\r\n\tThe book also covers the more specialized areas of energy consumption, riding comfort, noise and vibration. \r\n\tEscalators and passengers conveyors should also be addressed, as these devices complement elevator system in moving passenger around the building.
\r\n
\r\n\tModern developments are hope to be covered within the relevant chapters, some of which are listed as follows: Modern electrical safety systems,Modern shaft and motor feedback devices, Modern electrical drive system, Two elevator cars in the same shaft, Multiple elevator car systems in the same shaft, Evacuation systems using elevators, Modern calculation and simulation tools and software packages, Ropeless elevator systems.
",isbn:"978-1-83968-177-6",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-176-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-178-3",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"8d5766ef86475867198610aeb050233c",bookSignature:"Dr. Lutfi Al-Sharif",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10040.jpg",keywords:"Elevator Traffic Engineering, Simulation, Elevator Mechanical Engineering, Safety Gear System, Drive Systems, Control Systems, Energy Consumption, Power, Riding Comfort, Noise and Vibration, Escalators, Passenger Conveyors",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 14th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 5th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 3rd 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 23rd 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 22nd 2020",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"11 days",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"314726",title:"Dr.",name:"Lutfi",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Sharif",slug:"lutfi-al-sharif",fullName:"Lutfi Al-Sharif",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314726/images/system/314726.jpg",biography:"Lutfi Al-Sharif is currently Professor of Building Transportation Systems at of the Department of Mechatronics Engineering, The University of Jordan. He received his Ph.D. in lift traffic analysis in 1992 from UMIST (Manchester, U.K.). He worked for 9 years for London Underground, London, United Kingdom in the area of lifts and escalators.\r\nIn 2002, he formed Al-Sharif VTC Ltd, a vertical transportation consultancy based in London, United Kingdom. He has over 30 papers published in peer reviewed journals the area of vertical transportation systems and is co-inventor of four patents and co-author of the 2nd edition of the Elevator Traffic Handbook.\r\nHe is also a visiting professor at the University of Northampton (UK), member of the scientific committee of the annual Symposium on Lift & Escalator Technologies and a member of the editorial board of the journal Transportation Systems in Buildings. \r\nHe is a passionate believer in making higher education simple and accessible for engineering students and has a You Tube channel on engineering that has around 50 000 subscribers and around 7 million views. He has also been working as a member of the METHODS Project that aims to improve teaching methods in higher education in Jordan and Palestine. He is also the author of the Mechatronics Engineering Module on Saylor.org.",institutionString:"University of Jordan",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Jordan",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Jordan"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"11",title:"Engineering",slug:"engineering"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"225753",firstName:"Marina",lastName:"Dusevic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225753/images/7224_n.png",email:"marina.d@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3794",title:"Swarm Intelligence",subtitle:"Focus on Ant and Particle Swarm Optimization",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5332a71035a274ecbf1c308df633a8ed",slug:"swarm_intelligence_focus_on_ant_and_particle_swarm_optimization",bookSignature:"Felix T.S. Chan and Manoj Kumar Tiwari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3794.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"252210",title:"Dr.",name:"Felix",surname:"Chan",slug:"felix-chan",fullName:"Felix Chan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3621",title:"Silver Nanoparticles",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"silver-nanoparticles",bookSignature:"David Pozo Perez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3621.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6667",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Pozo",slug:"david-pozo",fullName:"David Pozo"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"57470",title:"MRI RF-Induced Heating in Heterogeneous Human Body with Implantable Medical Device",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71384",slug:"mri-rf-induced-heating-in-heterogeneous-human-body-with-implantable-medical-device",body:'\n
\n
1. Introduction
\n
Many of the MR-related injuries and the few fatalities that have occurred were the apparent result of failure to follow safety guidelines or of the use of inappropriate information related to the safety aspects of biomedical implants and devices [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]. The preservation of a safe MR environment requires constant attention to the care of patients and individuals with metallic implants and devices, because the variety and complexity of these objects constantly changes [5, 6, 7]. Therefore, to guard against accidents in the MR environment, it is important to understand the risk associated with implantable medical devices which may cause potential problems.
\n
The radiofrequency coils could send energy, in the form of electromagnetic radiation, into the human body. Since the energy is in the radio frequency range, the radiation is not ionizing. But it still can influence biological tissue. During MR procedures, the majority of the RF power transmitted for imaging or spectroscopy (especially for carbon decoupling) is transformed into heat within the patient’s tissue as a result of resistive losses, through convection, conduction, radiation or evaporation [8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18]. Thus, a potential concern in MRI is the heating of the body during image acquisition.
\n
To evaluate the RF-induced heating, the specific absorption rate (SAR) is applied to determine how much electromagnetic energy is absorbed by the body. SAR is typically expressed in unites of watts per kilogram, or W/kg. So the SAR could be defined as:
where E is the total electric field and σ and ρ are the conductivity and density of biological tissue, respectively. The temperature rise in human body or phantom could be calculated by the total SAR according to the bio heat equation. SAR depends on the pulse sequence and the size, geometry, and conductivity of the absorbing object. To ensure participant safety, SAR in MRI studies is limited to minimize temperature increases.
\n
The first study of human thermal responses to RF radiation-induced heating during an MR procedure was conducted by Schaefer et al. [19]. Temperature changes and other physiological parameters were assessed in volunteer subjects exposed to relatively high, whole-body averaged SARs (approximately 4.0 W/kg). The data indicated that there were no excessive temperature elevations or other deleterious physiological consequences related to the exposure to RF radiation [19].
\n
However, for patients with medical implants, MRI-related RF induced heating is potentially problematic. The evaluation of heating for an implant or device is particularly challenging because of the many factors that affect temperature increase in these items. Variables that impact heating include the following: the specific type of implant or device; the electrical characteristic of the implant or device; the RF wavelength of the MR system; the type of transmit RF coil that is used (i.e., transmit head versus transmit body RF coil); the amount of RF energy delivered (i.e., the specific absorption rate, SAR); the landmark position or body part undergoing MRI relative to the transmit RF coil; and the orientation or configuration of the implant or device relative to the source of transmit RF coil.
\n
In this chapter, it shows the importance of evaluation the MRI-related RF induced heating issues for patient with implantable medical devices. Generally, the estimation and measurement is based on in-vitro numerical simulation and experiment. And assessment methods could be separated into active and passive medical implants, respectively, due to the configuration difference of these devices. With the help of the in-vitro evaluation methods, it provides a highly possible way to estimate the temperature increase for patient with implants or devices during MRI examination.
\n
\n
\n
2. In-vivo and in-vitro\n
\n
MRI may be contraindicated for a given patient primarily due to its potential risks associated with a metallic implant or device. Although many investigations have been performed using laboratory animals to determine thermoregulatory reactions to tissue heating associated with exposure to RF radiation, these experiments do not directly apply to the conditions that occur during MR procedures, nor can they be extrapolated to provide useful information for various reasons [20, 21]. For example, the pattern of RF absorption or the coupling of radiation to biological tissues is primarily dependent on the organism’s size, anatomical features, duration of exposure, sensitivity of the involved tissues (e.g., some tissues are more “thermal sensitive” than others), and a myriad of other variables [14, 21, 22]. Furthermore, there is no laboratory animal that sufficiently mimics or simulates the thermoregulatory responses of an organism with the dimensions and specific responses to that of a human subject. Therefore, experimental results obtained in laboratory animals cannot be simply “scaled” or extrapolated to predict thermoregulatory or other physiological changes in human subjects exposed to RF radiation-induced heating during MR procedures [14, 15, 22], and. In consideration of the above, in-vitro testing is performed to assess the various MRI issues for implants and devices in order to properly characterize the possible risks.
\n
One of in-vitro methods is to use standard American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) phantom. ASTM F2182-11A depicts the guideline to measure the RF heating induced by implanted medical devices in a standard phantom filled with gelled-saline which mimic the muscles [23]. Studies have been conducted to evaluate the RF heating induced by orthopedic implants. Commonly a phantom or homogenous media is used to mimic the environments as the implants locate in human body in experiments and/or numerical simulations [24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32].
\n
Although the RF-induced heating evaluating method using the phantom filled with gelled-saline is widely used, it is obvious that the RF environment of a human body and a phantom filled with gelled-saline are quite different. The power deposition due to an implant for a given incident RF field is a function of the physical properties of the implant and electrical properties of the surrounding medium. Compared with homogeneous gelled-saline in phantom, human body is an inhomogeneous circumstance which includes different tissues with various permittivity and conductivity in a wide range. Hence, it is necessary to study a feasible guide with in-vitro phantom to assess the RF-induced heating in heterogeneous human body.
\n
\n
2.1. Human body: heterogeneous medium
\n
With the development of computational electromagnetics, anatomical computer models of the human body have been used for nearly four decades for dosimetric applications in electromagnetics (EM) [33] and in medical radiation physics [34]. The most prominent numerical methods used in computational dosimetry of electromagnetic fields are based on finite-difference formulations of the underlying differential equations. For the simulation of both RF fields and induced tissue heating, the finite-difference time-domain (FDTD) method in its formulations by Yee [35] and Patankar [36] is applied to rectilinear grids to optimally handle large voxel models. The reconstructed human model used in this Chapter is from the Virtual Family [37]. It is based on high resolution magnetic resonance images of healthy volunteers. Seventy seven different tissue types were distinguished during the segmentation. Currently, the models are being widely applied in several studies on electromagnetic exposure, device optimization and medical applications. \nTable 1\n shows the characteristics of the anatomical model. Duke model is an anatomical model of adult male which is shown in \nFigures 1\n and \n2\n. And \nTable 2\n shows the segmented tissues and organs of the model, as well as the electromagnetic properties.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Name
\n
Age (years)
\n
Gender
\n
Height (m)
\n
Mass (kg)
\n
BMI (kg/m2)
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Duke
\n
34
\n
Male
\n
1.74
\n
70
\n
23.1
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
The characteristics of the anatomical Duke model.
\n
Figure 1.
The segmented tissues and organs of anatomic body.
\n
Figure 2.
The segmented tissues and organs of anatomic brain.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Tissue or organ
\n
Electric conductivity (S/m)
\n
Relative permittivity
\n
Density (kg/m3)
\n
\n
\n
1.5 T/64 MHz
\n
3 T/128 MHz
\n
1.5 T/64 MHz
\n
3 T/128 MHz
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Adrenal gland
\n
0.778305
\n
0.804166
\n
73.9472
\n
66.7839
\n
1027.5
\n
\n
\n
Air internal
\n
0
\n
0
\n
1
\n
1
\n
1.2
\n
\n
\n
Artery
\n
1.20667
\n
1.24863
\n
86.4441
\n
73.159
\n
1049.75
\n
\n
\n
Bladder
\n
0.287352
\n
0.298014
\n
24.5943
\n
21.8607
\n
1035
\n
\n
\n
Blood vessel
\n
1.20667
\n
1.24863
\n
86.4441
\n
73.159
\n
1049.75
\n
\n
\n
Bone
\n
0.0595255
\n
0.0673524
\n
16.6812
\n
14.7171
\n
1908
\n
\n
\n
Brain gray matter
\n
0.510868
\n
0.58673
\n
97.4294
\n
73.5204
\n
1044.5
\n
\n
\n
Brain white matter
\n
0.291504
\n
0.342151
\n
67.8358
\n
52.5338
\n
1041
\n
\n
\n
Bronchi
\n
0.528415
\n
0.559346
\n
58.8896
\n
50.5714
\n
1101.5
\n
\n
\n
Bronchi lumen
\n
0
\n
0
\n
1
\n
1
\n
1.2
\n
\n
\n
Cartilage
\n
0.452103
\n
0.488375
\n
62.9145
\n
52.9242
\n
1099.5
\n
\n
\n
Cerebellum
\n
0.719003
\n
0.829397
\n
116.35
\n
79.7377
\n
1045
\n
\n
\n
Cerebrospinal fluid
\n
2.06597
\n
2.14301
\n
97.3124
\n
84.0406
\n
1007
\n
\n
\n
Commissure anterior
\n
0.291504
\n
0.342151
\n
67.8358
\n
52.5338
\n
1041
\n
\n
\n
Commissure posterior
\n
0.291504
\n
0.342151
\n
67.8358
\n
52.5338
\n
1041
\n
\n
\n
Connective tissue
\n
0.474331
\n
0.498727
\n
59.4892
\n
51.8568
\n
1525
\n
\n
\n
Cornea
\n
1.00058
\n
1.05874
\n
87.3779
\n
71.4566
\n
1050.5
\n
\n
\n
Diaphragm
\n
0.688213
\n
0.719235
\n
72.2347
\n
63.4948
\n
1090.4
\n
\n
\n
Ear cartilage
\n
0.452103
\n
0.488375
\n
62.9145
\n
52.9242
\n
1099.5
\n
\n
\n
Ear skin
\n
0.43575
\n
0.522704
\n
92.1679
\n
65.437
\n
1109
\n
\n
\n
Epididymis
\n
0.884871
\n
0.926404
\n
84.5272
\n
72.1279
\n
1082
\n
\n
\n
Esophagus
\n
0.877842
\n
0.912807
\n
85.8204
\n
74.895
\n
1040
\n
\n
\n
Esophagus lumen
\n
0
\n
0
\n
1
\n
1
\n
1.2
\n
\n
\n
Eye lens
\n
0.28588
\n
0.312684
\n
50.3392
\n
42.7911
\n
1075.5
\n
\n
\n
Eye sclera
\n
0.882673
\n
0.917665
\n
75.2998
\n
64.9991
\n
1032
\n
\n
\n
Eye vitreous humor
\n
1.50315
\n
1.50536
\n
69.1264
\n
69.0619
\n
1004.5
\n
\n
\n
Fat
\n
0.0661558
\n
0.0697299
\n
13.6436
\n
12.3711
\n
911
\n
\n
\n
Gall bladder
\n
1.48179
\n
1.5764
\n
105.443
\n
88.8995
\n
928
\n
\n
\n
Heart lumen
\n
1.20667
\n
1.24863
\n
86.4441
\n
73.159
\n
1049.75
\n
\n
\n
Heart muscle
\n
0.678423
\n
0.766108
\n
106.514
\n
84.2573
\n
1080.8
\n
\n
\n
Hippocampus
\n
0.510868
\n
0.58673
\n
97.4294
\n
73.5204
\n
1044.5
\n
\n
\n
Hypophysis
\n
0.778305
\n
0.804166
\n
73.9472
\n
66.7839
\n
1053
\n
\n
\n
Hypothalamus
\n
0.778305
\n
0.804166
\n
73.9472
\n
66.7839
\n
1053
\n
\n
\n
Intervertebral disc
\n
0.452103
\n
0.488375
\n
62.9145
\n
52.9242
\n
1099.5
\n
\n
\n
Kidney cortex
\n
0.741316
\n
0.852313
\n
118.556
\n
89.6168
\n
1049
\n
\n
\n
Kidney medulla
\n
0.741316
\n
0.852313
\n
118.556
\n
89.6168
\n
1044
\n
\n
\n
Large intestine
\n
0.638152
\n
0.705214
\n
94.6639
\n
76.5722
\n
1088
\n
\n
\n
Large intestine lumen
\n
0.688213
\n
0.719235
\n
72.2347
\n
63.4948
\n
1045.2
\n
\n
\n
Larynx
\n
0.452103
\n
0.488375
\n
62.9145
\n
52.9242
\n
1099.5
\n
\n
\n
Liver
\n
0.447984
\n
0.510897
\n
80.5595
\n
64.2507
\n
1078.75
\n
\n
\n
Lung
\n
0.288977
\n
0.315616
\n
37.1022
\n
29.4677
\n
394
\n
\n
\n
Mandible
\n
0.0595255
\n
0.0673524
\n
16.6812
\n
14.7171
\n
1908
\n
\n
\n
Marrow
\n
0.154335
\n
0.162021
\n
16.4355
\n
13.5377
\n
1028.5
\n
\n
\n
Medulla oblongata
\n
0.719003
\n
0.829397
\n
116.35
\n
79.7377
\n
1045.5
\n
\n
\n
Meniscus
\n
0.452103
\n
0.488375
\n
62.9145
\n
52.9242
\n
1099.5
\n
\n
\n
Midbrain
\n
0.719003
\n
0.829397
\n
116.35
\n
79.7377
\n
1045.5
\n
\n
\n
Mucosa
\n
0.488039
\n
0.544202
\n
76.7233
\n
61.5852
\n
1102
\n
\n
\n
Muscle
\n
0.688213
\n
0.719235
\n
72.2347
\n
63.4948
\n
1090.4
\n
\n
\n
Nerve
\n
0.312174
\n
0.353802
\n
55.0621
\n
44.0653
\n
1075
\n
\n
\n
Pancreas
\n
0.778305
\n
0.804166
\n
73.9472
\n
66.7839
\n
1086.5
\n
\n
\n
Patella
\n
0.0595255
\n
0.0673524
\n
16.6812
\n
14.7171
\n
1908
\n
\n
\n
Penis
\n
0.429311
\n
0.478934
\n
68.6368
\n
55.9888
\n
1101.5
\n
\n
\n
Pharynx
\n
0
\n
0
\n
1
\n
1
\n
1.2
\n
\n
\n
Pineal body
\n
0.778305
\n
0.804166
\n
73.9472
\n
66.7839
\n
1053
\n
\n
\n
Pons
\n
0.719003
\n
0.829397
\n
116.35
\n
79.7377
\n
1045.5
\n
\n
\n
Prostate
\n
0.884871
\n
0.926404
\n
84.5272
\n
72.1279
\n
1045
\n
\n
\n
SAT
\n
0.0661558
\n
0.0697299
\n
13.6436
\n
12.3711
\n
911
\n
\n
\n
Skin
\n
0.43575
\n
0.522704
\n
92.1679
\n
65.437
\n
1109
\n
\n
\n
Skull
\n
0.0595255
\n
0.0673524
\n
16.6812
\n
14.7171
\n
1908
\n
\n
\n
Small intestine
\n
1.59145
\n
1.69285
\n
118.363
\n
87.9725
\n
1030
\n
\n
\n
Small intestine lumen
\n
0.688213
\n
0.719235
\n
72.2347
\n
63.4948
\n
1045.2
\n
\n
\n
Spinal cord
\n
0.312174
\n
0.353802
\n
55.0621
\n
44.0653
\n
1075
\n
\n
\n
Spleen
\n
0.743914
\n
0.835186
\n
110.559
\n
82.8917
\n
1089
\n
\n
\n
Stomach
\n
0.877842
\n
0.912807
\n
85.8204
\n
74.895
\n
1088
\n
\n
\n
Stomach lumen
\n
0.688213
\n
0.719235
\n
72.2347
\n
63.4948
\n
1045.2
\n
\n
\n
Teeth
\n
0.0595255
\n
0.0673524
\n
16.6812
\n
14.7171
\n
2180
\n
\n
\n
Tendon ligament
\n
0.474331
\n
0.498727
\n
59.4892
\n
51.8568
\n
1142
\n
\n
\n
Testis
\n
0.884871
\n
0.926404
\n
84.5272
\n
72.1279
\n
1082
\n
\n
\n
Thalamus
\n
0.510868
\n
0.58673
\n
97.4294
\n
73.5204
\n
1044.5
\n
\n
\n
Thymus
\n
0.778305
\n
0.804166
\n
73.9472
\n
66.7839
\n
1023
\n
\n
\n
Thyroid gland
\n
0.778305
\n
0.804166
\n
73.9472
\n
66.7839
\n
1050
\n
\n
\n
Tongue
\n
0.652145
\n
0.687137
\n
75.2998
\n
64.9991
\n
1090.4
\n
\n
\n
Trachea
\n
0.528415
\n
0.559346
\n
58.8896
\n
50.5714
\n
1080
\n
\n
\n
Trachea lumen
\n
0
\n
0
\n
1
\n
1
\n
1.2
\n
\n
\n
Ureter Urethra
\n
0.429311
\n
0.478934
\n
68.6368
\n
55.9888
\n
1101.5
\n
\n
\n
Vein
\n
1.20667
\n
1.24863
\n
86.4441
\n
73.159
\n
1049.75
\n
\n
\n
Vertebrae
\n
0.0595255
\n
0.0673524
\n
16.6812
\n
14.7171
\n
1908
\n
\n\n
Table 2.
The electromagnetic properties of the segmented tissues and organs.
\n
\n
\n
2.2. ASTM phantom: in-vitro measurement
\n
The standard F2182 describe a test method for measurement of RF induced heating on or near passive implants and its surrounding during MRI procedure. A design of phantom container is introduced in the standard with its dimension shown in \nFigure 3\n. The material of phantom container are electrical insulators and non-magnetic and non-metallic. The phantom container is filled with a gelled-saline which has a relative permittivity εr = 80.4 and conductivity of σ = 0.47 S/m. In order to have a great conductivity and viscosity, a suitable gelled saline should be made with 1.32 g/L NaCl and 10 g/L polyacrylic acid (PAA) in water. Numerical simulations indicate that the maximum electric field inside the ASTM phantom is at mid-axial plane about 2 cm away from the vertical phantom side wall. To maximize the heating, and thereby maximizing the signal-to-noise ratio, we placed the implants at this location.
\n
Figure 3.
The structure and dimension of standard ASTM phantom.
\n
A generic RF transmit body coil is developed and shown in \nFigure 4\n. The upper plots represent a 1.5 T RF coil and the lower two plots represent a 3 T RF coil. A physical coil is usually difficult to model and it takes much longer simulation time to reach the steady state of the simulation. It has been shown that using a non-physical coil could significantly reduce the simulation time while providing the same result as that from a physical coil. Thus, rather than modeling the exact physical coil, the non-physical coils were modeled in this study. The two coils have the same dimensions, and both have 8 rungs. The diameter of the RF coil is 63 cm, and the height of the RF coil is 65 cm. The eight parallel lines or the rungs are one dimensional line current excitation. The end rings on top and bottom of the RF coils are tuning capacitors which are also modelled as one dimensional line segments.
\n
Figure 4.
The generic coil model of 1.5-T RF coil (top) and 3-T RF coil (bottom) in SEMCAD X.
\n
The capacitance value is determined from several broadband simulations so that the second highest resonant frequency was adjusted to 64 MHz for 1.5-T and 128 MHz for 3-T systems. The detailed steps are: set an initial capacitance value for all capacitors on end rings and add a broadband pulse signal on one single rung. The other seven rungs are modeled as zero ohm resistors. After the simulation is finished, the power spectrum is extracted. If the second highest resonant frequency is not at appropriate resonant frequencies, the capacitance needs to be adjusted. From this study, the capacitance for the end ring tuning capacitor values is 7.2 pF for 1.5-T RF coil and 1.3 pF for 3-T RF coil.
\n
\n
\n
\n
3. Passive implantable medical device
\n
Any device intended to be totally or partially introduced into the human body through surgical intervention and intended to remain in place after the procedure for at a long-term duration is considered as an implantable device. Passive devices in terms of their form of operation can be classified as device used for transportation and storage of pharmaceutical liquid, device for alteration of blood, body fluids, medical dressing, surgical instruments; reusable surgical instruments, disposable aseptic device, implantable device, device for contraception and birth control, device for sterilization and cleaning, patient care device, in vitro diagnostic reagent, as well as other passive contacting device or passive supplementary device.
\n
In this chapter, three typical categories of orthopedic implantable devices, bone plate system, hip prostheses and tibia intramedullary nails, are selected for MRI related RF induced heating study which are shown in \nFigures 5\n–\n7\n. The configuration of each implantable device is shown in figure. For bone fragment compression plate, it is designed to offer multiple compression and reconstruction plating options for the treatment of bone fractures. The application of hip prostheses is related to hip revision and arthroplasty. As for intramedullary nails, they are characterized by the anatomic shape, which is intended to replicate the natural anatomic shape of the bones. They have been designed to help restore the shape of the bone and treat the fractured bones.
\n
Figure 5.
The bone plant system of AxSOS system from Stryker®.
\n
Figure 6.
The hip prostheses of Excia® T from Aesculap®.
\n
Figure 7.
The tibia intramedullary nails of PROTect™ from Depuy Synthes.
\n
\n
\n
4. Numerically evaluate RF-induced heating
\n
\n
4.1. FDTD method
\n
In this numerical investigation, we use the finite difference time domain (FDTD) based SEMCAD X 14.8 (SPEAG) simulation platform. Graphics processing unit (GPU) hardware acceleration was achieved using the SPEAG CUDA library with Tesla C2075 graphic card which is can handle up to 90 million cells. To assure convergence of the numerical simulations, the simulation time was set to 20 periods for each simulation. Additionally, the convergence was checked after the simulations were finished. The material of orthopedic devices is set to perfect electric conductor (PEC), and all the numerical results are normalized to a whole body average SAR of 2 W/kg. The SAR distribution is studied for each case.
\n
\n
\n
4.2. Bone plate system
\n
To ensure a comprehensive comparison, the 1g local average peak SAR value at device is extracted for each configuration of femur and humerus system. \nTables 3\n and \n4\n show the value for femur and humerus system. For each numerical result, whole-body average SAR is normalized to 2 W/kg. Since the interaction between RF induced field and implant is dependent on the physical structure of device, the heating effect variations related to the length of plate and screw are studied separately. For femur system, the plate length varies from 100 to 300 mm, and the screw length changes from 10 to 32 mm. For humerus system, the screw dimension is the same as femur system. But the plate length varies only from 100 to 250 mm due to the limit of bone structure. The plate length is studied at first for minimum and maximum screw length. Then the screw length is investigated under the worst case of plate length study which has the highest 1g average peak SAR value for in-vivo simulation. \nFigures 8\n–\n13\n show the results which are corresponding to femur and humerus plate system. The solid and dash curve and indicate the in-vivo and in-vitro results, respectively.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Plate length (mm)
\n
Screw length (mm)
\n
1.5 T/64 MHz
\n
3 T/128 MHz
\n
\n
\n
\nIn-vivo SAR1g (W/kg)
\n
\nIn-vitro SAR1g (W/kg)
\n
\nIn-vivo SAR1g (W/kg)
\n
\nIn-vitro SAR1g (W/kg)
\n
\n\n\n
\n
100
\n
10
\n
64.20
\n
125.97
\n
79.75
\n
80.90
\n
\n
\n
150
\n
10
\n
94.82
\n
178.62
\n
74.52
\n
64.01
\n
\n
\n
175
\n
10
\n
107.00
\n
190.44
\n
68.50
\n
50.20
\n
\n
\n
200
\n
10
\n
116.65
\n
188.87
\n
63.37
\n
44.69
\n
\n
\n
225
\n
10
\n
117.00
\n
185.04
\n
63.10
\n
37.72
\n
\n
\n
250
\n
10
\n
123.00
\n
169.75
\n
61.23
\n
37.27
\n
\n
\n
275
\n
10
\n
117.00
\n
149.81
\n
53.80
\n
35.33
\n
\n
\n
300
\n
10
\n
105.00
\n
134.91
\n
42.37
\n
38.53
\n
\n
\n
100
\n
32
\n
85.02
\n
100.22
\n
88.26
\n
71.90
\n
\n
\n
150
\n
32
\n
108.17
\n
135.90
\n
55.48
\n
47.74
\n
\n
\n
200
\n
32
\n
104.91
\n
140.27
\n
51.56
\n
41.59
\n
\n
\n
250
\n
32
\n
111.73
\n
123.17
\n
48.94
\n
37.09
\n
\n
\n
300
\n
32
\n
79.94
\n
128.93
\n
27.77
\n
40.70
\n
\n
\n
250(1.5 T)
\n
100(3 T)
\n
15
\n
120.00
\n
150.91
\n
79.30
\n
72.19
\n
\n
\n
250(1.5 T)
\n
100(3 T)
\n
20
\n
121.00
\n
135.71
\n
76.20
\n
68.00
\n
\n
\n
250(1.5 T)
\n
100(3 T)
\n
25
\n
123.00
\n
132.15
\n
64.2
\n
66.52
\n
\n\n
Table 3.
Peak 1g averaged SAR of femur system for in-vivo and in-vitro cases.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Plate length (mm)
\n
Screw length (mm)
\n
1.5 T/64 MHz
\n
3 T/128 MHz
\n
\n
\n
\nIn-vivo SAR1g (W/kg)
\n
\nIn-vitro SAR1g (W/kg)
\n
\nIn-vivo SAR1g (W/kg)
\n
\nIn-vitro SAR1g (W/kg)
\n
\n\n\n
\n
100
\n
10
\n
38.02
\n
135.61
\n
65.47
\n
90.51
\n
\n
\n
150
\n
10
\n
63.74
\n
192.14
\n
94.68
\n
59.90
\n
\n
\n
200
\n
10
\n
69.47
\n
204.57
\n
81.84
\n
45.54
\n
\n
\n
250
\n
10
\n
104.57
\n
193.61
\n
86.73
\n
41.50
\n
\n
\n
100
\n
32
\n
30.70
\n
92.17
\n
63.46
\n
64.6
\n
\n
\n
150
\n
32
\n
54.10
\n
124.76
\n
85.39
\n
53.70
\n
\n
\n
200
\n
32
\n
55.90
\n
161.97
\n
75.19
\n
43.39
\n
\n
\n
250
\n
32
\n
109.00
\n
156.38
\n
108.92
\n
42.51
\n
\n
\n
250
\n
15
\n
95.53
\n
161.64
\n
77.82
\n
35.33
\n
\n
\n
250
\n
20
\n
91.02
\n
163.55
\n
72.91
\n
38.94
\n
\n
\n
250
\n
25
\n
88.27
\n
164.54
\n
68.40
\n
41.32
\n
\n\n
Table 4.
The peak 1g average SAR value of humerus system for in-vivo and in-vitro cases.
\n
Figure 8.
The femur bone plate length study of 10 mm screw for 1.5 T (left) and 3 T (right).
\n
Figure 9.
The femur bone plate length study of 32 mm screw for 1.5 T (left) and 3 T (right).
\n
Figure 10.
The femur screw length study for 1.5 T (left) and 3 T (right).
\n
Figure 11.
The humerus bone plate length study of 10 mm screw for 1.5 T (left) and 3 T (right).
\n
Figure 12.
The humerus bone plate length study of 32 mm screw for 1.5 T (left) and 3 T (right).
\n
Figure 13.
The humerus screw length study for 1.5 T (left) and 3 T (right).
\n
\n
\n
4.3. Hip prostheses
\n
For hip prostheses, the 1g average local peak SAR value at device is also extracted for each configuration. \nTable 5\n shows the value for hip system of various dimensions. The height of hip prostheses stem ranges from 100 to 170 mm. For in-vivo simulation, the stem is inserted into the bone marrow. And for the trochanter region, the hip prostheses is touching with soft tissue and muscle. \nFigure 14\n represents the results of hip prostheses. The solid and dash curve and indicate the in-vivo and in-vitro results, respectively.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Stem height (mm)
\n
1.5 T/64 MHz
\n
3 T/128 MHz
\n
\n
\n
\nIn-vivo SAR1g (W/kg)
\n
\nIn-vitro SAR1g (W/kg)
\n
\nIn-vivo SAR1g (W/kg)
\n
\nIn-vitro SAR1g (W/kg)
\n
\n\n\n
\n
100
\n
83.2764
\n
270.843
\n
43.4746
\n
55.4143
\n
\n
\n
110
\n
81.5782
\n
260.502
\n
35.8247
\n
56.3111
\n
\n
\n
120
\n
77.8568
\n
248.116
\n
24.4627
\n
57.0498
\n
\n
\n
130
\n
74.9259
\n
247.635
\n
21.9093
\n
60.352
\n
\n
\n
140
\n
64.5142
\n
237.51
\n
16.3059
\n
61.7026
\n
\n
\n
150
\n
62.8772
\n
205.328
\n
13.1482
\n
63.2055
\n
\n
\n
160
\n
59.6273
\n
221.781
\n
11.5599
\n
63.9114
\n
\n
\n
170
\n
55.0469
\n
213.602
\n
11.1877
\n
63.8915
\n
\n\n
Table 5.
Peak 1g average SAR of hip prostheses system for in-vivo and in-vitro cases.
\n
Figure 14.
The hip prostheses stem length study for 1.5 T (left) and 3 T (right).
\n
\n
\n
4.4. Tibia intramedullary nails
\n
The 1g average local peak SAR value at device is also extracted for each configuration of tibia intramedullary nails. The length of stem ranges from 255 to 360 mm. The entire nail is penetrated into the bone marrow. The four screws are inserted perpendicularly through the nail and bone. \nTable 6\n shows the value for nail system of various dimensions. \nFigure 15\n represents the results of tibia intramedullary nails. The solid and dash curve and indicate the in-vivo and in-vitro results, respectively.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Nail length (mm)
\n
1.5 T/64 MHz
\n
3 T/128 MHz
\n
\n
\n
\nIn-vivo SAR1g (W/kg)
\n
\nIn-vitro SAR1g (W/kg)
\n
\nIn-vivo SAR1g (W/kg)
\n
\nIn-vitro SAR1g (W/kg)
\n
\n\n\n
\n
255
\n
77.6968
\n
136.331
\n
93.5532
\n
55.4068
\n
\n
\n
270
\n
77.6346
\n
129.249
\n
93.2341
\n
53.6038
\n
\n
\n
285
\n
78.9892
\n
122.28
\n
89.1767
\n
49.8946
\n
\n
\n
300
\n
82.6751
\n
115.745
\n
91.5648
\n
46.8385
\n
\n
\n
315
\n
81.7577
\n
109.28
\n
92.7346
\n
44.0529
\n
\n
\n
330
\n
74.7444
\n
103.319
\n
88.9989
\n
41.6544
\n
\n
\n
345
\n
66.6095
\n
97.3232
\n
90.7795
\n
39.3275
\n
\n
\n
360
\n
67.3469
\n
91.8168
\n
90.1809
\n
37.1875
\n
\n\n
Table 6.
Peak 1g average SAR of tibia nails system for in-vivo and in-vitro cases.
\n
Figure 15.
The nail length study for 1.5 T (left) and 3 T (right).
\n
\n
\n
\n
5. Summary
\n
From the comparison between in-vitro and in-vivo simulations, the RF-induced heating are different because of the variance of incident electric field and surrounding medium. For incident field study, the antenna resonance effect would mainly lead to a heating issue for both in-vitro and in-vivo situation. Although the wavelength of human muscle and gelled-saline nearly equals to each other, due to the variance of incident RF field, the device dimension causing the resonance would be different. Hence, the trend of peak 1g average SAR value along with plate length is unlike from in-vitro to in-vivo circumstance. Additionally, when the screw is inserted across the human bone into the muscle, a huge amount of power would dissipated to the human tissue through the screw tip so that induce a large peak SAR value.
\n
Based on the comparison result, conservatively, the in-vitro method, such as ASTM phantom, could be used to assess RF-induced heating. However, to accurately assess the RF-induced heating in heterogeneous human body with implantable medical device, due to the limit of homogeneous ASTM phantom, it still needs some improvement to handle several particular cases, especially, when the implantable device is penetrating through various human tissues and organs.
\n
\n
\n
Disclaimer
\n
The mention of commercial products, their sources, or their use in connection with material reported herein is not to be construed as either an actual or implied endorsement of such products by the Department of Health and Human Services.
\n
\n\n',keywords:"MRI, RF-induced heating, orthopedic implant, phantom",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/57470.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/57470.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57470",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57470",totalDownloads:609,totalViews:340,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"June 7th 2017",dateReviewed:"October 2nd 2017",datePrePublished:"December 20th 2017",datePublished:"March 14th 2018",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) radio frequency (RF)-induced heating is one of the most important concerns of MRI safety for patients, especially with orthopaedic healthcare products. In this chapter, numerical modelling and simulations were conducted to study the RF-induced heating within a 1.5T and 3T magnetic resonance (MR) environment. Numerical simulations were firstly conducted to study the difference between the cases of implantable medical devices inside the phantom and the human body. Then, numerical modelling were conducted to describe the difference of electromagnetic behaviours between the homogeneous phantom and heterogeneous human tissues. The MRI RF-induced heating due to an implantable medical device behaves significantly different in homogeneous media and in heterogeneous human body. For typical orthopaedic medical devices, such as healthcare products applied to shoulder, humerus, hip, femur and tibia, the properties of the RF-induced heating are different in general phantom and in human body. The hot spot location, as well as worst case configuration were evaluated and it was found that they were determined by the incident field and electromagnetic properties of medium. With further scaling, the RF-induced heating in human body for the orthopedic devices can be assessed by phantom studies.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/57470",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/57470",book:{slug:"high-resolution-neuroimaging-basic-physical-principles-and-clinical-applications"},signatures:"Ran Guo, Jianfeng Zheng and Ji Chen",authors:[{id:"213555",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jianfeng",middleName:null,surname:"Zheng",fullName:"Jianfeng Zheng",slug:"jianfeng-zheng",email:"jzheng4@central.uh.edu",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Houston",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"213557",title:"BSc.",name:"Ran",middleName:null,surname:"Guo",fullName:"Ran Guo",slug:"ran-guo",email:"guoran188@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. In-vivo and in-vitro\n",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Human body: heterogeneous medium",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. ASTM phantom: in-vitro measurement",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"3. Passive implantable medical device",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"4. Numerically evaluate RF-induced heating",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"4.1. FDTD method",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.2. Bone plate system",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.3. Hip prostheses",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.4. Tibia intramedullary nails",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"5. Summary",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"Disclaimer",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nSchenck JF. Health effects and safety of static magnetic fields. In: Shellock FG, editor. Magnetic Resonance Procedures: Health Effects and Safety. Boca Raton, FL: CRC; 2001. p. 1-30\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nZaremba LA. FDA guidance for magnetic resonance system safety and patient exposures: Current status and future considerations. In: Shellock FG, editor. 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Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Houston, Houston, Texas, United States
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Houston, Houston, Texas, United States
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González",authors:[{id:"181643",title:"Prof.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Vicente",fullName:"Miguel Vicente",slug:"miguel-vicente"},{id:"182032",title:"Prof.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"Minguez",fullName:"Jesus Minguez",slug:"jesus-minguez"},{id:"182034",title:"Prof.",name:"Dorys",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez",fullName:"Dorys Gonzalez",slug:"dorys-gonzalez"}]},{id:"55863",title:"Physical Transport Properties of Porous Rock with Computed Tomography",slug:"physical-transport-properties-of-porous-rock-with-computed-tomography",signatures:"Wenzheng Yue and Yong Wang",authors:[{id:"203844",title:"Prof.",name:"Wenzheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yue",fullName:"Wenzheng Yue",slug:"wenzheng-yue"},{id:"206449",title:"Mr.",name:"Yong",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Yong Wang",slug:"yong-wang"}]},{id:"56129",title:"Vascular and Cardiac CT in Small Animals",slug:"vascular-and-cardiac-ct-in-small-animals",signatures:"Giovanna Bertolini and Luca Angeloni",authors:[{id:"202214",title:"Dr.",name:"Giovanna",middleName:null,surname:"Bertolini",fullName:"Giovanna Bertolini",slug:"giovanna-bertolini"},{id:"202236",title:"Dr.",name:"Luca",middleName:null,surname:"Angeloni",fullName:"Luca Angeloni",slug:"luca-angeloni"}]},{id:"55067",title:"Computed Tomography in Veterinary Medicine: Currently Published and Tomorrow's Vision",slug:"computed-tomography-in-veterinary-medicine-currently-published-and-tomorrow-s-vision",signatures:"Matthew Keane, Emily Paul, Craig J Sturrock, Cyril Rauch and Catrin\nSian Rutland",authors:[{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"61949",title:"Practices in Constructing High Rockfill Dams on Thick Overburden Layers",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78547",slug:"practices-in-constructing-high-rockfill-dams-on-thick-overburden-layers",body:'
1. Introduction
Various types of dams have been increasingly constructed all over the world for irrigation, flood controlling, power generation, environment protection, etc. [1]. Normally, most dams are preferentially built on rock foundations where seepage control is not a very difficult task. However, with the exploitation and exhaust of natural satisfactory dam sites, many new dams have to be constructed on thick overburden layers, as better sites are not available and removal of the existing overburden is technically or economically unfeasible. This adverse situation is often encountered along many hydropower-rich rivers in the southwest and northwest regions of China [2, 3]. When such thick overburden foundation layers can neither be avoided nor removed, a rockfill dam is often a priority due to its excellent adaptability to such geological conditions. In recent years, more than 50 high rockfill dams, including earth core rockfill dams (ECRDs), asphalt core rockfill dams (ACRDs) and concrete faced rockfill dams (CFRDs), have been constructed in China, as selectively listed in Table 1. Challenges can be seen from both the height of these dams and the thickness of the overburden layers.
Basic information of typical rockfill dams built on overburden layers in China.
Note: ECRD = earth core rockfill dam; ACRD = Asphalt core rockfill dam; CFRD = concrete faced rockfill dam; Hmax = maximum height of dam; Tmax = maximum thickness of overburden; ‘/’ means the dam is still under construction and has not been finished.
Technical problems requiring special attention in the design and construction of rockfill dams over thick overburden layers include, but are not limited to, the following aspects:
Shear strength and deformability of load-bearing layers. The shear strength of underlying foundation layers influences the overall stability of the dam, while the deformability of these layers controls not only the deformation of the dam but also the deflection of the cutoff wall, if used. The inhomogeneity of foundation materials can result in differential and incompatible deformation within the dam and may ultimately lead to threatening cracks.
Permeability and erosion resistance of the overburden layers. One of the most important functions that should be achieved in dam engineering is the ability to control the seepage within the foundation. Designing an impervious system for the dam foundation depends, to a large extent, on the permeability and erosion resistance of the involved strata and the available foundation treatment equipment and techniques.
Liquefaction potential of the underlying fine layers. Earthquake is one of the most disastrous natural events that dams are expected to experience. Cyclic shearing by earthquakes can cause excessive pore water pressure to build up in fully saturated sandy soils, leading to a decrease, or even loss, of their shear strength. As a result, uncontrollable deformation can occur in both the foundation and the dam itself and may result in the worst-case scenario of a dam breach.
Connection techniques for the impervious systems of the dam and its foundation. An effective impervious system means not only successful control of the seepage through the dam and its foundation but also satisfactory performance of the connection points between different impervious components. These points are usually places where parts with different rigidity levels meet and joint, and are therefore vulnerable to cracks and concentrated leakage.
The main challenge in constructing a rockfill dam on thick overburden layers is the design and successful construction of an impervious system for the foundation, accounting for the distribution of the underlying soil and rock layers as well as their physical and engineering properties. In this chapter, the authors review several high rockfill dams built on thick overburden layers in China in order to provide a reference for similar cases that might be encountered in the future. The chapter starts with general descriptions of some frequently implemented geological and geotechnical investigation techniques. Next, seepage control techniques used in some selected cases are introduced. Attention is also paid to the connection techniques for impervious systems used in different kinds of rockfill dams and to the widely adopted foundation reinforcement measures in engineering practice. Directions that deserve further research and development are presented.
2. Geological and geotechnical investigations
Thick overburden layers generally refer to quaternary materials deposited over river beds, including boulders, cobble, gravel, sand, silt and clay constituents. Mixtures of these complex overburden materials are often much more compressible and permeable than an intact rock foundation. Adequate geological and geotechnical investigations on the distribution, thickness and other relevant properties of the soil strata are necessary for the design of impermeable systems and for the preparation of required foundation treatments during dam planning stages. In particular, weak layers, such as sand lenses, soft clays and collapsible loess, should be revealed in these investigations and then properly treated to eliminate safety risks to both the foundation itself and to the overlying dam.
2.1. Geological investigation
Core drilling is the most useful subsurface exploration method for investigating the location, extent and constituent makeup of soil and rock strata at a potential dam site. Nonetheless, core drilling becomes increasingly difficult through overburden layers thicker than 40–50 m because [22]: (1) the existence of unpredictable super-large rock particles; (2) frequent borehole collapse; and (3) uncontrollable loss of drilling fluid. The mud or water used in ordinary drilling-with-casing operations can also make the analysis of core grading difficult or inaccurate due to washing away of fine particles. Some special core drilling techniques were therefore used to get high quality cores in the geological investigations at Yele, Aertash, Xiabandi and other dam sites. They include: (1) double-tube swivel type diamond drilling with a proper rpm (revolution per minute) and pressure and (2) special vegetable gum and powder drilling fluid circulated under proper flow rates to protect the bit, the borehole and the core. Until now, the deepest overburden core drilling conducted in China is at Yele ACRD, where the overburden thickness reaches 420 m [15].
Geophysical exploration methods, such as electrical and electromagnetic methods, seismic procedures, gravity techniques, magnetic methods, and so on, are now increasingly used in dam engineering. These techniques are mostly used to locate the interface between overburden and bedrock and to detect weak layers. Geophysical techniques generally does not directly measure the parameters desired for designing purpose. The vast majority of objectives is inferred from the known geologic data and measured geophysical contrast [23]. That is to say, an inverse solution is sought usually in geophysical exploration, and in most cases, it is the most likely but not necessarily the unique conclusion. Assumptions used in interpreting geophysical contrasts, such as the distinct subsurface boundaries, the homogeneity of materials and the isotropy of material properties, are also, in many cases, at variance with the reality, which may lead to inaccurate and misleading conclusions. Therefore, geophysical methods are almost always used in combination with irreplaceable core drilling. Thereby, results obtained by different methods can be verified mutually and a most reliable judgment can be made.
2.2. Geotechnical tests and interpretation
While geological explorations give overall information on the overburden layers, geotechnical tests and their interpretation yield more relevant parameters for designing. However, systematic laboratory experiments with overburden materials are usually unrealistic due to difficulties in obtaining high-quality undisturbed samples. Although some techniques do exist for sampling (e.g., in-situ freezing [24]), they are generally expensive and only applicable to shallow layers. Therefore, measurement of engineering properties of overburden materials relies more upon in-situ tests as exemplified as follows:
Heavy and super-heavy dynamic penetration tests. For layers with high relative densities, heavy or super-heavy dynamic penetration tests are usually used, in which a cone-tipped probe is driven into the ground by a 63.5 or 120 kg weight dropped freely from a height of 76 or 100 cm. The number of blows needed to drive the probe into the tested layer for 10 cm is registered and an average penetration per blow is calculated. The data gathered can then be used to estimate the density states, bearing capacities, and moduli of the tested layers. This method has been used in geotechnical investigation of almost all dam sites [25].
Plate load tests. Plate load tests are performed by loading a steel plate at a particular depth and recording the settlement corresponding to each load increment. The load is gradually increased until the plate starts to sink at a rapid rate. The total load on the plate at this stage, divided by its area, gives the value of the ultimate bearing capacity of the tested soil. Assuming an isotropic elastic behavior of the tested soil, the elastic modulus can also be evaluated. In the under-construction Aertash CFRD, plate load tests were performed with a plate of 1.5 m in diameter, and with the maximum reaction force of about 1000 tons [26].
In-situ shear tests. Large-scale in-situ shear tests are widely used in field investigations. A shear box of a specific size is compressed into the overburden and then it is pulled, after applying a designed vertical load upon the enclosed soil, by a jack using a high-strength chain. The applied horizontal force and the displacement of the shear box are recorded, based on which the in-situ shear strength of the tested soil is determined [27]. A special advantage of this method is that it can measure the strength of coarse granular materials under extremely low normal stresses, which is otherwise not so easy in triaxial compression experiments.
Pressuremeter tests. Pressuremeter tests are performed in-situ by placing a cylindrical probe in the ground and then expanding the cylinder to pressurize the soil horizontally. The radial pressure on the soil and the relative increase in cavity radius are measured, from which the in-situ stress strain curve of the soil is derived. This technique is extremely attractive in testing overburden layers because the loading direction is identical to the hydrostatic pressure upon a cutoff wall if it is to be installed. Abundant information can be obtained from this type of tests, such as the in-situ horizontal stress, the pressuremeter modulus, the limit pressure, etc. This technique has been used in many dam sites [22, 28], and the depth has reached a magnitude of 100 m successfully.
Wave velocity tests. The most widely used wave velocity tests include the down-hole test, the suspension logging test and the cross-hole test. The first two methods require only one borehole and evaluate the wave velocities vertically along the borehole wall. The third test requires at least two boreholes and measures the wave velocities within a horizontal plane. Boreholes for down-hole and cross-hole tests should be carefully cased and grouted to ensure good seismic coupling between the geophones and the surrounding soils. Suspension logging, on the other hand, preferably uses uncased holes. All three methods have been applied to the investigation of overburden layers for foundations in many important projects [16, 25]. The velocity results obtained, especially the shear wave velocities, can be used to evaluate the density states, the elastic moduli and the liquefaction potential of the tested layers.
Permeability tests. The permeability coefficients of overburden layers, which are needed to design the underground impervious systems, are determined by various permeability tests. Methods may be selected based on the location of underground water table, the enrichment of underground water, and the hydraulic conductivity of the concerned layer. In principle, pumping tests or water injection tests are conducted to evaluate the permeability of highly permeable overburden layers, while pump-in tests are used for relatively less permeable bedrock layers [25]. Permeability tests are indispensable for almost all dam projects.
Most of in-situ geotechnical investigation techniques listed above require high-quality predrilled boreholes. Unfortunately, this becomes increasingly difficult when the thickness of the overburden at the potential site exceeds 50 m. Uncertainty exists in all foundation conditions, and therefore designing and constructing an underground impervious system within a thick overburden is a very challenging task. Adequate geological and geotechnical investigations are undoubtedly the only way to improve design confidence in these systems. It is also important for designing engineers to fully assess the reliability of investigation results, including factors such as the size effect in plate load tests, the field draining condition in pressure meter tests, the influence of underground water on compressive wave velocities, the influence of drilling fluid layer adhering to the borehole wall on measured permeability coefficients, and the possible anisotropy of engineering properties.
3. Seepage control techniques
The two main goals in designing seepage control facilities include controlling the hydraulic gradient within overburden layers to ensure the seepage stability of foundation materials and reducing the seepage loss of reservoir water. For overburden layers where excavation and removal are feasible, deposits right beneath the impervious system of the dam body (e.g., clay or asphalt core and toe plinth) can be removed so that the seepage barrier can sit on a firm rock foundation. In cases where deep excavation is impossible, a horizontal, vertical or combined seepage control measure must be employed to meet the above goals. In the design specification for rolled earth and rockfill dams, a vertical seepage barrier that cuts through the overburden layers is recommended over an upstream horizontal measure. This can be evidenced from the cases listed in Table 1, in which all dams use at least one cutoff wall. In this section, seepage control techniques used in some of these example dams are reviewed.
3.1. Earth core rockfill dams
3.1.1. The Xiaolangdi ECRD
The Xiaolangdi ECRD was constructed on the well-known, sediment-laden Yellow River. The thickness of the underlying overburden is approximately 80 m, and it is composed of intricate sand and gravel layers. The dam uses an inclined core wall (low-plasticity loam) as the main anti-seepage barrier, as shown in Figure 1. A vertical concrete cutoff wall (1.2 m) was built within the overburden to control the underground seepage. The top of the cutoff wall was embedded into the core wall for 12 m, while its bottom end penetrates the rock surface for at least 1 m. The inclined core was extended using low permeable clayey soils along the top surface of the cofferdam on the upstream side, forming a horizontal blanket that is useful in lengthen the seepage path. The cutoff wall under the cofferdam was elongated into this blanket. It was assumed that the upstream blanket would connect naturally with sand sediments during long-term operation once the reservoir was impounded.
Figure 1.
The maximum cross section of the Xiaolangdi ECRD.
During the design-phase for the Xiaolangdi ECRD, China had no experience in building such high rockfill dams on 80-m overburden layers, making this project a particularly difficult challenge. A number of alternative design proposals were also considered, including the complete removal of the overburden under the core wall and the use a horizontal impervious blanket without the permanent cutoff wall. Lessons learned from previous cases and, more importantly, technological advances in cutoff wall construction resulted in the final chosen design. The thickness of the cutoff wall was determined based on the allowable hydraulic gradient of concrete materials, the available equipment and stress–strain and seepage analyses results. Conventional concrete with a 28-d strength of 35 MPa was used for the main cutoff wall, while plastic concrete and high-pressure rotary jet grouting were used to construct the temporary cofferdam cutoff wall.
3.1.2. The Changheba ECRD
The Changheba ECRD is currently one of the highest rockfill dams under construction in China (Table 1). It sits on a thick, three-layer overburden. All three layers, fglQ3, alQ41 and alQ42 (shown in Figure 2) consist mainly of coarse gravel materials and therefore have relatively high deformation moduli and bearing capacity, but also exhibit high permeability. Local liquefiable sand layers are, however, also distributed widely within the alQ41 layer. The dam is located in a high earthquake intensity region, where the peak acceleration for an exceedance probability of 0.02 in 100 years is 3.59 m/s2. Sand liquefaction under earthquake condition is therefore a potential problem for this dam. The existence of these sand layers may also cause uneven deformation of the dam. To avoid these adverse risks, sand layers beneath both the core wall and the filter layer were removed completely. The maximum thickness of the retained overburden under the core wall is about 53 m.
Figure 2.
The maximum cross section of the Changheba ECRD.
Two concrete cutoff walls were poured with a net distance of 14 m. Both walls penetrate into the bedrock for at least 1.5 m. The main cutoff wall (1.4 m) is located within the dam axis plane and is connected to the core wall by a grouting gallery. The auxiliary cutoff wall (1.2 m) is located upstream of the main wall and embeds into the core wall for 9 m. The core wall is constructed with gravelly soils, where the maximum core material diameter allowed is 150 mm. The percentage of particles finer than 5 mm (P5) ranges from 30–50%. Another two strict requirements for the core materials are P0.075 ≥ 15%, and P0.005 ≥ 8%. Curtain grouting was conducted through the preset pipes within the cutoff walls. In particular, curtain grouting under the main cutoff wall was extended to the level 5 m below the relatively impermeable layer (q < 3 Lu.)
3.1.3. The Luding ECRD
The 84-m Luding ECRD was built on an overburden with a maximum thickness of 148 m. It is among the deepest overburden layers used as foundations of a rockfill dam in China. The complex soil and rock strata is shown in Figure 3. Four main layers can be observed: the fglQ3 layer, the prgl + alQ3 layer, the al + plQ4 layer, and the alQ42 layer. Basic properties of these layers are listed in Table 2. The third sub-layer of the prgl + alQ3 layer consists mainly of fine and silty sands, and therefore has a relatively low deformation modulus and a low bearing capacity. Sand lenses also exist in the second sub-layer of the prgl + alQ3 layer and the first sub-layer of the al + plQ4 layer.
Figure 3.
The maximum cross section of the Luding ECRD.
Layer
Density
Modulus and bearing capacity
Shear strength
Permeability
ρ (g/cm3)
ρd (g/cm3)
E0 (MPa)
R (MPa)
ϕ (°)
c (MPa)
k (cm/s)
Jc
1: fglQ3
2.20–2.30
2.05–2.15
55–65
0.55–0.65
30–32
0
2–4 × 10−2
0.12–0.15
2-2: prgl + alQ3
2.05–2.15
2.00–2.05
40–50
0.35–0.45
26–28
0
1–5 × 10−3
0.20–0.25
2-3: prgl + alQ3
1.60–1.70
1.40–1.60
18–22
0.12–0.16
15–18
0
1–10 × 10−3
0.25–0.36
3-1: al + plQ4
2.10–2.20
2.05–2.10
45–55
0.40–0.50
29–31
0
5–10 × 10−3
0.15–0.18
4: alQ42
2.15–2.25
2.00–2.10
50–60
0.50–0.55
28–30
0
1–10 × 10−2
0.10–0.12
Table 2.
Basic properties of the overburden layers in Luding ECRD.
Note: ρ = natural density; ρd = dry density; E0 = deformation modulus; R = allowable bearing capacity; ϕ = friction angle; c = cohesion; k = coefficient of permeability; Jc = allowable hydraulic gradient.
The dam uses a clay core as the anti-seepage barrier stabilized by the rockfill shoulders. The maximum diameter allowed for the core materials is 100 mm. Other restrictions imposed on the core materials are P5 ≥ 90%, P0.075 ≥ 60%, and P0.005 ≥ 15%. Repeated compaction near the optimum water content (±2%) produces a barrier with a coefficient of permeability less than 5 × 10−7 cm/s. A vertical concrete wall (1.0 m) was designed to cut off the foundation seepage water. The cutoff wall penetrates into the bedrock at both the left and right abutments of the dam. However, the overburden near the center of the canyon is so thick (148 m) that the current technology limits the capacity for constructing such a high underground wall. Therefore, a suspended cutoff wall was designed in the river center with the bottom end located at an elevation of 1200 m within the fglQ3 layer. The cutoff wall was connected to the clay core by a grouting gallery. The maximum height of the wall is 110 m, and the underlying unsealed overburden has a thickness of 40–50 m. Two rows of grouting pipes (ϕ 114 mm) were preset in the cutoff wall for grouting the bedrock, and two additional rows outside the wall for grouting the unsealed overburden. Both curtains extend into the bedrock, that is, the rock curtain reaches the level where q < 5 Lu., and the overburden curtains penetrate the rock for at least 2 m.
3.2. Asphalt core rockfill dams
3.2.1. The Yele ACRD
When high-quality clayey soils are difficult to obtain to construct an ECRD, an ACRD is an appropriate alternative. Asphalt is a highly plastic and impermeable material and has a good adaptability to uneven deformation. The Yele ACRD sits on a thick overburden as shown in Figure 4, with an extremely thick overburden at the right abutment. There are five main layers under the dam, as divided by the solid curves in Figure 4. The first (Q21 & Q22), third (Q32−1), fourth layers (Q32−2) are mainly composed of weakly cemented gravel materials, while the second layer (Q31) is composed of a mixture of gravel and hard clay. The relatively high fifth layer (Q32−3) is mainly composed of silty loam. The second layer (Q31) forms a relatively impermeable barrier in the foundation, the permeability coefficient of which is less than 2.2 × 10−5 cm/s and the allowable hydraulic gradient reaches 10.4. These features were fully used in designing the foundation impervious facility.
Figure 4.
The segments of seepage control barriers in the Yele ACRD.
The seepage control measures for this dam are divided, from the left bank to the right, into a number of different segments as described below. Curtain grouting was conducted within the gallery in the left river bank (0−150.00–0 + 007.275) to an elevation of 2574.5 m, with a maximum depth of 80 m. From 0 + 007.275 to 0 + 150.00, a concrete cutoff wall (1.0 m) was built into the bedrock for 1.0–2.0 m and curtain grouting was conducted into the weakly weathered rock. The maximum height of the cutoff wall in this segment is 53 m. The third segment starts from 0 + 150.00 until 0 + 308.00, and has a suspended cutoff wall (1.2 m), with its bottom end penetrating the second layer (Q31) for at least 5 m. The height of the cutoff wall in this section ranges from 25 m to 74 m, and curtain grouting was not conducted. From 0 + 308.00 to 0 + 414.00, two layers of concrete cutoff wall were constructed separately. The lower cutoff wall (1.0 m) was cast within the gallery, while the upper wall was constructed from the slope surface. Curtain grouting was conducted into the second layer (Q31) for at least 5 m. The fourth segment (0 + 414.00–0 + 610.00) uses a similar combination of two layers of cutoff wall (1.0 m) and a curtain grouting. The lower cutoff wall was cast to an elevation of 2500 m in the gallery, beneath which a curtain grouting embedding the second layer for at least 5 m was used to cut off the seepage water. The maximum depth of the curtain grouting in this fifth segment is about 120 m. Reinforced concrete was used for the top of the cutoff wall at an elevation of 2639.50–2654.50.0 m.
3.2.2. The Xiabandi ACRD
The Xiabandi ACRD was constructed mainly with gravel materials collected from the riverbed. The thickness of the foundation overburden reaches 148 m, which is almost twice the dam height (78 m). The distribution of the deposited layers is shown in Figure 5, where three main influential layers can be seen. The lowest layer (fglQ31) mainly contains glacial gravel particles 2–8 cm in diameter. The thickest layer (glQ3) mainly consists of coarser grains such as boulders and rubble, and it has local bridged structures distributed widely throughout and has a very complicated lithology. Enclosed within the glQ3 layer is an almond thick sand lens (fglQ32) which mainly consists of medium and fine sand, silty loam and silty sand. No high-quality clayey soils are found within 60 km of the dam site, and cement, steel and other necessary construction materials would also have to be imported from places even far away (320 km). The transportation condition to the dam site is rather severe at the time of designing. Traffic interruption is often caused by heavy snows in winter while in summer the flood originated from melting ice and snow often results in debris flow accidents. Because of these natural conditions, using too much steel and cement should be avoided. The dam site, on the other hand, is rich in good aggregate for asphalt concrete. Therefore, an asphalt core is used as the impervious system of the dam.
Figure 5.
The overburden and seepage control barrier in the Xiabandi ACRD.
A concrete cutoff wall was constructed, with the bottom inserted into the bedrock within shallow bank slopes. At the deepest locations in the center of canyon, concrete was poured from an elevation of 2803 m to an elevation of 2888 m at an ascending speed of 2.0–7.5 m/h, forming an 85-m high-suspended concrete cutoff wall (1.0 m). Four rows of curtain grouting were constructed to extend the impermeable system into the bedrock, including a row of curtain grouting upstream of the cutoff wall and two rows downstream. The middle curtain grouting was performed through the pipes preset in the cutoff wall. The main (inner) curtain grouting penetrates the bedrock for 10 m, and the outer three rows for at least 5 m. The permeability restriction on the curtain grouting is q < 5 Lu or k < 10−4 cm/s.
3.3. Concrete faced rockfill dams
3.3.1. The Aertash CFRD
The Aertash CFRD, currently under construction, is the highest dam of its type filled upon thick overburden layers. The alluvial foundation materials can be broadly divided into two layers. The upper layer (alQ4) mainly consists of gravel materials inlayed by boulders, the thickness of which ranges from 4.7 to 17.0 m. The lower layer (alQ2) is constituted mainly by weakly cemented gravel materials. The total thickness of the overburden layers reaches 94 m, as shown in Figure 6. The basic properties of both layers are given in Table 3. In general, both gravel layers are in medium dense states and have relatively high strength and deformation moduli. The permeability, however, is also very high and the discontinuous grading makes them vulnerable to seepage failure.
Figure 6.
The maximum cross section of the Aertash CFRD.
Layer
Density
Modulus and bearing capacity
Shear strength
Permeability
Dr
ρd (g/cm3)
E0 (MPa)
R (MPa)
ϕ (°)
c (MPa)
k (cm/s)
Jc
alQ4
0.80–0.85
2.23–2.23
40–50
0.60–0.70
37.0–38.0
0
0.29
0.10–0.15
alQ2
0.83–0.85
2.18–2.20
45–55
0.65–0.80
37.5–38.5
0
5.00
0.12–0.15
Table 3.
Basic properties of the overburden layers in Aertash CFRD.
Note: Dr = relative density.
Reinforced concrete face slabs are used to retain the reservoir water and a deep concrete wall (1.2 m) penetrating the rock foundation is designed to cut off the underground seepage. The thickness (t) of the concrete face is t = 0.4 + 0.0035H, where H is the depth measured from the top of the face slabs. The concrete face slabs are connected to the concrete cutoff wall by a toe plinth and two horizontal linking slabs. The maximum height of the cutoff wall is 90 m, with the top 10 m reinforced by steel rebar. Curtain grouting is conducted under the cutoff wall into the bedrock to a level where q < 5 Lu. The depth of curtain grouting ranges from 17 to 69 m.
For concrete faced rockfill dams, it is possible to construct the dam first and then continue with the construction of the cutoff wall, or vice versa. Finite element analyses can be used to optimize the construction sequences. In the current case, the concrete cutoff wall is planned to be built after the dam is filled to a certain elevation. The linking slabs will be cast before reservoir impounding. Connecting the top of the concrete cutoff wall to the linking slabs will also be finalized before impounding.
3.3.2. The Chahanwusu CFRD
The Chahanwusu CFRD is another high dam (110 m) built mainly with gravel materials, as shown in Figure 7. The dam sits on sand and gravel overburden layers with a maximum thickness of about 47 m. Three layers can be observed in Figure 7: the upper sand and gravel layer with an average thickness of 19.2 m; the medium-coarse sand layer with an average thickness of 5.9 m; and the lower sand and gravel layer with an average thickness of 11.2 m. Both of the sand and gravel layers have similar engineering properties. The average relative density is 0.85 and the average coefficient of permeability is 6.68 × 10−2 cm/s. The middle sand layer has an average relative density of 0.92 and a permeability coefficient of 4.27 × 10−2 cm/s. Therefore, all foundation layers are in relatively dense states. The dam is located within a region of high earthquake intensity, with a design horizontal acceleration of 2.31 m/s2. However, liquefaction within the medium-coarse sand layer is considered impossible.
Figure 7.
The maximum cross section of the Chahanwusu CFRD.
The dam uses upstream concrete face slabs as the seepage barrier, the thickness of which is determined by t = 0.3 + 0.003H. The toe plinths on the left and right bank slopes sit on bedrock, with both consolidation and curtain grouting performed underneath. The toe plinth built on the riverbed is located directly on the gravel layer, removing only the surficial loose deposits (1–2 m). Dynamic compaction was, however, performed to enhance the relative density and modulus of the materials beneath the toe plinth. A concrete wall (1.2 m) inserting the bedrock was constructed to cut off the foundation seepage. The cutoff wall was also connected by two horizontal linking slabs and the toe plinth to the upstream concrete face slabs, forming a closed impervious system. Curtain grouting was also performed under the cutoff wall into the bedrock until the designed level was achieved.
3.4. General remarks
There are other types of rockfill dams and sluices built on overburden layers. Reviewed above are three main kinds of rockfill dams used in water conservancy and hydropower engineering. All the dams in operation reviewed above function well without abnormal performance and major accidents. It could be remarked, in a general sense, that constructing high rockfill dams upon thick overburden layers is technically feasible. Using one or two vertical cutoff wall(s) embedding into the bedrock layer is an effective measure to control the underground seepage. In the case that the underlying overburden layers are extremely thick, a suspended cutoff wall extended by several rows of curtain grouting seems to be a feasible and effective choice.
4. Connection techniques
A reliable connection between the seepage control components within a rockfill dam and its overburden foundation is a prerequisite for a successful impervious system. Connection zones are weak places that require special design considerations. In this section, connection techniques used in different types of rockfill dams are briefly introduced.
4.1. Connection to clay core
For earth core rockfill dams, two basic design schemes can be used to connect the cutoff wall with the clay core. The simplest one is to insert the top of the cutoff wall directly into the clay core for a specified depth. The depth can be determined by the allowable hydraulic gradient along the interface between the cutoff wall and the surrounding soil. Inadequate inserting depth may result in seepage erosion along the contacting path. To avoid shear failure and cracks in the clay core adjacent to the inserting points, a zone of highly plastic clay is used to encapsulate the top of the cutoff wall, as shown in Figure 8(a). Highly plastic clay is more deformable than the clay core, and it can absorb incompatible deformation between the cutoff wall and the core wall without sacrificing its impermeable performance, even under large shear strains.
The second connection method is to use a concrete gallery on the top of the cutoff wall, as shown in Figure 8(b) and (c). Using a gallery near the base of the dam has several advantages. Curtain grouting can be performed within the gallery at the same time of dam filling, which may considerably shorten the construction time. Second, the gallery provides a possibility to enforce the foundation impervious system in the case that it does not function well. Without a gallery, repairing the underground seepage control component will be extremely difficult, if not impossible. The gallery can also be used to monitor the performance of the dam and it also provides a path to connect the left and right bank slopes. In the Changheba and Pubugou ECRDs, two concrete cutoff walls are used, one inserting into the clay core and the other connected with a gallery enclosed by highly plastic clay zones.
Careful designing, however, should be exercised when using a gallery. On the one hand, no structural joints are used in general for the riverbed monolith, and the gallery is vulnerable to cracks because of uneven settlement of the overburden layers. The gallery is usually extended into the rock banks, and the connection places of riverbed and rock segments often suffer large shear deformation and damage of water stops. On the other hand, connection of the concrete cutoff wall and the floor of the gallery also require special design considerations. In current practice in China, a rigid connection is mostly wide used, where the top of the concrete wall is reinforced and cast together with the floor of the gallery using an inverted trapezoidal transition cap, as shown in Figure 8(b) and (c). A rigid connection may result in high compressive stresses within the cutoff wall, but it removes the need for a complicated water stop structure between the cutoff wall and the gallery floor.
4.2. Connection to asphalt core
An asphalt core is a thin plate structure similar to a concrete cutoff wall. A connection between the two structures is often accomplished using a concrete base built on the top of the cutoff wall, as shown in Figure 9(a). The location of the concerned section can be seen in Figure 4. An inverted trapezoidal cap is used to accommodate the enlarged foot of the asphalt core wall, with mastic asphalt used to ensure the cementation between the cap and the core wall. The top surface of the base is usually curved slightly downwards to ensure that the asphalt core does not spread. A gallery can also be incorporated into the concrete base for inspection, grouting and communication. Asphalt core has currently not been used in rockfill dams higher than 150 m in China, and the connection with concrete cutoff wall is usually simpler than that in ECRDs as described above.
Figure 9.
Connection techniques in the Yele ACRD. (a) Section A-A. (b) Section B-B.
Another distinct feature of the reviewed Yele ACRD is the use of two layers of concrete cutoff walls that are connected by a construction gallery in the right bank, as shown in Figure 9(b). The upper cutoff wall was constructed on the ground, while the lower one in the gallery (6.0 × 6.5 m). Curtain grouting was also finished in this gallery. To connect the upper cutoff wall with the top of the gallery, joint curtain was constructed using a non-circulation descending stage grouting. Both cement and chemical slurries were pumped into the jointing soils under a maximum pressure of 4.5 MPa. Grouting operation did not cease until the permeability of the curtain reached q < 5 Lu.
4.3. Connection to concrete face slabs
If the toe plinth of a concrete face rockfill dam is built on overburden layers and a concrete wall is used to cut off the underground seepage, then a reliable connection between the face slabs and the cutoff wall should be guaranteed. Now, it is a standard way to use one or two linking slabs to connect the cutoff wall with the toe plinth, as exemplified in Figure 10. Water stops are installed at the connection points of different components. The width of the toe plinth and the linking slab(s) should be determined based on the allowable hydraulic gradient of the underlying overburden, and on the permitted three-dimensional displacements that are sustainable for the water stop structures. The designing features of connection systems in typical CFRDs are shown in Table 4. In these CFRDs, the width of the linking slab(s) usually ranges from 2 to 4 m.
Figure 10.
Connection techniques in the Aertash CFRD.
No.
Dam
Dam height (m)
Overburden thickness (m)
Thickness of cutoff wall (m)
Width of toe plinth (m)
Width of linking slab (m)
1
Xieka
108.2
100
1.2
4.0
4.0
2
Nalan
109
24
0.8
8.0
3.0
3
Miaojiaba
111
48
1.2
6.0
3.0
4
Jiudianxia
136.5
56
1.2
6.0
4.0
5
Aertash
164.8
94
1.2
4.0
3.0 + 3.0
6
Chahanwusu
110
47
1.2
4.0
3.0 + 3.0
7
Duonuo
112.5
40
0.8
5.0
3.0
8
Laodukou
96.8
30
0.8
7.0
3.0 + 3.0
9
Jinchuan
112.0
65
1.2
4.0
4.0 + 4.0
10
Gunhabuqile
160.0
50
1.2
4.0
2.0 + 4.0
Table 4.
Designing features of the connection systems of typical CFRDs.
The watertight structure for the perimetric joints used in most CFRDs (e.g., Aertash) consists of three layers. A “W”-shaped copper water stop is used at the bottom, and a wavy watertight stripe is used as the middle sealer. Plastic filling material is enclosed by a “Ω”-shaped rubber plate and fixed at the top of the joints. The gap between the different concrete components is 20 mm, and 12-mm wooden plates are placed in between these components.
5. Foundation improvement techniques
After removing the surficial loose layers, most overburden still requires some additional treatment before using as a dam foundation. Commonly used techniques include compaction, consolidation grouting, vibro-replacement stone columns, high-pressure jet grouting, and so on. These treatment techniques are briefly summarized below.
5.1. Compaction
To provide a firm foundation, vibrating rollers are always used to compact the overburden retained. Dynamic compaction is also commonly used to increase the stiffness and strength of the overburden layers. The authors recommend the Miaojiaba CFRD as an example [9] for dynamic compaction, which was performed before constructing the dam. The average settlement achieved by dynamic compaction was 26.4 cm, and the measured settlement of the overburden during dam operation is about 35–50 cm, indicating that the total settlement may be considerably larger if dynamic compaction has not been performed. Prior to dynamic compaction operations, it is, however, necessary to lower the underground water table.
5.2. Consolidation grouting
Consolidation grouting is always performed to provide a sound foundation for the seepage barrier of dams (e.g., clay core and toe plinth). The depth of grouting generally ranges from 5 to 10 m. The distances between grouting holes and rows range from 2 to 3 m. A concrete plate is usually cast before conducting the consolidation grouting works, serving as a working platform for grouting.
5.3. Vibro-replacement stone column
For weak layers such as sand lenses that are difficult to remove, vibro-replacement stone columns are usually used to densify the soils to form a composite foundation. The stone columns also serve as vertical drainage paths that are beneficial to dissipate the pore pressure within the surrounding soils. In the Huangjinping ACRD [14], vibro-replacement stone columns with a diameter of 1.0 m were set to improve the sand lenses buried more than 25 m below the ground surface.
5.4. High-pressure jet grouting
High-pressure jet grouting is a ground improvement and soil stabilization method, where a stabilizing fluid is injected at a high velocity into the treated soil under a high pressure. The grouted fluid hardens within the soil, forming well-cemented jet grouted columns. High-pressure jet grouting is a very versatile foundation improvement method and has been used not only in building temporary cutoff wall for cofferdams (e.g., Figure 1), but also in treating deeply buried sand lenses within the overburden layers (e.g., Figure 2).
6. Summary and conclusion
Great advancements in constructing high rockfill dams on thick overburden layers have been achieved in China over the past 20 years. Successful practice can be attributed to progresses in geological and geotechnical investigation techniques, proper designing and connection of the watertight systems, as well as the careful foundation improvement measures. It can be expected that even challenging geological conditions may be encountered in the future, which poses pressing needs in the following aspects:
Reliable assessment of overburden layers and their engineering properties. Combined use of traditional and newly invented geological and geotechnical investigation methods may considerably improve the reliability of the proposed results. Design engineers should fully understand the geotechnical parameters at hand and the possible limitations involved.
Numerical simulation techniques. Computational simulations (such as the finite element method) are playing an increasingly important role in designing. Embedding reasonable and simple constitutive models for dam materials and in-situ overburden soils into a fully coupled procedure can yield reliable predictions on the performance of both dams and their seepage barriers in an economical way. Such constitutive models, however, are still scarce.
Effective emergency countermeasures. It is very difficult to guarantee completely reliable construction quality for seepage control facilities as they are either enclosed inside the dam or buried deep under the dam. In the event that unexpected leakage does occur anywhere in the dam or foundation, effective countermeasures should be in place to eliminate threatens and to prevent amplification of leakage points.
Acknowledgments
This work is supported by the National Key Research and Development Program of China (No. 2017YFC0404806) and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Nos. 51779152 and U1765203).
\n',keywords:"rockfill dam, overburden layer, seepage control, foundation treatment, in-situ test",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/61949.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/61949.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61949",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61949",totalDownloads:485,totalViews:317,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"March 8th 2018",dateReviewed:"May 9th 2018",datePrePublished:"November 5th 2018",datePublished:"February 20th 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Rockfill dams are very widely constructed all over the world due to their good adaptability to diverse geological and geographical conditions, and their relatively low cost compared to other dam types. However, natural satisfactory sites are increasingly difficult to find in many countries due to past dam development. In some circumstance, building dams over thick overburden layers is unavoidable. In this chapter, Chinese practices in constructing high earth and rockfill dams over thick overburden layers are reviewed. The geological and geotechnical investigation techniques are briefly summarized, and seepage control systems of some selected cases as well as the connection of the impervious systems of both the dams and their foundation layers are described. Commonly used foundation improvement techniques are also presented, followed by simple descriptions of aspects that require further research and development.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/61949",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/61949",signatures:"Zhongzhi Fu, Shengshui Chen and Enyue Ji",book:{id:"7225",title:"Dam Engineering",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Dam Engineering",slug:"dam-engineering",publishedDate:"February 20th 2019",bookSignature:"Hasan Tosun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7225.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"79083",title:"Prof.",name:"Hasan",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"hasan-tosun",fullName:"Hasan Tosun"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"249577",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhongzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Fu",fullName:"Zhongzhi Fu",slug:"zhongzhi-fu",email:"fu_zhongzhi@yahoo.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Nanjing Hydraulic Research Institute",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"256310",title:"Prof.",name:"Shengshui",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",fullName:"Shengshui Chen",slug:"shengshui-chen",email:"sschen@nhri.cn",position:null,institution:null},{id:"256311",title:"Dr.",name:"Enyue",middleName:null,surname:"Ji",fullName:"Enyue Ji",slug:"enyue-ji",email:"eyji@nhri.cn",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Geological and geotechnical investigations",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Geological investigation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Geotechnical tests and interpretation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"3. Seepage control techniques",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.1. Earth core rockfill dams",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"3.1.1. The Xiaolangdi ECRD",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"3.1.2. The Changheba ECRD",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"Table 2.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.2. Asphalt core rockfill dams",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"3.2.1. The Yele ACRD",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"3.2.2. The Xiabandi ACRD",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"3.3. Concrete faced rockfill dams",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"Table 3.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"3.3.2. The Chahanwusu CFRD",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"3.4. General remarks",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17",title:"4. Connection techniques",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"4.1. Connection to clay core",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"4.2. Connection to asphalt core",level:"2"},{id:"sec_19_2",title:"4.3. Connection to concrete face slabs",level:"2"},{id:"sec_21",title:"5. Foundation improvement techniques",level:"1"},{id:"sec_21_2",title:"5.1. Compaction",level:"2"},{id:"sec_22_2",title:"5.2. Consolidation grouting",level:"2"},{id:"sec_23_2",title:"5.3. Vibro-replacement stone column",level:"2"},{id:"sec_24_2",title:"5.4. High-pressure jet grouting",level:"2"},{id:"sec_26",title:"6. Summary and conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_27",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'International Commission on Large Dams (ICOLD). Concrete Face Rockfill Dams, Concepts for Design and Construction. Beijing: China Water Power Press; 2010'},{id:"B2",body:'Xu Q, Chen W, Zhang Z. New views on forming mechanism of deep overburden on river bed in southwest of China. Advances in Earth Science. 2008;23:448-456. DOI: 10.3321/ j.issn:1001-8166.2008.05.002'},{id:"B3",body:'Deng MJ. Advances in key technology for concrete face dams with deep overburden layers under cold and seismic conditions. Chinese Journal of Geotechnical Engineering. 2012;34:985-996'},{id:"B4",body:'Zhang H, Chen J, Hu S, Xiao Y, Zeng B. Deformation characteristics and control techniques at the Shiziping earth core rockfill dam. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering. 2016;142(2):04015069. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)GT.1943-5606.0001385'},{id:"B5",body:'Liu SH. Safety assessment of hydraulic structures built on overburden layer. Dam and Safety. 2015;1:46-63. DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.1671-1092.2015.01.015'},{id:"B6",body:'Zhou W, Li SL, Ma G. Assessment of the crest cracks of the Pubugou rockfill dam based on parameters back analysis. Geomechanics and Engineering. 2016;11(4):571-585. DOI: 10.12989/gae.2016.11.4.571'},{id:"B7",body:'Xiong K, He Y, Wu X, Dong Y. Stress and deformation behavior of foundation gallery of Changheba hydropower station. Chinese Journal of Geotechnical Engineering. 2011;33:1767-1774'},{id:"B8",body:'Tian J, Wang P, Liu H, Zhang P. Joint types for impervious walls and core mass of Maoergai core wall rockfill dam. Advances in Science and Technology of Water Resources. 2010;30:41-45. DOI: 10.3880/j.issn.1006-7647.2010.04.010'},{id:"B9",body:'Fang GD, Dang LC. Achievements and main technological problems in constructing dams on thick overburden layers. In: Proceedings of National Conference on Technology for Earth-Rockfill Dam; 15-17 October 2012; Chengdu. Beijing: China Electric Power Press; 2012. pp. 35-46'},{id:"B10",body:'Li ZX, Li MH. Construction of cut-off wall in deep overburden for Luding hydropower station. Water Power. 2012;38:50-53. DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.0559-9342.2012.01.016'},{id:"B11",body:'Cao XX. Study on seismic safety of high rockfill dam with earth core on the thick overburden layer [thesis]. Wuhan: Wuhan University; 2013'},{id:"B12",body:'Fan S, Zheng X. Design and construction of foundation anti-seepage for dam of Xiabandi water control project. Water Resources and Hydropower Engineering. 2012;43:8-11. DOI: 10.13928/j.cnki.wrahe.2012.10.017'},{id:"B13",body:'Sun M, Chen J, Chen X. Stress and deformation analysis of the rock-fill dam with deep covering layer by static three dimensional finite element method. Yellow River. 2013;35:103-106. DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.1000-1379.2013.06.035'},{id:"B14",body:'Luo Q, Song W, Zhao X. Construction technology of large thickness cutoff wall with depth over 100 m in Huangjinping hydropower station. Water Power. 2016;42:47-50. DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.0559-9342.2016.03.013'},{id:"B15",body:'Wang W, Höeg K, Zhang Y. Design and performance of the Yele asphalt-core rockfill dam. Canadian Geotechnical Journal. 2010;47:1365-1381. DOI: 10.1139/T10-028'},{id:"B16",body:'Li NH. Recent Technology for High Concrete Face Rockfill Dams. Beijing: China Water Power Press; 2007'},{id:"B17",body:'Shen T, Li GY, Li Y, Li J, Feng YL. Numerical analysis of joint types between toe slab and foundation of CFRD in alluvial deposit layer. Chinese Journal of Rock Mechanics and Engineering. 2005;24:2588-2592. DOI: 10.3321/j.issn:1000-6915.2005.14.030'},{id:"B18",body:'Lv SX. The design and research of the concrete face rock-fill dam of Jiudianxia hydroelectric project on the Taohe river in Gansu province [thesis]. Xi’an: Xi’an University of Technology; 2004'},{id:"B19",body:'Deng MJ, Wu LY, Wang Y, Fan JY, Li XQ. Design of dam body structure and seepage control for deep overlying strata in dam foundation of Aertash hydro project. Journal of Water Resources and Architectural Engineering. 2014;12:149-155. DOI: 10.3969/j.issn. 1672-1144.2014.02.031'},{id:"B20",body:'Feng J, Xin JS. Design of the concrete face rockfill dam for Duonuo hydropower station. Sichuan Water Power. 2012;31:100-102. DOI: 10.3969/j.issn.1001-2184.2012.z1.031'},{id:"B21",body:'Wu XB, Zhuang JG, Zheng XJ, Liang Q. Design characteristics of face rockfill dam in Laodukou hydropower station. Hydropower and New Energy. 2012;100:23-25. DOI: 10. 3969/j.issn.1671-3354.2012.01.007'},{id:"B22",body:'Li WK. Research on drilling for deep overburden layer of Aertash river in Xinjiang. Journal of Water Resources and Architectural Engineering. 2010;8:34-53. DOI: 10.3969/ j.issn.1672-1144.2010.05.010'},{id:"B23",body:'U.S. Army of Corps of Engineers (USACE). Geophysical Exploration for Engineering and Environmental Investigations [Engineering Manual]. EM 1110-1-1802; 1995'},{id:"B24",body:'Goto S, Suzuki Y, Nishio S, Ohoka H. Mechanical properties of undisturbed tone-river gravel obtained by in-situ freezing method. Soils and Foundations. 1992;32(3):15-25. DOI: 10.3208/sandf1972.32.3_15'},{id:"B25",body:'Wang QG, Yan YQ. Engineering properties of the gravel layers in dam foundations of hydropower stations. In: Proceedings of National Conference on Technology for Earth-Rockfill Dam; 27-29 September 2014; Dandong. Beijing: China Electric Power Press; 2015. pp. 343-354'},{id:"B26",body:'Zhao JM. Large-scale in-situ Tests for the Mechanical Properties of Dam Materials Used in Aertash Concrete Face Rockfill Dam. [Scientific Report]. Beijing: China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research; 2017'},{id:"B27",body:'Wang L, Liu S, Chen Z, Li Z. Shear strength tests on river overburden in dam site of hydropower station. Water Resources and Power. 2014;32(1):122-124'},{id:"B28",body:'Cheng ZL, Pan JJ, Zuo YZ, Hu SG, Gheng YH. New experimental methods for engineering properties of overburden of dam foundation and their applications. Chinese Journal of Geotechnical Engineering. 2016;38:18-23. DOI: 10.11779/CJGE2016S2003'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Zhongzhi Fu",address:"fu_zhongzhi@yahoo.com",affiliation:'
Geotechnical Engineering Department, Nanjing Hydraulic Research Institute, P. R. China
Key Laboratory of Failure Mechanism and Safety Control Techniques of Earth-Rock Dams, Ministry of Water Resource, P. R. China
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"7225",title:"Dam Engineering",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Dam Engineering",slug:"dam-engineering",publishedDate:"February 20th 2019",bookSignature:"Hasan Tosun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7225.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"79083",title:"Prof.",name:"Hasan",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"hasan-tosun",fullName:"Hasan Tosun"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"242554",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Rubio-Bellido",email:"carlosrubio@us.es",fullName:"Carlos Rubio-Bellido",slug:"carlos-rubio-bellido",position:null,biography:"PhD Architect, Associate Professor of the Building Construction II Department at Universidad de Sevilla, Spain. Lecturer of the following postgraduate courses: Master's Degree in Integral Management of Building, Universidad de Sevilla since 2015; Diploma of Energy Manager, Universidad de Sevilla since 2016; Master in Sustainable Habitat and Energy Efficiency, Universidad del Bío-Bío (2015-2016); Master's Degree in Urban Planning, University of Granada (2012); University expert in management and evaluation of the environmental and energy quality of the building, University of Seville (2011, 2012). Active member of the Research Group RNM-162: Composition, Architecture and Environment of the Universidad de Sevilla. His area of expertise covers climate change in the building sector, advanced building performance simulation, fuel poverty, energy efficiency and adaptive comfort. He has participated in international and national research projects related with energy efficiency. He is an author of more than 30 manuscripts and frequently a reviewer of international peer-reviewed journals.",institutionString:"University of Seville",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242554/images/system/242554.png",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},booksEdited:[],chaptersAuthored:[],collaborators:[]},generic:{page:{slug:"our-story",title:"Our story",intro:"
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",metaTitle:"Our story",metaDescription:"The company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/our-story",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
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IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
\\n
\\n\\n
2014
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
\\n
\\n\\n
2015
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
\\n\\t
40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
\\n\\t
Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
\\n
\\n\\n
2016
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\\n
\\n\\n
2017
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
\n\n
In the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\n\n
The IntechOpen timeline
\n\n
2004
\n\n
\n\t
Intech Open is founded in Vienna, Austria, by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students, and their first Open Access journals and books are published.
\n\t
Alex and Vedran launch the first Open Access, peer-reviewed robotics journal and IntechOpen’s flagship publication, the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\n
\n\n
2005
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes its first Open Access book: Cutting Edge Robotics.
\n
\n\n
2006
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes a special issue of IJARS, featuring contributions from NASA scientists regarding the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
\n
\n\n
2008
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: 200,000 downloads reached
\n
\n\n
2009
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: the first 100 Open Access STM books are published
\n
\n\n
2010
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: one million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen expands its book publishing into a new field: medicine.
\n
\n\n
2011
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: More than five million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Harold W. Kroto’s “Strategies to Successfully Cross-Link Carbon Nanotubes”. Find it here.
\n\t
IntechOpen and TBI collaborate on a project to explore the changing needs of researchers and the evolving ways that they discover, publish and exchange information. The result is the survey “Author Attitudes Towards Open Access Publishing: A Market Research Program”.
\n\t
IntechOpen hosts SHOW - Share Open Access Worldwide; a series of lectures, debates, round-tables and events to bring people together in discussion of open source principles, intellectual property, content licensing innovations, remixed and shared culture and free knowledge.
\n
\n\n
2012
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: 10 million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen holds Interact2012, a free series of workshops held by figureheads of the scientific community including Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro, director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, who took the audience through some of the most impressive human-robot interactions observed in his lab.
\n
\n\n
2013
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
\n
\n\n
2014
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
\n\t
IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
\n
\n\n
2015
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
\n\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
\n\t
40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
\n\t
Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
\n
\n\n
2016
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n
\n\n
2017
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
\n\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
\n
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