Preoperative characteristics of Group A (standard CPB) and Group B (mini CPB)
\r\n\tAnimal food additives are products used in animal nutrition for purposes of improving the quality of feed or to improve the animal’s performance and health. Other additives can be used to enhance digestibility or even flavour of feed materials. In addition, feed additives are known which improve the quality of compound feed production; consequently e.g. they improve the quality of the granulated mixed diet.
\r\n\r\n\tGenerally feed additives could be divided into five groups:
\r\n\t1.Technological additives which influence the technological aspects of the diet to improve its handling or hygiene characteristics.
\r\n\t2. Sensory additives which improve the palatability of a diet by stimulating appetite, usually through the effect these products have on the flavour or colour.
\r\n\t3. Nutritional additives, such additives are specific nutrient(s) required by the animal for optimal production.
\r\n\t4.Zootechnical additives which improve the nutrient status of the animal, not by providing specific nutrients, but by enabling more efficient use of the nutrients present in the diet, in other words, it increases the efficiency of production.
\r\n\t5. In poultry nutrition: Coccidiostats and Histomonostats which widely used to control intestinal health of poultry through direct effects on the parasitic organism concerned.
\r\n\tThe aim of the book is to present the impact of the most important feed additives on the animal production, to demonstrate their mode of action, to show their effect on intermediate metabolism and heath status of livestock and to suggest how to use the different feed additives in animal nutrition to produce high quality and safety animal origin foodstuffs for human consumer.
",isbn:"978-1-83969-404-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-403-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-405-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8ffe43a82ac48b309abc3632bbf3efd0",bookSignature:"Prof. László Babinszky",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10496.jpg",keywords:"Technological Feed Additives, Feed Industry, Quality of Compound Feed, Non-Antibiotic Growth Promoter, Product Quality, Additive Enzymes, Digestibility of Nutrients, NSP Enzymes, Farm Animals, Livestock, Immunity, Microbiome",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 24th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 22nd 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 20th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 11th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 10th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"4 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Professor Emeritus from the University of Debrecen, Hungary who authored 297 publications (papers, book chapters) and edited 3 books. Member of various committees and chairman of the World Conference of Innovative Animal Nutrition and Feeding (WIANF).",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"53998",title:"Prof.",name:"László",middleName:null,surname:"Babinszky",slug:"laszlo-babinszky",fullName:"László Babinszky",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/53998/images/system/53998.jpg",biography:"László Babinszky is Professor Emeritus of animal nutrition at the University of Debrecen, Hungary. From 1984 to 1985 he worked at the Agricultural University in Wageningen and in the Institute for Livestock Feeding and Nutrition in Lelystad (the Netherlands). He also worked at the Agricultural University of Vienna in the Institute for Animal Breeding and Nutrition (Austria) and in the Oscar Kellner Research Institute in Rostock (Germany). From 1988 to 1992, he worked in the Department of Animal Nutrition (Agricultural University in Wageningen). In 1992 he obtained a PhD degree in animal nutrition from the University of Wageningen.He has authored 297 publications (papers, book chapters). He edited 3 books and 14 international conference proceedings. His total number of citation is 407. \r\nHe is member of various committees e.g.: American Society of Animal Science (ASAS, USA); the editorial board of the Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica, Section A- Animal Science (Norway); KRMIVA, Journal of Animal Nutrition (Croatia), Austin Food Sciences (NJ, USA), E-Cronicon Nutrition (UK), SciTz Nutrition and Food Science (DE, USA), Journal of Medical Chemistry and Toxicology (NJ, USA), Current Research in Food Technology and Nutritional Sciences (USA). From 2015 he has been appointed chairman of World Conference of Innovative Animal Nutrition and Feeding (WIANF).\r\nHis main research areas are related to pig and poultry nutrition: elimination of harmful effects of heat stress by nutrition tools, energy- amino acid metabolism in livestock, relationship between animal nutrition and quality of animal food products (meat).",institutionString:"University of Debrecen",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Debrecen",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Hungary"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"25",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",slug:"veterinary-medicine-and-science"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"185543",firstName:"Maja",lastName:"Bozicevic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185543/images/4748_n.jpeg",email:"maja.b@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7144",title:"Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"75cdacb570e0e6d15a5f6e69640d87c9",slug:"veterinary-anatomy-and-physiology",bookSignature:"Catrin Sian Rutland and Valentina Kubale",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7144.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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Although CPB is successfully used thousands of times each day worldwide it is still associated with some unanswered questions [1].
\nOne of the basic questions that arise with the use of this technology is an adequate blood flow during surgery [1,2]. There are no standards for optimal pump flow during CPB and institutional practices are largely based on empirical experience. Optimal blood flow rate has not been definitively established by large-scale randomized trials carried out on animal models more than fifty years ago and proved by clinical experiences [1,3]. Initial flow is calculated based upon the body surface area and a temperature management strategy. The flow rate most commonly used during hypothermic CPB is 2.2 - 2.4 l.min-1.m-2 and during normothermic CPB 2.5 - 2.8 l.min-1.m-2 [3].
\nDespite progress, cardiopulmonary bypass predominantly used during coronary operations is still associated with profound physiological reactions and changes. In the majority of cases these reactions are caused by contact of blood with artificial material within the system and by other sources such as coronary suction, blood-air contact, non-turbulent flow, hemodilution and hypothermia.
\nA large number of advancements in the technology, equipment and techniques have been introduced to decrease the negative impact of CPB. One of the latest complex innovations is miniaturized CPB (mini CPB). The use of more biocompatible materials and minimization of equipment and internal surface of the system can reduce pathological reactions [4-8].
\nVolume constant perfusion (perfusion without a reservoir) is a major advantage of mini CPB, but it can be associated with significant problems. The calculated blood flow (pump flow) must often be reduced to compensate for the volume in case of lower venous return during perfusion. Other reasons for reduction in pump flow are an increase in arterial pressure and flooding of the operating field with blood.
\nDelivery of oxygen to the tissues is equally dependent on blood flow and the O2 content of blood. Reduction of blood flow can decrease optimal tissue oxygenation. Inadequate oxygenation and perfusion can be associated with severe pathological peripheral tissue changes associated with clinical complications [1,9,10].
\nIt is difficult to assess local changes in perfusion or blood circulation in the periphery. The direct measurement of blood flow through separate organs or skeletal muscles during cardiac surgery is both technically difficult and ethically unacceptable. Evaluation of the standard biochemical and hemodynamic parameters (blood pressure, blood lactate, heart rate, O2 saturation in the capillary bed, diuresis, etc.) yields for general results but not for regional changes [1,3,9].
\nFor this purpose, direct continuous measurement of interstitial tissue oxygen tension (ptO2) of a skeletal muscle, as a typical peripheral tissue, was used in this study. Tissue oxygen tension reflects the adequacy of regional tissue oxygenation and perfusion [11,12].
\nOxygen tension was measured with a special optical multiparametric sensor inserted into the patient´s deltoid muscle. The sensor is based upon the principle of fluorescence quenching whereby the intensity of a fluorescent optical emission form, an indicator, is quenched (reduced) in the presence of oxygen. Oxygen from the surrounding blood equilibrates with the sensor materials and quenches the fluorescent light. This method was introduced into brain and liver perfusion measurement but it has not been used in connection with cardiopulmonary bypass until now.
\nThe present study was designed to evaluate changes in peripheral tissue (skeletal muscle) oxygenation during cardiac surgery and to compare tissue perfusion in relation to blood flow during standard CPB versus mini CPB.
\nThe study was carried out at the Department of Cardiac Surgery, University Hospital and Faculty of Medicine in Hradec Kralove, Charles University in Prague, Czech Republic. The study was approved by the university Ethics Committee. Patients were given a prior detailed explanation of the study and signed an informed consent.
\nThe sample included 40 patients with ischemic heart disease (32 men and 8 women). All patients underwent elective cardiac surgery. The exclusion criteria were concomitant surgery, an emergency procedure, patients with local, systemic infection or inflammation, severe left ventricular dysfunction (ejection fraction < 25%), renal failure (serum creatinine >180 μmol l-1 or active renal replacement therapy).
\nThe patients were randomized to two groups. Group A, consisting of 20 patients who underwent the conventional myocardial revascularization, coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) using standard CPB and Group B, consisting of 20 patients who underwent coronary surgery using miniaturized CPB (Figure 1).
\nCoronary artery bypass grafting using cardiopulmonary bypass
Patient preoperative characteristics (Table 1), operative (Table 2) and postoperative data (Table 3) were prospectively recorded. The differences between groups (age, accompanying disease) were not statistically significant (Table 1). All routine therapeutic and monitoring steps commonly used with this diagnosis were performed. After clinical and angiographic evaluation the patients were randomly assigned to the study (n = 40).
\n\n | \n \n | \n \n \n | \n \n | \n
\n | \n 17 (85%) | \n15 (75%) | \nn.s. | \n
\n | \n 69 ± 5.8 | \n67 ± 6.8 | \nn.s. | \n
\n | \n 29 ± 4.9 | \n28 ± 4.3 | \nn.s. | \n
\n | \n 57.8 ± 9.8 | \n56.2 ±12.7 | \nn.s. | \n
\n | \n 12 | \n12 | \nn.s. | \n
\n | \n 4 | \n4 | \nn.s. | \n
\n | \n 18 | \n18 | \nn.s. | \n
\n | \n 7 | \n6 | \nn.s. | \n
\n | \n 3 | \n2 | \nn.s. | \n
\n | \n 5.2 ± 4.7 (1.4-15.1) | \n4.6 ± 3.5 (0.9-15.6) | \nn.s. | \n
Preoperative characteristics of Group A (standard CPB) and Group B (mini CPB)
\n | \n \n | \n \n \n | \n \n | \n
\n | \n 254 ± 21.7 | \n247 ± 58.1 | \nn.s. | \n
\n | \n 87.4 ± 21.7 | \n75.7 ± 20.9 | \nn.s. | \n
\n | \n 48.9 ± 14.5 | \n45.4 ± 14.8 | \nn.s. | \n
\n | \n 2.9 ± 0.8 | \n2.7 ± 0.7 | \nn.s. | \n
\n | \n 4.7 ± 0.39 | \n4.6 ± 0.45 | \nn.s. | \n
\n | \n 4.9 ± 0.41 | \n3.5 ± 0.51 | \n<0,001 | \n
\n | \n 1501 ± 44 | \n837 ± 205 | \n<0,001 | \n
\n | \n 25.3 ± 1.1 | \n31.0 ± 2.3 | \n<0,001 | \n
\n | \n 35.5 ± 0.4 | \n35.7 ± 0.7 | \nn.s. | \n
Operative characteristics of Group A (standard CPB) and Group B (mini CPB)
\n | \n \n | \n \n \n | \n \n | \n
\n | \n 0 | \n0 | \nn.s. | \n
\n | \n 1 | \n0 | \nn.s. | \n
\n | \n 6 | \n2 | \n<0,001 | \n
\n | \n 0 | \n0 | \nn.s. | \n
\n | \n 2 | \n1 | \nn.s. | \n
\n | \n 0 | \n0 | \nn.s. | \n
\n | \n 685 ± 342 | \n861 ± 552 | \nn.s.(0.57) | \n
\n | \n 2.5 ± 1.4 | \n2.7 ± 1.2 | \nn.s. | \n
\n | \n 70 ± 68 | \n112 ± 225 | \nn.s. | \n
\n | \n 16.4 ± 6.8 | \n16.2 ± 5.4 | \nn.s. | \n
Postoperative characteristics of Group A (standard CPB) and Group B (mini CPB)
The anesthetic managements, CPB and surgical procedures were standardized in both groups. Anesthesia was induced with intravenous thiopenthal or midazolam and sufentanyl with muscle relaxation using cisatracurium. Anesthesia was maintained by an infusion of cisatracurium, sufentanyl and propofol at doses sufficient to keep the patient adequately anesthetized and hemodynamically stable. Isoflurane was added in the inhaled air. Antibiotic prophylaxis was given in accordance with the standard protocol (Unasyn, Pfizer, Italy; 3x1.5 g). In all cases the surgical approach was through median sternotomy.
\nCardiopulmonary bypass was established by standard aortic cannulation and two-stage venous cannulation of the right atrium. Antegrade cold blood cardioplegia (blood and St. Thomas´ solution in a ratio of 4:1) and topical cooling for the arrested heart and myocardial protection were employed. Anticoagulation was induced before CBP with heparin (2.5 mg+kg-1), and the activated clotting time (ACT over 480 seconds) was monitored. Heparin was neutralized with protamin in a 1:1 ratio.
\nThe extracorporeal circuit consisted of a hollow fiber membrane oxygenator (PrimO2x, Sorin Group, Italy) and roller pump with a non-pulsatile flow (Stockert S3, Sorin Group, Germany) in an open modification with 40.0 μm arterial line filter (Dideco Micro 40R, Mirandola, Italy). The oxygenator and tubing system were primed with a mixture of crystalloid (Hartmann´s solution), colloids (Voluven), 10% Mannitol solution, 8.4% sodium bicarbonate, magnesiumsulphur solution, 5.000 IU of heparin. The CPB involved normothermia and calculated blood flow 2.4 - 2.8 l.m-2. Mean arterial pressure during CPB was maintained at 50 to 75 mmHg and hematocrit above 0.22%. The acid base status was maintained using the alpha-stat perfusion strategy (Figure 2).
\nStandard cardiopulmonary bypass equipment
Miniaturized CPB was established using aortic cannulation and a two-stage venous cannulation of the right atrium. A fully integrated minisystem (Synergy SorinR, Sorin Group, Italy) consisted of a centrifugal pump, membrane oxygenator, 40.0 μm arterial line filter and a venous bubbletrap. Cardiotomy suction and vents were not used. The whole system was a closed loop with the internal surface treated with a phosphorylcholin coat
\n(PH.I.S.I.O, Sorin Group, Italy) and very short tubing. The priming solution, heparinization, calculated blood flow, temperature and surgery technique were identical to the standard CPB (Group A). While initiating CPB, crystalloid priming was retrogradely flushed with blood from the arterial line to minimize hemodilution (retrograde autologus priming). Protection of the myocardium during surgery (blood cardioplegia and topical cooling) was the same as in Group A (Figure 3, 4).
\nMiniaturized integrated CPB system (Synergy Sorin, Sorin Group, Italy)
Before the surgical procedure, at the time of anesthesia introduction, the optical multiparametric sensor (NeuroventR PTO, Raumedic AG, Germany) (Figure 5) was inserted under sterile conditions into the right deltoid muscle without the use of local anesthesia (Figure 6). Continuous measurement of interstitial tissue oxygen tension (ptO2) was made during the surgical procedure and postoperatively by a special monitoring system (DataloggerR MPR2 logO, Raumedic AG, Germany) (Figure 7,8).
\nMiniaturized integrated CPB system (Synergy Sorin, Sorin Group, Italy) during surgery
Multiparametric sensor Neurovent® PTO (Raumedic AG, Germany)
Sensor inserted into the right deltoid muscle
Analyzer Dattaloger® MPR2 logO (Raumedic AG, Germany)
Analyzer Dattaloger® MPR2 logO (Raumedic AG, Germany) during CPB
Arterial blood pressure, blood flow during CPB, laboratory markers of tissue perfusion, blood gases and body temperature were recorded and analyzed as well.
\nData from the oxymetric catheter in all patients were compared at the following time intervals: 1) 30 min after incision, 2) 15 min before CPB, 3) CPB, 4,5,6- at 20 min intervals during CPB, 7) end of crossclamp, 8) 15 min. after release of crossclamp, 9) end of CPB, 10) 15 min after termination of CPB, 11) end of surgery, 12,13,14- at 1 h intervals in the I.C.U.
\nDemographic and perioperative data are reported as number, means ± standard deviation (S.D.) or median. Comparisons between preoperative characteristics and perioperative data were made using the Student´s
The data were analyzed using the programs NCSS 2004 and Statistica. Differences were considered statistically significant at the level of
40 patients (32 men, 8 women) were included in the study. The mean age ± S.D. was 69 ± 5.8 years in Group A and 67 ± 6.8 years in Group B. Preoperative patient characteristics are presented in Table 1. There were no statistical significant differences in preoperative characteristics between the groups.
\nOperative data are listed in Table 2. The groups were comparable for these parameters.
\nStatistically significant differences were found when groups were compared in regard to the use of a lesser priming volume in mini CPB as one of its main advantages in comparison with standard CPB (1501 ± 44 ml in Group A vs. 837 ± 205 ml in Group B). It was also associated with a lower drop in hematocrit level during CPB (25.3 ± 1.1% in Group A and 31.0 ± 2.3% in Group B). The immediate postoperative values of hematocrit (ICU admission) were not significantly different.
\nAnalysis of the data during CPB showed differences betweens groups.
\nThe main difference was a lower real blood flow during CPB in Group B (3.5 ± 0.51 l.min-1) vs. calculated flow (4.6 ± 0.45 l.min-1) than real flow in Group A (4.9 ± 0.41 l.min-1) vs. calculated flow (4.7 ± 0.39 l.min-1) (Table 2).
\nThere was a direct correlation between mean arterial pressure (MAP) and ptO2 in Group A during CPB (↓MAP ≈ ↓ ptO2). Pumped blood flow was continuously maintained at the same calculated level. A decrease in ptO2 levels without correlation to MAP was found during surgery after CPB (Figure 9).
\nOn the other hand, a direct correlation between pumped blood flow and MAP (↓flow ≈↓MAP) was found during CPB in Group B. The value of ptO2 was continuously higher and independent at this time. A decrease in ptO2 levels without correlation to MAP was found during surgery after CPB as in Group A (Figure 10).
\nLower levels of ptO2 without correlation to MAP were analysed postoperatively in both groups and we observed a trend towards a reduced ptO2 during the first hours after admission to the intensive care unit (Figure 9,10).
\n\n
Changes of ptO2 at this time compared with initial level are shown in Figure 11.
\nHigher levels of ptO2 during and after CPB in comparison with initial levels were observed in Group B. A decrease in ptO2 levels after surgery was found in both groups.
\nChanges in flow (%) in time compared to calculated flow are shown in Figure 12.
\nA higher blood flow during perfusion was analysed in Group A and lower than calculated blood flow was found in Group B.
\n\n
Changes of ptO2 compared to initial levels (%)(Group A- green line, Group B- blue line. Intervals: 1- 30 min. after incision, 2- 15 min. before CPB, 3- CPB, 4,5,6- à 20 min. of CPB, 7- end of crossclamp, 8- after 15 min., 9- end of CPB, 10-after 15 min., 11- end of surgery, 12,13,14- à 1 h. I.C.U.)
Changes in blood flow (%) during perfusion compared to calculated flow (Group A- green line, Group B- blue line. Intervals: 1- CPB, 2,3,4- à 20 min. of CPB, 5-end of crossclamp, 6- after 15 min.)
We also observed a lower muscle oxygen (ptO2) tension than in arterial blood during the whole operation in both groups.
\nPeri-operative biochemical parameters of perfusion (arterial blood gas variables) are shown in Table 4. There were no statistically significant differences.
\n\n | \n \n | \n \n \n | \n \n | \n
\n | \n \n | \n | \n |
\n | \n 7.41 ± 0,06 | \n7.42 ± 0,04 | \nn.s. | \n
\n | \n 7.42 ± 0,07 | \n7.41 ± 0,03 | \nn.s. | \n
\n | \n 7.39 ± 0,03 | \n7.37± 0,04 | \nn.s. | \n
\n | \n \n | \n | \n |
\n | \n 142 ± 81 | \n182 ± 72 | \nn.s. | \n
\n | \n 171± 31 | \n191 ± 31 | \nn.s. | \n
\n | \n 191 ± 71 | \n189 ± 48 | \nn.s. | \n
\n | \n \n | \n | \n |
\n | \n 35 ± 3 | \n37 ± 4 | \nn.s. | \n
\n | \n 38 ± 6 | \n39 ± 3 | \nn.s. | \n
\n | \n 39 ± 5 | \n37 ± 7 | \nn.s. | \n
\n | \n \n | \n | \n |
\n | \n - 0.53 ± 1.72 | \n- 0.54 ± 1.34 | \nn.s. | \n
\n | \n 0.45 ± 1.91 | \n0.29 ± 1.72 | \nn.s. | \n
\n | \n - 1.39 ± 1.8 | \n- 0.40 ± 1.4 | \nn.s. | \n
\n | \n 259 ± 34 | \n256 ± 39 | \nn.s. | \n
Laboratory characteristics of perfusion (arterial blood gases)
There were no significant differences in postoperative levels of lactate and arterial blood gas variables between groups (Table 5).
\n\n | \n \n | \n \n \n | \n \n | \n
\n | \n \n | \n | \n |
\n | \n 7,45 ± 0,03 | \n7,46 ± 0,06 | \nn.s. | \n
\n | \n 7,37 ± 0,05 | \n7,43 ± 0,03 | \nn.s. | \n
\n | \n 7,40 ± 0,07 | \n7,39 ± 0,05 | \nn.s. | \n
\n | \n \n | \n | \n |
\n | \n 98 ± 48 | \n97 ± 60 | \nn.s. | \n
\n | \n 171 ± 25.9 | \n170 ± 50 | \nn.s. | \n
\n | \n 135 ± 39 | \n141 ± 28 | \nn.s. | \n
\n | \n \n | \n | \n |
\n | \n 30 ± 5 | \n32 ± 4 | \nn.s. | \n
\n | \n 35 ± 4 | \n39 ± 6 | \nn.s. | \n
\n | \n 36 ± 5 | \n35 ± 4 | \nn.s. | \n
\n | \n \n | \n | \n |
\n | \n - 2.93 ± 2.34 | \n- 3.28 ± 2.31 | \nn.s. | \n
\n | \n - 1.8 ± 1,71 | \n- 2.16 ± 2.0 | \nn.s. | \n
\n | \n - 2.61 ± 1.83 | \n- 3.15± 1.91 | \nn.s. | \n
\n | \n \n | \n | \n |
\n | \n 1.9 ± 0.7 | \n2.1 ± 1.3 | \nn.s. | \n
\n | \n 1.8 ± 0.5 | \n2.4 ± 1.7 | \nn.s. | \n
\n | \n 2.1± 0.9 | \n2.3 ± 0.8 | \nn.s. | \n
Postoperative laboratory characteristics of perfusion (arterial blood gases, lactate)
No death, acute renal failure, or stroke occured during the postoperative course either group. The only differences were postoperative atrial fibrillation (6 in Group A, 2 in Group B) (Table 3).
\nThere were no cases of local complications at the site of inserted sensors, and there were no signs of general infection or sepsis in either group.
\nThe technology of miniinvasive systems has been in development since the beginning of the 1990s.
\nThe benefits of using miniinvasive systems have been clearly proven in many publications. Studies show that the use of miniinvasive systems result in a decrease in quantity of administered blood derivatives, a decrease in blood loss, lower incidence of postoperative neurologic complications, a shorter stay in the ICU, period of artificial ventilation and total hospital stay [4-8].
\nOn the other hand some studies do not entirely confirm the positive clinical effect of using minisystems [13], even though the laboratory tests of these studies lean towards miniinvasive systems compared to standard CPB.
\nOne discussed question while using CPB is the constant value of blood flow during the operation [1,2]. Preoperative calculated value of optimal blood flow using mini CPB is the same as standard CPB.
\nNevertheless adequate and optimal blood flow during CPB is still an important question. There are no standards for optimal pump flow during CPB. Initial flow is calculated on the basis of body surface area and a temperature management strategy. The calculated blood flow often has to be decreased during perfusion using mini CPB.
\nThe reason for the necessary decrease in pumped blood flow is the increase in arterial blood pressure during the operation most likely as a result of increased blood in the vascular bed (an absence of a CPB reservoir).
\nAnother reason for decreased flow could be the flooding of the operating field during worsened venous return.
\nDecreased venous return could be another reason. The flow of a centrifugal pump during mini CPB is fully dependent upon adequate venous return with resultant filling of the venous bed of the patient.
\nIn an effort to achieve the calculated blood flow the centrifugal rotational velocity is increased resulting in increased suction pressure within the venous part of the system and thus suction of the artifact with the venous cannulas. The ability to control flow via a cardiotomy reservoir is missed in this case. A possible solution is an increase of blood in the body (patient´s body position in space, application of vasopressors, filling of the circulatory system) or decreasing blood flow in the system. The “antitrendelenburg” position (head up), during which the filling of the lower half of the body is partly increased and consequently an increased venous flow (return), is of some advantage. Further, in this position the heart chambers are adequately emptied. The trendelenburg position described in the literature as a means to increase venous return has typically no effect when mini CPB is applied. In the case of a closed system the patient´s own body is the reservoir.
\nIt is necessary during the procedure to have a coordinated approach between the surgeon, anesthesiologist and perfusionist.
\nDuring an acute case of a decrease in the pumped blood flow, in the presence of an impaired venous return, filling was supplemented by blood collected in a collapsible bag at the beginning of the operation. To restore satisfactory parameters usually a sufficient volume of less than 100ml was required.
\nThe perfusion pressure in both groups was maintained at levels between 50-70 mmHg [1,3,9,10]. In the case of mini CPB this did not fall below 50 mmHg while on the other hand there was a tendency for higher levels of pressure.
\nDifferent results in comparison with both groups after analysis of ptO2, MAP and blood flow during CPB and postoperative course were found to our greatest surprise.
\nA direct correlation between mean arterial pressure (MAP) and ptO2 was observed in Group A during CPB. Pumped blood flow was continuously maintained at the same calculated level. On the other hand, direct correlation between pumped blood flow and MAP was found during mini CPB in Group B. The value of ptO2 was continuous, higher and independent at this time.
\nSo far, we have no clear explanation for these differences in both groups. The main reason could most likely be due to differences in the amount of circulating blood volume, the possibility of using a cardiotomy reservoir, and the subsequent need to use catecholamines during perfusion.
\nA decrease in the ptO2 levels not correlated with MAP were analysed during CPB, after CPB and in the postoperative course in both groups. This is the most likely cause of decreased circulatory volume resulting in the use of vasopressors (catecholamines). A decrease in body temperature during this phase of the operation leading to peripheral vasoconstriction can also contribute equally to this phenomenon.
\nThe lower level of acquired hemodilution (higher hematocrit) during the operation, determined by a lower filling volume and retrograde autologous priming are major advantages of using perfusion by mini CPB.
\nSupply of oxygen to the tissues during reduced flow of the bypass machine is therefore safe in the case of an increased hematocrit. In the mini CPB group, only 2/3 of the priming fluid was used as opposed to classical CPB and another 1/3 of this fluid was replaced by the patient\'s blood using retrograde autologous priming. The hematocrit provides sufficient capacity to supply oxygen in normothermia. A combination of decreased primary filling and a shortened tubing system resulted in an increased hematocrit and concentration of hemoglobin as expected in Group B (mini CPB).
\nIn our study a closed integrated system coated with phosphorylcholine was used. The tubing system was shortened to a minimum, by placing it as close as possible to the patient, to minimalize priming. The system used allowed for partial back-flow of the patient´s own blood (retrograde autologous priming). Coronary suction was not used and neither was a venous reservoir. No cell saver device was used.
\nThere were no technical perfusion linked complications.
\nIn comparison to the perfusion parameters of both groups there were no differences during surgery. The monitored values of arterial blood gases were comparable and showed optimal perfusion management in both groups. Likewise, the values in both groups were comparable in the early postoperative course.
\nNo death, acute renal failure, or stroke occurred in the postoperative course of either group. The only difference noted was in the incidence of postoperative atrial fibrillation with group B (mini CPB) showing better results. This study was limited by a small number of patients.
\nIn a comparison of monitored parameters of the clinical course we can suggest that lower values of blood flow during perfusion in group B (mini CPB) were sufficient and had no negative impact in the postoperative course.
\nTolerance to decreased flow in mini CPB, with maintained sufficient blood pressure, is in our opinion due to a higher hematocrit. Decrease in volume of priming fluid together with technique of RAP ensures a decreased perioperative hemodilution and thus an increase in blood oxygen carrying capacity.
\nAnother improtant postive aspect of using mini CPB is also a decrease in microcirculatory dysfunction. The system design (closed loop, biocompatible surface area, centrifugal pump, and elimination of cardiotomy suction) and decreased contact with artificial surfaces (shortened tubing system and absence of cardiotomy reservoir) during lower flow decreases the negative impact on the organism. A lower intensity in the inflammatory reaction results in a decreased dysfunction of the endothelium and subsequent malperfusion. To verify this impact of the minisystem on the microcirulation it is necessary to perform further studies.
\nA miniaturized system of CPB enables perfusion with relatively low flow and in normothermic conditions. Monitoring perfusion of skeletal muscle during the operation and our experience shows that it is a safe method of perfusion.
\nOur work experience and the results of this pilot study suggest that a flow decrease in mini CPB is well tolerated by the organism.
\nThe chapter was supported by PRVOUK P 37/04/440.
\nThe goal of Industry 4.0 is
Irish industry is currently poised for the transition from conventional automation of Industry 3.0 (I3) to the Cyber Physical Systems (CPS) of Industry 4.0 (I4). What will the transition look like? Where are the tools to manage the transition? In the absence of any definitive
Creating the
For tangible business benefit is to be derived from these processes and tools they must be rapidly disseminated to practitioners. This work proposes that there is a requirement to supplement the existing education function of discipline centric qualifications with Topic centric competencies which enable the Trans-Topic collaboration necessary for the creation of novel technical solutions to the emerging Industry 4.0 business problems. This requires a supplementary educational organization, E-Cubers, which consists of a constellation of Communities of Practice (CoPs) organized around topics which are designed to facilitate collaboration and creativity for the advancement of each members individual competencies to support the achievement of I4 Equipment Engineering Excellence.
A detailed explanation is provided of how E-Cubers have utilized LEGO® TECHNIC, LEGO® MINDSTORMS and LEGO® GBC as equipment kits to deliver the Overall Equipment Effectiveness (OEE) centric BUILD, PROGRAM and INVENT methods. A detailed evaluation of Resnick’s Four Ps leads to the definition of E-Cubers Eight Ps as:
But the work does not stop there. By creating
DigitALIZAtion which Gartner [2] defines as
The Free Model (Google, Facebook), is an excellent example of a disruptive digital business model. It disrupts the market with an
The ALIZA Canvas in isolation is not sufficient for the management of this transition. It explains the
The methodology utilized to design the above stated ALIZA canvas, process and tools and their application to I4 Manufacturing sector is outlined detail over the following sections.
The Eisenhower Decision Principle (EDP) has been popularized by Covey [4] in the creation of a
The ALIZA canvas and procedure for population.
The compact format of The ALIZA Canvas empowers the Business Stakeholder to rapidly communicate
When
The ALIZA process explained.
The VDMA represents more than 3200 mostly medium-sized Companies in the capital goods industry in Germany, making it the largest Industry Association in Europe. The VDMA have produced guiding principles for the implementation of Industry 4.0 in small and medium sized businesses by utilizing
Even though this work identified the requirement for an I4-VS scorecard this work did not focus on its creation. The definition of value for a Business is a specialized domain well outside the scope of this research. Generic tools such as the McKinsey Digital Compass which maps the Industry 4.0 levers to the key value drivers [6] are freely available. Each company’s definition of value will almost certainly be quite different and confidential thus it very unlikely that it will be possible to provide a generic I4-VS scorecard. Based on this assumption, each organization should define its own specific I4-VS scorecard.
On first impressions it appeared that the VDMA’s
An in-depth review of leading assembly and packaging equipment Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs) revealed a common denominator;
With an Industry 3.0 EPP, the mechanical discipline typically drives the process. The Information Technology (IT) and Information Systems (IS) infrastructure are not installed, simulated or tested at the OEM’s premises, thus it is not possible to test many of the critical functions at Functional Acceptance Test (FAT). This results in an undesirable situation whereby many equipment defects only become apparent after the equipment is in production. Such defects are extremely expensive, and sometimes impossible, to rectify when the equipment is in production, where limited OEM support is available. These defects undoubtedly have a significant negative impact on OEE and regulatory compliance during production. This EPP is undesirable for any equipment type but it totally unsuitable for Type 3 and Type 4 and thus cannot be utilized for Industry 4.0 Equipment.
Industry 4.0 has enabled significant advances in Industrial IT, Internet based collaborative technologies and cloud computing. These advances have all but eliminated the historical infrastructural constraints which I3-EPPs were exposed to, because it is now technically possible to simulate virtually any IT or IS, in the form of an I4 Infrastructure, at the OEM’s site. The provision of an Industry 4.0 infrastructure for the FAT does not, in isolation, address all the issues which have been identified during this research. The unacceptable level of software defects which exist in
The Industry 4.0 equipment procurement process (I4-EPP).
The increased complexity of Equipment Types 3 and 4 require the Concurrent Engineering approach inherent in the System Engineering process [12] to minimize costly mistakes late in the EPP. In the same way that products must be
By applying Quality Function Deployment (QFD) [14], to the I4-EPP this study established both the high level and detailed functional requirements required to deliver the customer requirements of data driven acceptance test, excellent regulatory compliance, high OEE in production, and a fast OEE ramp. The House of Quality (HoQ) structure at the core of QFD is widely accepted by product designers, but it is a complex format and requires considerable effort to achieve an acceptable level of familiarity. This study did not consider the HoQ a suitable method of communicating the status of requirements with the various disciplines of an I4-EPP team. This study created an optimized format by taking the outputs of the QFD process and grouping the design requirements by department as follows:
DIVOM provides each Department with the ability to focus on the relevant design requirements of the equipment from their departmental perspective by enabling the definition of clear boundaries of responsibility but simultaneously maintaining a concurrent, cross Department focus on the complete design requirements and I4-EPP objectives.
The design of the I4-PS and I4-ES scorecards are appealing to users because they do not; (1) have too many choices, (2) require too much thought or (3) suffer from lack of clarity. These three factors are extremely important because they all increase
An analysis of the OEE metric concludes that the
This formula for the OSE proposes that the Design of the I4-EPP is the enabler for achieving the highest level of OSE and as such must have the single biggest influence. Each of the other metrics are of equal importance but will have less overall impact than the Design metric. This research is not suggesting that such a simplistic formula is capable of accurately representing every situation and it will undoubtedly require future refinement. But in its current format it leverages the lessons learned from OEE and is sufficient to provide a quantifiable benchmark metric which is fit for purpose.
A hierarchical structure and an executable application (The OSE Calculator) were developed to support the DIVOM process. The OSE Rating is at the top of the hierarchy. It is composed of five metrics (D, I, V, O and M) each with three components consisting of 10 Attributes. Attributes are composed of a variable number of requirements which are omitted from The OSE Calculator application to minimize the cognitive load on participants. It is important to note that omitting the requirements significantly increase the dependence on the facilitator.
The 10-Attribute scale is organized in order of achievement with 00 being worst to 10 being best in class. This approach has been utilized to expedite user comprehension of the measurement process. The clarity of the Attributes is further augmented by adoption of the standard color coding convention of green = low risk, orange = medium risk, red = high risk and displaying the rating graphically (see Figure 4).
Design of the OSE calculator.
A three-step process was utilized with The OSE Calculator to score the metrics for the calculation of the OSE Rating; (1) Specify the
Designing The OSE Rating and The Calculator in this fashion significantly increased the potential of conveying a large amount of specialized requirements to a general audience in an extremely short time period and providing five key metrics and an overall KPI to enable a Six Sigma approach to the EPP.
Even though the 5, 3, 10 formats of Metric, Component and Attribute creates a uniformity to reduce the cognitive load it introduces a constraint which although not immediately apparent may be problematic in some situations. The constraint is that the Attributes in The OSE Calculator may not be applicable in every situation, thus there is a requirement for the facilitator to state this as they navigate through the process. Another observation was that the participants frequently wanted to “score high”. When these two items are combined they frequently attempt to utilize various justifications to claim that critical Attributes are not applicable to them. In this scenario strong leadership skills by the Facilitator are required.
The experiments outlined in the following sections were conducted to validate that
Regarding
But the
An experiment was designed to validate the accuracy of these scorecards. The objective was to determine if they were
But all is not lost. A detailed review with the students revealed that they had significantly different interpretations of the iconography, the words simply were not descriptive enough and open to interpretation (e.g. What does”
The first stage of the validation of The OSE Calculator and DIVOM Method focused on four industrial EPPs from 2012 to 2016. During these EPPs the researcher performed a DIVOM assessment and facilitated OSE Optimization sessions which evaluated how useful the participants found the overall tools and process. Informal interview and data capture techniques were utilized throughout these sessions.
The case studies clearly demonstrated that DIVOM benchmarking process achieved its
Most specialists, observed during these case studies, were unwilling to gain an understating of an Attribute which they felt was not part of their primary discipline. It appears they were intimidated by having to admit that they needed to learn about these Attributes. They were
The second stage of the validation of OSE Calculator and DIVOM Method focused on the 2016 and 2017 MEng in Mechatronics at the University of Limerick. The objective during this stage was to determine if the
The same academic format was utilized in the 2016 and 2017 classes. The students were not given access to The OSE Calculator at the outset. They were provided with the Attributes grouped by Component and Metric in a Microsoft Excel Workbook. The 2017 students were provided with a Microsoft Word Document containing explicit requirements for each Attribute at the start of the year, while the 2016 students were not provided with the explicit requirements. In the first semester the theory behind the DIVOM Metrics, Components and Attributes were explained and the students were mentored as groups to perform a DIVOM assessment on the group EPP. In the second semester they worked individually to complete the design of their solution as part of the group EPP, while in the third semester they executed the group EPP. At the end of each semester every student was requested to estimate their % understanding of each Attribute, based on the explanation that this would help to focus future lectures where the gaps in understanding existed (to mitigate the risk of students over estimating their % understanding in the hope of obtaining a higher academic grade).
All students, despite some having quite significant Industrial experience, estimated their initial understanding at close to 0%. At the end of the first semester students with access to the explicit requirements (2017) claimed to have an average of 55% understanding while those without (2016) had only 29% understanding. By the end of the second semester this gap virtually disappeared (67% for 2016 and 68% for 2017) while at the end of the third semester the 2016 group had achieved a very high 78% (2017 not finished at time of publication).
The sample size of eleven completed workbooks is too small to draw definitive conclusions from, but they are adequate to provide early indications and direct further work. Even though the DIVOM Attributes may provide an ideal framework for an expert they are extremely intimidating
If the detailed requirements were provided as pre-reading to the attendees of an OSE Optimization workshop it may enable them to inform themselves prior to the workshop and minimize the intimidation factor. Because these requirements are at the lower levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy [24] they could easily be tested with tools such as Moodle quizzes and the student provided with a novice level certification prior to attendance. This has the potential to create a process which transcends discipline and the collaboration issues which they cause. In this scenario the
This stage of the research clearly highlights that if true understanding of the Attributes is required a significant amount of time must be invested (second and third semester) to achieve the 70-20-10 rule model [25] for learning. The dialog between a tutor and student, involving several of the common alternatives is also required to produce significantly more understanding [26] than a simplistic exposition of the correct information [27]. But that is only to be expected on the journey from Novice to Expert [28].
Regarding
The ALIZA Canvas, Process and Tools for I4 Manufacturing Equipment represents a significant output of this work, but an educational mechanism is required to rapidly disseminate these tools and methods to derive tangible benefit of industry. This section explores conventional academic educational structures and concludes that an additional, complimentary, structure for
Designing and implementing a constellation of CoPs is not trivial matter. In fact, it is fraught with difficulty, but the benefits can be enormous [29]. E-Cubers are only at the start of this exciting journey of exploring how the CoPs can be organized to be truly effective Knowledge Management Systems promoting effective and productive collaboration in the Industry 4.0 Equipment domain. It should not be assumed that CoPs in isolation can guarantee the creativity required for the invention of novel solutions in Industry 4.0. But what is creativity? How can it be nurtured? By examining the applicability of Resnick’s Four Ps [30] for cultivating creativity, in the general sense, and refining it to the E-Cubers specific requirements this work has defined the E-Cubers Eight Ps for cultivating creativity.
An essential first step in designing the E-Cubers constellation of CoPs is to determine the unit of organization for each CoP. An initial reaction may be to organize by discipline or subject and adopt one of the emerging trends such as antidisciplinary collaboration [31] (more frequently referred to as Trans-Disciplinary). Unfortunately, during the execution of the DIVOM case studies this work found that the term discipline, regardless of the pre-fix, can be counterproductive for an organization such as E-Cubers. Disciplines are defined as
Wenger [29] explains that at the core of CoP there must be a shared domain which creates a sense of accountability to a body of knowledge and therefore to the development of a Practice. It is not an abstract area of interest but consists of key issues or problems that members commonly experience. It is not merely a passing issue, which can be addressed by a temporary task force. It concerns complex and long-standing issues that require sustained learning over an extended period. It is essentially a
By limiting each E-Cubers CoP to a clearly defined topic it becomes possible to define the internal structure of a CoP around the five levels of competency, namely
The E-Cubers Topic Collaboration Spectrum.
This Trans-Topic collaboration approach has the potential to create an extremely powerful evolutionary knowledge management model. Even though it is not applicable to every Topic, the rate of creation of these knowledge assets can be drastically accelerated for many Topics by organizing CoP domains around technology provider vendor Topics and leveraging their resources. This practice has gained wide acceptance in the IT domain with large technology providers such as CISCO and Microsoft’s certified courses being taught by conventional academic institutions. There is no reason why this approach cannot be replicated throughout the E-Cubers constellation of CoPs.
E-Cubers will utilize Office 365 for Education to manage its constellation of CoPs. This means that E-Cubers can collaborate regardless of location and organization boundaries. The correct utilization of SharePoint’s CoP site templates enables a Topic-centric Knowledge Management System (KMS), which is of significantly more value for E-Cubers objectives than the discipline centric Learning Management Systems (LMS) frequently utilized by Academic Institutions. This approach facilitates a transition from the existing function of
Sir Ken Robinson, in his TED Talks on creativity outlines the importance of risk taking. He outlines that
At school, students are taught that they must do their own work. If they leverage the work of others it is frequently seen as cheating. This is in direct conflict with the methodologies of CoPs, the open source community, creative commons and indeed general industrial practice. E-Cubers will follow in the footsteps of MIT Media Labs who despite frequent lobbying, provides an extremely strong stance of utilizing the Creative Commons License to support the concept of sharing what has already been achieved by using the remix function in MIT’s Scratch environment [30]. E-Cubers will also apply the Creative Commons License to its work and utilize the everyday creativity of
Resnick [30] 4Ps methodology of
Resnick [30] outlines his surprise that the Danish language unlike English has two words to distinguish between the different types of play (
I4 Equipment requires a digital twin with a representation in both the cyber and physical worlds. The cyber world is a novelty and is currently achieving enormous focus. So much so that the physical world is being somewhat neglected. If E-Cubers are to implement I4 Equipment solutions it is critical that they understand both the physical and the cyber worlds. They need to start young. The younger the better. To assist this engagement E-Cubers has created a progression sequence consisting of three distinct stages;
The
At the core of the OEE optimization process is the root-cause analysis of incidents to identify
To conclude, by evaluating and expanding Resnick’s Four Ps, this work defines the E-Cubers Eight Ps:
These
The Irish education system is made up of primary, secondary and third-level education. If E-Cubers is to successfully cater for the requirements of Industry 4.0 over the long term it will need to have solutions which appeal to all three of these levels. This is a significant challenge. The promotion of a culture of collaboration and creativity across all three levels of an education system to support an emerging career has simply not been done before. The following sections outline what was discovered by applying E-Cubers at each education level.
Several E-Cubers
A very small minority of students were clearly
Even though the E-Cubers
Secondary Level (or post-primary) education consists of a three-year Junior Cycle (lower secondary), followed by a three-year Senior Cycle (upper secondary), if they take the optional Transition Year (TY). The TY is a critical decision point for young students as they decide on which potential career path to take. E-Cubers designed and implemented a week-long TY-PBWS (Project Based Work Simulation) program with the objective of introducing students to the Equipment Procurement Process (EPP) and outlining the different engineering roles within the equipment engineering team structure.
The TY-PBWS was provided to Coola (mixed-gender), Summerhill College (all-boys) and The Mercy College (all-girls) schools in 2014 and 2015 thus any gender imbalance should be negligible. During the TY-PBWS the students were organized in teams and assigned engineering roles. They had to
The BEng (Honors) is at the cornerstone of the Third Level engineering education system. It typically takes 4 years to complete and results in a Level 8 award in the National Framework of Qualifications (NFQ). Following on from the success of the TY-PBWS, E-Cubers designed a 3-week-long BEng-PBWS and conducted at the IT Sligo, in July 2014. The BEng PBWS was focused on both the
During the BEng-PBWS, each student was made responsible for the software modules which fell within their individual scope. This resulted in clearly defined deliverables being achieved with the students demonstrating an ability to analyze, evaluate and create [24] solutions. The complete team were responsible for the required integration testing which was scheduled to be completed in the third week. This enabled the mentor to accurately simulate the work environment. The team members were provided with time limited targets which they had to achieve, while being held responsible for a clearly defined role. All the students stated that they found the BEng-PBWS workshop format much more interesting, and that they learned significantly more than conventional academic lectures or tutorial-based environments. These findings strongly concur with Muller [26] and the 70-20-10 rule model for learning [36].
The BEng students went significantly further than just completing the BEng-PBWS. Under their own initiative they developed and proposed a complimentary pedagogy to augment the existing academic model. In this new model they recommended industrial engagement should occur in September and November during the first year to outline to student’s what industry and employers really require. They also recommended workshops of three-week duration in June, July and August of first second and third year respectively. They advised that the third-year workshop should be competitive (
This clearly demonstrates that skilled and motivated students at both TY and BEng levels are capable of both finding technical solutions and highlight business problems (albeit the business of providing a BEng qualification) which is extremely encouraging. It is important to note that all the participants were volunteers, they were not voluntold. This PBWS workshop was something they wanted to do. The results could have been significantly different if the PBWS method was applied to the full population or there was forced attendance.
The MEng qualification is close to the pinnacle of the Third Level engineering education system. It typically takes two academic years to complete and results in a Level 9 award in the National Framework of Qualifications (NFQ). Following on from the success of the BEng-PBWS E-Cubers designed a three-semester-long MEng-PBWS and delivers it on the MEng in Mechatronics course at the University of Limerick since 2016. The MEng-PBWS is focused on
The subjects in the MEng-PBWS have been organized across three semesters. In the first semester the focus is on updating the students with the relevant standards for equipment such as ISA-S88, S95, S99, The ALIZA Canvas, The ALIZA Process and The ALIZA Tools (namely I4-PS, I4-VS, I4-EPP, The OSE Calculator and DIVOM) developed during this study. This semester provides the students with the basic vocabulary for ALIZA. In the second semester the focus is on mentoring the students to create a Solution Overview to form the basis of a project which they must deliver in the third semester. The objective is to assist the students to migrate from BEng to MEng level whereby they could both discover problems and define solutions. The results were quite surprising.
A significant number of students had virtually no interest in participating in the divergent stages of the
But there were several students who were much more open to
Various factors such as personality types, entry grades, age profile and industrial experience were evaluated. The only metric which separated these two groups was industrial experience. But that simply appears to be an indicator of where the individual derives their motivation from as opposed to the explicit value of the experience. It appears that a BEng student who continues directly to a taught MEng, without any industrial experience, may be solely motivated by the extrinsic reward of the MEng qualification. This appears to concur with Pink [38] who outlines that
Does the solution lie in catering for each passion with different academic delivery models? It appears that the volunteers are not content unless they get to work on the topic(s). This is ideally suited to the apprenticeship delivery model whereby 30% of the training occurs in an academic environment but 70% of the competency is demonstrated in the working environment; they are the true practitioners of the topic(s). The voluntolds on the other hand want and must be catered for with the conventional but more collaborative academic model. While the true researchers can be catered for with the standard research model centered around very specific or a small number of topics. This enables the definition of three different roles based on the delivery model; namely
A surprising revelation during the execution of PBWS, which spanned the full educational system and crossed both genders was that only a very small number had access to the LEGO® TECHNIC and LEGO® MINDSTORMS kits. Following the PBWS more than 90% of students claimed that they would utilize LEGO® TECHNIC or LEGO® MINDSTORMS but less than 5% had access to them. Those that had access to these products personally owned them, which is quite a privileged situation because they typically cost between €100 and €300 for the larger sets. In contrast quick review of the E-Cubers kits which have been purchased for this research reveals a utilization of less than 5% (they are just sitting on a shelf not utilized for 95% of the time). This raised the question
People are generally reluctant to lend LEGO® sets because parts will get lost or broken and then the set is useless. Well that was the case in the past, but now. With the advent of digital technologies there are catalogs of the parts in every set available [39], there are methods of utilizing 3D Printing techniques to replace some parts [40] and there are websites where individual replacement parts can be ordered [39]. All that is needed is the stock-take application and a method of providing the E-Cubers Kits to the public. E-Cubers have sponsored the development of the stock-take application and in 2018 E-Cubers in conjunction with Sligo County Library will be launching
Would not that be a significant achievement and a novel technical solution to address an urgent business problem (the emerging skills shortage for Industry 4.0 Equipment). It really is an ideal practical example of DigitALIZAtion and E-Cubers practicing what they preach. It can provide the resources for
The presumption by many is that the challenges of Industry 4.0 will be predominantly technical in nature, but unfortunately that is not the case. The implementation of Industry 4.0 requires us as practitioners to fundamentally change the way in which we work. We must transcend our disciplines and collaborate at a topic level. But the changes go much deeper. We must also change how we educate our young people by creating supplementary environments which truly foster their creativity as well as their ability to collaborate. Only when we have made these changes will we truly unleash the powers of processes and tools such as
License
\n\nBook Chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen maintains a very flexible Copyright Policy that ensures that there is no copyright transfer to the publisher. Therefore, Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0).
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