fullName:"Marco Tortora"},{id:"311774",title:"Mr.",name:"Giuseppe",surname:"Tortora",slug:"giuseppe-tortora",fullName:"Giuseppe Tortora"}],corrections:null},{id:"70310",title:"Harnessing Small Country Collaboration Opportunities to Advance Energy Innovation and Joint Investments",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90348",slug:"harnessing-small-country-collaboration-opportunities-to-advance-energy-innovation-and-joint-investme",totalDownloads:272,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Greater international collaboration is required to catalyze research and development (R&D) investment flows in energy technologies. Successful deployment of such technologies requires innovative funding mechanisms, intellectual property, and data-driven analyses to make smarter, sustainable investment decisions. As small countries are increasingly dealing with effects of climate change, some are projected to lose large portions of their economy. This chapter discusses ways that smaller countries, both in the developed and developing world, can harness international cooperation to advance energy innovation and mitigate such impact. In contrast to collaboration with larger countries, smaller country collaboration can build more agile, balanced partnerships in which participating countries co-develop and co-own R&D and training, and define pilot programs that target their own needs. Leveraging each other’s strengths, small countries can become catalysts for global change. Smaller country collaboration is explored through a proposed model of collaboration in energy innovation between Singapore and Estonia, often considered gateways to Southeast Asia and the EU plus Russia, respectively. Specifically, Singapore and Estonia have the opportunity to leverage each other’s startup ecosystems, innovation systems, knowledge-based economies, and regional markets to build a niche in clean energy technologies, particularly energy storage innovation, with potential global impact on larger markets.",signatures:"Anneliese Gegenheimer and Charles Michael Gegenheimer",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70310",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70310",authors:[{id:"309820",title:"Ms.",name:"Anneliese",surname:"Gegenheimer",slug:"anneliese-gegenheimer",fullName:"Anneliese Gegenheimer"},{id:"314737",title:"Dr.",name:"C. Michael",surname:"Gegenheimer",slug:"c.-michael-gegenheimer",fullName:"C. Michael Gegenheimer"}],corrections:null},{id:"71072",title:"Establishing Property Rights and Private Ownership: The Solution to Malinvestment in the Energy Sector in Developing Countries",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91039",slug:"establishing-property-rights-and-private-ownership-the-solution-to-malinvestment-in-the-energy-secto",totalDownloads:309,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"There are over 800 million people in the world without access to modern forms of energy services, like electricity, cooking gas, and LPG. This has been called energy poverty. Most studies in the field of energy poverty address the issue from an absence of technological or financial resources perspective. They address the problem as energy in itself having an objective inherent value, more or less addressing the symptoms of the problem and not the problem itself. In this chapter, a new paradigm that addresses the problem of energy poverty and malinvestment is introduced. This paradigm, utilizing the theory of economic calculation and the use and exchange value embodied in the subjective value theory, makes a case for the importance of private property rights in the factors or means of production for modern forms or energy such as electricity. The Nigerian energy sector is used as a case study for this.",signatures:"Tam Kemabonta",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71072",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71072",authors:[{id:"293945",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Tam",surname:"Kemabonta",slug:"tam-kemabonta",fullName:"Tam Kemabonta"}],corrections:null},{id:"73957",title:"The Electrification-Appliance Uptake Gap: Assessing the Off-Grid Appliance Market in Rwanda Using the Multi-Tier Framework",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93883",slug:"the-electrification-appliance-uptake-gap-assessing-the-off-grid-appliance-market-in-rwanda-using-the",totalDownloads:331,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The structure of the electricity system includes universal access to electricity that is adequate, available, reliable, affordable, legal, convenient, healthy, and safe and the efficient (inefficient) use of the electricity. Quality of access also influences clean energy technologies and electrical appliance purchase, ownership, use and perceived value (uptake, hereafter). Also, improved uptake assists in closing systemic gaps between rural and urban areas and grid and off-grid communities. Rwanda is projected to attain full electrification by 2024 (inclusive of all sectors: consumptive, productive and services). In this context, the East African country has articulated support mechanisms for off-grid market players through technical assessments and siting incentives. However, studies that focus on characterising diffusion and uptake of clean energy technologies and electrical appliances in mini-grid sites (market) are crucial to understand the emerging trends in off-grid rural electrification. This chapter contributes to this emerging discourse by proposing a four-fold demand side characterisation approach which (i) conducts a systemic review of literature to identify emerging off-grid themes as they relate to the multi-tier framework (MTF) and vice-versa, (ii) uses existing data to characterise the off-grid market (based on a typical village load), (iii) demonstrates the tariff regime changes using two payment methodologies (willingness to pay (WTP) and ability to pay (ATP)) and (iv) projects the 2024–2032 consumptive energy demand (using a simplified relation between appliance, it’s rating and duration of use). Results of this characterisation demonstrate global and local level (glo-cal) literature gaps meriting a localised MTF assessment. The purpose of the localised assessment reported in this Chapter was therefore to understand appliance uptake gaps at the user level. The typical village load is basic (implying low energy demand). Ceteris paribus, higher WTP and ATP by users yield higher tariffs. However, a high ATP is a business sustainability determinant than a high WTP. Because energy consumption is also dependent on how efficiently it is used by those with access, the Chapter discusses appliance efficiency as a partial definition of sustainable energy and also as an example of sustainable energy. Then, demand stimulation pathways addressing wider systemic opportunities at the intersection of the theory of change and the theory of agency and risk reduction in markets, investments and policy (derisking markets, investments and policy) are discussed. The first pathway focuses on women and youth participation in productive use activities. The second pathway highlights strategies for appliance financing such as cost-sharing and micro-credit. The final pathway considers economic activity stimulation which has multiplier effects on energy demand and consequently energy-using appliances uptake. The implications for Sustainable Citizens and markets, investments and policy innovations are contextualised in the Sustainable Energy Utility business model.",signatures:"Olivia Muza",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73957",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73957",authors:[{id:"302281",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Olivia",surname:"Muza",slug:"olivia-muza",fullName:"Olivia Muza"}],corrections:null},{id:"71015",title:"Beyond the Hydrocarbon Economy: The Case of Algeria",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91033",slug:"beyond-the-hydrocarbon-economy-the-case-of-algeria",totalDownloads:399,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The energy sector is vital to efforts to combat climate change as well as achieve economic development. The economy of many Middle East and North African (MENA) countries, such as Algeria, Iran, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, is completely based on hydrocarbons which represent the main source of the state revenue. Investing in renewable energy and efficiency is a winner strategy, allowing both to ensure the necessary availability of energy to cover the country’s domestic energy demand and to make more resources available for export to guarantee the state earnings. Renewable sources can be a solution for a transition to a more sustainable economy and a response to the economic stability of these countries affected by the volatility of oil prices. Such a strategy is reflected in improving the attractiveness of foreign investment in the renewable energy sector. Focusing on Algeria, in this article, we analyze the link between the Algerian economy and energy, underlining the current weakness. This work is partially based on the research financed by the meetMED project (WP 3.1) on barriers for domestic and international investors in the energy sector of Algeria.",signatures:"Cecilia Camporeale, Roberto Del Ciello and Mario Jorizzo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71015",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71015",authors:[{id:"296882",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario",surname:"Jorizzo",slug:"mario-jorizzo",fullName:"Mario Jorizzo"},{id:"307387",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",surname:"Camporeale",slug:"cecilia-camporeale",fullName:"Cecilia Camporeale"},{id:"307388",title:"Dr.",name:"ROBERTO",surname:"DEL CIELLO",slug:"roberto-del-ciello",fullName:"ROBERTO DEL CIELLO"}],corrections:null},{id:"70936",title:"Remotely Sensed Data for Assessment of Land Degradation Aspects, Emphases on Egyptian Case Studies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90999",slug:"remotely-sensed-data-for-assessment-of-land-degradation-aspects-emphases-on-egyptian-case-studies",totalDownloads:374,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Remote sensing and thematic data were used to provide comprehensive views of surface conditions related to land degradation and desertification, considered environmental extremes in arid and semi-arid regions. The current work applies techniques, starting with simple visual analyses up to a parametric methodology, adopted from the FAO/UNEP and UNESCO provisional methodology for assessment and mapping of soil degradation. Egyptian case studies are highlighted to insinuate on studied aspects. Variable satellite imageries (MSS, TM, and ETM) and aerial photographs were utilized to provide data on soil conditions, land cover, and land use. IDRISI and ArcGIS software were used to manage thematic data, while ERDAS IMAGIN was used to process satellite data and to derive the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) values. A GIS model was established to modify the universal soil loss equation (USLE) calculating the present state and risk of soil degradation. The study area is found exposed to slight hazard of water erosion, however, and to high risk of wind erosion. It is also threatened by a slight to high salinization and slight to moderate physical degradation. It is recommended to use a GIS in detailed and very detailed studies for evaluating soil potentiality in agricultural expansion areas.",signatures:"Abd-alla Gad",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70936",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70936",authors:[{id:"294002",title:"Prof.",name:"Abd-alla",surname:"Gad",slug:"abd-alla-gad",fullName:"Abd-alla Gad"}],corrections:null},{id:"72306",title:"Scaling Up Sustainable Biofuels for a Low-Carbon Future",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92652",slug:"scaling-up-sustainable-biofuels-for-a-low-carbon-future",totalDownloads:349,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Fossil fuels oil, coal, and gas are valuable resources that are depleting day by day around the world and also imparting a negative impact on the environment. Biofuel because of its dynamic properties; its market values; and being sustainable, renewable, biodegradable, economic, non-pollutant, and abundant is an alternate source of energy. Each country can produce it independently, and because of these valuable properties biofuels have become superior over fossil fuels. This chapter gives a concise preface to biofuels and its impact on the environment. It includes definitions; classifications; impact on environment; implications; types of production techniques like chemical, biochemical, physical, and thermochemical techniques; types of resources like lignocellulosic-biomass, feedstock energy crops, algae, micro-algae, all kinds of solid wastes; and biofuels of prime importance like solid biofuels (biochar, solid biomass), gaseous biofuels (biogas, bio-syngas, and bio-hydrogen), and the most important liquid biofuels (bioethanol, biodiesel, and bio-oil). Due to increasing global warming and climate-changing conditions, in the near future biofuel being an environment-friendly resource of energy will be a substantial part of the world’s energy demand, with no or zero polluting agents.",signatures:"Tahira Shafique and Javeria Shafique",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72306",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72306",authors:[{id:"316563",title:"Dr.",name:"Tahira",surname:"Shafique",slug:"tahira-shafique",fullName:"Tahira Shafique"},{id:"320738",title:"Ms.",name:"Javeria",surname:"Shafique",slug:"javeria-shafique",fullName:"Javeria Shafique"}],corrections:null},{id:"70884",title:"City-Scale Decarbonization Strategy with Integrated Hydroelectricity-Powered Energy Systems: An Analysis of the Possibilities in Guadalajara, Mexico",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90899",slug:"city-scale-decarbonization-strategy-with-integrated-hydroelectricity-powered-energy-systems-an-analy",totalDownloads:304,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"According to the UN, in the next 20 years, most of the world’s population will live in urban areas. Cities consume a high amount of resources, between this water, for their sustenance, hence the greatest necessity of sustainable development plans. What viable options or strategies can we consider in Latin America such that it can resist the economic, political, and social changes that it is facing? Through prospective studies, in case of Guadalajara, it is possible to determinate how water can generate clean energy, and which are the other strategic areas to empower the city through decarbonization with an interoperative and smart loop system of co-benefits. 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Ionescu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/294.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"2002",title:"Prof.",name:"Clara",surname:"Ionescu",slug:"clara-ionescu",fullName:"Clara Ionescu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"75507",title:"Strategic Human Resource Management: 37 Years in Academia, How Many in Practice? A Focus on Large Companies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96677",slug:"strategic-human-resource-management-37-years-in-academia-how-many-in-practice-a-focus-on-large-compa",body:'It is assumed that the birth year of the Strategic Human Resource Management (SHRM) field was 1984, 37 years ago, when two pioneering books were published: Strategic Human Resource Management by Tichy and colleagues in 1984 (see [1]) and Managing Human Assets by Beer and colleagues in 1984 (see [2]). These authors were motivated by the industrial situation at that time in the USA: (i) USA companies were losing competitiveness compared to their Japanese and German rivals, and (ii) the utilization of human resources was conceived as an area of inefficiency and missed opportunity in USA companies [3]. In this context, a need for a strategic approach to HRM appeared.
SHRM was conceptualized like “the pattern of planned HR deployments and activities intended to enable an organisation to achieve its goals” [4]. Conceptually, SHRM is one of the subdomains of the broader Human Resource Management (HRM) field. SHRM addresses how different HRM systems (i.e. set of HR practices) are shaped and how they affect Organisational Performance (OP). An HRM system can be defined as a combination of HR practices that are advocated to be internally consistent and reinforced to achieve some overall results. Research focuses on the effects of HRM systems rather than the effect of individual HR practices. The logic is that employees are exposed to a system rather than to a single practice on at a time. These practices are supposed to be complementary or synergistic generating a coherent and consistent message within the organisation.
There can be found different conceptualizations of HRM systems within the literature. The most known are the High Performance Work System (HPWS) (see for example Huselid’s proposal in [5]), the High Commitment Work System (HCWS) (see Arthur’s work in [6]) and the High Involvement Work System (HIWS) (see Lawler’s proposal in [7]). Among these, there are certain differences in the orientation of the practices. For example, the HCWS may include more practices fostering commitment and the HIWS employs more involvement practices. However, the abovementioned three working systems include high-commitment and high-involvement employment models and they reside in the same logic: work autonomy is regarded as one of the central parts of these systems [8]. We understand these systems as “advanced” HRM systems that employ a strategic approach to the contribution that empowered employees might make to organisations.
According to the literature the five key practices that compose (advanced) HRM systems are [9, 10]: (i) selective recruitment and selection, (ii) appraisal and performance management, (iii) compensation, (iv) training and development, and (v) employee participation or involvement. To date, there is no consensus about which is the most appropriate conceptualization of HRM systems (see for example an extensive review in [10]) and for the sake of simplicity, the general term of (advanced) HRM system covering all the variations will be employed along this chapter.
Continuing with the history of USA companies introduced at the beginning of the chapter, one decade later the birth of SHRM, in the nineties, USA researchers focused on carrying out empirical studies, which would demonstrate the role of HR generating value for organisations [11]. Researchers wanted to empirically demonstrate the performance effect of HRM systems to develop the field as a true discipline. A turning point occurred when Huselid published a paper in 1995 demonstrating a positive correlation between the degree of sophistication of HR practices and market value per employee.
Building on this study, different authors started conducting empirical research focusing mostly on HR practices bundles (i.e. HRM systems) and performance relationships (e.g. [6, 12]). Paauwe and Richardson in 1997 (see [13]) summarized the findings of the empirical studies conducted until that point and they concluded that these could be classified into two types. The first type of study analysed the association between HR practices and employee related outcomes such as satisfaction, engagement, motivation, turnover and commitment. The second type of study analysed the association between the employee related outcomes and organisational outcomes such as productivity, quality, sales, and market value. They concluded that HRM activities give rise to HRM outcomes, which in turn influence OP. This contributed to a call for more theoretical insights that could explain (i) what was understood by HRM activities (ii) what was understood by performance and (iii) what the linking variables between them were [14]. The linking variables (i.e. HRM outcomes) turned to be known as the big unknown: The Black Box.
To date, a great effort has been made to theoretically argue the paths through which HRM systems influence both employee and organisational outcomes. The most widely applied theories for explaining the Black Box have been the human capital theory [see more information in references [15, 16] and the behavioural perspective [see more information in references 17, 18].
Human capital theory concentrates on the impact of HRM systems on employee Knowledge, Skills and Abilities (KSA) gained through training and work experience (see Figure 1). It assumes that these attributes of the workforce will have a positive impact on OP. Organisational investments in advanced HR practices such as strategic personnel selection, training and development contribute to the human capital of the workforce which in turn influences organisational performance. Human capital is essential for employee performance. HR systems can enhance employee KSA that are specific to the company and allow the generated human capital pool (i.e. aggregated KSA) exploit it for the benefit of the company. There are empirical studies that demonstrate that human capital pays off. For example in the study conducted by Crook and colleagues (see [19]) they showed that one standard deviation increase in human capital, measured as work experience of the managerial board, translates into an improvement of 80% in Return On Assets (ROA).
Human capital framework.
The behavioural perspective, on the other hand, assumes that the purpose of the practices are to elicit and control employee attitudes and behaviours such as engagement and proactive work behaviour [4]. What is important is not how much knowledge we have in the company, but how much our employees are willing to apply this knowledge and how much effort they put into it (see Figure 2).
Behavioural perspective.
The behavioural perspective lies under Social Exchange Theory (SET). SET explains human behaviour in relations. The relations are understood as an exchange relationship where a person feels the obligation to reply to the input of the other in the relationship. This is understood as the norm of reciprocity defined by Gouldner [20]. Following this, the sociologist Blau stated that employees can feel this need of reciprocity with the organisations. When organisations offer employees social exchange relations such as attention, growth or trust that exceeds the expectations of employees, employees feel the obligation to return to the company with extra effort [21].
HR practices usually employed under advanced HRM systems such as autonomous or self-managed teams, employee participation and cross-functional collaboration projects are motivational drivers for the desired work attitudes and behaviours. Investment in HRM systems demonstrates to employees that the company values them as a source of competitive advantage and this in turn might generate a greater sense of organisational attachment and engagement [20, 22].
Employee engagement can be defined as a positive and fulfilling emotional state of work-related wellbeing characterized by vigour, dedication and absorption [23]. A meta-analytical study conducted by Harter and colleagues (see reference [24]) demonstrated that engagement had a significant impact on employee performance which is a predictor of productivity. In addition, other studies conducted across industries have found that higher engagement levels of employees are related to positive financial outcomes such as profitability or Return on Assets [25] and lower absenteeism levels [26].
The first empirical evidence that demonstrated the value of implementing HR practices from a strategic perspective is considered to be that published by Huselid in 1995 (see [27]). Nowadays, almost 40 years after this publication there is no doubt that investment in HRM systems pays off. The field has been fed with evidence of positive relationships (see Figure 3 for a summary). Meta-analysing the research in SHRM supports the idea that HRM systems have a significant effect on performance (see for examples the studies in references [28, 29, 30]).
Summary of three decades of trajectory of the field of SHRM.
Not only scientific papers support the positive effect of employees on OP. The internationally recognized consulting company Gallup, in their report of State of the global workplace [31] concluded that those companies that make a strategic investment in employee development (for example, implementing advanced HRM systems) report 11% greater profitability and are twice as likely to retain employees.
It is clear what research says, but, (i) are the companies nowadays implementing these HRM systems, and, (ii) are the companies consequently benefiting from them? The following section focuses on what studies reveal about these issues.
Starting with the focus on the employees, according to the last global report of Gallup [31] only 15% of the global workforce is engaged. The global aggregate from Gallup was calculated based on data collected in 2014, 2015 and 2016 across 155 countries. This data also showed that 18% of global employees were actively disengaged.
We have seen what engaged employees mean for an organisation in the previous section. The antagonistic, not engaged employees, can be seen as unattached people to their work that lack passion and energy and that are not likely to go the extra mile. So, considering these definitions we can say that numbers are worrying, how is it possible to have a higher number of disengaged employees rather than engaged ones? Is the problem in the employees? Does these mean that nowadays employees do not want to work? That they are not motivated?
We suspect the answer is NO. Based on the logic of SHRM, we should change the perspective and see employee engagement because of the working system implemented. The challenge usually resides in the way employees are being managed in our organisations. When achieving greater engagement from employees, Peter Senge [32] suggests thinking in more biological terms rather than mechanical; i.e., to act more like gardeners and less like mechanics. The nature of the seed is to grow and give fruits if it has the right conditions to do so. Therefore, the gardener needs to ensure the appropriate environmental conditions that make possible the growth of the plant. It is in the hands of the gardener to ensure proper light, water and work the soil. If these aspects are correctly worked the plant grows and gives its fruits.
Following this metaphor, it is in people’s nature to get involved and engage themselves at work. However, the work environment needs to make this possible. In certain organisational contexts people choose to engage and unleash their energy for the benefit of the organisation. Engagement is a voluntary act and an employee will be engaged if the organisations give them reasons to do so. This means that the key to achieving employee engagement lies in the way people are managed at the organisations. As an example, HRM systems increase employee’s task-related resources [30, 33] and this leads to an enhancement in employee engagement [34]. Moreover, these systems empower employees and empowered employees tend to be more engaged [35].
On the other hand, the numbers of employee engagement are even worse if we look at Europe. On average, only 12,5% of the workforce reported to be engaged (10% in western Europe and 15% in Eastern Europe) [31]. We can relate these figures to the results of another report published by Eurofound, the European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions. This report revealed that only one fifth of European companies (EU27) offer comprehensive training and learning opportunities to their employees, offer comprehensive or selective variable pay, provide direct involvement opportunities and have direct employee representation structures [36]. These practices are part of the advanced HRM systems so we can conclude that the lack of correct implementation of these systems may be behind the low numbers of European employee engagement percentages reported by Gallup. Inconsistencies between intended (e.g. employees’ needs centred) and implemented (e.g. employers concerns driven) set of practices may also pay.
The figures presented along this section evidence the existing divorce between academia and practitioners. It looks like European organisations are not consistently deploying HRM systems and that therefore they are not fully benefiting from them as research shows they would.
This research-practice gap is not new, and it has been widely criticised (for example, see [37, 38]). Several reasons have been explained as sources for this divorce such as: the theoretical and academic approach followed by researchers when writing journal articles, the lack of understanding of the real problems of managers from scholars, and the scarcity of collaborative situations between academicians and practitioners [37, 39]. The strict requirements of scientific journals make academics focus on highly elaborated theoretical justifications and very complex statistical analysis making the results very complex and difficult to understand. In addition, sometimes it seems that there are two parallel worlds and that academics research more based on what the literature is investigating than on the needs of companies.
On the other hand, long-established ways of working are a powerful force for inertia. Although some managers may be working under ineffective working systems, they might feel threatened by the idea of empowering employees to exercise discretion in their daily routine and take a leading role in decision-making. Some organisations assume that employees at the frontline cannot be trusted to make decisions or manage their work. As a shield against this fear, one typical sentence that we can heard from managers when explaining these ideas about the positive effect of HRM systems on both employee wellbeing and OP is that “everything holds up on paper but that is not valid for my organisation”. Managers may say that these systems are not valid for their workforce, that these ways of managing people and organizing work are useful for start-ups or small companies but not for big corporations. This thought is risky because big corporations can make these systems legitimate and fashionable. Managers are usually more interested in benchmarking “best practices” of legitimate and big companies than in finding out what science says [39]. Therefore, considering this, it is interesting to zoom in on how HRM systems are being implemented in large companies.
The problem of employee wellbeing and engagement becomes more pressing in large companies. How many of you have ever heard the expression “they treat us as numbers and not as people”? This sentence is more usual from people that work in large companies than those working in small and medium enterprises. Studies reveal that employee commitment and engagement is usually lower in big companies (for example, see [40]).
However, it should be noted that the problem does not lie in the company size itself. Large companies do not have to bear the social cost and expect lower levels of engagement necessarily. Theoretically, large companies, due to economies of scale, have more capital to invest in HRM systems, they are more trained and have the possibility of having expert advice in this field. In fact, there are studies that demonstrate that the implemented levels of HRM systems are more sophisticated in large companies than in small companies [41].
However, the counterintuitive results of lower employee commitment and engagement levels in big companies may be explained basing on the way organisations are organizing and structuring their growth. This way might be incompatible with the logic of autonomy that resides in the HRM systems.
When we are talking about structure, we refer to the way employees within the organisation are coordinated. Implementing HRM systems is not sending employees to training courses, giving informative talks and involving them in interdisciplinary improvement teams. It goes beyond that. Probably, when asking managers about the implementation of these advanced HR practices, managers of big companies say they invest more than managers of small companies. There can be several reasons for this, such as familiarization with terminology (i.e. small companies normally employ more informal employment arrangements), slack resources, pressure from unions, etc.
However, as it has been explained in the first section of this chapter, the relation between employers and employees and the implementation of HRM systems is based in the norm of reciprocity [20]. The employee needs to believe that the company is trusting them, that they are part of the totality and that they are empowered and that they can decide. However, there are aspects in the structuring of big companies thar can be incompatible with this message. As much as individual and group level factors influence employee work attitudes and behaviours, it is important to highlight that organisational structure can be an even more powerful influence over them.
We can highlight 3 parts of organisational structure that directly influence how employees feel about the company and therefore their perception of HRM systems: centralization, hierarchical levels and formalization [42]. As you might suspect, the bigger organisations are, the more their structure becomes centralized and formalized [40].
Starting with centralization it is reflected in the level where decision making is concentrated. The higher level the decision making takes place, the higher the centralization is. This is a typical practice in big corporations because it makes sense from the point of view of standardization and efficiency. However, as you can imagine, this issue disempowers employees and therefore, employees perceive lower levels of procedural fairness. This generates inconsistency in combination with HRM systems that foster employee commitment and involvement. If you want employees to be involved, you must give them the power and autonomy to decide. Every employee prefers doing what they have decided to do than what they have been imposed to. Engagement towards our own decisions is always bigger.
Continuing with hierarchical levels, a deep-rooted idea has been that of “the more people to be managed, the more hierarchical levels”. A basic assumption in companies is that hierarchies are common sense since you need somebody in charge. This is the logic that has been applied in traditional management and it is the principal reason of the inherited organisational structures. Simplifying, organisations can be structured in a tall way or in a flat way. In tall organisations, the more hierarchical level an organisation has, the one at the lowest level does not feel as someone important for the organisation. The mere fact that there is a pyramid in the organisational structure gives a certain status to the one at the top and a very different one to the one at the bottom. These status issues and ego problems directly affect the person. Management layers put distance between the people who think (the ones at the top) and the people who do (the people at the frontline) disempowering those at the lower levels and generating an implementation gap. In addition, the communication process becomes more difficult and slower meaning that employees are more often informed by rumours than by official announcements. The information is in the hands of those at the top of the pyramid making them powerful, important, and indispensable. That is why in a big company with a tall structure, it is very difficult that the employee believes in practices that are encompassed within HRM because the system under which they are structured is not reflecting that they are important to the company. The way of structuring organisational growth is in the hands of big companies, it does not have to be hierarchical in an imposed manner. Flat organisations are more in line with the philosophy of HRM systems since they rely on a decentralized approach. People are structured under a mutual coordination approach based on self-management and employees take responsibility for outcomes.
The third aspect of structure is the formalization. This reflects the extent to which rules, regulations, policies, procedures, etc. are explicitly articulated. This kind of system controls employee attitudes and behaviours making them somehow predictable. This can make sense from the perspective of standardizing way of doing things. Big companies may be interested in standardizing processes across different businesses for being more efficient or for ensuring the brand image in front of the customer for example. When implementing HRM system an organisation must break this paradigm of standardizing rules and procedures because these systems seek to empower people and formalization just makes the contrary: it restrain people in a way that all are supposed to act in the same way, going this against human nature. Lower-level employees are constrained by severe rules that offer a limited number of acceptable responses.
When an organisation reaches a considerable size, centralization, formalization and hierarchical levels appear in a natural way. Therefore, employees do not perceive they have the opportunity to do what they do best or to learn and grow (limited by the formalization), to decide about how to reach a specific customer (limited by the centralized decision making) or to have the information about how the company is operating compared to its competitors (limited by the hierarchical levels, those at the top have the information). The three aspects of organisational structure that are related to the growth of the company hinder a good implementation of HRM systems and therefore has a negative influence in people well-being and engagement levels.
These issues point out to another strand of literature in which the implementation of HRM systems and their results need to be understood dependent on not only managerial work but also on organisational forms and structures.
Companies are facing unprecedented times of change. The challenges are more global and more technological and the ability to reinvent themselves has become imperative for survival and success.
However, managers cannot deal with these challenges alone in an attempt at heroism, they need the potential and involvement of all people of the organisation. We live in a society of knowledge, and economic development depends increasingly on the acquisition of new knowledge. Within this context, employees contribute to organisational success through knowledge development, dissemination, and innovation. Today, human intelligence has become essential in business. More precisely, we are referring to intelligence understood in its broadest sense, including, beyond cognitive abilities, emotions, and motivation. The challenge is to create working environments where people who owns knowledge and skills are willing to use them for the benefit of the organisation.
Looking at the evidences presented along this chapter, one might say that there is little reason to argue why organisations would not invest in HRM systems. Those organisations that invest in these systems benefit both socially (i.e. increased engagement and well-being levels) and economically (i.e. better organisational results). However, it is typical to find managers searching urgently for solutions to pressing problems of competitiveness of their organisations and applying methods that are minimally effective and have unintended (social) consequences.
This is partly due to the existing bridge between research and practice. This gap and possible solutions need to be echoed now more than ever due to the importance of human resources for the current society.
The HRM overall effectiveness depends on both, the HRM systems quality (e.g. ‘best fit practices’) and its implementation [43]. HRM implementation is a dynamic process in nature which involves different individuals pursuing certain practices normalization [44]. Related to this, scholars need to make research in order to address the real organisational problems managers are facing and disseminate results in an understandable and applicable way so that they have the needed tools and knowledge. For researchers, translating knowledge intro practical implications requires constant engagement to understand what research questions hold practical relevance at the same time of having theoretical value for academia [45]. Therefore, from the academic side, more collaborative situations, more applied research and less statistical perfection (without losing scientific rigor) would help on the way to reduce the gap between research and practice.
On the other hand, managers should change their mentality and if employees are truly the key asset of a company, caring for them and fostering their development should be a managerial priority. This issue should place a focus on the next generation of managers so that they can create the best working conditions needed for this to happen.
The message is clear, to ensure the competitiveness of future companies, management systems must harness the potential of the entire workforce by involving and empowering them. Managers should become the champions of employee empowerment working systems (i.e. advanced HRM systems). They are responsible for aligning people towards organisational goals and deal with inherited structures and traditions that may get in the way of this imperative transition.
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\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'Copyright is the term used to describe the rights related to the publication and distribution of original Works. Most importantly from a publisher's perspective, copyright governs how Authors, publishers and the general public can use, publish, and distribute publications.
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The CC BY 3.0 and CC BY 4.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as the reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as the source Work is cited and its Authors are acknowledged in the following manner:
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On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. 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Assessing Hazards, Emergencies and Disaster Impacts"},signatures:"Jesús San-Miguel-Ayanz, Ernst Schulte, Guido Schmuck, Andrea Camia, Peter Strobl, Giorgio Liberta, Cristiano Giovando, Roberto Boca, Fernando Sedano, Pieter Kempeneers, Daniel McInerney, Ceri Withmore, Sandra Santos de Oliveira, Marcos Rodrigues, Tracy Durrant, Paolo Corti, Friderike Oehler, Lara Vilar and Giuseppe Amatulli",authors:[{id:"73894",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesús",middleName:null,surname:"San-Miguel-Ayanz",slug:"jesus-san-miguel-ayanz",fullName:"Jesús San-Miguel-Ayanz"},{id:"126055",title:"MSc.",name:"Ernst",middleName:null,surname:"Schulte",slug:"ernst-schulte",fullName:"Ernst Schulte"},{id:"126056",title:"Dr.",name:"Guido",middleName:null,surname:"Schmuck",slug:"guido-schmuck",fullName:"Guido Schmuck"},{id:"126057",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Camia",slug:"andrea-camia",fullName:"Andrea Camia"},{id:"126058",title:"Dr.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Strobl",slug:"peter-strobl",fullName:"Peter Strobl"},{id:"126059",title:"Mr.",name:"Giorgio",middleName:null,surname:"Liberta",slug:"giorgio-liberta",fullName:"Giorgio Liberta"},{id:"126060",title:"MSc.",name:"Cristiano",middleName:null,surname:"Giovando",slug:"cristiano-giovando",fullName:"Cristiano Giovando"},{id:"126061",title:"BSc.",name:"Roberto",middleName:null,surname:"Boca",slug:"roberto-boca",fullName:"Roberto Boca"},{id:"126062",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",middleName:null,surname:"Sedano",slug:"fernando-sedano",fullName:"Fernando Sedano"},{id:"126063",title:"Dr.",name:"Pieter",middleName:null,surname:"Kempeners",slug:"pieter-kempeners",fullName:"Pieter Kempeners"},{id:"126064",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"McInerney",slug:"daniel-mcinerney",fullName:"Daniel McInerney"},{id:"126066",title:"BSc.",name:"Ceri",middleName:null,surname:"Whitmore",slug:"ceri-whitmore",fullName:"Ceri Whitmore"},{id:"126068",title:"MSc.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Santos De Oliveira",slug:"sandra-santos-de-oliveira",fullName:"Sandra Santos De Oliveira"},{id:"126070",title:"MSc.",name:"Marcos",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigues",slug:"marcos-rodrigues",fullName:"Marcos Rodrigues"},{id:"126072",title:"MSc.",name:"Tracy",middleName:null,surname:"Durrant",slug:"tracy-durrant",fullName:"Tracy Durrant"},{id:"126073",title:"MSc.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Corti",slug:"paolo-corti",fullName:"Paolo Corti"},{id:"126074",title:"MSc.",name:"Friderike",middleName:null,surname:"Oehler",slug:"friderike-oehler",fullName:"Friderike Oehler"},{id:"126075",title:"Dr.",name:"Lara",middleName:null,surname:"Vilar",slug:"lara-vilar",fullName:"Lara Vilar"},{id:"126076",title:"Dr.",name:"Giuseppe",middleName:null,surname:"Amatulli",slug:"giuseppe-amatulli",fullName:"Giuseppe Amatulli"}]},{id:"41478",doi:"10.5772/51387",title:"Monogenetic Basaltic Volcanoes: Genetic Classification, Growth, Geomorphology and Degradation",slug:"monogenetic-basaltic-volcanoes-genetic-classification-growth-geomorphology-and-degradation",totalDownloads:6189,totalCrossrefCites:72,totalDimensionsCites:142,abstract:null,book:{id:"3088",slug:"updates-in-volcanology-new-advances-in-understanding-volcanic-systems",title:"Updates in Volcanology",fullTitle:"Updates in Volcanology - New Advances in Understanding Volcanic Systems"},signatures:"Gábor Kereszturi and Károly Németh",authors:[{id:"51162",title:"Dr.",name:"Károly",middleName:null,surname:"Németh",slug:"karoly-nemeth",fullName:"Károly Németh"},{id:"62029",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabor",middleName:null,surname:"Kereszturi",slug:"gabor-kereszturi",fullName:"Gabor Kereszturi"}]},{id:"65070",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82151",title:"Biochar: A Sustainable Approach for Improving Plant Growth and Soil Properties",slug:"biochar-a-sustainable-approach-for-improving-plant-growth-and-soil-properties",totalDownloads:6946,totalCrossrefCites:59,totalDimensionsCites:98,abstract:"Soil is the most important source and an abode for many nutrients and microflora. Due to rapid depletion of agricultural areas and soil quality by means of ever-increasing population and an excessive addition of chemical fertilizers, a rehabilitated attention is a need of the hour to maintain sustainable approaches in agricultural crop production. Biochar is the solid, carbon-rich material obtained by pyrolysis using different biomasses. It has been widely documented in previous studies that, the crop growth and yield can be increased by using biochar. This chapter exclusively summarizes the properties of biochar, its interaction with soil microflora, and its role in plant growth promotion when added to the soil.",book:{id:"7305",slug:"biochar-an-imperative-amendment-for-soil-and-the-environment",title:"Biochar",fullTitle:"Biochar - An Imperative Amendment for Soil and the Environment"},signatures:"Jyoti Rawat, Jyoti Saxena and Pankaj Sanwal",authors:null},{id:"46355",doi:"10.5772/57469",title:"Phytoremediation of Soils Contaminated with Metals and Metalloids at Mining Areas: Potential of Native Flora",slug:"phytoremediation-of-soils-contaminated-with-metals-and-metalloids-at-mining-areas-potential-of-nativ",totalDownloads:8589,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:87,abstract:null,book:{id:"3854",slug:"environmental-risk-assessment-of-soil-contamination",title:"Environmental Risk Assessment of Soil Contamination",fullTitle:"Environmental Risk Assessment of Soil Contamination"},signatures:"Paulo J.C. Favas, João Pratas, Mayank Varun, Rohan D’Souza and\nManoj S. Paul",authors:[{id:"169746",title:"Dr.",name:"Paulo",middleName:null,surname:"Favas",slug:"paulo-favas",fullName:"Paulo Favas"},{id:"169747",title:"Dr.",name:"Manoj",middleName:"Stephen",surname:"Paul",slug:"manoj-paul",fullName:"Manoj Paul"},{id:"169952",title:"Dr.",name:"Joao",middleName:null,surname:"Pratas",slug:"joao-pratas",fullName:"Joao Pratas"},{id:"169953",title:"Dr.",name:"Mayank",middleName:null,surname:"Varun",slug:"mayank-varun",fullName:"Mayank Varun"},{id:"169954",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohan",middleName:null,surname:"D'Souza",slug:"rohan-d'souza",fullName:"Rohan D'Souza"}]},{id:"61845",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77987",title:"Montmorillonite: An Introduction to Properties and Utilization",slug:"montmorillonite-an-introduction-to-properties-and-utilization",totalDownloads:5495,totalCrossrefCites:44,totalDimensionsCites:77,abstract:"Clay mineral is an important material available in nature. With an increasing understanding of clay structure, montmorillonite is realized viable for an enhanced performance in a variety of materials and products in the areas of catalysis, food additive, antibacterial function, polymer, sorbent, etc. Significant development in the use and application of montmorillonite is seen in recent time. This chapter provides an overview of montmorillonite, structure, and properties and particularly discusses its recent utilization in important materials. Montmorillonite is introduced in terms of its natural sources, chemical structure, physical and chemical properties, and functional utilization. The important physical and chemical properties are summarized as particle and layered structure, molecular structure and cation exchange effect, barrier property, and water sorption. This is followed by the important functional utilizations of montmorillonite based on the effects of its chemical structure. The important functional utilization of montmorillonite includes food additive for health and stamina, for antibacterial activity against tooth and gum decay, as sorbent for nonionic, anionic, and cationic dyes, and the use as catalyst in organic synthesis. The environment concerns, to date, do not indicate the adversity for particles used as additive. Studies will be useful which are clearly based on any montmorillonite structure to describe environmental effects.",book:{id:"6561",slug:"current-topics-in-the-utilization-of-clay-in-industrial-and-medical-applications",title:"Current Topics in the Utilization of Clay in Industrial and Medical Applications",fullTitle:"Current Topics in the Utilization of Clay in Industrial and Medical Applications"},signatures:"Faheem Uddin",authors:[{id:"228107",title:"Prof.",name:"Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Uddin",slug:"faheem-uddin",fullName:"Faheem Uddin"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"46032",title:"Soil Contamination, Risk Assessment and Remediation",slug:"soil-contamination-risk-assessment-and-remediation",totalDownloads:13989,totalCrossrefCites:22,totalDimensionsCites:62,abstract:null,book:{id:"3854",slug:"environmental-risk-assessment-of-soil-contamination",title:"Environmental Risk Assessment of Soil Contamination",fullTitle:"Environmental Risk Assessment of Soil Contamination"},signatures:"Muhammad Aqeel Ashraf, Mohd. Jamil Maah and Ismail Yusoff",authors:[{id:"25185",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Aqeel",middleName:null,surname:"Ashraf",slug:"muhammad-aqeel-ashraf",fullName:"Muhammad Aqeel Ashraf"},{id:"101988",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail",middleName:null,surname:"Yusoff",slug:"ismail-yusoff",fullName:"Ismail Yusoff"},{id:"169931",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohd Jamil",middleName:null,surname:"Maah",slug:"mohd-jamil-maah",fullName:"Mohd Jamil Maah"},{id:"169932",title:"Dr.",name:"Ng Tham",middleName:null,surname:"Fatt",slug:"ng-tham-fatt",fullName:"Ng Tham Fatt"}]},{id:"71931",title:"Open Pit Mining",slug:"open-pit-mining",totalDownloads:1701,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Open pit mining method is one of the surface mining methods that has a traditional cone-shaped excavation and is usually employed to exploit a near-surface, nonselective and low-grade zones deposits. It often results in high productivity and requires large capital investments, low operating costs, and good safety conditions. The main topics that will be discussed in this chapter will include an introduction into the general features of open pit mining, ore body characteristics and configurations, stripping ratios and stripping overburden methods, mine elements and parameters, open pit operation cycle, pit slope angle, stability of mine slopes, types of highwall failures, mine closure and reclamation, and different variants of surface mining methods including opencast mining, mountainous mining, and artisan mining.",book:{id:"8620",slug:"mining-techniques-past-present-and-future",title:"Mining Techniques",fullTitle:"Mining Techniques - Past, Present and Future"},signatures:"Awwad H. Altiti, Rami O. Alrawashdeh and Hani M. Alnawafleh",authors:[{id:"313182",title:"Prof.",name:"Rami",middleName:null,surname:"Alrawashdeh",slug:"rami-alrawashdeh",fullName:"Rami Alrawashdeh"},{id:"313522",title:"Dr.",name:"Awwad",middleName:null,surname:"Altiti",slug:"awwad-altiti",fullName:"Awwad Altiti"},{id:"313523",title:"Prof.",name:"Hani",middleName:null,surname:"Alnawafleh",slug:"hani-alnawafleh",fullName:"Hani Alnawafleh"}]},{id:"64027",title:"Stages of a Integrated Geothermal Project",slug:"stages-of-a-integrated-geothermal-project",totalDownloads:4461,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"A geothermal project constitutes two big stages: the exploration and the exploitation. Each one has a single task whose results allow defining the feasibility of a geothermal project, until achieving the construction and operation stage of the power generation plant. The first stage contains the area recognition, its limitation to the target, and elimination of external factors until defining a geothermal zone with characteristics to be commercially exploited. The main studies and analysis that can be applied during the exploration stage are listed, and the major indicator to continue with the project or suspend is the prefeasibility report. The major risks in the exploration stage are due to studies that are carried out on the surface; at this stage, the costs can be considered low. The main results of the exploration are the selection of sites to drill three or four initial wells. Each well provides a direct overview of the reservoir: depth, production thicknesses, thermodynamic parameters, and production characteristics. The drilling of three to four exploratory wells is recommended, as far as there is certainty of the feasibility of the project, and the development of the field begins with drilling of sufficient wells to feed the plant. In this stage, the cost increases, but the risks decrease.",book:{id:"7504",slug:"renewable-geothermal-energy-explorations",title:"Renewable Geothermal Energy Explorations",fullTitle:"Renewable Geothermal Energy Explorations"},signatures:"Alfonso Aragón-Aguilar, Georgina Izquierdo-Montalvo,\nDaniel Octavio Aragón-Gaspar and Denise N. Barreto-Rivera",authors:[{id:"258358",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Aragón-Aguilar",slug:"alfonso-aragon-aguilar",fullName:"Alfonso Aragón-Aguilar"}]},{id:"65070",title:"Biochar: A Sustainable Approach for Improving Plant Growth and Soil Properties",slug:"biochar-a-sustainable-approach-for-improving-plant-growth-and-soil-properties",totalDownloads:6946,totalCrossrefCites:59,totalDimensionsCites:98,abstract:"Soil is the most important source and an abode for many nutrients and microflora. Due to rapid depletion of agricultural areas and soil quality by means of ever-increasing population and an excessive addition of chemical fertilizers, a rehabilitated attention is a need of the hour to maintain sustainable approaches in agricultural crop production. Biochar is the solid, carbon-rich material obtained by pyrolysis using different biomasses. It has been widely documented in previous studies that, the crop growth and yield can be increased by using biochar. This chapter exclusively summarizes the properties of biochar, its interaction with soil microflora, and its role in plant growth promotion when added to the soil.",book:{id:"7305",slug:"biochar-an-imperative-amendment-for-soil-and-the-environment",title:"Biochar",fullTitle:"Biochar - An Imperative Amendment for Soil and the Environment"},signatures:"Jyoti Rawat, Jyoti Saxena and Pankaj Sanwal",authors:null},{id:"39170",title:"Study of Impacts of Global Warming on Climate Change: Rise in Sea Level and Disaster Frequency",slug:"study-of-impacts-of-global-warming-on-climate-change-rise-in-sea-level-and-disaster-frequency",totalDownloads:6696,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:32,abstract:null,book:{id:"2206",slug:"global-warming-impacts-and-future-perspective",title:"Global Warming",fullTitle:"Global Warming - Impacts and Future Perspective"},signatures:"Bharat Raj Singh and Onkar Singh",authors:[{id:"26093",title:"Dr.",name:"Bharat Raj",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"bharat-raj-singh",fullName:"Bharat Raj Singh"},{id:"118426",title:"Prof.",name:"Onkar",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"onkar-singh",fullName:"Onkar Singh"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"10",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82963",title:"Evolution of Radio Source Components and the Quasar/Galaxy Unification Scheme",slug:"evolution-of-radio-source-components-and-the-quasar-galaxy-unification-scheme",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106244",abstract:"In this work, a theoretical model is developed for explanation of temporal evolution of extragalactic radio sources via beaming, orientation effects and asymmetries. Equation of the form D≈P±q1+z−m is used to account for the D ∼ P/z relation. Also, D≈D01+z−1+z1+z2 accounted properly for Ω0=1 cosmology than the Ω0=0 counterpart in linear size versus redshift of radio sources. Similarly, D=Dc1∓lnPPc1/2 model explained redshift-luminosity relationship of extragalactic radio sources. The results from the regression analyses are q = +0.003 (r = 0.04) for sources with z < 1 and q = −1.59 (r = −0.6) for all z≥1 sources. A critical linear size, Dc of 316kpc which matches the maximum theoretical linear size, Dmax of 0.15D0 at a critical redshift zc∼1 and a critical luminosity Pc=26.33WHz−1 are obtained. The indication of all these results is that the linear size of radio sources evolves up to a certain limit in D–P plane and thereafter decreases with increasing luminosity as predicted in this work.",book:{id:"11737",title:"Astronomy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11737.jpg"},signatures:"Costecia Ifeoma Onah, Augustine A. Ubachukwu and Finbarr C. Odo"},{id:"82981",title:"Wood Quality and Pulping Process Efficiency of Elite Eucalyptus spp. Clones Field-Grown under Seasonal Drought Stress",slug:"wood-quality-and-pulping-process-efficiency-of-elite-eucalyptus-spp-clones-field-grown-under-seasona",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106341",abstract:"The objective of the present study is to evaluate the wood quality of five elite Eucalyptus spp. clones at 4 years of age from a clonal test installed in a region of seasonal drought stress in central-western Brazil focusing on pulp production. A total of 25 trees were systematically felled and disks and logs were obtained along the trunk. Wooden disks were used for density and fiber analyses and the logs were converted into chips for application in the pulping process. For the denser genotype, clone D (E. grandis x E. urophylla x Eucalyptus tereticornis), a thicker cell wall associated to thinner fibers results in a negative effect on the fiber quality. In contrast, clone B (Eucalyptus pellita x E. grandis), which has relatively inferior pulping performance, displayed the lowest wood density associated to wider lumen and fibers. The best growth performances in response to acclimatization and adaptation to the site strongly influences the pulp productivity, which is identified as the parameter of greatest variance between genotypes, and highlighting clone E (E. grandis x E. urophylla).",book:{id:"11840",title:"Arid Environment - Perspectives, Challenges and Management",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11840.jpg"},signatures:"Deborah Rodrigues de Souza Santos, Camila Sarto, Rafael Fernandes dos Santos, Júlia Lôbo Ribeiro Anciotti Gil, Carlos de Melo e Silva-Neto, Regina Maria Gomes, Evandro Novaes, Carlos Roberto Sette-Junior, Mario Tomazello-Filho, Rafael Tassinari Resende and Matheus Peres Chagas"},{id:"82957",title:"The Socio-Economic Factors of the Covid-19 Pandemic in Turkey: A Spatial Perspective",slug:"the-socio-economic-factors-of-the-covid-19-pandemic-in-turkey-a-spatial-perspective",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106048",abstract:"This study investigates the role of various socioeconomic determinants and vaccination rates in the spread of Covid-19 in a spatial setting in Turkey. For this aim, we employ the 41 sub-indicators of Life Index in Provinces data provided by the Turkish Statistical Institute which is obtained based on the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) Better Life Index approach. Our results indicate no global interactions in the transmission process of the disease among Turkish provinces. This means that the infection burden in the neighboring province does not significantly affect the infection burden of a given state. Yet, we show that vaccination rates and the median age of a neighboring province significantly affect the number of total cases in a given province. We find that as the vaccination rates of a neighboring province rise, the number of total cases in a given province also increases. This finding can be attributed to the “neighbor–reliant immunity” concept. It seems that people with vaccine hesitancy toward Covid-19 feel safer without a vaccine when their neighbors are mostly vaccinated. Last, people with a higher satisfaction rate with their health status are more likely to catch the disease due to underestimation of negative consequences.",book:{id:"11488",title:"GIS and Spatial Analysis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11488.jpg"},signatures:"Sevgi Eda Tuzcu and Esra Satıcı"},{id:"82652",title:"Intra-Plate Dynamics and Active Tectonic Zones of the Indian Plate",slug:"intra-plate-dynamics-and-active-tectonic-zones-of-the-indian-plate",totalDownloads:4,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105647",abstract:"The tectonic framework of the Indian Plate started to evolve since the break-up of Gondwanaland in the Late Triassic. It evolved mainly during the time between its separation from the African plate in the Early-Cretaceous and its collision with the Eurasian plate on the north in Late-Middle Eocene and with the Burmese plate in the northeast in Late-Oligocene. Present active tectonic zones, responsible for earthquake generation, were created by the collision pattern and subsequent plate motion. Continued subduction and plate motion due to ridge push and slab pull are responsible for the activation of primordial faults in the inherent structural fabric of the craton depending on the related stress field. Major tectonic zones of the Indian continental plate are related to the collision fronts and the reactivated intra-cratonic faults along the resurgent paleo-sutures between the proto-cratons. Major Tectonic Zones (TZ) are Himalayan TZ, Assam-Arakan TZ, Baluchistan- Karakoram TZ, Andaman-Nicobar TZ, and Stable Continental Region (SCR) earthquake zone. The structure of the continental margins developed during the break-up of Gondwana continental fragments. Western margin evolved during the sequential separation of Africa, Madagascar, and Seychelles since the Late-Triassic to Late Cretaceous time. The Eastern margin structure evolved during the separation of Antarctica in Mid Cretaceous. The orogenic belt circumscribing the northern margin of Indian plate is highly tectonised as the subduction of the plate continues due to northerly push from the Carlsberg Ridge in the SW and slab-pull towards northeast and east along the orogenic and island arc fronts in the NE. This stress pattern induced an anticlockwise rotatory plate motion. The back thrust from the collision front in the direction opposite to the ridge push put the plate under an overall compressive stress. This stress pattern and the plate motion are responsible for the reactivation of the major intra-cratonic faults. While the tectonised orogenic belts are the zones for earthquake nucleation, the reactivated faults are also the strained mega shear zones across the plate for earthquake generation in SCR. These faults trending WNW-ESE are apparently the transform faults that extend across the continent from Carlsberg ridge in the west to the collision zones in the northeast. As such, they are described here as the ‘trans-continental transform faults’. Three such major fault zones from north to south are (i) North Kathiawar fault - Great Boundary fault (along the Aravalli belt) zone, (ii) South Saurashtra fault (extension of Narmada fault) – SONATA-Dauki-Naga fault zone, and (iii) Tellichery-Cauvery-Eastern Ghat-T3-Hail Hakalula-Naga thrust zone. All these trans-continental faults, which are mega-shear zones, are traceable from western offshore to the northeastern orogenic belts along mega tectonic lineaments across the continent. The neotectonic movements along these faults, their relative motion, and displacement are the architect of the present geomorphic pattern and shape of the Indian craton. The overall compressive stress is responsible for strain build-up within these fault zones and consequent earthquake nucleation. The mid-continental Sonata-Dauki shear zone follows the Central Indian Suture Zone between Bundelkhand Proto Continent (BPC) and Deccan Proto Continent (DPC). With the reactivation of this shear zone, the two proto-cratonic blocks are subjected to relative movement as the plate rotates anticlockwise. The kinematics of these movements and their implications are discussed here with a special reference to the recent 2001 Bhuj earthquake.",book:{id:"11490",title:"Advances in Plate Tectonics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11490.jpg"},signatures:"Sanjib K. Biswas and Gaurav D. Chauhan"},{id:"82525",title:"Perspective Chapter: Daphnia magna as a Potential Indicator of Reservoir Water Quality - Current Status and Perspectives Focused in Ecotoxicological Classes Regarding the Risk Prediction",slug:"perspective-chapter-daphnia-magna-as-a-potential-indicator-of-reservoir-water-quality-current-status",totalDownloads:5,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105768",abstract:"Several types of stressors come into natural water bodies, degrading their quality, and having harmful effects on aquatic biota. As a result, many attempts have been made to develop complementary techniques to those imposed by the Water Framework Directive (WFD) to improve the water quality assessment strategy in a shorter time and be more faithful to the components and contaminants of the ecosystem. Daphnia magna has been extensively used as a model organism for ecotoxicity testing, and its ecotoxicological responses to several disturbance factors have been being well characterized. From this perspective, this work aimed to evaluate the applicability of the feeding bioassays with D. magna, as well as early distress tools (biochemical biomarkers), in the assessment of water quality of natural waters of reservoirs. Samplings were performed in several sites in three Portuguese reservoirs and were conducted in the spring of 2020. Bioassays and biomarkers results showed sensitivity to different reservoirs since the sites are minimally or moderately impacted. Biological responses can be related to several environmental factors, such as surrounding areas, seston composition, and chemical analysis (WFD), among others not quantified. This set of biological responses has presented good concordance with the ecological potential of the reservoirs.",book:{id:"11662",title:"Limnology - The Importance of Monitoring and Correlations of Lentic and Lotic Waters",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11662.jpg"},signatures:"Sara Rodrigues, Ivo Pinto, Sandra Nogueira and Sara C. Antunes"},{id:"82364",title:"Promoting Sustainable Development of Cities Using Urban Legislation In Sub-Saharan Africa",slug:"promoting-sustainable-development-of-cities-using-urban-legislation-in-sub-saharan-africa",totalDownloads:12,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102826",abstract:"African countries have been urged to reform their urban policies, practices and laws in order to turn urban areas such as cities and towns into more effective engines of economic growth and play a central role in economic transformation and national development. This chapter examines how urban legislationpromotes sustainable development cities in Africa. 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