Some of the III–V NWs studied since 2010 and their efficiency achievement.
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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"10637",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Functional Foods - Phytochemicals and Health Promoting Potential",title:"Functional Foods",subtitle:"Phytochemicals and Health Promoting Potential",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The phytochemicals present in functional foods play a vital role in boosting immunity and promoting health. This book provides a comprehensive overview of the importance of functional foods and antioxidants and their scavenging activity for preventing various health-related disorders. This book also covers the therapeutic and medicinal potential of various bioactive compounds for a healthy lifestyle, as well as examines different products containing functional ingredients that demonstrate health-promoting potential.",isbn:"978-1-83968-933-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-932-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-934-5",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93962",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"functional-foods-phytochemicals-and-health-promoting-potential",numberOfPages:432,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"a4aa0abf066e78deed1f65312ff24b22",bookSignature:"Muhammad Sajid Arshad and Muhammad Haseeb Ahmad",publishedDate:"November 10th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10637.jpg",numberOfDownloads:5465,numberOfWosCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitations:5,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:11,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:17,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 29th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 27th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 26th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 16th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 15th 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"192998",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Sajid",middleName:null,surname:"Arshad",slug:"muhammad-sajid-arshad",fullName:"Muhammad Sajid Arshad",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192998/images/system/192998.jpg",biography:"Dr. Muhammad Sajid Arshad is currently working as Assistant Professor at Department of Food Science, Government College University Faisalabad, Pakistan. He served as visiting research scholar at the University of Illinois, Urbana Champaign, the USA for a period of six months. He received his doctoral degree from the University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan in 2013. From 2016-2017, he worked as postdoctoral fellow at Kyungpook National University, South Korea for one year. He worked with Iowa State University, the USA for 3 weeks. Later on, he got training from the University of Melbourne, Australia for 2 weeks. Dr. Arshad is author of about 65 publications and 10 book chapters to his credit. He has presented his papers in different national and international conferences in USA, Canada, Australia, South Korea, Thailand, and Turkey. He received several national and international awards in his field. His area of research is food science particularly functional foods, non-thermal processing technologies, muscle foods, and halal foods.",institutionString:"Government College University, Faisalabad",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"292145",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Haseeb Ahmad",slug:"muhammad-haseeb-ahmad",fullName:"Muhammad Haseeb Ahmad",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/292145/images/system/292145.png",biography:"Dr. Muhammad Haseeb Ahmad is currently an assistant professor in the Department of Food Science, Government College University Faisalabad, Pakistan. He also served as an assistant professor for one year at the National Institute of Food Science and Technology, University of Agriculture Faisalabad, Pakistan. He received his doctoral degree from Hohenheim University, Stuttgart, Germany, in 2016. During his stay there, he also worked as a research associate for research projects relevant to various food disciplines. Dr. Ahmad is the author of about thirty five research publications and twelve book chapters. He has also presented his research work at various national and international conferences (25). His area of research is food science with special expertise in process analytics and data mining.",institutionString:"Government College University, Faisalabad",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"323",title:"Food and Nutrition",slug:"food-and-nutrition"}],chapters:[{id:"78318",title:"Functional Foods and Human Health: An Overview",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99000",slug:"functional-foods-and-human-health-an-overview",totalDownloads:527,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Functional food is a whole ingredient or a part of food that used as food for specific therapeutic purposes. It is divided into two wide categories: Conventional and modified functional foods. Conventional functional Foods are composed of natural or whole-food ingredients that provide functional substances while modified functional is food or food products in which add additional ingredients for specific health purposes. Plant-based food such as fruits, vegetables, herbs, cereals, nuts and beans contain vitamins, minerals, fiber, omega-3 fatty acids, antioxidants and phenolic compounds that play a functional role in the human body against chronic diseases including cancer, cardiovascular and GIT-related disease. Some other foods or food products like juices, dairy products, fortified eggs and seafood are composed of functional components. Fish contain omega-3 fatty acids (EPA and DHA) that are played a functional role in heart health and brain development.",signatures:"Muhammad Sajid Arshad, Waseem Khalid, Rabia Shabir Ahmad, Muhammad Kamran Khan, Muhammad Haseeb Ahmad, Saira Safdar, Safura Kousar, Haroon Munir, Umair Shabbir, Muhammad Zafarullah, Muhammad Nadeem, Zubia Asghar and Hafiz Ansar Rasul Suleria",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78318",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78318",authors:[{id:"192998",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Sajid",surname:"Arshad",slug:"muhammad-sajid-arshad",fullName:"Muhammad Sajid Arshad"},{id:"416870",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Haseeb",surname:"Ahmad",slug:"muhammad-haseeb-ahmad",fullName:"Muhammad Haseeb Ahmad"},{id:"416871",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Kamran",surname:"Khan",slug:"muhammad-kamran-khan",fullName:"Muhammad Kamran Khan"},{id:"416872",title:"Mr.",name:"Waseem",surname:"Khalid",slug:"waseem-khalid",fullName:"Waseem Khalid"},{id:"416873",title:"Ms.",name:"Zubia",surname:"Asghar",slug:"zubia-asghar",fullName:"Zubia Asghar"},{id:"416874",title:"Ms.",name:"Saira",surname:"Safdar",slug:"saira-safdar",fullName:"Saira Safdar"},{id:"416875",title:"Ms.",name:"Safura",surname:"Kousar",slug:"safura-kousar",fullName:"Safura Kousar"},{id:"416876",title:"Dr.",name:"Rabia Shabir",surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rabia-shabir-ahmad",fullName:"Rabia Shabir Ahmad"},{id:"416877",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Nadeem",slug:"muhammad-nadeem",fullName:"Muhammad Nadeem"},{id:"416879",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Zafarullah",slug:"muhammad-zafarullah",fullName:"Muhammad Zafarullah"},{id:"416880",title:"Dr.",name:"Umair",surname:"Shabbir",slug:"umair-shabbir",fullName:"Umair Shabbir"},{id:"416881",title:"Dr.",name:"Haroon",surname:"Munir",slug:"haroon-munir",fullName:"Haroon Munir"},{id:"417013",title:"Dr.",name:"Hafiz Ansar Rasul",surname:"Suleria",slug:"hafiz-ansar-rasul-suleria",fullName:"Hafiz Ansar Rasul Suleria"}],corrections:null},{id:"75459",title:"Why Produce Food-Bioactive Compounds to Generate Functional Grade Foods?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96421",slug:"why-produce-food-bioactive-compounds-to-generate-functional-grade-foods-",totalDownloads:221,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Functional foods are those with health benefits but cannot incorporate and protect from oxidation or deterioration, maintaining the bioactive compounds (BC) activity. The liposomes have several advantages for BC encapsulation: ease of obtention, characterization, scaling-up, lipid protection for hydrophilic and lipophilic BC, and best, they are made with natural lipids of alimentary grade. In our studies, liposomes were made of soy phosphatidylcholine (SPC) with Stearic Acid or Calcium Stearate as membrane stabilizer. They encapsulated BC as vitamin E, vitamin C and folic acid (B9). The liposome’s design strategy is that SPC lipid’s components are BC like choline and essential fatty acids. These liposomes preserved and maintain the activity of the thermolabile vitamins C and B9. Like milk and fruit juice, in various food types can incorporate liposomes protecting BC. A series of laboratory studies will be performed to select the most stable liposomal formulations, like characterization, encapsulation efficiency, physicochemical, microbiological, thermal and sensory stability. Liposomes- BC design and development are discussed in the chapter. The food heat treatment and the conditions/storage time are also crucial and must be considered in these studies. Finally, incorporating the BC into a food production line is feasible with an excellent economic prospect until supermarket shelves are reached, like our food product proposal.",signatures:"Marina Marsanasco and Silvia del Valle Alonso",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75459",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75459",authors:[{id:"203036",title:"Dr.",name:"Silvia Del Valle",surname:"Alonso",slug:"silvia-del-valle-alonso",fullName:"Silvia Del Valle Alonso"},{id:"336784",title:"Dr.",name:"Marina",surname:"Marsanasco",slug:"marina-marsanasco",fullName:"Marina Marsanasco"}],corrections:null},{id:"78746",title:"Sustainable and Healthy Food Ingredients: Characterization and Application in Functional Products",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100165",slug:"sustainable-and-healthy-food-ingredients-characterization-and-application-in-functional-products",totalDownloads:185,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Nowadays, and considering the increasing pieces of evidence of health-promoting abilities of numerous food classes, a pronounced market pressure has been observed both in agricultural and biotechnological industries. Thus, while the development of functional foods seems to be conceived as an interesting trend with large market potential, the increasing demand and interest of sustainable food ingredients seems also promissory. In order to contribute to this approach, the proposal chapter will provides a comprehensive overview of the healthy and sustainable ingredients as edible mushrooms, legumes and bison emphasizing the characterization and application of those as natural ingredients in functional food products.",signatures:"Ţibulcă Dorin and Fogarasi Melinda",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78746",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78746",authors:[{id:"414876",title:"Dr.",name:"Melinda",surname:"Fogarasi",slug:"melinda-fogarasi",fullName:"Melinda Fogarasi"},{id:"429539",title:"Dr.",name:"Tibulca",surname:"Dorin",slug:"tibulca-dorin",fullName:"Tibulca Dorin"}],corrections:null},{id:"75960",title:"Eat Tasty and Healthy: Role of Polyphenols in Functional Foods",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96577",slug:"eat-tasty-and-healthy-role-of-polyphenols-in-functional-foods",totalDownloads:341,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Adverse reactions to food such as allergies and celiac disease are increasingly recognized as a growing public health burden. There is currently no cure for these diseases so that there is an unmet need to evaluate different nutritional approaches aiming at improving the quality of life of affected patients and their families. In this context, healthy promising nature-derived compounds, most of which contained in fruits and vegetables, have been studied as an alternative to attenuate the epidemic. Indeed, phenolic compounds have become an emerging field of interest in nutrition in the last decades. A growing build of research suggests that phenolic compounds inhibit pro-inflammatory transcription factors by interacting with proteins involved in gene expression and cell signaling, leading to protective effects against many inflammation-mediated chronic diseases. However, the use of phenolic compounds as attenuating agents of immune reactions to food has to be aligned to the organoleptic characteristics of food, since many compounds present unpleasant taste properties, namely bitter taste and astringency. In this framework, tasty but healthy phenolic compounds arise as attractive ingredients in the design and formulation of functional foods. This book chapter is focused on revisiting the organoleptic properties of phenolic compounds while evaluating the role of these compounds in health promoting actions, namely the management of immune reactions to food such as Food Allergies and Celiac Disease.",signatures:"Catarina Bessa-Pereira, Ricardo Dias, Elsa Brandão, Nuno Mateus, Victor de Freitas, Susana Soares and Rosa Pérez-Gregorio",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75960",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75960",authors:[{id:"313609",title:"Dr.",name:"Susana",surname:"Soares",slug:"susana-soares",fullName:"Susana Soares"},{id:"336758",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Maria Rosa",surname:"Perez-Gregorio",slug:"maria-rosa-perez-gregorio",fullName:"Maria Rosa Perez-Gregorio"},{id:"345790",title:"Prof.",name:"Nuno",surname:"Mateus",slug:"nuno-mateus",fullName:"Nuno Mateus"},{id:"345791",title:"Dr.",name:"Elsa",surname:"Brandão",slug:"elsa-brandao",fullName:"Elsa Brandão"},{id:"345792",title:"Dr.",name:"Catarina",surname:"Bessa Pereira",slug:"catarina-bessa-pereira",fullName:"Catarina Bessa Pereira"},{id:"345793",title:"Dr.",name:"Ricardo",surname:"Dias",slug:"ricardo-dias",fullName:"Ricardo Dias"},{id:"345794",title:"Prof.",name:"Victor",surname:"De Freitas",slug:"victor-de-freitas",fullName:"Victor De Freitas"}],corrections:null},{id:"75985",title:"The Impact of Dietary Compounds in Functional Foods on MicroRNAs Expression",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96746",slug:"the-impact-of-dietary-compounds-in-functional-foods-on-micrornas-expression",totalDownloads:299,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are a class of non-coding endogenous RNA molecules that are involved in post-transcriptional gene silencing via binding to their target messenger RNA, leading to mRNA degradation or translational repression. MicroRNAs can be modulated by several factors including hormones, transcription factors, and dietary compounds. These biologically active compounds have positive impact on the progression of human pathology including non-communicable diseases, which indicating that administration of diet may have potential as therapeutic agents in modulating the risk of chronic diseases. Interestingly, evidence emerging in recent years suggests that dietary miRNAs can be absorbed in human circulation, modulated human gene expression and biological functions. The exploitation of the miRNA functioning within different origins, cellular miRNAs and dietary miRNAs will help us to understand the molecular machinery as well as the regulatory mechanisms involved in fundamentally important biological processes. Therefore, this knowledge may be applied of natural bioactive compounds in preventive or therapeutic approaches.",signatures:"Wittaya Chaiwangyen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75985",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75985",authors:[{id:"337181",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Wittaya",surname:"Chaiwangyen",slug:"wittaya-chaiwangyen",fullName:"Wittaya Chaiwangyen"}],corrections:null},{id:"76273",title:"Functional-Antioxidant Food",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96619",slug:"functional-antioxidant-food",totalDownloads:279,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Nowadays, people face many different dangers, such as stress, unsafety food, and environmental pollution, but not everyone suffers. Meanwhile, free radicals are the biggest threat for humans because they lead to over 80 different diseases composed of aging. Free radicals can only be eliminated or minimized with antioxidant foods or antioxidants. The chapter on the functional-antioxidant food presents the antioxidant functional food concept, the classification, the structure, and the extraction process of antioxidant ingredients. Various antioxidant substances such as protein (collagen), polysaccharides (fucoidans, alginates, glucosamines, inulins, laminarins, ulvans, and pectins), and secondary metabolites (polyphenols (phlorotannins, lignins, polyphenols), alkaloids, and flavonoids) also present. The production technology, the mechanism, the opportunity, and the challenge of antioxidants functional food also present in the current chapter. The current chapter also gives the production process of functional-antioxidant food composed of the capsule, the tablet, tube, the pills, the powder, and the effervescent tablet.",signatures:"Nguyen Xuan Hoan, Le Thi Hong Anh, Duong Hong Quan, Dang Xuan Cuong, Hoang Thai Ha, Nguyen Thi Thao Minh, Dao Trong Hieu, Nguyen Dinh Thuat, Pham Duc Thinh and Dang Thi Thanh Tuyen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76273",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76273",authors:[{id:"286568",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Dang Xuan",surname:"Cuong",slug:"dang-xuan-cuong",fullName:"Dang Xuan Cuong"},{id:"356459",title:"Dr.",name:"Nguyen Xuan",surname:"Hoan",slug:"nguyen-xuan-hoan",fullName:"Nguyen Xuan Hoan"},{id:"356460",title:"Dr.",name:"Le Thi",surname:"Hong Anh",slug:"le-thi-hong-anh",fullName:"Le Thi Hong Anh"},{id:"356461",title:"Dr.",name:"Duong Hong",surname:"Quan",slug:"duong-hong-quan",fullName:"Duong Hong Quan"},{id:"356462",title:"Dr.",name:"Hoang Thai",surname:"Ha",slug:"hoang-thai-ha",fullName:"Hoang Thai Ha"},{id:"356463",title:"Dr.",name:"Nguyen Thi Thao",surname:"Minh",slug:"nguyen-thi-thao-minh",fullName:"Nguyen Thi Thao Minh"},{id:"356464",title:"Dr.",name:"Dao Trong",surname:"Hieu",slug:"dao-trong-hieu",fullName:"Dao Trong Hieu"},{id:"356465",title:"Dr.",name:"Nguyen Dinh",surname:"Thuat",slug:"nguyen-dinh-thuat",fullName:"Nguyen Dinh Thuat"},{id:"356466",title:"Dr.",name:"Pham Duc",surname:"Thinh",slug:"pham-duc-thinh",fullName:"Pham Duc Thinh"},{id:"356467",title:"Dr.",name:"Dang Thi Thanh",surname:"Tuyen",slug:"dang-thi-thanh-tuyen",fullName:"Dang Thi Thanh Tuyen"}],corrections:null},{id:"76403",title:"Physiological and Cellular Targets of Neurotrophic Anxiolytic Phytochemicals in Food and Dietary Supplements",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97565",slug:"physiological-and-cellular-targets-of-neurotrophic-anxiolytic-phytochemicals-in-food-and-dietary-sup",totalDownloads:376,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Diet impacts anxiety in two main ways. First anxiety can be caused by deficiencies in antioxidants, neurotransmitter precursors, amino acids, cations and vitamins and other cofactors. Second, anxiety can be reduced by anxiolytic nutraceuticals which are food molecules that bind to molecular targets of the amygdala and the hypothalamus-pituitary–adrenal axis (HPA-axis). Anxiety is a feeling of fear that arises from a perceived threat and can be a beneficial coping mechanism to threats and stressors. However excessive anxiety is a disorder that interferes with healthy responses to stressors. The amygdala is responsible for assigning value to a threat or stressor and triggering the HPA-axis to support the body wide system responses to the threat. The amygdala also communicates with the neuroplastic learning and memory centers of the hippocampus to fix or set a learned value to the threat. Interestingly, many anxiolytic nutraceuticals that show benefits in human clinical trials have neurotrophic activity and increase neuronal plasticity. Moreover, anxiolytic nutraceuticals either act like the neurotrophins, nerve growth factor (NGF), brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF and neurotrophin-3 (NT3) by either directly binding to or potentiating the tyrosine receptor kinase (TRK) family of receptors (TRKA, TRKB and TRKC) and activating the ERK1/2 signal transduction pathway associated with neurite outgrowth and neural plasticity. This chapter will explore the neuritogenic activity of clinically proven plant-based anxiolytic nutraceuticals and examine the commonality of TRKA-C receptors and the ERK1/2 signaling pathway in the pharmacological and nutraceutical treatment of anxiety disorders.",signatures:"Benjamin S. Weeks, Samuel D. Weeks, Amanda Kim, Landon Kessler and Pedro P. Perez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76403",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76403",authors:[{id:"44649",title:"Prof.",name:"Benjamin S.",surname:"Weeks",slug:"benjamin-s.-weeks",fullName:"Benjamin S. Weeks"},{id:"345672",title:"Dr.",name:"Samuel D.",surname:"Weeks",slug:"samuel-d.-weeks",fullName:"Samuel D. Weeks"},{id:"345692",title:"Dr.",name:"Amanda",surname:"Kim",slug:"amanda-kim",fullName:"Amanda Kim"},{id:"345693",title:"Dr.",name:"Landon",surname:"Kessler",slug:"landon-kessler",fullName:"Landon Kessler"},{id:"346663",title:"Dr.",name:"Pedro",surname:"Perez",slug:"pedro-perez",fullName:"Pedro Perez"}],corrections:null},{id:"76350",title:"Natural Compounds with Antioxidant Activity-Used in the Design of Functional Foods",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97364",slug:"natural-compounds-with-antioxidant-activity-used-in-the-design-of-functional-foods",totalDownloads:276,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter is intended to describe the main antioxidants used in the design and construction of functional foods. Defining the role of antioxidants, in the main redox processes in which certain oxidoreductases are involved, the best way of monitoring the activity of certain coenzymes of these oxidoreductases, will be established the main criteria in the design of sustainable functional foods. In addition, the importance of some coenzymes (FMN, FMNH + H +, NAD, NADH + H+) in preserving the activity of some valuable bio-compounds (with the role of antioxidants) in functional foods will be highlighted. Antioxidants are good disease-fighters, protecting our bodies from free radicals’ attacks that would otherwise damage of the human cellular structures. Knowing and supporting the activity of the main compounds (with antioxidant activity) are operations that improve the reaction mechanisms of redox processes and can significantly contribute to achieving good functional foods - able to regulate the acid–base balance of the body and improve the metabolic processes from the consumer body.",signatures:"Petre Săvescu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76350",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76350",authors:[{id:"336892",title:"Prof.",name:"Petre",surname:"Săvescu",slug:"petre-savescu",fullName:"Petre Săvescu"}],corrections:null},{id:"76000",title:"Theoretical Studies on Anti-Oxidant Activity of the Phytochemical, Coumestrol and Its Derivatives",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96967",slug:"theoretical-studies-on-anti-oxidant-activity-of-the-phytochemical-coumestrol-and-its-derivatives",totalDownloads:131,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Free radical-induced changes in cellular and organ levels have been studied as a possible underlying cause of various adverse health conditions. Important research efforts have, therefore, been made to discover more powerful and potent antioxidants/free radical scavengers for the treatment of these adverse conditions. The phytoestrogen coumestrol intensively attracted scientific interest due to their efficient pharmacological activities. In this scenario, DFT studies were carried out to test the antiradical activities of coumestrol and its derivatives. The results obtained from FEDAM plots demonstrated that the coumestrol derivatives pointed out were good radical scavengers relative to the parent molecule in the gas phase. The derivatives whose 16thposition substituted with electron-donating groups like -NH2, -OCH3 and -CH3 showed good antioxidant capacity. Three antioxidant mechanisms, including hydrogen atom transfer (HAT), electron transfer followed by proton transfer (SET-PT), and sequential proton loss electron transfer (SPLET), were investigated by measuring thermodynamic parameters.",signatures:"Puttanveedu Vinduja and Karuvanthodi Muraleedharan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76000",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76000",authors:[{id:"269630",title:"Dr.",name:"Karuvanthodi",surname:"Muraleedharan",slug:"karuvanthodi-muraleedharan",fullName:"Karuvanthodi Muraleedharan"},{id:"345668",title:"Ms.",name:"Puttanveedu",surname:"Vinduja",slug:"puttanveedu-vinduja",fullName:"Puttanveedu Vinduja"}],corrections:null},{id:"75848",title:"Functional Foods for the Management of Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96317",slug:"functional-foods-for-the-management-of-non-alcoholic-fatty-liver-disease",totalDownloads:589,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is increasingly evolving and a critical public health concern, raising the likelihood of liver cirrhosis, type 2 diabetes and cardiac problems. Existing epidemics of obesity and sedentary life style have lead to NAFLD’s elevated prevalence. In recent years there is profound change in the diet pattern, particularly the hypercaloric fat and carbohydrates for preventing or treating chronic liver disorders such as NASH and NAFLD. Functional and nutritional foods have contributed significantly to NAFLDimprovement and management. The justification for exploring functional foods as anti-NAFLD candidates for the chronic liver disease prevention is derived knowledge from in vitro and in vivo models. The findings from the in vitro and in vivo studies confirmed that these compounds are healthy, efficient, reversible inhibitors, when sufficiently consumed over a lifetime without severe toxicity, suitable for clinical trials and potentially becoming low-cost medication.",signatures:"Venkateish V. Palanisamy, Nivya Vijayan, Vani Vijay, Baskaran Vallikannan and Madan Kumar Perumal",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75848",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75848",authors:[{id:"194534",title:"Dr.",name:"Baskaran",surname:"Vallikannan",slug:"baskaran-vallikannan",fullName:"Baskaran Vallikannan"},{id:"334486",title:"Dr.",name:"Madan Kumar",surname:"Perumal",slug:"madan-kumar-perumal",fullName:"Madan Kumar Perumal"},{id:"341640",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nivya",surname:"Vijayan",slug:"nivya-vijayan",fullName:"Nivya Vijayan"},{id:"341643",title:"Mr.",name:"Venkatiesh",surname:"V. Palanisamy",slug:"venkatiesh-v.-palanisamy",fullName:"Venkatiesh V. Palanisamy"},{id:"341644",title:"Ms.",name:"Vani",surname:"Vijay",slug:"vani-vijay",fullName:"Vani Vijay"}],corrections:null},{id:"75603",title:"Role of Functional Food in Treating and Preventing Cardiovascular Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96614",slug:"role-of-functional-food-in-treating-and-preventing-cardiovascular-diseases",totalDownloads:178,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are still a major cause of mortality worldwide and are a serious health problem. Various factors that contribute toward CVDs include hypertension, tobacco use, physical inactivity, diabetes mellitus, obesity and overweight, alcohol, dietary factors and psychosocial aspects such as stress, anxiety and depression. Nutraceuticals and diet are very important for prevention of CVDs. The potential of nutraceuticals or functional food in mitigating risk of CVDs is discussed. Functional food with health related properties include fruit and vegetable, fish, legumes, nuts, soya protein, coffee, tea, chocolate, animal based functional food. In addition, some diet plans have shown the potential of reducing the incidence of CVDs. This includes the Mediterranean, Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH), Okinawan and vegetarian diets. This chapter examines the risk factors of CVDs, including hypertension, tobacco usage, physical inactivity, diabetes mellitus, overweight and obesity. The chapter also brings to the fore, functional foods with properties related to health and effect of dietary patterns in the treatment and prevention of CVDs.",signatures:"Mpho Edward Mashau and Shonisani Eugenia Ramashia",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75603",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75603",authors:[{id:"201858",title:"Mr.",name:"Mpho E.",surname:"Mashau",slug:"mpho-e.-mashau",fullName:"Mpho E. Mashau"},{id:"229973",title:"Ms.",name:"Shonisani Eugenia",surname:"Ramashia",slug:"shonisani-eugenia-ramashia",fullName:"Shonisani Eugenia Ramashia"}],corrections:null},{id:"77005",title:"Functional and Therapeutic Potential of γ-Oryzanol",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97666",slug:"functional-and-therapeutic-potential-of-em-em-oryzanol",totalDownloads:212,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter summarizes the entire literature available on the nutritional value and diverse therapeutic potentials Gamma-oryzanol, a nutraceutical obtained from rice brain oil, composed of a mixture of γ - oryzanol, a mixture of ferulic acid esters of phytosterols and triterpenoids, cycloartenyl ferulate, 24-methylenecycloartanyl ferulate, and campesteryl ferulate. In brief, the review covers the aspects such as the antioxidant mechanisms, effects on immune system, lipid disorders, diabetes, obesity and inflammation with the details of preclinical experiments, models and observations. Among the other highlights are the hepatoprotective, neuroprotective role in various neurological disorders such as Alzheimer’s, anxiety, Parkinson’s disease and wound healing effects. An overview of the sources, chemistry, physicochemical properties, pharmacokinetics and toxicity studies are also included.",signatures:"Aasiya Sulaiman, Aisha Sulaiman, Mehtap Sert, Mohammed Safwan Ali Khan and Mansoor A. Khan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77005",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77005",authors:[{id:"339886",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Mohammed Safwan",surname:"Ali Khan",slug:"mohammed-safwan-ali-khan",fullName:"Mohammed Safwan Ali Khan"},{id:"356526",title:"Ms.",name:"Aasiya",surname:"Sulaiman",slug:"aasiya-sulaiman",fullName:"Aasiya Sulaiman"},{id:"356527",title:"Ms.",name:"Aisha",surname:"Sulaiman",slug:"aisha-sulaiman",fullName:"Aisha Sulaiman"},{id:"356528",title:"Ms.",name:"Mehtap",surname:"Sert",slug:"mehtap-sert",fullName:"Mehtap Sert"},{id:"357106",title:"Prof.",name:"Mansoor",surname:"Ali Khan",slug:"mansoor-ali-khan",fullName:"Mansoor Ali Khan"}],corrections:null},{id:"75637",title:"Dietary Patterns for Immunity Support and Systemic Inflammation against Infections: A Narrative Review",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96610",slug:"dietary-patterns-for-immunity-support-and-systemic-inflammation-against-infections-a-narrative-revie",totalDownloads:320,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Nutrition has been recognized to play a regulatory role in human immune response and inflammation which may affect the pathogenesis of diseases. Current evidence suggests that the habitual dietary pattern therapeutical approach provides more synergistic beneficial action than the intervention of a single nutrient constituent. Several healthy dietary patterns are essential for the human immunity support against infectious diseases through alleviation of systemic inflammation. Long-term dietary patterns may affect the diversity of intestinal microbiota composition and lead to the decrease of pro-inflammatory cytokines from immune-related cells. Protease that may cause gut barrier breakdown (leaky gut) can be reduced either thus lessen translocation of endogenous bacterial endotoxin such as lipopolysaccharides (LPS) from the gut lumen to the bloodstream. In this review, we discuss the relationship between common healthy food-based dietary patterns with the protection of infectious diseases as a result of improvement in immune function and low-grade inflammatory indices. In contrary to the deleterious impact of the western diet, healthy eating habits (Mediterranean diet, dietary approaches to stop hypertension, plant-based diet, ketogenic diet) are associated with reduced susceptibility to infectious disease by the improvement of certain underlying metabolic comorbidities. Further studies are needed to determine suitable strategic implications of healthy dietary patterns on infectious disease mitigation in a particular context.",signatures:"Budhi Setiawan and Masfufatun Masfufatun",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75637",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75637",authors:[{id:"232747",title:"Dr.",name:"Budhi",surname:"Setiawan",slug:"budhi-setiawan",fullName:"Budhi Setiawan"},{id:"346372",title:"Dr.",name:"Masfufatun",surname:"Masfufatun",slug:"masfufatun-masfufatun",fullName:"Masfufatun Masfufatun"}],corrections:null},{id:"76421",title:"Disease Modifying Potential of Functional Foods for Neurodegenerative Disorders: Status Update on Regulatory Compliance",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97546",slug:"disease-modifying-potential-of-functional-foods-for-neurodegenerative-disorders-status-update-on-reg",totalDownloads:255,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Progressive loss of functional neurons is typically characterized as neurodegeneration. This is particularly pronounced during aging and results in debilitating conditions such as Parkinson’s disease and Alzheimer’s disease. Symptoms appear typically after 70–80% neuronal loss, resulting in irreversible damage. Several drugs have been clinically approved but they only alleviate symptoms and additionally lead to undesirable side effects. Hence there is a dire need for drugs and/or supplements which address this lacuna. Functional foods are known to offer health benefits beyond their attributed nutritional values. Unlike dietary supplements which are made from foods or food-like substances with enriched nutritional value, functional foods are foods that are modified for greater nutritional value. Conceptually, as an expansion of dietary supplements, functional foods are known to be neuroprotective. Here we discuss functional foods which can potentially be used as adjunctive therapy, with a note on the regulatory compliance.",signatures:"Christofer Thomas, Borehalli Mayegowda Shilpa and Rajeswara Babu Mythri",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76421",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76421",authors:[{id:"37274",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajeswara Babu",surname:"Mythri",slug:"rajeswara-babu-mythri",fullName:"Rajeswara Babu Mythri"},{id:"336231",title:"Dr.",name:"Borehalli",surname:"Mayegowda Shilpa",slug:"borehalli-mayegowda-shilpa",fullName:"Borehalli Mayegowda Shilpa"},{id:"336232",title:"Dr.",name:"Christofer",surname:"Thomas",slug:"christofer-thomas",fullName:"Christofer Thomas"}],corrections:null},{id:"77796",title:"Therapeutic Potential of Dietary Polyphenols",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99177",slug:"therapeutic-potential-of-dietary-polyphenols",totalDownloads:196,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The chapter summarizes available research on polyphenols and the potential for polyphenol based therapeutics. Polyphenols have the potential to be used in a multi-target fashion therapeutically. The majority of the polyphenol benefits appear to share positive effects across multiple disease states including inflammatory diseases, diseases of metabolic dysregulation and cancer. The reviewed literature includes human, animal and cell culture based studies. Selected mechanisms within each disease state are highlighted including interleukin inflammatory markers, NF-κB, acetyl-CoA concentration regulation of metabolism, and p-glycoprotein multidrug efflux pump associated with cancer treatment failures. Reviewed studies discuss polyphenols inhibiting transcription factors that control expression on inflammatory factors as well as activating other transcription factors that increase expression of enzymes protective of oxidative damage. Levels of metabolic regulatory enzymes are also affected positively by polyphenol addition through epigenetic modifications. Epigenetic modifications affecting cancer development and progression appear positively affected by polyphenol treatment. Additionally, oxidative damage protection of normal cells can be achieved by polyphenol treatment thus limiting chemotherapeutic damage. Upon review of the available literature, a strong case for the potential use of polyphenols in therapeutic situations stands out. Potential risks included are that the purity and specific concentrations required to achieve therapeutic benefits without potential side effects need to be examined prior to the adoption of therapeutics.",signatures:"Amy L. Stockert and Seth Hall",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77796",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77796",authors:[{id:"103192",title:"Dr.",name:"Amy L.",surname:"Stockert",slug:"amy-l.-stockert",fullName:"Amy L. Stockert"},{id:"414450",title:"Mr.",name:"Seth",surname:"Hall",slug:"seth-hall",fullName:"Seth Hall"}],corrections:null},{id:"75487",title:"Flour-Based Confectionery as Functional Food",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95876",slug:"flour-based-confectionery-as-functional-food",totalDownloads:364,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Nowadays, the flour-based confectionery industry is facing different challenges in reducing caloric and increasing nutritive values in order to produce healthier products, given that consumption of flour-based confectionery products has been growing steadily worldwide. In addition to wheat flour, these products include sugar and fat, which contribute to high energy value, but have few micronutrients and are mostly poor in nutritional terms. Due to frequency of consumption, they can harm a balanced diet, especially when it comes to children and young people. Flour-based confectionery is highly suitable for enrichment with ingredients that have pronounced functional properties. In this sense, the text offers some possibilities for improving such products through different approaches and presents new trends in developing functional, flour-based confectionery by using different supplements that could decrease caloric value, improve nutritional and non-nutritional values and develop products with pronounced functional properties.",signatures:"Sanja Oručević Žuljević and Asima Akagić",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75487",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75487",authors:[{id:"336437",title:"Prof.",name:"Asima",surname:"Akagić",slug:"asima-akagic",fullName:"Asima Akagić"},{id:"336783",title:"Prof.",name:"Sanja",surname:"Oručević Žuljević",slug:"sanja-orucevic-zuljevic",fullName:"Sanja Oručević Žuljević"}],corrections:null},{id:"77462",title:"Bitter Melon: A Multifunctional Medicinal Plant with Powerful Bioactive Compounds",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98812",slug:"bitter-melon-a-multifunctional-medicinal-plant-with-powerful-bioactive-compounds",totalDownloads:276,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Nature is full of poisons as well as life-saving entities. Extracts of natural products in medicinal plants have been used for thousands of years in traditional medicine throughout the World. Bitter melon (Momordica charantia) is a member of Cucurbitaceae family, widely distributed in tropical regions of the World, that has been used in folk medicine for the treatment of diabetes mellitus, and its fruit has been used as a vegetable for thousands of years. It contains phytochemicals, flavonoids, triterpenes, saponins, ascorbic acid, steroids, proteins, and polysaccharides. This plant is a traditional herbal medicine, possesses various biological, medicinal activities and pharmacological functions, namely antidiabetic, anthelmintic, contraceptive, antimalarial, laxative, antihyperglycemic, antimutagenic, antiulcer, antilipolytic, antifertility, hepatoprotective, anticancer, antibacterial, antiviral, antitumor, immunomodulation, antioxidant, antidiabetic, and anti-inflammatory activities of M. charantia have been reported. Its fruit has a special bitter taste, parts of M. charantia, such as fruits, vines, leaves and even roots have been used as folk medicine for the remedy of diseases like toothache, diarrhea, and diabetes. It is also used for the treatment of eczema, gout, jaundice, pneumonia, psoriasis, and rheumatism. These beneficial effects are attributed to the various bioactive components of M. charantia, which are important sources of phytoconstituents used to treat various diseases since ancient times. This chapter reviews various aspects of the results of investigations involving M. charantia in the recent years, providing a comprehensive overview of the phytochemical application of M. charantia to attract more attention to their biological activities for better utilization of M. charantia; focusing on the review of benefits that bitter melon offers in terms of its potential as a source of bioactive compounds and its role in the control of different diseases.",signatures:"Fadime Eryılmaz Pehlivan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77462",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77462",authors:[{id:"200567",title:"Dr.",name:"Fadime",surname:"Eryılmaz Pehlivan",slug:"fadime-eryilmaz-pehlivan",fullName:"Fadime Eryılmaz Pehlivan"}],corrections:null},{id:"77183",title:"Evaluation of the Effect of Fruit Juice Containing Bacillus Coagulans Probiotic Supplement on the Level of Immunoglobulins A, M and Lymphocytes in Two-Speed Athletes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.98370",slug:"evaluation-of-the-effect-of-fruit-juice-containing-bacillus-coagulans-probiotic-supplement-on-the-le",totalDownloads:242,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Probiotics exert beneficial effects on their host health by creating microbial balance in the digestive system. The role of some probiotic strains in strengthening the immune system and reducing the risk of diseases, especially respiratory infections, has been proven in previous studies. Aim: The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of probiotic supplementation containing Bacillus coagulans on the Runner athletes immune system. In this study, the effect of Bacillus coagulans probiotic on immunoglobulins A, M and monocytes count 60 male athlete sprints Evaluates that which were randomly divided into two groups of 30.For 3 months, the experimental group received a daily glass of probiotic juice containing 109 cfu / ml containing probiotic supplement and the control group received plain and no supplemental juice. During the study period, once every 2 weeks, One day after exercise (running 200 meters), blood samples were taken from all participants Then In the collected samples, IgA, IgM and lymphocytes were evaluated. Consumption of probiotic juice containing 2 × 109 f cfu/ml Bacillus coagulans probiotic supplement showed a significant difference in the amount of IgA, IgM and Lymphocyte between the experimental group and the control group. The results of this study showed that the consumption of juice containing probiotic supplement Bacillus coagulans can increase the level of immune factors IgM, IgA, lymphocytes and prevent the occurrence of diseases, especially respiratory infections, by improving the function of the immune system.",signatures:"Elahe Ebrahimi, Maryam Golshahi, Samane Yazdi and Mohammad Mehdi Pirnia",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77183",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77183",authors:[{id:"275443",title:"MSc.",name:"Elahe",surname:"Ebarhimi",slug:"elahe-ebarhimi",fullName:"Elahe Ebarhimi"}],corrections:null},{id:"77413",title:"Oilseeds as Functional Foods: Content and Composition of Many Phytochemicals and Therapeutic Alternatives",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97794",slug:"oilseeds-as-functional-foods-content-and-composition-of-many-phytochemicals-and-therapeutic-alternat",totalDownloads:201,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Oilseeds composition has been studied extensively, but recently it has been thoroughly investigated considering especially the phytochemicals representing the minor components. This interest is connected with the activity of such compounds against cardiovascular diseases, lipid oxidation, protein cross-linking and DNA mutations and hemostasis function, which prevent the attack of biomolecules by free radicals. This chapter book could aim to give an overview of the different uses of several oilseeds as bioactive foods, focusing on their active constituents (phytosterols, polyphenols, tocopherols, tocotrienols, and carotenoids) and their content in oilseeds. We will also focus on the beneficial aspects of theses nutraceuticals in human health.",signatures:"Aicha O. Cherif",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/77413",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/77413",authors:[{id:"66192",title:"Dr.",name:"Aicha Olfa",surname:"Cherif",slug:"aicha-olfa-cherif",fullName:"Aicha Olfa Cherif"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6669",title:"Meat Science and Nutrition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bca2d87ed258a60a9c92c5c6056d1465",slug:"meat-science-and-nutrition",bookSignature:"Muhammad Sajid Arshad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6669.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"192998",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Sajid",surname:"Arshad",slug:"muhammad-sajid-arshad",fullName:"Muhammad Sajid Arshad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"497",title:"Soybean and Nutrition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"11aa0c9ed0f6ea8da765be93b50954bb",slug:"soybean-and-nutrition",bookSignature:"Hany El-Shemy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/497.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"54719",title:"Prof.",name:"Hany",surname:"El-Shemy",slug:"hany-el-shemy",fullName:"Hany El-Shemy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"496",title:"Soybean and Health",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"66d40dbc031b2825ba95f7ac2bfae1b6",slug:"soybean-and-health",bookSignature:"Hany El-Shemy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/496.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"54719",title:"Prof.",name:"Hany",surname:"El-Shemy",slug:"hany-el-shemy",fullName:"Hany El-Shemy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6678",title:"Antioxidants in Foods and Its Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"819eb2d8d2c889ef23affd7fd01e4e98",slug:"antioxidants-in-foods-and-its-applications",bookSignature:"Emad Shalaby and Ghada Mostafa Azzam",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6678.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"63600",title:"Prof.",name:"Emad",surname:"Shalaby",slug:"emad-shalaby",fullName:"Emad Shalaby"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1018",title:"Milk Production",subtitle:"An Up-to-Date Overview of Animal Nutrition, Management and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0666bd242c21546d0c83c0290bd114ea",slug:"milk-production-an-up-to-date-overview-of-animal-nutrition-management-and-health",bookSignature:"Narongsak Chaiyabutr",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1018.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"76047",title:"Prof.",name:"Narongsak",surname:"Chaiyabutr",slug:"narongsak-chaiyabutr",fullName:"Narongsak Chaiyabutr"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2066",title:"Milk Production",subtitle:"Advanced Genetic Traits, Cellular Mechanism, Animal Management and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0bce9f57b06503666b182457b414a9de",slug:"milk-production-advanced-genetic-traits-cellular-mechanism-animal-management-and-health",bookSignature:"Narongsak Chaiyabutr",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2066.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"76047",title:"Prof.",name:"Narongsak",surname:"Chaiyabutr",slug:"narongsak-chaiyabutr",fullName:"Narongsak Chaiyabutr"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6155",title:"Diabetes Food Plan",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b826ff12304ae270954a41210f4e1582",slug:"diabetes-food-plan",bookSignature:"Viduranga Waisundara",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6155.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"194281",title:"Dr.",name:"Viduranga Y.",surname:"Waisundara",slug:"viduranga-y.-waisundara",fullName:"Viduranga Y. Waisundara"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7183",title:"Functional Foods",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8023d990ea5254d039f9c438b66899c6",slug:"functional-foods",bookSignature:"Vasiliki Lagouri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7183.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"232589",title:"Dr.",name:"Vasiliki",surname:"Lagouri",slug:"vasiliki-lagouri",fullName:"Vasiliki Lagouri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6538",title:"Current Topics on Superfoods",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"42525eaf5a539bc1e2318f4eb8dfea5a",slug:"current-topics-on-superfoods",bookSignature:"Naofumi Shiomi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6538.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"163777",title:"Dr.",name:"Naofumi",surname:"Shiomi",slug:"naofumi-shiomi",fullName:"Naofumi Shiomi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8926",title:"The Health Benefits of Foods",subtitle:"Current Knowledge and Further Development",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fc0b94fd149503cbe9b4ff3fc06e969e",slug:"the-health-benefits-of-foods-current-knowledge-and-further-development",bookSignature:"Liana Claudia Salanță",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8926.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"203097",title:"Dr.",name:"Liana Claudia",surname:"Salanta",slug:"liana-claudia-salanta",fullName:"Liana Claudia Salanta"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"79356",slug:"erratum-public-perceptions-of-values-associated-with-wildfire-protection-at-the-wildland-urban-inter",title:"Erratum - Public Perceptions of Values Associated with Wildfire Protection at the Wildland-Urban Interface: A Synthesis of National Findings",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/68989.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68989",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68989",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/68989",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/68989",chapter:{id:"65057",slug:"public-perceptions-of-values-associated-with-wildfire-protection-at-the-wildland-urban-interface-a-s",signatures:"Jason Gordon, Adam S. Willcox, A.E. Luloff, James C. Finley and Donald G. Hodges",dateSubmitted:"June 21st 2018",dateReviewed:"October 22nd 2018",datePrePublished:"December 31st 2018",datePublished:"February 19th 2020",book:{id:"8295",title:"Landscape Reclamation",subtitle:"Rising From What's Left",fullTitle:"Landscape Reclamation - Rising From What's Left",slug:"landscape-reclamation-rising-from-what-s-left",publishedDate:"February 19th 2020",bookSignature:"Luis Loures",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8295.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"108118",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Loures",slug:"luis-loures",fullName:"Luis Loures"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"264298",title:"Dr.",name:"Jason",middleName:null,surname:"Gordon",fullName:"Jason Gordon",slug:"jason-gordon",email:"jason.gordon@uga.edu",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Georgia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]}},chapter:{id:"65057",slug:"public-perceptions-of-values-associated-with-wildfire-protection-at-the-wildland-urban-interface-a-s",signatures:"Jason Gordon, Adam S. Willcox, A.E. Luloff, James C. Finley and Donald G. Hodges",dateSubmitted:"June 21st 2018",dateReviewed:"October 22nd 2018",datePrePublished:"December 31st 2018",datePublished:"February 19th 2020",book:{id:"8295",title:"Landscape Reclamation",subtitle:"Rising From What's Left",fullTitle:"Landscape Reclamation - Rising From What's Left",slug:"landscape-reclamation-rising-from-what-s-left",publishedDate:"February 19th 2020",bookSignature:"Luis Loures",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8295.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"108118",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Loures",slug:"luis-loures",fullName:"Luis Loures"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"264298",title:"Dr.",name:"Jason",middleName:null,surname:"Gordon",fullName:"Jason Gordon",slug:"jason-gordon",email:"jason.gordon@uga.edu",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Georgia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},book:{id:"8295",title:"Landscape Reclamation",subtitle:"Rising From What's Left",fullTitle:"Landscape Reclamation - Rising From What's Left",slug:"landscape-reclamation-rising-from-what-s-left",publishedDate:"February 19th 2020",bookSignature:"Luis Loures",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8295.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"108118",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Loures",slug:"luis-loures",fullName:"Luis Loures"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"9952",leadTitle:null,title:"Pyrophosphate Biology and Medicine - Advances, Applications and Challenges",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tPyrophosphate (PPi) has long been recognized as a by-product of diverse biosynthetic reactions and was initially identified as a key endogenous inhibitor of biomineralization. PPi is synthesized from extracellular ATP by ecto-nucleotide pyrophosphatase/phosphodiesterase from extracellular ATP hydrolysis. Vascular calcification refers to the deposition of calcium phosphate, mainly in the form of hydroxyapatite crystals, in cardiovascular tissues including arteries and myocardium. It is correlated with an elevated risk of cardiovascular disease and myocardial infarction in diabetic patients and in those with chronic kidney disease. Many enzymes implicated in the metabolism of pyrophosphate have been associated with vascular calcifications. Pyrophosphate may also act as a signaling molecule to regulate gene expression. Thus, it is necessary to outline our current insight regarding pyrophosphate metabolism and how it regulates bone mineralization and inhibits harmful soft tissue calcification. Therapies based on pyrophosphate metabolism have been compelling in animal models, including renal failure, and hold hope as promising therapies to prevent vascular calcification. This work intends to summarize recent progress and future directions for the study of pyrophosphate metabolism and how it regulates bone mineralization and prevents harmful soft tissue calcification, how dysregulation of PPi results in human diseases as well as the development of novel molecules and strategies that can interrogate and manipulate the cellular actions of pyrophosphate.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"a92844c6dd3fd62f42adecd405e4a314",bookSignature:"Mr. Abdullah Al Hasan",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9952.jpg",keywords:"Biology of Pyrophosphate, Pyrophosphate-Dependent Metabolism, Inositol Pyrophosphate Pathway, Pathological Perspectives, Calcium Pyrophosphate Deposition, Vascular Calcification,, Medical Perspectives, Epidemiology, Pharmacological Perspectives, Ferric Pyrophosphate Citrate, Pyrophosphate Metabolites, Thiamine Pyrophosphate Riboswitches, Terpene Byiosynthesis",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 12th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 24th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 23rd 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 11th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 10th 2020",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"228533",title:"Mr.",name:"Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Al Hasan",slug:"abdullah-al-hasan",fullName:"Abdullah Al Hasan",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"Abdullah Al Hasan received his MPharm degree in Pharmaceutical Chemistry at the University of Dhaka, Bangladesh. During his study, he worked on the biology of natural products at the Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Dhaka. After his post-graduation, he got a permanent position in the Department of Pharmacy, Southeast University, Bangladesh in 2013. He established his own research group in 2016 in that department with the main objective of studying the structural biology of drug action with a particular focus on drug design and drug discovery. His team is also deeply engaged in nano-scale science and technology with a focus on targeted drug delivery and cancer research.",institutionString:"Southeast University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Southeast University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"8",title:"Chemistry",slug:"chemistry"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"247865",firstName:"Jasna",lastName:"Bozic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/247865/images/7225_n.jpg",email:"jasna.b@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"117",title:"Artificial Neural Networks",subtitle:"Methodological Advances and Biomedical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"artificial-neural-networks-methodological-advances-and-biomedical-applications",bookSignature:"Kenji Suzuki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/117.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"3095",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenji",surname:"Suzuki",slug:"kenji-suzuki",fullName:"Kenji Suzuki"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"872",title:"Organic Pollutants Ten Years After the Stockholm Convention",subtitle:"Environmental and Analytical Update",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f01dc7077e1d23f3d8f5454985cafa0a",slug:"organic-pollutants-ten-years-after-the-stockholm-convention-environmental-and-analytical-update",bookSignature:"Tomasz Puzyn and Aleksandra Mostrag-Szlichtyng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/872.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"84887",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomasz",surname:"Puzyn",slug:"tomasz-puzyn",fullName:"Tomasz Puzyn"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3569",title:"Biodegradation",subtitle:"Life of Science",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb737eb528a53e5106c7e218d5f12ec6",slug:"biodegradation-life-of-science",bookSignature:"Rolando Chamy and Francisca Rosenkranz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3569.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"165784",title:"Dr.",name:"Rolando",surname:"Chamy",slug:"rolando-chamy",fullName:"Rolando Chamy"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"39112",title:"Principles of Blood Transfusion",doi:"10.5772/48332",slug:"principles-of-blood-transfusion",body:'The aim of this chapter is to present a revised overview of small and large animal transfusion medicine based on a review of the veterinary literature. Blood transfusion has become more performable in small and large animal practice. By donor selection and the availability of blood component substitutes, usage of the blood products improved. The use of blood component therapy safely needed knowledge of blood groups, antibody prevalence and the impact of blood groups on veterinary transfusion medicine. Animal blood transfusions antibodies against blood group antigens also play a role. In addition knowledge of the means to decrease the risk of adverse reactions by using proper donors and screening assays that simplify detection of serological incompatibility is important. The clinical significance of blood group antigens in veterinary medicine is generally in the areas of transfusion reactions and neonatal isoerythrolysis (NI). This chapter includes an update on canine and feline, horse, donkey, cattle, sheep, gaot, pig, llama and alpaca blood groups and known blood incompatibilities, donor selection and blood collection, storage of blood components, available equine blood products and indications for transfusion, whole blood (WB) and blood product transfusion in ruminants and camelids, blood component and blood substitute therapy, administration, and adverse reactions in small and large animal blood transfusion.
Blood types are classified according to specific antigens on the surface of erythrocytes. Platelets, leukocytes, and body tissues and fluids may also consists of erytrocyte antigens. [1]. In immunogenicity and clinical significance these antigens can differ. They can serve as markers of disease in some cases and taking part in recognition of self. The clinical significance of blood group antigens is generally noted in transfusion reactions and neonatal isoerythrolysis (NI) in veterinary medicine [2]. These antigens can characteristically trigger a reaction caused by circulating anti-erythrocyte antibodies in the opposite host or donor. These antibodies can occur naturally. Also they can be induced by a previous transfusion. Interaction leads to the destruction by hemolysis of red blood cells (RBCs). This is one of the severe and potentially life-threatening situation. [3].
The dog erytrocyte antigen types or blood types are categorized by the DEA (Dog Erythrocyte Antigen) system. DEA 1.1, 1.2, and 1.3 are termed A system. There are also DEA 3, DEA 4, DEA 5, DEA 6, DEA 7 and DEA 8. [2]. In the United States the incidence of DEA 1.1 is approximately 45% and DEA 1.2 is 20% [4]. DEA 1.3 is common in German shepherd dogs and has been reported only in Australia [5]. Frequency of DEA 1.1 in Kangal Dog was found as 61.1% in Turkey [6]. In Croatia where the closest data studied the rate was 66.7% [7]. The rate was also 56.9% in Portugal [8] and 55% in Japan [9]. Approximately 60 % of the canine population is in DEAs 1.1 and 1.2 group. DEA 1.1 is the strongest antigen in the dog. Two membrane proteins of 50 and 200 kD has been identified by a monoclonal antibody to DEA 1.1 using immunoprecipitation techniques. [10]. Presenting in a single band DEA 1.2 has been found to be an 85-kD protein [11].
DEA 1.1 is the most antigenic group in respect to transfusion medicine. Little is investigated about DEA 3, 4, 5 and 7 in comparison to DEA 1.1. In literature, the frequency of DEA 3 is lower in comparison to DEA 1.1 blood type. In the United States it is determined that approximately 6% of the general dog population is DEA 3 positive [12]. This rate is reported as 13% in Brazil [13]. In Turkey, DEA 3 is most found blood type in the Kangal Dog [6]. In the canine blood groups DEA 4 is the most common type. In USA, it is indicated that overall 98% of the general dog population have DEA 4 blood [12]. In Brazil, all dogs blood type were positive for DEA 4 [13]. The molecular weight of DEA 4 present in a single band has been found to be 32 to 40 kD using immunoprecipitation techniques [11].
In the United States typing sera can be commercially obtained only for DEA 1.1, 1.2, 3, 4, 5, and 7 [4]. In Brazil a report studied on German shepherd dogs determined that 14% of the dogs were positive for DEA 5 and 8% were positive for DEA 7 [13]. The frequency of DEA 5 and 7 positive dogs was 55.5% and 71.7% respectively in Turkey [6]. Also, DEA 7 may cause an antibody response in dogs that lack it. A system of nomenclature about antigen Tr has described. The Tr antigen system is a 3-phenotype, 6-genotype system [14]. The molecular weight of DEA 7 present in 3 distinct bands has been found to be 53, 58, and 63 kD by using immunoprecipitation techniques [11].
An exact definition of a canine universal donor is not agreed among veterinary transfusion experts. Well excepted description of the universal donor is that a dog negative for DEA 1.1, 1.2, DEA 3, DEA 5, DEA 7, and positive for DEA 4. It is difficult to find DEA 4 negative dog because 98% of all dogs are positive for DEA 4. Thus there is a very little chance to influence donor selection. If the dog is DEA 7 positive, some other experts do not exclude it from the donor pool [15]. In most populations the incidence of DEA 4 blood type is more than 98% [16]. Because of this in transfusion medicine these dogs are the best candidate for being a donor. If other donors are known to be compatible with the recipient they can also be utilized [17]. DEA 3, 5 and 7 negative dogs have naturally occurring antibodies to DEA 3, 5 and 7 positive red cells. However during the first transfusion these blood groups do not possess a major transfusion reaction [4]. In Turkey, the most common blood types were DEA 1.1, 4 and 7. Because all Kangal dogs have DEA 4 positivity it does not seem to be important in respect to transfusion medicine. The prevalence and antigenic properties of DEA 1.1 and 7 are significantly important. If unmatched transfusion is performed in Turkish Kangal dogs they can constitute acute hemolytic transfusion reactions [6]. Dogs with DEA 1.1 or 1.2 are called group A positive. Adversely, dogs do not have DEA 1.1 or 1.2 are called group A negative [1].
A blood group system described as N-acetylneuraminic acid and N-glycolylneuraminic acid present on gangliosides (hematosides) of the RBC membrane in Japan [18]. It is referred as the D system. This system is consist of two antigens, D1 and D2, with phenotypes, D1, D2, and D1D2. The D1 and D2 antigens are codominanat factors. Anti-D1 is identical to anti-DEA3. The importance of this system in transfusion medicine pointed out by transfusion of D2 type blood into a D1 type patient, or of D1 type blood into a D2 type patient consistently cause severe acute transfusion reactions [19, 20]. RBCs of some dogs designated as type C at titre sup to 128 are aglutinated rather than lectin extracted from seeds of Clerodendron tricotomum. Type C is completely negative for other dogs. C system was compared to the DEA system and determined to be different [10, 19, 21]. Specific IgG alloantibodies in previously sensitized Dalmatian dog by blood transfusion is described as the Dal blood type. The frequency is not known. Typing sera for this antigen also is commercially not available [2, 22, 23].
Three blood types are described in the feline AB blood group system and mik group system. In cats a new blood group defined as Mik. It is named after the alloantibody identified in the first blood donor cat, Mike. In three cats that had not previously received transfusions Mik antibodies were detected. They are defined as a cause of incompatibilities between donor and recipient blood that are not related to the AB blood group system [24].
The phenotypes type A, type B, and type AB are occured. A null phenotype is not exist. The most common blood type is Type A. Type B is less common. Type AB is rare [2, 25]. Type B is indicated in Australia (26.3%), and Greece (20.3%) ([26], [27] ). In large studies of both pedigree and non-pedigree cats in the USA distribution of type AB cats is demonstrated to be rare (0.14%) ([28] ). Type AB were 0.4% in Australia (([26]). In Scotland the incidence of AB cats is 4.4% ([29] ).
Type B is indicated in Australia (26.3%), and Greece (20.3%) ([26, 27]. In large studies of both pedigree and non-pedigree cats in the USA distribution of type AB cats is demonstrated to be rare (0.14%) [28]. Type AB were 0.4% in Australia [26]. In Scotland the incidence of AB cats is 4.4% [29].
In Turkey, 60 % of Van cats and 46.4 % of Angora cats are type B [30]. And 220 (73.1%) nonpedigree domestic cats had type A blood, 74 (24.6%) had type B and seven (2.3%) had type AB [31] in Turkey. Except type AB group, cats have naturally occurring alloantibodies. It is known that cats have naturally occurring alloantibodies (isoantibodies) against the blood type they are lacking. Because of this to prevent blood incompatibility reactions in cats feline blood typing is important in clinical practice. Blood type incompatibility can especially result in two fatal reactions. The first is acute haemolytic transfusion reactions, occur particularly in cat transfused with type A blood [32]. Feline neonatal isoerythrolysis (NI) is the second incompatibility reaction. It occurs when type A or AB kittens born to type B queens are nursing. Naturally occurring anti-A alloantibodies result in blood incompatibility reaction in the type B queen’s colostrum and milk [25, 30].
Cats constitute non-self antibodies in contrast to dogs. As a result of this non-self antibodies potentially fatal antibody-mediated reactions can occur towards non-self red blood cells. Nearly 20% of type A cats have anti-B antibodies. These antibodies are usually weak. All type B cats have strong anti-A antibodies. In contrast AB cats do not have alloantibodies [32]. In previously unsensitized cats naturally occuring isoantibodies are responsible for transfusion reactions. Nearly all type B cats have highly titered anti-A agglutinins and hemolysins. RBCs can be destructed rapidly in type B cats taking type A blood. In type B cats the high titres of naturally occurring anti-A antibodies cause rapid intravascular destruction of transfused type A red blood cells [33]. This can be mediated by IgM, complement fixation and the release of potent vasoactive compounds. As a result of this shock can develop usually due to possessed antibodies towards the transfused RBCs [3, 34]. This can cause severe transfusion reaction and death even if as little as 1 ml of type A blood is administered to a type B-cat [2, 35]. Because of their endotheliochorial placenta newborn kittens have no alloantibodies. Nevertheless colostral transfer of immunoglobulin (Ig) G and a small amount of IgM occurs. Neonatal isoerythrolysis develops in cats. It is one of the cause of the fading kitten syndrome. Kittens that are type A or AB and those that are born to type B queens are at risk. In affected kittens Clinical sings can range from unapparent, to severe hemolytic anemia with hemoglobinuria, icterus, and death [1, 36, 37, 38].
Packed red blood cells (pRBCs) and fresh frozen plasma (FFP) are components generally provided for canine transfusions. If processed at once, 1-4 each unit (450 mL) of whole blood can be seperated into 1 unit of pRBCs and 1 unit of FFP. It is difficult to prepare components from a small volume of blood. Because of this cat blood transfusions are usually administered as fresh or stored whole blood. If patients requires specific components like pRBCs and FFP, in this case whole blood can be separated into them [39].
In veterinary medicine, red blood cell transfusions are used more frequent recently. They are the integral part of lifesaving. They are used in critically ill as advanced treatment. Situations required transfusions include life-threatening anemia from acute hemorrhage or surgical blood loss, hemolysis from drugs or toxins, immune-mediated diseases, severe nonregenerative conditions, and neonatal isoerythrolysis [40].
Indications of red blood cell transfusions are in the treatment of anemia caused by hemorrhage, hemolysis, or ineffective erythropoiesis. Oxygen is poorly soluble in plasma. Because of this oxygen in blood is mostly carried by hemoglobin (Hgb). In anemic patient, RBC transfusions increase the oxygen-carrying capacity. Therefore inadequate delivery of oxygen to tissues with consequent tissue hypoxia are prevented or treated [41].
The treatment of severe anemia caused by hemorrhage, hemolysis, ineffective erythropoiesis, auto-immune hemolytic anemia, or neoplasia is primary indication for blood transfusion. Lethargy and altered mentation, increased respiratory effort, pale mucous membranes and tachycardia are the clinical signs of anaemia. The body carry out a number of adaptive responses physiologically, to maintain carrying of oxygen to the tissues [42, 43]. The solution of oxygen in plasma is weak. Because of this hemoglobin (Hgb) carries approximately whole oxygen in blood [41]. The decision to conduct a RBC transfusion is generally based on a measurement of the patient\'s packed cell volume (PCV), hematocrit (Hct) or Hgb concentration (Hgb) and especially on clinical evaluation of the patient [41]. Clinically animals should be evaluated individually. Generally when the hematocrit is less than 10%, the treatment of anemia is transfusion. However, animals with acute-onset anemia usually require transfusion before their hematocrit decreases to 15%. This contrasts with the situation in animals with chronic anemia. Other indications for transfusion are hypovolemia, thrombocytopenia, clotting factor deficiency, and hypoproteinemia [1]. Electrocardiographic signs of myocardial ischaemia are similar to those identified in human patients with myocardial infarction. It can ocur with anemia [44].
The usage of administration of FFP are for the treatment of a single or multiple clotting factor deficiency, vitamin K deficiency or antagonism, surgical bleeding or where a massive transfusion is required [45]. Hypoalbuminaemia and coagulopathies especially due to liver disease are the main reported indications for FFP transfusions in cats [46].
Stored blood is more than 8 hours old. The length of storage depends on the anticoagulant/preservative solution used. It varies from 48 hours for 3.8% sodium citrate (no preservative) to 4 weeks for CPD-A1 (citrate, phosphate, dextrose, and adenine). Acid citrate dextrose (ACD), citrate phosphate dextrose (CPD and CP2D), and citrate phosphatedextrose-adenine (CPDA-1) are mostly used as preservatives. The viability of RBCs is provided by the added dextrose, phosphate, and adenine. Due to the preservative used, the storage can extend up to 3 to 5 week ([3, 41, 47].
In patients that are hypothermic or receiving large volumes of blood, refrigerated RBC products should be prewarmed to temperatures between 22 C and 37 C immediately before transfusion. In the routine practice of RBC products to normovolemic anemic patients, refrigerated blood components do not need warming before transfusion. Warming may accelerate the deterioration of stored RBCs and may cause rapid growth of contaminating microorganisms [48].
In clinical practice advances in safety of blood transfusion is important in preventing transfusion-transmitted infections (TTI). The most frequent severe infectious outcome of transfusion has been known as bacterial contamination of platelets, with resultant sepsis in the recipient recently. Using automated or semi-automated blood culture devices, apheresis platelets and prestorage pooled platelets are most often tested [49].
Generally, before a blood transfusion is given to animals, blood typing and/or cross-matching of the recipent and donor should be done to avoid the likelihood of a transfusion reaction. Also, ineffective therapy is caused by shortened survival of transfused mismatched red cells. In order to prevent primary sensitization and risk of developing hemolytic disease in breeding females, cross-matching and/or blood typing is important. In general veterinary practise, blood typing for canine DEA 1.1 and for feline types A and B is applied [1].
To decrease adverse reactions one sould pay attention to blood typing and crossmatching procedures as much as monitoring. There is always risk in blood transfusions. For this reason, they should be performed only when warranted. When taking history, previous transfusion therapy should be asked and in a history of previous transfusion therapy cross-matching is necessary [1, 50].
Depending on availability and indication for transfusion, whole-blood or blood-component therapy may be administered. RBCs, white blood cells (WBCs), platelets, all the coagulation factors, albumin and immunoglobulins constitute whole blood (WB) [51].
In cats, fresh whole blood is the most common product used recently. Stored whole blood, packed red blood cells and fresh frozen plasma (FFP) are also given as transfusions [45].
The heavier cellular elements from the supernatant plasma are sedimented by centrifugation of whole blood sediments. Due to separation of blood collection within 8 hours all protein activity and concentration are maintained in the plasma. The obtained supernatant usually frozen. For subsequent transfusion, it is stored as fresh frozen plasma (FFP). In addition it can also processed to provide cryoprecipitate and cryosupernatant. It can also be transfused immediately as fresh plasma [52, 53]. Fresh frozen plasma have to be stored frozen at -30 C before used. Also it should be identified with the donor blood type, name and collection date. Samples thawed and not used sould discarded or stored in a fridge and used within 12-24 h and should not be refrozen [43].
Recently an ultra-purified polymerised bovine haemoglobin solution is the only commercially available alternative to red cell transfusion (Oxyglobin). It is not licensed in cats but it has been used in treatment of anaemia in cats and also in therapy of carbon monoxide poisoning [54, 55].
Hemostatic protein deficiencies lead to hemorrhagic disorders and the treatment is done principally by plasma components [56]. In animals with von Willebrand disease (vWD) and hereditary coagulation factor deficiencies active hemorrhage is controlled by plasma components. Plasma components are also used for preoperative prophylaxis in these diseases [53].
For preparation of plasma components sterile plastic bags are used. After that they are stored and transferred as frozen in individual boxes. Products have to be stored at -20 C or lower. Just before transfusion they warmed to 37 C in a water bath or incubator. Preferred route of administration is the intravenous transfusion of plasma components. If attempts at vascular access have failed, intraosseous transfusion can be used in emergency situations. When acut allergic reactions occur transfusion is stopped and antihistamines and/or short-acting steroids are given [53, 57].
Cats have antibodies to non-self blood types within the plasma. Because of this only type-specific plasma should be administered to cats in contrast to dogs. Using one of the commercially available systems whole blood can be separated into FFP and packed red cells if it is taken aseptically. The blood spun at 3800 rpm at 10˚C in a refrigerated centrifuge for 12 mins. Using a plasma extractor the plasma is extracted and stored at –20 C [57].
In hypoalbuminemic dogs and cats, human serum albumin has been used for therapeutic use [58].
Correction of coagulation by fresh platelets are shown by in vitro coagulation studies. Freshly collected platelets correct thrombocytopenia, control associated hemorrhage, and prevent death from bleeding. Hemorrhagic diathesis are prevented by platelet replacement for thrombocytopenia [59].
Severe thrombocytopenia or thrombopathia result in bleeding. Platelet transfusion is used for the control of this bleeding. In veterinary medicine platelet transfusion has been used rarely compared to red blood cell (RBC) and plasma transfusion. In dogs, reports related to platelet transfusion are generally associated with experimental hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. Platelet-rich blood products consist of fresh whole blood (FWB), platelet-rich plasma (PRP) and platelet concentrate (PC). They are used for aggressive anticancer therapy and treating complex hematologic disorders. Centrifugation of whole blood constitute platelet-rich plasma (PRP) and centrifugation of platelet-rich plasma constitude platelet concentrates (PC). Platelet activation is induced by centrifugation so that the resuspension of the platelet pellet during PC preparation from dogs is difficult. The preparation efficiency of PC from dogs can be improved by addition of PGE1 in PRP before the centrifugation of PRP. Also therapeutic efficacy of the platelets are maintained. In 10-28 kg body weight dogs plateletpheresis has been used successfully. On the canine donor thrombocytopenia and hypocalcemia are the main adverse effects of plateletpheresis [60-62].
At room temperature (RT) (20-24 C), PRP and PC can be stored for 5-7 days with continuous or intermittent agitation. At RT FWB can be stored for up to 8 hours. The interest in freezed (4 C) storage of platelets is increasing because of the increased risk of bacterial proliferation at RT storage. Storage of human PRP and PC are limited to 5 days because of prevention of bacterial proliferation at room temperature [60- 63].
Platelet transfusions as with RBC and plasma components should be performed with 170 µm filters standard blood administration sets. Transfusion sets which can bind platelets should be exempt from latex [60].
The most common reaction to PC are febrile reactions. The frequency is decreased by pre-storage leukoreduction. In immunocompetent dogs receiving multiple transfusions, alloimmunization to platelet antigens occurs. Leukocyte reduction and ultraviolet B irradiation are recently accepted methods for preventing the development of platelet alloimmunization [64-66].
Recently platelet cryopreservation are used to provide long-term storage and immediate availability of platelet products for transfusion. When fresh platelets are unavailable cryopreserved platelets can be activated in vitro and provide therapeutic benefit [63].
Granulocyte transfusion can be used as supportive therapy. It is used in patients with life-threatening neutropenia caused by bone marrow failure or in patients with neutrophil dysfunction. Granulocyte transfusions is shown to be useful in treatment of infections in patients after treatment with high-dose chemotherapy. It is helpful especially in the chemotherapy associated with conditioning for hematopoietic stem cell transplant. By using granulocyte colony-stimulated factors higher doses of granulocytes for transfusion are produced. Thus recently the use of therapeutic granulocyte transfusion has been increased. The outcome of transfusion are effected by the type of infection being treated, the likelihood of recipient marrow recovery, and recipient alloimmunization [67].
In small animals therapeutic granulocyte transfusions have been used especially in experimental models of myelosuppression and neonatal sepsis. In clinical veterinary medicine they have been used rarely. Granulocytes can be used to identify the site of inflammation. Beside leukapheresis, centrifugation of FWB, with or without colloid-facilitated sedimentation, may be used to isolate canine and feline buffy coats. Only sedimentation may also be used in the cat. At RT granulocytes are stored immobil for 24 hours. The dose for beginning is 1 x 1011 granulocytes/kg in a volume of 15mL/kg. It is used once to twice in a day [68-70].
To select permanent blood donors, blood typing have to be performed. Donors should be healthy young adults. They undergo routine physical check up and hematology and clinical chemistry evaluations are done. They should never taken a blood transfusion and should be free of blood parasites and other infectious diseases [1].
Nulliparous and spayed female dog and cat donors have to be chosen. Blood have be collected via jugular venipuncture aseptically. Acepromazine interferes with platelet function. Because of this donors should not be sedated with it [1].
Every 3 to 4 weeks, dogs can donate between 13 and 17 ml of blood per kilogram of body weight. Features of donors sould include well nourished, supplemented with oral iron, bled less than once per month to prevent iron deficiency, greater than 25 kg, and negative for antigens for DEAs 1.1, 1.2, 3, 5, and 7. Donors should not have heartworm disease, babesiosis, brucellosis, ehrlichiosis, and Rocky Mountain spotted fever. Donors have appropriate neck skin that allows easy entrance to the jugular vein, have a packed cell volume that is at least 0.40 L/L, have demonstrated a good temperament and be in good physical condition, have no past time history of transfusion or pregnancy, and have got sufficient levels of von Willebrand factor (vWF) [1, 3].
The ideal feline blood donors should be healthy, indoor-only cats with an agreeable temperament for easy handling and restraint. Owned pet cats should be donate maximum once every 2 months [43]. The features of feline donor sould be as follows; weigh more than 4.5 kg, have a packed cell volume that is at least 0.35 L/L, have demonstrated a good temperament, and be in good physical condition [3]. Donor cats can donate between 10 and 12 ml/kg. Adult healthy cats can donate 50 ml every weeks. Donors have to be type A. Type B donors may be demanded depending on breed prevalence and geography. Feline leukemia virus, feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV), feline infectious peritonitis, heartworm disease, and Hemobartonella sp have to be excluded in donor cats [1].
For appropriate care of donors some processes needed. These are current vaccinations, if there is contact with new animals every 6 mo fecal floatation, monitorization of hemogram every year, analysing clinical chemistry, screening for infectious diseases and in the dog preventative heartworm therapy in areas where it is necessary. When blood collection is taken the donor\'s weight, temperature, and packed cell volume have to be analysed [3, 71]. PCV or Hb are measured by taking a blood sample. Preferentially cats with a PCV of 30–35% are used but cats with low–normal PCVs should not be used [43].
In the cat, blood can be taken by using a 19- to 20 gauge needle or butterfly into a syringe via jugular vein venipuncture. The region over the jugular vein is clipped and prepared aseptically and sedation is administered. It is prefered to use a 1:1 combination of ketamine 100 mg/ml and midazolam 5 mg/ml. It is made up in a small syringe and given intravenously up to a maximum dose of 5 mg/kg ketamine (0.1 ml/kg of combination). Syringe consists of either ACD, CPD, or CPDA- 1 (1 mL/9 mL of blood), or heparin (5 units/mL of blood). Before a preservative solution is used it can be placed in a small blood bag. To access the jugular vein a 19-21G butterfly needle is used. The blood is collected over a total of 10 15 mins. At once a maximum of 10-12 ml/kg blood can be donated. Isotonic crystalloid fluid therapy post-donation at a rate of 60 ml/h for 3 h is given to the cat [3, 43].
Precaution is necessary to prevent damage of the blood product and harm to recipient. Blood typing or crossmatching have to be carried out to provide compatibility before RBC transfusion [41].
Transfusions of red blood cell should be administered through a filter. The filter is arranged to remove clots and particles which are potentially harmful to the patient. Blood infusion sets have in-line filters. These filters trap large cells, cellular debris, and coagulated proteins. The pore size range from 170µm to 260µm. A filter may be used to administer 2-4 units of blood to a patient or for a maximum time limit of 4 hours according to human blood banking standards. High protein concentration at the filter surface and room temperature conditions promote proliferation of any contaminating microorganisms. The rate of flow slowed down by accumulated material. After 5 days or more of refrigerated storage constituted microaggregates composed of degenerating platelets, white blood cells (WBCs), and fibrin strands in blood. They are removed by other blood filters with a pore size of 20-40 Jim. For transfusions of RBCs primarily microaggregate filters are designed. In administering small volumes of blood (<50 mL WB or <25mL pRBCs) to cats and small dogs a pediatric micro-aggregate blood filter (18 um pore size, priming space <lmL) is especially helpful. Because of a progressive decrease in pore size due to increased blood filtered larger volumes of blood administration can result in hemolysis [41].
If plasma is taken from blood preservative solutions can be put in. Blood preservative solutions are dextrose, adenine, mannitol, and the sodium chloride. They are necessary for RBCs to carry on their energy metabolism and viability during storage [3]. Canine pRBCs stored in a RBC preservative can be applied directly. Other pRBC products have to be diluted by putting 10mL of saline feline pRBCs or 100mL of saline to the blood bag so that the viscosity of the donor blood decreased [41].
In the dog, if sedation is needed, butorphanol (0.1 mg/kg BW, IV) is generally used for sedation. But acepromazine should not be used because it may cause platelet function disturbance [72]. In the cat, ketamin may be used 2 to 4 mg/kg BW, IV for sedation. In addition to ketamin is very successful when it is used together with 0.1 to 0.2 mg/kg BW diazepam [3]. Also combinations of ketamine hydrochloride, midazolam and butorphanol tartrate, or mask administration of sevoflurane can be used [73, 74].
Generally, intravenous administration is used for RBC transfusions. In addition intraosseous administration is a perfect alternative. Peripheral veins may be preferred to central veins because of an increased bleeding predisposition [41].
Blood is administered through administration sets containing 0.9% saline intravenously. Contraindications include hypotonic saline, 5% dextrose in water and lactated Ringer\'s solution. Cardiac arrest may be caused by injection of undiluted citrate containing anticoagulants [1].
Using a syringe driver or by hand the transfusion should begin slowly at 0.25 ml/kg/h. If no adverse affects are encountered after the first 30–60 mins of administration the rate can be increased. Due to the urgency of the requirement for whole blood and any underlying concurrent disease the rate of administration can vary [75].
With a PCV of 20%, dogs and cats with chronic anemia can be cardiovascularly stable [76]. Conversely in patients with an acute onset of anemia and continuing blood loss or hemolysis, transfusion to a higher PCV is necessary for stabilization. Generally administration of 2mL/kg of WB or lmL/ kg of pRBCs will increase the patient\'s PCV by 1% if there is no continuing hemorrhage or hemolysis [41].
Patient\'s overall condition determine the rate of blood administration. The maximum rate of transfusion is 10-20mL/ kg/h in normovolemic anemic patients, to avoid circulatory overload [41].
To provide blood volume again fluid therapy with crystalloids or colloids is necessary. If the patient\'s total blood volume do not decrease under 20% this is usually enough for losses. If losses are more than 20% whole blood or packed red cell transfusion is used. Between 20% and 50% of blood volume losses are treated by crystalloids and packed RBCs [3, 77].
Blood components like cryoprecipitate and platelet-rich plasma are used infrequently. Cryoprecipitate contains vWF, factors VIII, XIII, fibrinogen, and fibronectin. In vWF-deficient patients cryoprecipitate is recommended particularly when surgery is planned or patient affected by blood loss. Bleeding hemophilia A patients, or patients having hypo or dysfibrinogenemia are the other indications for choosing it [3, 78].
Sometimes platelet-rich plasma is used in veterinary practice. In small-sized animals it is more useful because in larger dogs it is difficult to gain enough volume and management of platelet count. An alternative to platelet-rich plasma are frozen platelet concentrates [79].
For expansion of plasma volume, different types of colloids as dextrans and hetastarch are used as alternatives to blood products. Altering hemostasis is one of the problems of dextrans and hetastarch. Oxyglobin is a hemoglobin-based oxygen carrier. It is approved for use in the dog in 1998. In emergency situations it is used instead of blood products when there is limited time for preparing it or performing compatibility testing [3, 80].
In clinical signs of anaemia and as a therapy for carbon monoxide poisoning oxyglobin is used in cats. Because it is a potent colloid (colloid osmotic pressure 43 mmHg), the main risk associated with administration is volume overload. In patients with normovolaemic anaemia conservative administration rates are needed such as as low as 0.2-0.4 ml/kg/h and to a maximum of 1 ml/kg/h. Careful monitorization of patients with paying particular attention to their heart and respiratory rate is recommended [81, 82].
A recent study described the clinical outcome in dogs experiencing massive transfusion. Also this study documented predictable changes in electrolytes and coagulation status. Massive transfusion is different from usual transfusions in terms of volume and rate of blood transfusion and blood components administered. Transfusion of a volume of whole blood or blood components has been described as massive transfusion. The administrated blood is greater than the patient\'s predicted blood volume within a 24-hour period or arranged as replacement of half the patient\'s predicted blood volume in 3 hours. In a study, massive transfusion receiving dogs were investigated and in this study the mean volumes of pRBCs was 66.5mL/kg and FFP was 22.2mL/kg. As a result of this mean plasma, RBC ratio was 1:3. After transfusion clinicopathologic changes consists of electrolytes disturbances, dilutional coagulopathy, ionized hypocalcemia and hypomagnesemia and progressive thrombocytopenia and prolongation of prothrombin and activated partial thromboplastin times [41, 83].
The gold standard approach is that the donor and recipient are cross-matched before administration. Administration is maintained mainly intravascular with the use of peripheral or centrally placed catheter. Also intraosseous catheters can be used to administer all blood products. It is useful in collapsed neonatal patients where vascular access is difficult [43, 75, 84].
In acute hemorrhage, anemia, decreased red cell mass, severe methaemoglobinaemia, paracetamol toxicity, chronic non-regenerative anaemia, coagulation disorders, and thrombocytopenia fresh whole blood is used [1, 45].
The reason of anaemia in cats requiring transfusion are haemorrhage and primary immune-mediated haemolytic anaemia. Hemorrhage is caused as a result of peri- or postoperative bleeding, trauma, gastrointestinal bleeding, abdominal neoplasia, primary immune-mediated thrombocytopenia and coagulopathies [85, 86, 87]. Also in a number of infectious diseases anaemia is reported such as especially feline immuno-deficiency virus (FIV) and feline leukaemia virus (FeLV) infections, and feline infectious peritonitis [88, 89]. Other infectious diseases which cause anemia are Ehrlichia species, Bartonella species, Haemoplasmas (Mycoplasma haemofelis, ‘Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum’ and ‘Candidatus Mycoplasma turicensis’), Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Neorickettsia risticii, Cytauxzoon felis and Rickettsia felis have additionally been associated with anaemia [43, 90].
The indication of whole blood is in a patient whom needed several blood components or has acutely lost more than 50% of its total blood volume. When 50% of total blood volume is lost oxygen carrying capacity and oncotic activity should be recovered. In anemia, stored whole blood is used. For anemic animals packed erythrocytes especially those with volume overload are prefered. For tissue reoxygenation the transfusion of packed RBCs are used. They are also useful for normovolemic, anemic patient. Before administration, to dilute any potentially damaging antibodies these erythrocytes can be washed with saline. Refrigerated whole blood should be warmed to room temperature. Before administration it sould be gently agitated to resuspend the red blood cells. Infusion rate is limited by colder blood which has a higher viscosity [3, 41, 91].
The usage of transfusion of fresh-frozen or stored-frozen plasma (FFP) are as follows; lack of coagulation factors associated with hepatic insufficiency, disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC), vitamin K deficiency, rodenticide toxicosis, liver insufficiency, biliary tract obstruction, sepsis/multiple organ dysfunction syndrome, pancreatitis, hypoalbuminemia, and DIC without associated laboratoryproven coagulopathy, malassimilation syndrome, chronic antibiotic use, a need for plasma volume expansion, or a massive blood loss within a few hours. Other It is also used in congenital or a hereditary deficiency in coagulation factors (i.e hemophilia A, B, or von Willebrand\'s disease and hypoproteinemia), [1, 3, 39]. Plasma (FP or FFP) is used especially in the emergency conditions like excessive protein loss such as enteropathy, nephropathy, exudative dermatitis or inadequate intake. It is not appropriate for using as long-term source of protein in these patients [3, 92]. In cats, reactions have not been reported following transfusions of FFP [46].
The collection and re-transfusion of the cat’s own blood is called autotransfusion. It is a useful technique in an emergency situation. It can be obtained when animals bleed into body cavities. It should not be used if the blood is contaminated with urine, bacteria or bile. Blood is collected from the body cavity in a sterile manner. After that it re-transfused into the patient through an appropriate fitler. To prevent clotting anticoagulant like acid citrate dextrose should be included at a ratio of 1:7 [39, 43].
The indication of transfusion reactions can be immunologic or nonimmunologic. They can be immediate or delayed. Antibodies to surface antigens of transfused erythrocytes cause immune-mediated hemolytic reactions. According to surface antigens canine blood is grouped. For six of these antigens typing is available. Except DEA 4, canine universal donor is negative for all dog erythrocyte antigens (DEAs). Universal donors should be examined. If other donors are known to be compatible with the recipient they can be also used. Acute hypersensitivities mediated by IgE antibodies are one of the possible immunologic reaction. The other can be leukocyte or platelet sensitivity caused by recipient antibodies to the donor\'s white cells or platelets. The mechanisms of nonimmunologic reactions are various. According to the specific reaction the type and severity of clinical signs vary [17] Adverse reaction occurs in 2 types. First one is immediate reaction and following transfusion it occurs within 1 to 2 h. Second is delayed reaction and it may begin within days, months, or years later [17]. Adverse reaction varies from mild (fever) to severe (death). Transfusion reactions can be acute or delayed. In animals receiving incompatible transfusions, acute intravascular hemolysis with hemoglobinemia and hemoglobinuria may be seen. Acute hemolytic reaction is the most serious transfusion reaction that can be prevented. It is an immunological reaction and it happens when circulating natural or acquired antibodies towards donor erythrocytic antigens are given. Hemoglobinuria, vasoconstriction, renal ischemia occur due to intravascular hemolysis. Intravascular hemolysis determine clinical signs. Disseminated intravascular coagulopathy (DIC) can be caused by release of thromboplastic substances. Secondary to the release of vasoactive substances, hypotension and shock can ocur. Also acute renal failure and death can develop. After transfusion a decrease in hematocrit between 2 days and 2 weeks resulted in suspicion of delayed hemolysis. As a result of extravascular hemolysis, hyperbilirubinemia and bilirubinuria may occur. In dogs clinical signs are as follows: fever, tachycardia or bradycardia, hypotension, dyspnea, cyanosis, excessive salivation, tearing, urination, defecation, vomiting, collapse, opisthotonos, cardiac arrest, hemoglobinemia, and hemoglobinuria. When an acute hemolytic reaction occured transfusion sould be interrupted at once and shock should be treated. Also blood product being used sould be checked out and the steps that led to the transfusion sould be examined [1, 3, 17, 93].
To detect transfusion reactions earlier requires careful evaluation of patient\'s behavior, vital signs, and perfusion before, during, and after a RBC transfusion. Pre- and post-transfusion measurement of PCV and total solids for example instantly and at 24 hours are needed. Also evaluation of the plasma and urine for the presence of Hgb is done [41].
In the dog the acute hemolytic reaction is rare because in this species naturally occurring anti-erythrocytic antibodies prevalence is low [3]. Alloantibodies against the common canine erythrocyte antigens 1.1 and 1.2 do not exist in dogs. As a result of this generally first transfusion can be safely given without regard for donor blood type. Thus the recipient can be sensitized to immunogenic antigens (i.e 1.1, 1.2, 7, and others). On first transfusion it can cause shortened survival times of the transfused cells. Subsequent predisposition to severe transfusion reaction can develop. DEA 1.1 which is the strongest antigen in dogs, leads to the most severe transfusion reaction [1]. In the second transfusion especially when DEA-1 type blood is applied twice to a DEA- 1-negative dog there is more risk [3].
In cats receiving typed or crossmatched transfusions low rates of transfusion reactions have been indicated. Transfusions with whole blood or packed red blood cells transfusion reactions were reported [45]. But transfusions with FFP no reactions have been reported in cats [46].
Initial or subsequent AB-mismatched transfusions in cats can cause acute hemolytic incompatibility reactions. Erythrocytes are destroyed immediately in cats because of alloantibodies. On the contrary in dogs, delayed transfusion reactions are more often occur. A type B transfusion to type A cat causes mild signs. In this situation shortened erythrocyte survival can occur. This causes ineffective therapy. Acute hemolytic transfusion reaction with massive intravascular hemolysis with serious clinical signs occurs in type A transfusion to a type B cat. These symptoms may occur even if it is the first transfusion. Type AB or A blood can be received by type AB cats safely [1, 94].
The transfusion should be stopped immediately if a transfusion reaction is suspected. The recipient sould be monitored continually for follow up. The most severe is acute haemolytic transfusion reactions developing as a result of naturally occurring alloantibodies [32].
Clinical signs are restlessness, vocalisation, tachypnoea, bradycardia, tachycardia, hypotension and hypertension. Pyrexia is seen frequently as a result of reactions to donor leukocytes, platelets and plasma proteins. As a result of binding by citrate, there is potential for hypocalcaemia when administering large volumes of blood products. Thus, if the patient is showing clinical signs of hypocalcaemia calcium should be measured [38, 43].
The next hour after transfusion nonhemolytic fever can ocur as adverse reactions. If contaminated blood products applied by mistake, fever may occur in an acute hemolytic reaction in association with septicemia. Vomiting or diarrhea can be seen after plasma administration. Rarely urticaria may cause trouble to patient. It can be treated with antihistamines, with or without glucocorticosteroids. If whole blood is administered with rapid administration of a large volume of blood component to normovolemic cats or small-sized dogs hypervolemia can be observed. Hypervolemia can result in pulmonary edema. Cough, tachypnea, dyspnea, or cyanosis can occur due to hypervolemia. Treatment can be done by stopping the transfusion, administering diuretics (furosemide) to reduce pulmonary edema, and providing oxygen support [3,72, 93].
The recipient should be carefully examined before the procedure. Its heart rate, respiratory rate, mucous membrane colour, capillary refill time and temperature sould be recorded. Also the PCV and total plasma protein should be recorded [43, 51].
Delayed adverse transfusion reactions are consist of delayed hemolytic reaction, transmission of infectious disease, and posttransfusion purpura. Posttransfusion purpura has been reported in the dog. It is characterized by the appearance of severe thrombocytopenia in the week following a second transfusion. [3, 95, 96].
Anemia, regardless of underlying cause, is troublesome for clinicians in respect to stabilising and supporting the patient. The survival rate of all reasons for a transfusion is 84% in the first 24 h. It is 75% for blood loss anaemia and 49.6% for ineffective erythropoeisis at 10 days [43, 97].
The incompatibilities between the donor’s red blood cells and recipient’s plasma are identified by major cross-match. The incompatibilities between the donor’s plasma and recipient’s red blood cells is identified by a minor cross-match [43].
Cross-Matching usually is identified as either ‘‘major’’ or ‘‘minor’’ cross-matches. A major cross-match include putting patient serum into donor cells and determine the presence of agglutinating and/or hemolytic antibodies in the patient aganist the donor antigens. The principle of this test is hemolytic or agglutinating reaction. In this test the reagent or antibody reacts with the RBCs. Serological discordance between a candidate donor and the patient is identified by the crossmatching. It does not determine the blood group [3]. A positive in vitro reaction is caused by the presence of antibodies. In patients that had no antibodies at the time of transfusion, a mild reaction can be seen in 4 to 14 days after mismatched transfusions. When blood is transfused to a patient in which antibodies are already present, a severe reaction occurs. This antibody can be developed by either naturally occurring or as a result of a previous mismatched transfusion. Furthermore, high concentrations of antibodies can be caused by isosensitization from transplacental immunization. In dogs that have received transfusions before, a crossmatch should always be performed. A minor cross-match include putting donor serum into patient erythrocytes. This step is not necessary for the donor whom previously tested negative for antibodies. Transfusing packed or washed erythrocytes rather than whole blood can prevent administration of antibodies in donor blood against patient erythrocytes [1].
Before transfusion the reason of analysis with these methods are to prevent acute hemolytic reaction due to transfusion, to provide optimal lifetime of the transfused RBCs, to prevent next discordant blood transfusions and to prevent neonatal isoerythrolysis [3].
Because there are blood types that have not been described and it is not possible to type for Mik it is recommended that cross-matching is performed before any transfusion. If the recipient has received a transfusion before more than 4 days cross-matching should be performed [98].
Horses have eight RBC groups or systems: A, C, D, K, P, Q, U, and T. The first seven systems are recognized by the International Society of Animal Blood Grouping Research. Blood-typing antiserum is not readily available for horses. Because of this to identify suitable donors equine blood-group testing can be performed by only few diagnostic laboratories. Over 30 different factors have been identified within these seven equine systems. Experimentally many more systems have been identified [99, 100]. Red cell antigens Ca, Aa, and Qa are play an important role in transfusion reactions and neonatal isoerythrolysis. There is no universal equine blood donor. Because of this to prevent inadvertent sensitization of brood mares against the two most common alloantigens (Aa and Qa) involved in neonatal isoerythrolysis, the preferred donor should be negative for factors Aa, Qa, and Ca [100, 101]. Aa and Qa alloantigens are most immunogenic, and most neonatal isoerythrolysis cases are associated with anti-Aa or Qa antibodies. The horse is clinically relevant for blood group incompatibilities. It is the only livestock species for this situation. Blood group antibodies can laed to transfusion reactions or NI and can be found in horses either ‘‘naturally’’ or as a result of a blood group incompatible pregnancy [2]. A donkey RBC antigen that has not been found in the horse has been identified, it is unique to the donkey and the mule [1].
In horses, requirement of blood transfusion include correction of anemia arising from acute blood loss secondary to trauma, surgical complications, ruptured uterine artery, guttural pouch mycosis, and neonatal isoerythrolysis [99, 102].
Generally, whole blood transfusions are applied to horses that have acute blood loss caused by trauma, surgery, or some other conditions like splenic rupture or uterine artery hemorrhage. The transfusion recovers blood volume and oxygen-carrying capacity in cases of blood loss. There is no certain indicative variables for the beginning of transfusion so that physical examination and clinicopathologic parameters should be used to make the transfusion decision. In cases of acute hemorrhage one sould remember that the packed cell volume (PCV) may be normal for up to 12 hours because of the time required for fluid redistribution and the effects of splenic contraction. As the horse is rehydrated with intravenous fluids, serial monitoring of PCV and total protein (TP) can estimate the amount of blood loss. The transfusion decision is made by suspection of large volume blood loss, together with tachycardia, tachypnea, pale mucous membranes, lethargy, and decreasing TP. During an acute bleeding episode when the PCV fall under 20%, blood transfusion is probably required. In acute severe cases, transfusion may be required before there is a significant fall in PCV. PVC shows the need for beginning of transfusion in chronic anemia better whereas in acute hemorrhage, with transfusions proposed for horses with demonstration of tissue hypoxia and a PCV less than 10-12% [103, 104].
Blood is collected and stored in glass bottles containing acid–citrate–dextrose (ACD). The method traditionally used for collecting blood from donor horses. Glass bottles containing ACD are easy and suitable for rapid vacuum blood draw. Because of this they are recommended for equine whole-blood collection. For equine whole blood the optimal storage method is commercial citrate–phosphate–dextrose with adenine (CPDA-1) bags [105, 106].
Packed RBCs (pRBCs) are specified for normovolemic anemia (i.e neonatal isoerythrolysis, erythropoietic failure, and chronic blood loss). Markers of tissue oxygenation, for example lactate and oxygen extraction are useful in chronic or hemolytic anemia cases. In horses, disseminated intravascular coagulation, clotting factor deficiency, hypoalbuminemia, decreased colloid oncotic pressure, and failure of transfer of passive immunity (FPT) are treated by plasma [104].
Colloid is usually used in patients with a total protein less than 4.0g/dL or serum albumin concentration less than 2.0g/dL. When there is oncotic pressure less than 14 mmHg, clinical symptoms like ventral edema, and conditions which increase microvascular permeability like sepsis are other indications for colloid usage [104].
According to plasma obtained by plasmapheresis and centrifugation preparations, plasma prepared by gravity sedimentation contains greater numbers of erythrocytes and leucocytes. The risk of a transfusion reaction can be increased by these cells. During storage leukocytes can degranulate and fragment and release pyrogens and proinflammatory substances [107, 108, 112].
Multiple hyperimmune plasma products are avaible with bacterial or viral specific antibodies. For the treatment of equine endotoxemia, the efficacy of E. coli (J5) and Salmonella tiyphiimiriuni hyperimmune plasma has proved to be useful in some reports; in contrast, there are some reports which disapprove the utility of such products. For the protection of R. equi, the use of Rhodococcus equi hyperimmune plasma has also been controversial. For treatment of specific disease additional plasma products like botulism antitoxin, West Nile virus antibody, and Streptococcus equi antibody are usable. In general equine practice plasma is administered to neonates to provide protective immunoglobulins. Protective immunoglobulins are used for treatment of failure of transfer of passive immunity or prophylaxis against Rhodococcus equi. Also, the albumin content of the plasma used as a colloid for circulatory volume support and in the treatment of protein-losing enteropathies. In horses heritable and acquired coagulopathies can occur. Specific coagulation factors are not available for supplementation. Also indications include coagulopathies, protein-losing nephropathy and protein loss through third spacing into a body cavity (occurring with peritonitis or pleuritis) [104, 109-113].
Fresh frozen plasma must be separated and frozen within 8 hours of blood collection. Then it can be colder at -18 C and stored for up to 1 year. Frozen plasma is considered as plasma separated any time after 8 hours of blood storage [112, 114, 115].
Healthy, young gelding weighing at least 500 kg is the ideal equine blood donor. Donor horses should be performed current vaccinations. To prevent from equine infectious anemia donors should be tested each year. RBC antigens Aa and Qa are the most immunogenic antigens. Because of this in the ideal donor, the Aa and Qa alloantigens should be absent. There are breed-specific blood factor frequencies. Thus a donor of the same breed as the recipient, particularly when blood typing is absent may be preferable. Horses that have taken blood or plasma transfusions and mares that have had foals are not appropriate as donors. Because they have a higher risk of carrying RBC alloantibodies. Donkeys have a RBC antigen known as "donkey factor". Horses do not have this antigen. Thus donkeys or mules should not be used as donors for horses because horses can develop anti-donkey factor antibodies if transfusion takes place [1, 104, 116].
An immediate blood transfusion can be applied for the first time in an emergency situation with a very minor risk of serious transfusion reaction. Horses can develop alloantibodies within 1 week of transfusion. Thus blood typing and crossmatching are recommended before a second transfusion is given. A second blood transfusion may be given confidently without a blood crossmatch within 2-3 days of the first transfusion. Blood typing and alloantibody screening can be used for the transfusion needed patient to find the most suitable donor horse. Blood typing and antibody screening before initial transfusion are more important for horses. Because subsequent blood transfusions are anticipated and if sensitized to other blood group factors broodmares may produce foals with neonatal isoerythrolysis (NI). For detection of equine RBC antigens Ca and Aa, a rapid agglutination method has been developed. It can be more suitable for pretransfusion testing [99, 103, 104].
Blood is collected from the jugular vein of the donor horse. For this purpose two way used; direct needle cannulation or catheteri-zation. When a large volume of blood is required, a 10 or 12 gauge catheter is recommended. A 14 gauge catheter is also sufficient. Plastic bags and vacum-collection glass bottles in sizes ranging from 450 mL to 2 L are suitable for blood accumulation. Anticoagulation with 3.2% sodium citrate is enough when blood is received for immediate transfusion. In saline-adenine-glucose-mannitol solution red blood cell concentrates stored and they can be used for transfusion for up to 35 days after blood accumulation. Equine blood storage condition resemble to canine and human blood storage condition. According to both in vitro tests and human parameters after 35 days of storage equine erythrocytes remain appropriate for transfusion. Fresh frozen plasma is obtained by separation of erythrocytes and plasma. Both of them can be used alone. RBC survival evaluation sould be doen in vivo [104, 117].
To allow separation of red blood cells by gravity sedimentation the blood is stored in a refrigerator at 5 C for 48 hours in an upright position. Then the plasma is decanted into a sterile 3-L bag with sterile plastic connecting tubing using gravity. 3-L bags containes a constant weight of plasma (3.4 kg). The red cell fraction is thrown out. The plasma bags are sealed, labeled with the horse’s name and the date of decantation. They are stored at -20 C until needed for plasma transfusion [112, 118].
In acute blood loss cases, PCV is usually impractical for estimation of volume to be transfused because it does not exactly indicate blood loss. Instead of this the volume of blood needed are predicted by estimation of blood loss and evaluation of clinical parameters. Fluid shifts will replace much of the circulating volume so between 25% and 50% of the total blood lost should be replaced by transfusion. Pay attention sould be give to that up to 75% of RBCs lost into a body cavity like hemoperitoneum are within 24-72 hours autotransfused back into circulation. Thus in cases of intracavitary hemorrhage lower percentages of blood volume replacement can be needed. To remove small clots and fibrin blood and plasma products should be given with an in-line filter [104, 119].
Blood should be given at a rate of approximately 0.3mL/ kg over the first 10-20 minutes for monitoring the transfusion reactions. Heart rate, body temperature, and respiratory rate sould be monitored. Additionally horses have to be monitored for signs of muscle fasciculation, piloerection, and urticaria. Urticaria, hemolysis, pruritis, edema, tachycardia, tachypnea, pyrexia, colic, changes in mentation and acute anaphylactic reactions are adverse reactions indicated in horses taking blood transfusions. The rate of adverse reaction to WB transfusion has been reported as 16% which are mild urticarial reactions and worsening hemolysis. Also 1 of 44 horses (2%) exhibit a fatal anaphylactic reaction [103, 113].
Transfusion reactions may vary from mild urticarial reactions to anaphylaxis. They are divided into immunogenic and nonimmunogenic reactions. Immunogenic reactions include anaphylaxis, hemolysis, fever, hives, acute lung injury, posttransfusion purpura, immunosuppression, and neonatal isoerythrolysis. Nonimmunogenic reactions include circulatory overload, bacterial contamination, citrate toxicity, coagulopathy, hyperammonemia, and transmission of disease. In horses that have received fresh frozen plasma serum hepatitis has been observed [52, 93, 112, 120].
In a second plasma or blood transfusion there exists risk for severe adverse reactions in dogs. Also there is a risk of development of neonatal isoerythrolysis in gravid mares. The risk is much more in whole blood transfusions [26, 33, 112].
In horses suffered from normovolemic anemia polymerized ultrapurified bovine hemoglobin (PUBH) improves hemodynamics and oxygen transport parameters. During infusion to be informed about any adverse reactions patients should be monitored closely. Intense pruritus, tachycardia, and tachypnea can be resolved shortly after stopping the infusion [121].
Eleven blood groups have been classified in cattle. The greatest clinical relevance is in groups B and J. The B group is extremely complex, thus closely matched transfusions are very difficult. Newborn calves do not have the J antigen. During the first six months of life they generally acquire it. Cows can be sensitized to erythrocyte antigens by vaccinations of blood origin like some anaplasmosis and babesiosis vaccines. As a result of this neonatal isoerythrolysis in subsequent calves occur. [1].
Seven blood groups have been classified in sheep. The B group in these animals is resemble to the B group in cattle, and the R group is resemble to the J group in cattle. For example, antigens are soluble and soluble antigens passively absorbed to erythrocytes. In the goat, five blood groups are identified which resemble to those of sheep [1].
Blood group A–O expression is affected by 16 porcine blood groups and the S gene. Carbohydrate antigens like AO blood group antigens and minor histocompatibility antigens can be important targets for the immune response to transplanted organs or tissues. These antigens remain an unknown and untested variable in many transplant studies using pigs. Depending, on work performed in some Europian country pig blood groups developed and expanded largely. The source of blood typing reagents is especially from isoimmune sera. Most antibodies behave as agglutinins and a few as hemolysins. Internationally sixteen genetic systems are recognized [2, 122-124].
In two domestic South American camelids, Ilama and alpaca, our knowledge is little about group variation. Six blood groups factors were identified (e.g A, B, C, D, E and F). from iso- and heteroimmune sera constituted for these animals [2].
In ruminants and camelids indications for WB and plasma transfusion are similar to horses. Chronic anemia may be a more common problem in ruminants. Gastrointestinal parasites, particularly Haemonchus contains, and ectoparasites (e.g. Haematopinus spp. and Linognathus spp.) are causes of chronic blood loss anemia, and iron-deficiency anemia. These can affect neonatal calves [104, 121, 125].
Studies with camelids and bovines has showed that the neonatal intestine can only successfully absorb colostral immunoglobulins for 12–24 hours postpartum. Passive transfer (FPT) is failed in 19% to 24% of neonatal camelids. A common indication for plasma transfusion in neonatal calves and crias is failure of transfer of passive immunity. Hyperimmune serum products are existing for subcutaneous and intramuscular dosing in ruminants. These are products with antibodies against E. coli, Pasturella, Aercanobacter pyogenes, Salmonella typhimurium and Clostridium [104, 126-129].
An integral component of neonatal camelid care is IV plasma transfusion. It is used for the purpose of antibody supplementation and fluid resuscitation in critical illness. Neonates are immunocompetent at birth but due to initial postpartum absorption of colostrum for passive acquisition of immunoglobulins (especially IgG) they are severely hypogammaglobulinemic [130, 131].
In cattle, the first blood transfusion should usually be safe, regardless of the donor. J-negative donor is ideal. Because agglutination reactions do not develop, routine crossmatching is not useful in ruminants. First transfusions are usually safe to apply without a blood cross-match but crossmatching is recommended when more than 48-72 hours have passed away since the first blood transfusion. Blood donors should not have disease like bovine leukosis virus, anaplasmosis, and bovine viral diarrhea virus [104].
Total blood volume estimated in cattle is 80 mL/kg. From the donor animal up to 20-25% of total blood volume can be removed. Usually needle cannulation or jugular catheterization used in this situation. Blood can be collected into bottles or bags using citrate anticoagulant (e.g CPDA-1) in equine transfusions [104].
Blood samples can be taken from the jugular vein in sheep. A 500 ml transfer bag system including a needle can use for the storage. These bags include 70 ml of CPDA-1-stabiliser. Then the blood should be put into four 150 ml transfer bags. These bags can be stored on a horizontal shaker. It shows the best preservation of platelet function. Also it can be used for the storage experiment consecutively [132].
Platelet count and aggregability of CPDA-1-stabilised ovine blood is kept most covenient at room temperature. It provides adequate haemostatic function for ex vivo experiments for one working day. In ovine blood functional loss and high percentage of platelets within aggregates can be observed at refrigerator temperature. This should be considered in blood transfusion in sheep [132].
In order to monitor transfusion reactions blood should first be transported slowly. Ruminant blood type discordance result in primarily complement-mediated hemolysis. Volume overload should not be given. Also in neonates and small ruminants volume should carefully be given [104].
Intestinal absorption of antibodies declines sharply within the first 24 hours postpartum. For treatment of crias with failure of passive transfer (FPT) IV or intraperitoneal administration of 20–40 mL/kg of camelid plasma is recommended. In compromised neonates requiring fluid resuscitation IV administration of plasma is generally preferred. It is used for the correction of FPT and colloid support. In foals during extensive plasma volume expansion careful monitoring is needed to prevent cardiopulmonary complications. Following IV plasma administration the cardiovascular and pulmonary effects of plasma volume expansion have not been specifically worked out in camelids. But in several species (i.e sheep and cat) plasma volume overexpansion depending on excessive IV fluid administration has been associated with reduced lung function and pulmonary edema formation in clinical and experimental settings. In addition according to measures in presumed hypovolemic human patients administration of colloids can induce a greater reduction in lung function than crystalloids [130, 133-137].
Measurable plasma volume expansion and a concurrent reduction in pulmonary functional residual capacity (FRC) is caused by IV administration of 30 mL/kg camelid plasma to neonatal crias. In healthy neonatal crias administration of this quantity of plasma seems to be safe. But with underlying cardiopulmonary or systemic disease changes in lung volume associated with plasma administration could create risks for crias (131).
Adverse effects of transfusing blood stored for prolonged periods in lamps is encountered more often in patients with reduced vascular nitric oxide levels because of endothelial dysfunction. These patients can benefit from transfusion of fresh PRBC if available. Also inhaled nitric oxide supplementation can prevent pulmonary hypertension associated with transfusion of stored PRBC [138].
In previously untransfused pigs, hemolytic transfusion reactions do not appear to develop. But there have been two reports about adverse reactions in pigs undergoing liver transplants by the use of A–O incompatible transfusions. Pulmonary hypertension and decreased fibrinogen with an associated increase in fibrin degradation products occured in pigs that received A–O incompatible transfusions [139]. In a study, two pigs that administered A–O incompatible blood transfusions during liver transplants died because of disseminated intravascular coagulation (DIC), bleeding and progressive hypotension [140].
Vital part of veterinary emergency and critical care medicine is transfusion medicine. It is also therapy of some disease of patient. Blood and blood products can be obtained through the purchase of blood products or donors. Potentially fatal adverse transfusion reactions risk is higher in cats than in dogs. Also, adverse transfusion reactions are very important for large animals. By using known donors and screening assays that permit detection of incompatibility of blood typing or crossmatching, the risk can be decreased in both species.
Energy can be added to the basic need of humans to live on the earth’s planet. We need energy in our daily life and economic development, but there is an insufficient energy demand in our world especially for developing countries [1]. The demand for energy is increasing exponentially due to the global population growth and economic development. As the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA) has reported, population size is predicted to extend by two billion within the next 30 years. The expansion rate of the world population indicates that the present world population could jump from currently 7.7 billion to 8.5 by 2030, 9.7 billion by 2050, and 10.9 billion by 2100 [2]. For this population expansion, enormous energy will be required. However, fulfilling this energy demand is a key challenge and a huge obstacle for dreaming of continuous green earth [3]. Currently, fossil fuel-based energy is dominating worldwide, which is meant since it is not replaceable it is running out very fast. In addition to this, to control the amount of CO2 within the air, it is necessary to reduce the energy demand from fossil fuels and increase the supply of the energy from renewable energy sources [4]. As an alternative to fuel energy, and to minimize CO2 emission, solar cells, among all the renewable energy resources, can provide an efficient and environmentally friendly solution, for a sustainable green earth, which converts sunlight directly into electricity [5, 6]. The amount of energy humans use annually is about 4.6 × 1020 joules, and this amount of energy is delivered to Earth by the Sun in 1 hour [7]. The largest power that the sun unceasingly delivers to earth is 1.2 × 105 terawatts, which is bigger than each different energy supply, either renewable or nonrenewable [8]. It dramatically exceeds the speed at which human civilization produces and uses energy currently about 13 TW [2, 8, 9]. Depending on the estimation of the population growth rate; the global energy demand is predicted to exceed 30 terawatts by 2050, about double the current energy [2].
Solar cells have been widely utilized in different replaceable energy generation projects including roof-top installations, solar farms, spacecraft, and portable solar battery banks [10]. More importantly, solar cells have been also utilized in building-integrated photovoltaic systems for harvesting solar power, toward the goal of self-sustainable modern infrastructures, such as glass-greenhouses, bus stops, and smart building components, that is, energy generating and saving PV glass [11]. Although the resource potential of photovoltaic (PV) is gigantic, it currently constitutes a little fraction of the worldwide energy supply. One among the factors limiting the widespread adoption of PV is its low-energy density, low efficiency, and comparatively high-cost as compared to other energy technologies [12, 13]. In order to widely apply PV, scientists and researchers around the world are still conducting research on this area, including the event of varied sorts of solar cells that specialize in improving the conversion efficiency also [14]. One among the foremost relevant metrics for PV devices is that the power conversion efficiency (PCE), that is, the efficiency with which sunlight is often converted to electric power. There are several factors, from structural defects to resistance to shading effects, which affect the conversion efficiency, also as the overall performance of solar cells.
A significant effort in photovoltaic research today is objectively to enhance PCE, while simultaneously reducing cost [15]. The overwhelming majority of today’s PV market consists of three types of generation [16]: the first-generation PV is silicon-based solar cell modules, which currently dominate the solar power market due to their low-cost and long-term reliability, but only convert about 8–19% of the available solar power [17]. Second-generation PVs are thin-film solar cells that aim to decrease cost by utilizing less material and depositing on inexpensive substrates, such as metal foil, glass, and plastic. This type of PVs includes cadmium telluride (CdTe), amorphous Si, and copper indium gallium diselenide (CIGS), all of lower material quality and PCE compared to first-generation cells [18]. In order to overcome these shortage, third-generation PVs [19] are recently being pursued that aim to strike the Shockley-Queisser efficiency limit of ~30% (1 Sun) for one p-n junction [20], while keeping or reducing cost.
The III–V multi-junction planar solar cells are included under third-generation PV and have attracted several interests in the recent candidate of the solar cells that have terribly high efficiencies larger than 40% grown on Ge substrates [21]. Nevertheless, planar III–V materials and Ge substrates needed for these devices are too rare and expensive for widespread use [22, 23]. Since the main barriers to the large-scale uses of solar energy are due to the difficulties in balancing the cost and efficiency of existing devices, innovations are needed to reap solar power with greater efficiency and economic viability. The right resolution is to form the high-efficiency III–V solar cells onto the cheap mature Si platform and develop III–V/Si two-junction cells [22, 24]. It has been foreseen that III–V/Si are able to achieve an efficiency of above 40%, nevertheless, the lattice and thermal expansion coefficient mismatches between III–V layers and Si substrates are still preventing the effective implementation of this idea [22].
By reducing the size of materials from bulk to nanoscale and developing the cheap growth method can solve the problem in III–V multi-junction thin-film solar cells. Recently solar cells in one dimension and zero dimensions geometry materials have got attention. Different materials in nanowire geometries, such as Si, III–V compounds (e.g., GaAs, InP, and III-nitride-based), II-VI compounds (e.g., CdS/CuS2 and CdS/CdTe), and most recently perovskites have been studied for solar energy harvesting [25]. NW-based solar cells are forest or single of one dimensional (1D) rods, wires, or pillars having lengths typically on the order of microns and diameters on the order of tens to several nanometers. They have unique and wonderful optical and electrical properties and they also offer flexibility to create heterojunctions in both axial and radial directions. Due to their highly anisotropic shape and enormous index of refraction, they behave as optical antennae with improved absorption and emission properties, and thus better photovoltaic cell efficiency compared to a planar material with equivalent volume [26]. The theoretical efficiency of an NW array solar cell can reach approximately 32.5% for bandgap at approximately 1.34 eV under AM 1.5 solar spectrum, exceeding that of a planar bulk solar cell (31%) with the same bandgap, implying an important advantage of reduced material usage and cost [27, 28]. The theoretical power conversion efficiency of 48% is also reported using Al0.54Ga0.46As, GaAs, and In0.37Ga0.63. As NWs arrays grown on a silicon substrate [29].
The NW arrays could also provide substantial reductions in material consumption as well as production costs for III–V-based solar cells, in part because they can be grown on low-cost substrates, such as silicon [30]. Among III–V-based solar cells, GaAs and InP are of specific interest for photovoltaic cell applications due to their direct bandgaps, which are close to the ideal value for maximizing PCE under AM 1.5G spectrum [31]. For the first, the best-reported efficiency above 10% for III–V NW is an InP nanowire cell with 13.8% efficiency [30]. The highest power conversion efficiency of the III–V NWs record is caught by InP NWs, which is 17.8% [32]. This value is approached to a planar solar cell that has been reported for silicon radial junction with vertically aligned tapered microwires achieving power conversion efficiency of 18.9% [33]. The principal goal of third-generation PVs is not only the continual increase of power conversion efficiencies but also the reduction of solar cell development costs; novel hybrid materials can provide a practical solution [27]. The array nanowire solar cells are much more important and promising. However, their current efficiencies are much lower than their theoretical prediction. NW synthesis, characterization, and device fabrications are the challenges to achieve the theoretical efficiency predicted theoretically [34].
In this review, we have focused on the synthesis process of III–V nanowires, solar energy harvesting, photon-generated carriers, different design of nanowire solar cells, and ultimately the mostly achieved power conversion efficiency for some of III–V NWs. III–V NW solar cells have gained attention, especially since 2009 and many papers have been published. Depending on these published papers, we have discussed the papers published since 2010 for each aforementioned focused area in this review.
Nanowire can be synthesized through three approaches: i) top-down approaches, ii) bottom-up approaches, and iii) the combination of top-down and bottom-up approaches.
The top-down approach begins with a bulk material (microscopic materials), which will be by selection removed to create NWs through lithography patterning and wet/dry etching method [35]. From epitaxially grown-up thin films, they provide the advantage of fabricating NWs with exactly controlled doping profile and layer thickness [23]. If this NW structure has a p-n junction, it will be incorporated as an axial p-n junction after the NWs are formed. To create a radial p-n junction, ion implantation and molecular monolayer doping (MLD) can be used [31, 36, 37]. In the fabrication of nanowires, numerous lithographic styles are used with controllable exposure, size, and distance for dependable light-trapping and latterly high-effectiveness solar cells [38]. The traditional optical lithography can offer a high result, but its essential dimension is confined by the optical phenomenon restriction of the sun wavelength [38, 39]. On the other hand, traditional electron-beam lithography (EBL) has a veritably high resolution but suffers from high-cost and low throughput [40, 41]. Nanoimprint lithography (NIL) [42, 43] can be used in order to obtain both high throughput and resolution, and self-powered parallel electron lithography may be used [44, 45]. The NIL technology avoids light diffraction in optical lithography and can fabricate the nanowires with fabricating accuracy up to several nanometers [46]. The process includes lithography patterning, and then dry etching to obtain nanowires with vertical and smooth sidewalls [36, 47]. Subsequently, wet etching processes are also conducted to first etch the remaining etching masks followed by the removal of physically damaged and nonstoichiometric oxidized surface layers [48]. The top-down have disadvantages when compared with bottom-up approaches. It does not offer any material saving and also lack freedom in material design. Furthermore, the etching process could introduce surface defects that adversely affect the nanowire’s optical and electrical properties, and thus lead to much-degraded device performance [49].
Bottom-up approach NW synthesis is supported by gas-phase epitaxial growth technique to supply detached NW ensembles with or without order. There are many techniques employed under the bottom-up approach for nanowire growth, such as chemical vapor deposition (CVD) [46, 50, 51], chemical-beam epitaxy (CBE) [52, 53], laser ablation [54], and hybrid vapor-phase epitaxy [55, 56]. Nevertheless, III–V semiconductor nanowires are mainly grown by either metal–organic vapor-phase epitaxy (MOVPE) [57, 58, 59, 60] or molecular-beam epitaxy (MBE) technique [61, 62] with and without catalysis assistance. Catalyzed growth involves the use of metal nanoparticles, such as Au, Al, and other metals [34].
The catalysts that are used as an assist in the growth of NWs can be external or from the elements of materials used to grow NWs, which are called seed particles. In general, we can classify the NWs growth mechanisms into four as shown in Figure 1: (i) homoparticle growth, (ii) heteroparticle growth, (iii) non-catalyst growth, and (iv) oxide-assisted growth. The seed particles can be homoparticle growth (Figure 1c); in this case, a seed particle is formed consisting of one or all elements used for wire growth or it can be simply a self-assisted growth. As the seed particle size varies during growth both length and diameter increase. The seed particles can also be heteroparticle growth (Figure 1d) and in this case, a seed particle (typically Au) is deposited prior to growth, in simple words, it is a foreign metal-assisted growth technique. Throughout heating to increase temperature the seed particle alloys with the substrate and/or material forms the gas phase. In this case, particle size during growth is constant. Noncatalyzed growth includes selective area epitaxy (SAE) where growth occurs on a prepatterned substrate [64, 65, 66]. In selective area epitaxy, an epitaxial layer nucleates in openings of a mask layer and continuously grows in height; its lateral growth is restricted by low-energy facets (Figure 1a). [63, 67]. Oxide-assisted growth (OAG) is additionally a mechanism used in crystal growth with the aid of the semiconductor substance’s oxides as a passivating shell to suppress the subsequent growth [68]. During OAG growth, the semiconductor and its oxide are adsorbed on the substrate, where the semiconductor produces nucleation centers, which also create the semiconductor nanowires, while the oxide forms a passivating shell (Figure 1b).
Schematic representation of four basic nanowire growth mechanisms: (a) selective area epitaxy, (b) oxide-assisted growth, (c) homoparticle growth, and (d) heteroparticle growth [
For the non-catalyzed growth method, Maoqing Yao et al. [69] fabricated arrays of GaAs nanowires solar cell with an axial p-i-n junction, which are grown by selective area growth (SAG) method, using mass production compatible metal-organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) technique. This growth method is free of the metal catalyst. The fabrication process of their axial junction GaAs nanowire solar cell is shown in Figure 2a. Their fabrication steps are (1) electron-beam lithography is applied to form hole array in silicon nitride mask, (2) SAG of p-i-n GaAs nanowire using MOCVD, (3) BCB infiltration, (4) reactive ion etching (RIE) to expose nanowire tips, and (5) transparent conductive indium tin oxide (ITO) deposition. The SEM images for as-grown vertical GaAs nanowire array (Figure 2b), after nanowires are embedded in BCB and etched by RIE to expose short tips (Figure 2c) and after coating of ITO film by sputtering (Figure 2d) is displayed.
Solar cell fabrication process and SEM images. (a) Fabrication steps of GaAs nanowire array solar cells with axial junction, (b) 30° tilted SEM image of as grown vertical GaAs nanowire array on GaAs (111) B substrate, (c) SEM image after nanowires are embedded in BCB and etched by RIE to expose short tips, and (d) SEM image after coating of ITO film by sputtering. A conformal dome-like cap is formed on the tips of nanowires [
NWs are grown from the vapor-liquid-solid (VLS) method during which an NW is grown from the vapor phase employing a metal seed particle, like Au as shown in Figure 3a, that is usually liquid at the expansion temperature (after alloying with the substrate and/or growth species) [56, 70, 71]. The VLS growth technique as its name suggests is the growth method from the combination of the three phases (vapor phase, liquid phase, and solid phase). The vapor phase is the gas phase precursor, the liquid phase is the catalyst and the solid phase is the final grown nanowire. A foreign metal can be used to promote NW growth by forming a liquid eutectic with the desired NW material through this mechanism (Figure 3a and b). In such NW synthesis, the chemical precursor’s vapors are transported into the hot zone by an inert carrier gas and react on a substrate with metal catalyst nanoparticles [72]. With the proper choice of substrates, catalysts, precursors, and growth conditions, various types of vertical NWs, as well as planar NWs can be achieved [73]. While VLS synthesis is the most common with the seed particle in a liquid state, a mechanism is also possible if the catalysts remain solid and do not form a eutectic with the NW material [74]. Such solid-phase diffusion mechanism happens below the catalyst’s eutectic point with the metal seeds remaining as solid [75]. Ingvar Aberg et al. [76] have grown GaAs NW array solar cells by the VLS growth Au-assisted method, which demonstrated a 1-sun independently verified solar energy conversion efficiency of 15.3%.
Schematics for three typical nanowire growth mechanisms: (a) foreign metal–catalyzed growth, (b) self-catalyzed growth, and (c) selective area epitaxy [
As explained in the previous section the VLS method can also be use self-assisted. The self-assisted method uses a component of the NW itself as shown in Figure 3b, which avoids the utilization of foreign metal elements [41]. A foreign particle which found on the top of NWs may cause harmful effects like contamination of the NWs, increased contact resistance, or reflection of sunshine from a photovoltaic device [77]. These foreign metallic particles can be etched after device processing, but etching might cause problem and will have a negative effect on the performance of device. Figure 3c shows the oxide-supported growth mechanisms.
Mandl et al. [63] have grown InAs NW by a VLS mechanism employing a liquid In droplet and they identified that the presence of the oxide layer is vital to immobilize In droplets on the surface, restricting the particle size and NW nucleation formed. They have concluded that NWs can be grown in the sequence, as illustrated in Figure 4: (a) in the deposited SiOx openings form during heating the substrate; (b) when the trimethylindium (TMI) precursor is activated, the In atoms adsorbed on the surface diffuse into immobile In droplets formed in the openings of the SiOx layer; (c) at the interface between indium particles and the substrate underneath, NW growth is began by enhancing the rate of growth in one direction; and (d) after deactivation of the TMI supply, the droplet forms InAs NW.
The growth mechanism illustration of nanowires: (a) layer before growth, (b) layer during heating and creation of hole, (c) formation of In droplets, (d) growth of the NWs under the In droplets, and (e) droplet solidification during cooling [
The main challenge regarding the performance of thin-film photovoltaic cell structure is the sunshine reflection losses, for instance, with no treatment materials, around 30% of the light illuminated at the Si surface can be lost due to the reflection at the interface between air and Si [78]. During the illumination of sunlight to the surface thin-film cell, some of the light is converted into energy, others will be transmitted, whereas some parts reflect [79]. The loss due to reflectance can be reduced by using techniques, such as coating with anti-reflection and light trapping materials [80]. To reduce this loss, the most commonly used is dielectric antireflection coatings; however, it is difficult to hide the whole absorption wavelength range. Broadband antireflection methods will be achieved by light trapping schemes, such as inverted pyramid structures, but these boost the cost due to their complicated fabrication method. Contrary, NW arrays have a strong antireflection ability with superior wavelength, polarization, and angle-dependent properties compared to planar structures because NWs can form graded-refractive index layers [80]. Consequently, it will reduce the light reflectance at the interface of the two media by avoiding abrupt changes in the refractive index [81].
Wu et al. [82] have presented a model for effective and fast design of both squarely and hexagonal InP NW arrays to achieve the highest light-harvesting for PV application, achieving the maximal short-circuit current density of 33.13 mA/cm2. They have investigated the geometrical dimensions for vertically aligned single, double, and multiple diameters of NW arrays. NWs and nanorods have almost the same properties and solar cells can also grow as nanorods morphology to harvest highly efficient sunlight by reducing reflection. Diedenhofen et al. [50] grew layers of GaP nanorods on AlInP/GaAs substrates. They found that nanorods can greatly reduce the reflection and increase the sunshine transmission into the substrate overbroad spectral and angular ranges due to the graded index of refraction. Strudley et al. [58] studied the sunshine transport inside an NW mat. They found that due to mesoscopic transport the high-density semiconductor NW mats exhibit huge interference contributions. From their statistical analysis of intensity oscillations, they linked that transport for focused illumination is governed by a minimum of around three open transmission modes, which is a record low value for light in a 3D medium.
Schematics of vertically aligned InP NW arrays. (a) Squarely, and (b) hexagonal NW arrays with insets explaining their respective unit cells [
Additionally, semiconductor NW is a 1D nanostructure, which is usually on the order of the sunshine wavelength. Due to their high refractive index, they behave as optical antennae that can modify the absorption and emission properties [80]. The absorption properties of NWs when they are vertically standing are determined by the waveguide modes [82]. InP NW arrays, which are vertically aligned and grown on a semi-infinite SiO2 substrate are schematically shown in Figure 5 with either squarely or hexagonal arrangement. Repeatable unit cells in Figure 6a and b insets show respective characterization dimensions for each arrangement. Such morphology and topology of the NW arrays are in accord with the majority of the InP NW-based photovoltaic cell structures. Within each of the unit cells, the NWs own identical or different diameters as Di (where i = 1, 2, 3,…). Periodicity P is the core to core spacing of a pair of adjacent NWs that has an analogous value for squarely arranged NWs, whereas fully different values for hexagonal NW clusters.
(a) Schematic drawing of the periodic GaAs NWs structure, (b) absorptance, (c) reflectance, and (d) transmittance of GaAs NW array with different fill factors [
NWs are more efficient in light absorption compared to thin-film materials of an equivalent volume. Krogstrup et al. [84] have observed a remarkable increase in absorption in single-NW solar cells, which is related to the vertical configuration of the NWs and to a resonant increase in the absorption cross-section, and the results obtained opened a new route to third-generation PVs cells. Their short-circuit current result of 180 mAcm−2 is higher than that predicted by the Lambert-Beer law.
On other hand, when the NW is lying horizontally, the absorption properties are determined by leaky-mode resonances, which provide a chance to engineer the light absorption in NWs by controlling their physical dimensions [85]. Once the resonant modes are supported by the NWs leaky, the overlap between the incident electromagnetic attraction field and the guided mode profile is maximized, facilitating enough coupling with incident light.
Due to their outstanding advantages, NW arrays have advanced light trapping ability and hence strongly enhanced optical absorption in comparison with the thin-film [86]. This can significantly enhance the broadband light absorption over a good range of incident angles, especially the near and below bandgap absorption [81, 87]. With the same thickness as thin-film layers, the NWs short-circuit current can reach high results [88].
Nanowire diameter and separation are typically on the order of the wavelength of sunlight, where interference effects are dominant, therefore, the reflectance, absorptance, and transmittance of nanowire arrays must be determined using wave optics [89]. Long Wen et al. [83] have simulated to evaluate the efficiency limits of GaAs NW array solar cells and determined the requirements of the optical design for improving the efficiency Figures 6a-d. They have suggested that the optimized design NW might absorb 90% of above bandgap sunlight. Their combined optoelectronic simulation results reveal that optimization of optical geometry can lead to an attainable photovoltaic efficiency of 22%.
By fixing the filling factor, which is given by D/P, where D is the diameter of the nanowire and P is the separation between the grown nanowires, the effect of NWs diameter can be determined by varying it. Figure 7a shows the optical characteristics of the GaAs NW array with different diameters at a fixed D/P of 0.5 is plotted. The absorptance of a 2.2
(a) Absorptance of NWA with different diameters, and (b) Photogeneration profiles calculated by FDTD simulations [
Figure 7b shows plots of the vertical cross-section of the photogeneration profiles. The NWs with D = 60, 180 nm and D/P = 0.5 under 1mWcm−2 sunshines at different wavelengths for photogeneration rates are revealed. At λ = 400 nm, it is concentrated near the highest sides of the NW for both diameters. Only a little fraction of the incident wave is transmitted onto the substrate, this will be explained by the short absorption length of GaAs at this wavelength. At 600 nm and above, for a NW, the photogeneration rates are focused on several lobes that form along the NWs for a NW array with 180 nm diameter, indicating strong guided modes confined within the NWs. In contrast, for the case of D = 60 nm, the optical generation becomes more homogeneously covered by the NWs with a longer wavelength. Clearly, the 180 nm diameter NW array induces a much larger optical concentration than the 60 nm diameter one. From both Figures 6 and 7 one can easily understand the effect of NW diameter on photon energy harvesting.
Photocurrent density is often further bettered by adding nanowires length (L). Figure 8 shows the reckoned donation to all photocurrent from the NWs and the substrate during a GaAs NW PV device for an NW periphery of 180 nm and a period of 350 nm (90). Due to the proliferation of NW length, the donation from the nanowire to all photocurrent rises, while the GaAs substrate donation similarly decreases. The uttermost photocurrent of 27.3 mAcm−2 is obtained at 5 μm length, is on the brink of the perfect photocurrent density of 29.9 mAcm−2 (calculated by integrating the AM1.5G spectrum above the GaAs bandgap). At the optimum NW diameter, spacing, and length of the harvesting properties of III–V NWs can be improved.
Theoretical contributions from a GaAs nanowire array and the GaAs substrate to the total photocurrent density in a PV device versus nanowire length obtained at a nanowire diameter of 180 nm and period of 350 nm [
In 2015 Nicklas Anttu [28] compared the effectiveness of InP NW assemblage solar cells with the classical InP bulk solar cells. They accounted an NW assemblage of 400 nm periods, 4 μm length, and 170 nm periphery, which may produce 96 of the short-circuit current accessible within the impeccably taking up InP bulk cell. Also, the NW solar cells cast smaller photons than the bulk cell at the identical occasion, which allows for a more open-circuit voltage. They consequently found that NWs longer than 4 μm can really show, despite producing a lower short-circuit current, an efficiency limit of up to 32.5% that is above the bulk cells.
They have predicted the unborn capabilities in affecting both the emission and absorption characteristics of the NW assemblages, for instance, by (1) varying NWs shape, (2) varying the period of NWs, (3) sheeting the NWs with a nonabsorbing dielectric shell, (4) fitting a dielectric material between the NWs, and (5) by introducing optical antireflection layers on top of the NW. Such improvement of the NW array could conceivably further accelerate its effectiveness limit.
Based on the axis of charge carrier separation, an axial and a radial junction device are the two broadly classifying NW solar cells. The charge carrier separation happens along the length of the nanowire and the radial axis, in axial junction, and radial junction solar cells, respectively. Figure 9a and b display sunlight absorption and charge carrier separation in both axial and radial junctions NW solar cells correspondingly. In a solar cell, the minimum length needed to attain ample absorption is characterized by absorption depth. The absorption depth explains how deeply light penetrates the NW semiconductor or every type of solar cell device before being absorbed. At the same time, diffusion length describes the maximum length that the minority charge carrier can travel before making recombination non-radiatively [91]. For solar cells, in order for them to efficiently operate, the diffusion length should be higher than the absorption depth, as schematically shown in Figure 9. Radial junction is preferable for the fabrication of large-efficiency devices by connecting the light absorption and charge carrier separation axes. In a radial junction PV cell, sunlight absorption is along the main axis of the NW, while the charge carrier separation takes place within the radial direction, which is in nm-scale thickness. In other words, to realize the optimum performance of the NW photovoltaic cell in a radial junction photovoltaic cell, both charge carrier separation, and light absorption can separately be optimized.
Nanowires solar cells schematic representation of (a) an axial p-n junction, and (b) a radial p-n junction. α denotes the absorption coefficient of the active material and Ln and Lp denote the electrons and holes diffusion lengths, respectively [
Yao et al. [69] have carried out an optical simulation to predict the optimized axial junction and radial NW array for maximum light absorption and have compared the merits and demerits of these NWs. They have also synthesized GaAs NWs solar cells with an axial p-i-n junction by selective area growth method, which is compatible with MOCVD technique, and they observed that low filling ratio NWs are highly absorbed. They have also studied the effect of the diameter and revealed that thicker NWs are favorable because of the high surface recombination velocity on the bare GaAs NW surface. They identified that by decreasing junction depth to around 100 nm and maintaining diameter at 320 nm, able to achieve efficiencies as high as 7.58%. Their results demonstrated that GaAs NWs are good candidates for high-efficiency and low-cost solar energy conversion and open up great opportunities for the next generation photovoltaic based on multi-junction devices composed of lattice-mismatched material systems.
For solar cells, one of the key needs is to realize efficiency that keeping a huge optical thickness to facilitate high light absorption and a tiny low electrical thickness to facilitate high photogenerated carrier assortment at the contacts. The gathering of high photogenerated carriers depends powerfully on the diffusion length of minority carriers, which decline quickly with the rise in density of defect [22]. Generated carriers are going to be wasted when they are quite one diffusion length far away from the space charge region [92]. The diffusion length, Ld, of electrons or holes in a semiconductor is defined by the mean distance the relevant charge moves within the semiconductor. It is influenced by the mean distance the relevant charge moves within the semiconductor and recombination/extraction from the semiconductor. Diffusion is the movement of charge carriers directed by a concentration gradient. The diffusion coefficient (D) and additionally the equivalent term among the presence of a field, mobility (μ), are associated with one another by the relation [92]:
and
where τ is the charge lifetime.
When the cell is not operational at open-circuit voltage, that is, the charge is extracted, and then the lifespan can clearly be less due to the removal of the charge extracted. This is no longer an intrinsic property of the absorbing semiconductor itself, however, depends on the interfaces that exist between the semiconductor and charge extraction phases. The lifespan of charge refers to the minority charge carrier lifespan for semiconductors that are obviously either n-type or p-type. Differentiation into majority and minority carrier lifetimes is not obvious for an intrinsic semiconductor, such as the intrinsic semiconductor in a p-i-n cell [93].
In a conventional thin-film device, the gathering path of the generated carriers is parallel to the solar photon traveling path. Thus, thick enough absorption materials are in high demand on the quality of the crystal, in order that the carriers can easily undergo without any substantial recombination. The morphological anisotropy of nanowires provides the advantage of decoupling the optical and electrical thickness of PV cells by using the co-axial contact structure [91]. It can absorb sunlight along the entire nanowire, while the generated carriers are frequently separated within the radial direction. The radial distance that carriers need to travel (in the 100 s nm range) is generally much lower than, or similar to the minority carrier diffusion length. So far, the orthogonally severed sunshine and carrier separation paths can cause low bulk recombination, and hence high effectiveness. Also, the NWs have a high surface-to-volume ratio, which offers a large junction area that will further enhance the charge separation effectiveness.
The study showed that the influence of adjusting the diffusion length under radial junction may be a smaller amount than in planar junction, that is the utmost efficiency of both radial p-n junction geometry and planar geometry can increase with increasing diffusion length, but the planar geometry increases more [94, 95]. The difference in the performance between the planar and radial structures for III–V semiconductors with a high carrier diffusion length is, not as clear as that for Si [94]. However, NWs have a large surface-to-volume ratio and hence, a large density of surface state [93, 96]. All these merits allow using lower-purity, less expensive materials with low minority carrier diffusion lengths to make high-efficiency solar cells. Consequently, the use of the NW structure can enormously decrease the device cost. Due to these advantages, NWs are promising high-efficiency and less expensive solar cells and have the potential to revolutionize solar power harvesting technology.
The distinctive structure and advanced properties of NWs provide additional freedom in constructing novel solar cells with high-efficiency and low-cost. That is solar cells can be designed in different architectural such as tandem solar cells, axial tandem solar cells, multi-terminal solar cells, inorganic nanowire/organic hybrid solar cells, branched solar cells, and flexible solar cells, in which III–V nanowires can also be designed.
Tandem solar cell [97] is one type of design in order to have high efficiencies in solar cells, which is to use multiple semiconductors epitaxially grown on top of each other. Figure 10 shows the system with two different semiconductor materials, where one material is used as top materials and different materials are used as bottom cell materials. In this figure Ltop, Lbot, Dtop, and Dbot illustrate the length of the top cell, length of the bottom cell, the diameter of the top cell, and diameter of the bottom cell, respectively. It is to absorb high-energy light in a large bandgap top cell in such a tandem solar cell. Compared to the single junction cell, the thermalization loss of the high-energy light is decreased in the top cell. Then, the lower energy light continues to the bottom cell where these energies are absorbed. The bottom cell has a lower bandgap and due to the lower bandgap than in the single-junction cell, more photons are absorbed in the bottom cell. Consequently, the tandem solar cell can absorb more photons than single-junction cells and also can have reduced thermalization loss. However, in planar cells, the crystal lattice constant should be matched in adjacent subcells to offer high-quality materials [97]. Due to this lattice mismatch, they cannot grow on Si substrate, which is the second most abundant earth element and cheap. Moreover, the III–V multi-junction cells in the conventional thin-film structure can give high-efficiency but need to use Ge as substrates, which is expensive. The blending of III–V solar cells on Si substrates can greatly reduce the value, which is extremely challenging.
(a) Schematic representation of a dual-junction NW array on the inactive substrate, and (b) illustration of the electrical design of NWs with axially configured p-i-n junction in which a tunnel junction connects the bottom and the top subcell [
Nanowire structures give an obvious advantage for multi-junction solar cells compared with thin-film cells. NWs have efficient strain relaxation, which permits for the fabrication and combination of dislocation-free and highly lattice-mismatched materials. In another word, III–V nanowire arrays can be grown on top of a Si substrate, giving the prospect of using the Si substrate as the bottom cell. Figure 11a shows the growing of III–V NWs on Si substrates consisting of a bottom Si cell and a top III–V nanowire cell [99].
Model geometry of III–V NW on a Si substrate (a) side view showing doped layers, and (b) top view showing a hexagonal NW of diameter D arranged in a square array of period P [
The optimum structure needs the absolute stylish NW cell to have a direct bandgap of near 1.7 eV, which can be achieved by employing a number of III–V emulsion semiconductor material systems. The optimum structure also requires equal current from each sub-cell, videlicet a current-corresponding condition. This may be realized by conforming the periphery, length, and period of the NW array. Thus, NW solar cells have further degrees of freedom compared with thin-film solar cells, whose current-matching is achieved by conforming to the consistency of the absorbing subcaste in each subcell. The optimum building needs the absolute stylish NW cell to possess a direct bandgap of closer to 1.7 eV, which can be attained by engaging a number of III–V semiconductor materials. The optimum building also requires equal current from each subcell, namely a current-matching condition. This may be realized by conforming to the length, period, and diameter of the NW array. Thus, NW solar cells have more degrees of freedom compared with thin-film solar cells, whose current-matching is achieved by adjusting the thickness of the absorbing layer. Hu et al. [98] designed the current matching 1.7 eV III–V NW top and 1.1 eV Si planar bottom cell by tuning the NW diameter and period (Figure 11b). They obtained the best photocurrent density of 17.8 mAcm−2 at NW diameter of 180 nm, period of 350 nm, and length of 5 μm, which result in 89.4% absorption of the AM1.5G spectrum and a promising efficiency above 30% under one sun illumination. Yao et al. [100] have reported the growth of III–V NW on Si tandem cells with the GaAs nanowire top cell and the Si bottom cell with a circuit voltage Voc of 0.956 V and a high-efficiency of 11.4%. Their simulation showed that the current-matching condition plays a crucial role in the overall efficiency of the device. They also have characterized that GaAs NW arrays were grown on lattice-mismatched Si substrates, which are less expensive. They concluded that tandem solar cells supported top GaAs nanowire array solar cells grown on bottom planar Si solar cells, open up great opportunities for high-efficiency and low-cost multi-junction solar cells.
Axial and radial tandem solar cells [101, 102, 103] are another form of solar cell designing. In axial tandem solar cells, because the photogeneration events happen most often in the middle of NWs, they cannot intrinsically block the generated carriers from reaching the surface and recombining like the radial junctions. Due to a similar reason, the radial tandem solar cell faces a challenge of inefficient absorption for the cell junctions away from the core of NWs. Thus, a composite structure that combines the advantages of the axial and radial structures would provide much higher efficiency compared with homogeneous ones [104].
Furthermore, NWs have a little cross-section, which allows them to accommodate big strains axially and laterally and this may greatly facilitate the blending of materials with large lattice mismatch, providing more freedom within the structure design compared with thin-film devices [105].
An axial NW heterojunction structure with lattice mismatch can be created from the results that the axial junction will distribute the strain across the interface, which will relax the straining step by step and elastically. Regardless of the length, there exists a critical diameter below which no interface dislocation is often introduced. Dislocation-free NWs heterojunctions, such as GaAs/GaP [106], InAs/InSb [107], and InAs/InP [108] have been realized even with large lattice-mismatch. For example, Ercolani et al. [107] have reported the Au-assisted CBE growth of defect-free zincblende structure InSb NWs. InSb NW was grown on the upper sections of InAs/InSb heterostructures on the InAs (111) B substrates. They have also observed that zincblende structure InSb is often grown without any crystal defects.
With the same concept, the nanowire core has advantages with regard to lattice-mismatch strain in that it can share the nearest mismatch strain, which results in a drastically reduced strain within the shell [109]. NW core-shell structure can thus accommodate larger lattice mismatch compared with thin-film structures [110]. V. Nazarenko et al. [111] have reported the growth of core-shell InGaAs/GaAs nanopillars by MOCVD on Si substrates. They demonstrated that a shell thickness around 160 nm defect-free GaAs grown on In0.2Ga0.8As core NWs despite a large lattice mismatch amounts to 2% for the 20%. Their TEM characterization showed an outstanding crystal quality in the entire pillar without defects. Wang et al. [112] have grown a novel NW structure for solar cells that axially connects core-shell p-n junctions (Figure 12a) with different bandgaps. In order to evaluate the performance of this NW, they have used a coupled 3D optoelectronic simulation and their simulation results revealed a high conversion efficiency of 16.8% at a low filling ratio of 0.196. After an outstanding current matching, a promising efficiency of 19.9% was achieved at a low filling ratio of 0.283, which is much higher than the tandem axial p-n junction under the same conditions. Figure 12b illustrates vertically aligned NW arrays of axially connected core-shell structures.
(a) 3D illustration of axially connected core-shell p-n structure with different III–V materials is axially connected by the tunnel diode in a NW, and (b) Schematic drawing of vertically aligned NW arrays [
The unique structure of NW p-n junctions enables substantial light absorption along the NW length and efficient carrier separation and collection within the radial direction. Heurlin et al. [113] demonstrated the growth of tandem junction InP NWs on a Si substrate. By applying in situ etching for total control over axial and radial growth they connected two photocurrents having p-n junctions in series by a tunnel junction. They observed a rise up of Voc by 67%. They also believed that this provides the best way toward realizing high-efficiency multi-junction solar cells that can be fabricated on a large area and low-cost Si substrates.
Multi-terminal NW solar cell is also another promising design of nanowires. Introducing multiple bandgap concepts into NW solar cell designs has high promise for maximum solar conversion efficiency [114]. Dorodnyy et al. [29] have proposed a multi-terminal NWs solar cell design as shown in Figure 13. Their NW design resulted in theoretical power conversion efficiency of 48% utilizing an efficient lateral spectrum splitting between three different III–V material NW arrays grown on a flat silicon substrate. These authors used Al0.54Ga0.46As, GaAs, and In0.37Ga0.63As NWs with bandgap 2.01, 1.42, and 0.93 eV, respectively. However, the main challenge would be the matter of growing different NW groups with different lengths required for device fabrication.
(a) Design concept illustration of the triple-junction NW array on a Si substrate, (b) Working principle of the design, and (c) Contacting scheme of the multiterminal device [
The mixing of inorganic NW and organic will give the opportunity to have hybrid solar cells and is also another design of the solar cells to offer high-efficiency materials [115, 116, 117, 118]. These two materials have their own advantages. Inorganic materials commonly possess high carrier mobility and affinity, whereas organic polymers commonly possess low carrier mobility and a short lifetime, which leads to low device efficiency. However, organic polymers are low in cost; as a result, researchers attempt to mix together the advantages of the two material systems. Due to the fast and efficient charge separation or collection, a greatly enhanced efficiency is hence expected for the inorganic NW/polymer combination. H Bi and R R LaPierre have fabricated hybrid solar cells consisting of GaAs NW arrays and poly(3-hexylthiophene) or P3HT. They have been fabricated by spin-coating poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT) polymer onto vertically aligned n-type GaAs NW arrays synthesized by MBE and reached an efficiency of 1.04% (2.6 sun) [106].
NWs can also be fabricated and designed as branch cells. Branched NWs solar cells [118, 119, 120] can also be referred to as nanotrees or nanoforests. These nanowires have a tunable 3D morphology, homo or heterogeneous junction, and interface electronic alignment represent a unique system for applications in energy conversion and storage devices. 3D branched nanowires have merits, including structural hierarchy, high surface areas, and direct electron transport pathways and it is an attractive recent research area on energy. Lundgren et al. [115] simulated a high absorption structure branched nanowire (BNW) (Figure 14). They found that BNW tree configurations achieved a maximum absorption of over 95% at 500 nm wavelength. There has been great progress in fabricating branched NWs [115]. Wang et al. [122] have reported the branched and hyperbranched NW synthesized by a multistep nanocluster-catalyzed VLS approach. They have demonstrated the growth of branched Si and GaN NWs with multi-generation branches.
(a) Dimensions of a single branched nanowire tree. (b) Array of branched NW trees [
Lightweight and flexible solar cells are necessarily important for designing high-efficiency solar cells [123]. Lightweight and flexibility are two of the desired properties, which can substantially reduce the facility weight, minimize the transportation cost, and cause the assumption of smart solar cells, such as integrating flexible cells into clothing. NWs provide unique merits in realizing these advanced functions, as they are going to be buried into polymers and then easily peeled away from the substrates. Han et al. [124] fabricated flexible GaAs NW solar cells with NWs lying horizontally and achieved high efficiency of 16% under atmosphere 1.5 global illuminations. All the above discussed novel designs are very important for providing highly promising III–V NWs to greatly reduce the worth and boost the efficiency of solar cells, which may revolutionize the current solar cell technologies.
A solar cell is characterized by parameters, such as filling factor (FF), open-circuit voltage (Voc), short-circuit current (Jsc), and power conversion efficiency (η). Table 1 summarizes some of the fabricated III–V NWs solar cells since 2010. Values for each parameter and their growth mechanisms are also summarized. The main hindrance for commercializing III–V NWs solar cells is their low power conversion efficiency. Therefore, researchers around the world are trying to increase the efficiency of these materials by using novel designs, improving growth mechanisms, and device fabrication methods. The highest efficiency of III–V NW solar cells above 10% is reported by Holm et al. using GaAsP NWs with radial p-i-n junctions, which is 10.2% [133]. Next to this report, many III–V NWs with efficiency above 10% are reported. An efficiency of 19.6% using InP nanopillars is achieved by Son Ko et al. [145]. Krogstrup et al. even reported a high experimental efficiency of 40% using GaAs NWs [84].
III–V nanowires | Growth methods | Substrates | catalysts | Geometry | FF (%) | Voc (V) | η (%) | Jsc (mA/cm2) | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
InGaAs | SA-MOVPE | n-GaAs (111) B | axial p-i-n | 72.1 | 0.544 | 7.14 | 18.2 | [125] | |
InP | SA-MOCVD | InP (111) A | p-i-n single | 74 | 0.69 | 2.81 | 5.52 | [126] | |
InP | VLS | InP (111) B | axial p-i-n | 68 | 0.61 | 7.6 | 18.2 | [127] | |
GaAs | VLS | Si (111) | Ga | ZB crystal structure | 40 | 0.45 | 4.1 | 22.8 | [128] |
InAs | MBE | p-Si (111) | p-n heterojunction | 32 | 0.31 | 1.4 | 14 | [129] | |
AlGaAs/GaAs heterojunctions | 3-D optoelectronic simulation | aNI | NI | axial and radial with AlGaAs passivation | NI | NI | 8.42 | NI | [130] |
GaAs | MBE | p-Si (111) | Au | axial p-n | NI | NI | 6.3 | NI | [131] |
GaAs/InGaP/GaAs | MOVPE | p-GaAs (111) B | Au | core-multishell | 52 | 0.5 | 4.7 | 18.1 | [132] |
GaAsP | MBE | p-Si (111) | Ga | core-shell p-i-n | 77 | 0.9 | 10.2 | 14.7 | [133] |
In0.3Ga0.7As | MOVPE | p-Si (111) | free | n-InGaAs/p-Si | 50 | 0.37 | 2.4 | 12 | [134] |
InN | MBE | n-Si (111) | free | axial p-i-n | 30.24 | 0.13 | 0.51 | 12.91 | [135] |
InP | Top-down | InP | axial p-n | 79.4 | 0.765 | 17.8 | 29.3 | [32] | |
InP | MOVPE | p-InP (111) B | Au | axial p-i-n | 72.4 | 0.906 | 13.8 | 24.6 | [30] |
InP | VLS | InP (111) B | Au | axial p-n junction | 73 | 0.73 | 11.1 | 21 | [136] |
InP | SA-MOVPE | p-InP (111) A | free | ITO/p-InP heterojunction | 68.2 | 0.436 | 7.37 | 24.8 | [137] |
InP | Top down | p-InP (100) | n-S-SAM/p-InP heterojunction | 60 | 0.54 | 8.1 | 25 | [36] | |
InP | SA-MOVPE | InP (111) A | free | NI | 59.6 | 0.457 | 6.35 | 23.4 | [138] |
InP | SA-MOVPE | p-InP (111) A | free | radial p-i-n | 58.5 | 0.674 | 4.23 | 11.1 | [57] |
InAs hetero | MBE | p-Si (111) | n-InAs/p-Si | 32 | 0.31 | 1.4 | 14 | [129] | |
GaAs | MOVPE | p-GaAs (111) B | Au | axial p-i-n | 79.2 | 0.906 | 15.3 | 21.3 | [76] |
GaAs | SSCVD | Non-crystalline | Au | Schottky contact | 61 | 0.39 | 16 | 67 | [124] |
GaAs tandem | SAE-MOVPE | Si (111) n,p | free | axial n-i-p/n-p Si | 57.8 | 0.956 | 11.4 | 20.64 | [100] |
GaAs | SAG-MOCVD | p-GaAs (111) B | free | 63.65 | 0.565 | 7.8 | 21.08 | [69] | |
GaAs | SA-MOVPE | n-GaAs (111) B | free | core-shell p-n | 62 | 0.44 | 6.63 | 24.3 | [139] |
GaAs | MBE | p-Si (111) | Ga | core-shell p-i-n | 52 | 0.43 | 40 (field concentration) | 180 (field concentration) | [84] |
GaAs/InGaP | SA-MOVPE | p-GaAs (111) B | free | Core-multishell p-n | 65 | 0.5 | 4.01 | 12.7 | [140] |
GaAs | VLS | Si (111) | Ga | radial p-i-n | 46.5 | 0.39 | 3.3 | 18.2 | [141] |
GaAs | SSCVD | Si/SiO2 | Au-Ga | Schottky contact | 42 | 0.6 | 2.8 | 11 | [142] |
GaAs | SA-MOCVD | p-GaAs (111) B | free | core-shell p-n | 37 | 0.39 | 2.54 | 17.6 | [143] |
GaAs hybrid | MOCVD | GaAs | free | GaAs/P3HT hybrid | 43 | 0.2 | 1.44 | 18.6 | [144] |
Some of the III–V NWs studied since 2010 and their efficiency achievement.
Power conversion efficiency was measured at 1 Sun, AM1.5G illumination; aNI represents not identified values.
Furthermore, the highest efficient III–V NWs large-area solar cells are rapidly developing [111]. The first large-area solar cell with high-efficiency higher than 10%, which is an InP NW array solar cell with an efficiency of 13.8%, is reported by Wallentin et al. [30]. Afterward, an efficiency of 11.1% with InP NW arrays is achieved by Cui et al. [136]. Then, an efficiency of 15.3% is achieved using GaAs NW arrays by Åberg et al. [76]. Ultimately, the III–V NW with the highest efficiency and world record is 17.8% reported by Dam et al. [32].
In order to convert solar energy into electrical energy, harvesting solar energy is required and solar photovoltaic is the most promising device for this purpose. Despite the excess of sunlight reaching the earth’s planet, the current percentage of solar energy is much smaller than both renewable and nonrenewable energies. This is due to low energy density, low efficiency, and relatively high-cost materials compared to other types of energy technologies. Therefore, novel materials that can enormously harvest sunlight are important and they are the current issues attracting research interest. Due to its unique properties from bulk materials, III–V NWs can be used as high-performance solar cells because of their attractive advantages, such as unique optical and electrical properties, direct band, and fewer solar light reflections. In constructing novel solar cells with high-efficiency and low-cost, the distinctive structure and advanced properties of NWs provide more freedom. Today’s solar cell market is dominated by the thin film of Si, which has the lowest efficiency, but low cost. By combining the advantages of III–V NWs and Si by growing III–V NWs on Si substrate tandem solar cells, enormously improved performance of the solar cells can be achieved. By controlling the III–V NW morphology and its geometry with optimum diameter, period, and length it is possible to get high-efficiency solar cell materials. Furthermore, III–V NW solar cells can be designed as tandem solar cells, axial and radial tandem solar cells, multiterminal solar cells, inorganic nanowire/organic hybrid solar cells, branched solar cells, and flexible solar cells.
Future works can be focused on the optimum design that can overcome all the limitations of III–V NW solar cells in order to achieve high-performance and low-cost III–V NW-based solar cells. Thus, one of the best aspects of III–V NWs commercialization with high power conversion efficiency may be achieved by designing it in a way that it can absorb solar light enormously with reduction of materials used and low-cost substrates. According to our understanding, all the designs of III–V NWs that are mentioned in this review are beneficial for future commercialization; however, it is good to identify the one that is more attractive than the others by conducting research on each design. All types of design have their own advantages in case of reducing materials used for the fabrications of solar cells and cost reductions. So far, it is good if this area will be researched more, especially on the architecture of III–V NWs due to its infinite advantages. Despite the challenges of achieving high efficiency in these NWs, they are the hope of the next-generation solar cells due to their flexibility for designing it even in a multi-junction of different NWs, which can absorb the different wavelengths of solar light for harvesting huge solar light. Furthermore, to advance III–V NW-based solar cells toward possible commercialization the power conversion efficiency should be increased, for which the tandem architecture is highly interesting by growing on Si substrate, which is cost-effective.
We acknowledge Adama Science and Technology University and Oda Bultum University for their financial support.
There is no conflict of interest.
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\n\nOpenness - We communicate honestly and transparently. We are open to constructive criticism and committed to learning from it.
\n\nDisruptiveness - We are eager for discovery, for new ideas and for progression. We approach our work with creativity and determination, with a clear vision that drives us forward. We look beyond today and strive for a better tomorrow.
\n\nIntechOpen is a dynamic, vibrant company, where exceptional people are achieving great things. We offer a creative, dedicated, committed, and passionate environment but never lose sight of the fact that science and discovery is exciting and rewarding. We constantly strive to ensure that members of our community can work, travel, meet world-renowned researchers and grow their own career and develop their own experiences.
\n\nIf this sounds like a place that you would like to work, whether you are at the beginning of your career or are an experienced professional, we invite you to drop us a line and tell us why you could be the right person for IntechOpen.
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Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],seriesByTopicTotal:1,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"41563",doi:"10.5772/53504",title:"Fish Cytokines and Immune Response",slug:"fish-cytokines-and-immune-response",totalDownloads:5572,totalCrossrefCites:23,totalDimensionsCites:65,abstract:null,book:{id:"3193",slug:"new-advances-and-contributions-to-fish-biology",title:"New Advances and Contributions to Fish Biology",fullTitle:"New Advances and Contributions to Fish Biology"},signatures:"Sebastián Reyes-Cerpa, Kevin Maisey, Felipe Reyes-López, Daniela Toro-Ascuy, Ana María Sandino and Mónica Imarai",authors:[{id:"92841",title:"Dr.",name:"Mónica",middleName:null,surname:"Imarai",slug:"monica-imarai",fullName:"Mónica Imarai"},{id:"153780",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Reyes-Cerpa",slug:"sebastian-reyes-cerpa",fullName:"Sebastian Reyes-Cerpa"},{id:"157025",title:"Dr.",name:"Kevin",middleName:null,surname:"Maisey",slug:"kevin-maisey",fullName:"Kevin Maisey"},{id:"157026",title:"Dr.",name:"Felipe",middleName:"Esteban",surname:"Reyes-López",slug:"felipe-reyes-lopez",fullName:"Felipe Reyes-López"},{id:"157027",title:"MSc.",name:"Daniela",middleName:null,surname:"Toro-Ascuy",slug:"daniela-toro-ascuy",fullName:"Daniela Toro-Ascuy"},{id:"157028",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana",middleName:null,surname:"Sandino",slug:"ana-sandino",fullName:"Ana Sandino"}]},{id:"39623",doi:"10.5772/50192",title:"Use of Yeast Probiotics in Ruminants: Effects and Mechanisms of Action on Rumen pH, Fibre Degradation, and Microbiota According to the Diet",slug:"use-of-yeast-probiotics-in-ruminants-effects-and-mechanisms-of-action-on-rumen-ph-fibre-degradation-",totalDownloads:7929,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:39,abstract:null,book:{id:"2991",slug:"probiotic-in-animals",title:"Probiotic in Animals",fullTitle:"Probiotic in Animals"},signatures:"Frédérique Chaucheyras-Durand, Eric Chevaux, Cécile Martin and Evelyne Forano",authors:[{id:"151065",title:"Dr.",name:"Frederique",middleName:null,surname:"Chaucheyras-Durand",slug:"frederique-chaucheyras-durand",fullName:"Frederique Chaucheyras-Durand"},{id:"151068",title:"Mr.",name:"Eric",middleName:null,surname:"Chevaux",slug:"eric-chevaux",fullName:"Eric Chevaux"},{id:"151069",title:"Dr.",name:"Evelyne",middleName:null,surname:"Forano",slug:"evelyne-forano",fullName:"Evelyne Forano"},{id:"160177",title:"Dr.",name:"Cécile",middleName:null,surname:"Martin",slug:"cecile-martin",fullName:"Cécile Martin"}]},{id:"28679",doi:"10.5772/32100",title:"Values of Blood Variables in Calves",slug:"values-of-blood-variables-in-calves",totalDownloads:9614,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:36,abstract:null,book:{id:"1667",slug:"a-bird-s-eye-view-of-veterinary-medicine",title:"A Bird's-Eye View of Veterinary Medicine",fullTitle:"A Bird's-Eye View of Veterinary Medicine"},signatures:"Martina Klinkon and Jožica Ježek",authors:[{id:"90171",title:"Prof.",name:"Martina",middleName:null,surname:"Klinkon",slug:"martina-klinkon",fullName:"Martina Klinkon"}]},{id:"16107",doi:"10.5772/16563",title:"Effect of Cryopreservation on Sperm Quality and Fertility",slug:"effect-of-cryopreservation-on-sperm-quality-and-fertility",totalDownloads:15483,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:35,abstract:null,book:{id:"185",slug:"artificial-insemination-in-farm-animals",title:"Artificial Insemination in Farm Animals",fullTitle:"Artificial Insemination in Farm Animals"},signatures:"Alemayehu Lemma",authors:[{id:"25594",title:"Dr.",name:"Alemayehu",middleName:null,surname:"Lemma",slug:"alemayehu-lemma",fullName:"Alemayehu Lemma"}]},{id:"57645",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71780",title:"Antibiotics in Chilean Aquaculture: A Review",slug:"antibiotics-in-chilean-aquaculture-a-review",totalDownloads:1945,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:29,abstract:"Aquaculture in Chile has been practiced since the 1920s; however, it was not until the 1990s that aquaculture became an important sector here. Important species in Chilean aquaculture include salmonids, algae, mollusks, and turbot. Salmonids are the dominant species in Chilean aquaculture for both harvest volume and export value, their production reaching greater than 800-thousand tons in 2015. However, this growth has been accompanied by an increase in disease presence, requiring greater drug use to control. This increase in drug use is an environmental and public health concern for the authorities, the salmon industry itself, and the destination markets. In this chapter, we review the literature on drug use, antibiotic resistance, regulatory framework, and alternatives, with focus on Chile.",book:{id:"6179",slug:"antibiotic-use-in-animals",title:"Antibiotic Use in Animals",fullTitle:"Antibiotic Use in Animals"},signatures:"Ivonne Lozano, Nelson F. Díaz, Susana Muñoz and Carlos Riquelme",authors:[{id:"208847",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivonne",middleName:null,surname:"Lozano",slug:"ivonne-lozano",fullName:"Ivonne Lozano"},{id:"208895",title:"Dr.",name:"Nelson F.",middleName:null,surname:"Díaz",slug:"nelson-f.-diaz",fullName:"Nelson F. Díaz"},{id:"208897",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Riquelme",slug:"carlos-riquelme",fullName:"Carlos Riquelme"},{id:"208898",title:"MSc.",name:"Susana",middleName:null,surname:"Muñoz",slug:"susana-munoz",fullName:"Susana Muñoz"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"56612",title:"Reproduction in Goats",slug:"reproduction-in-goats",totalDownloads:2917,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Reproductive activity of the goat begins when the females reach puberty, which happens at 5 months of age. The ovarian or estrous cycle is the period between two consecutive estrus. It is also the time that lasts the development of the follicle in the ovary, until rupture occurs and ovulation takes place, which coincides with the appearance of estrus. This chapter will describe the physiological and endocrinological bases of estrus in the goat. Likewise, factors affecting the presence of estrus and ovulation will be described. At another point, synchronization of estrus and ovulation, factors affecting the presence of estrus and external symptoms of estrus, will be described. To achieve synchronization of estrus or induction of ovulation within or outside the breeding season, it may be necessary to manage light hours, male effect, and/or use of hormones. The importance of artificial insemination is described, as well as the current situation of this technique worldwide. Currently, the techniques of artificial insemination in goats have been limited worldwide, due to the lack of resources of producers and trained technicians. The techniques of artificial insemination with estrous synchronization programs and ovulation with current research results will be described.",book:{id:"5987",slug:"goat-science",title:"Goat Science",fullTitle:"Goat Science"},signatures:"Fernando Sánchez Dávila, Alejandro Sergio del Bosque González\nand Hugo Bernal Barragán",authors:[{id:"201830",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",middleName:"Sanchez",surname:"Davila",slug:"fernando-davila",fullName:"Fernando Davila"},{id:"206127",title:"Dr.",name:"Alejandro Sergio",middleName:null,surname:"Del Bosque-Gonzalez",slug:"alejandro-sergio-del-bosque-gonzalez",fullName:"Alejandro Sergio Del Bosque-Gonzalez"},{id:"206128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hugo",middleName:null,surname:"Bernal-Barragán",slug:"hugo-bernal-barragan",fullName:"Hugo Bernal-Barragán"}]},{id:"58095",title:"The Innovative Techniques in Animal Husbandry",slug:"the-innovative-techniques-in-animal-husbandry",totalDownloads:3811,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Technology is developing rapidly. In this development, the transfer of computer systems and software to the application has made an important contribution. Technologic instruments made farmers can work more comfortable and increased animal production efficiency and profitability. Therefore, technologic developments are the main research area for animal productivity and sustainability. Many technologic equipment and tools made animal husbandry easier and comfortable. Especially management decisions and applications are effected highly ratio with this rapid development. In animal husbandry management decisions that need to be done daily are configured according to the correctness of the decisions to be made. At this point, smart systems give many opportunities to farmers. Milking, feeding, environmental control, reproductive performance constitute everyday jobs most affected by correct management decisions. Human errors in this works and decisions made big effect on last product quality and profitability are not able to be risked. This chapter deal with valuable information on the latest challenges and key innovations affecting the animal husbandry. Also, innovative approaches and applications for animal husbandry are tried to be summarized with detail latest research results.",book:{id:"6384",slug:"animal-husbandry-and-nutrition",title:"Animal Husbandry and Nutrition",fullTitle:"Animal Husbandry and Nutrition"},signatures:"Serap Göncü and Cahit Güngör",authors:[{id:"215579",title:"Prof.",name:"Serap",middleName:null,surname:"Goncu",slug:"serap-goncu",fullName:"Serap Goncu"},{id:"218971",title:"Dr.",name:"Cahit",middleName:null,surname:"Güngör",slug:"cahit-gungor",fullName:"Cahit Güngör"}]},{id:"58486",title:"Quality of Chicken Meat",slug:"quality-of-chicken-meat",totalDownloads:3344,totalCrossrefCites:19,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:"Chicken meat is considered as an easily available source of high-quality protein and other nutrients that are necessary for proper body functioning. In order to meet the consumers’ growing demands for high-quality protein, the poultry industry focused on selection of fast-growing broilers, which reach a body mass of about 2.5 kg within 6-week-intensive fattening. Relatively low sales prices of chicken meat, in comparison to other types of meat, speak in favor of the increased chicken meat consumption. In addition, chicken meat is known by its nutritional quality, as it contains significant amount of high-quality and easily digestible protein and a low portion of saturated fat. Therefore, chicken meat is recommended for consumption by all age groups. The technological parameters of chicken meat quality are related to various factors (keeping conditions, feeding treatment, feed composition, transport, stress before slaughter, etc.). Composition of chicken meat can be influenced through modification of chicken feed composition (addition of different types of oils, vitamins, microelements and amino acids), to produce meat enriched with functional ingredients (n-3 PUFA, carnosine, selenium and vitamin E). By this way, chicken meat becomes a foodstuff with added value, which, in addition to high-quality nutritional composition, also contains ingredients that are beneficial to human health.",book:{id:"6384",slug:"animal-husbandry-and-nutrition",title:"Animal Husbandry and Nutrition",fullTitle:"Animal Husbandry and Nutrition"},signatures:"Gordana Kralik, Zlata Kralik, Manuela Grčević and Danica Hanžek",authors:[{id:"207236",title:"Dr.",name:"Gordana",middleName:null,surname:"Kralik",slug:"gordana-kralik",fullName:"Gordana Kralik"},{id:"227281",title:"Prof.",name:"Zlata",middleName:null,surname:"Kralik",slug:"zlata-kralik",fullName:"Zlata Kralik"},{id:"227283",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuela",middleName:null,surname:"Grčević",slug:"manuela-grcevic",fullName:"Manuela Grčević"},{id:"227284",title:"BSc.",name:"Danica",middleName:null,surname:"Hanžek",slug:"danica-hanzek",fullName:"Danica Hanžek"}]},{id:"56453",title:"Goat System Productions: Advantages and Disadvantages to the Animal, Environment and Farmer",slug:"goat-system-productions-advantages-and-disadvantages-to-the-animal-environment-and-farmer",totalDownloads:4368,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:20,abstract:"Goats have always been considered very useful animals. Goats success is related to its excellent adaptability to the difficult mountain conditions, extreme weather and low value feed acceptance, versatile habits and high production considering their size. These are some reasons because goats are among the first animals to be domesticated. In terms of evolution, goats could be separated by their dispersion area in three large groups: the European, the Asian, and the African. Global goat populations, mainly in Africa and in Asia, have increased for centuries but very strongly in the past decades, well above the world population growth. They are also used for forest grazing, an integrated and alternative production system, very useful to control weed growth reducing fire risk. Despite some exceptions, no large‐scale effort to professionalize this industry has been made so far. There are consumers for goat dairy products and there is enough global production, but misses a professional network between both. Regarding goat meat, the world leadership also stays in Africa and Asia, namely in China, and there is a new phenomenon, the spreading of goat meat tradition through Europe due to migrants from Africa and other places with strong goat meat consumption.",book:{id:"5987",slug:"goat-science",title:"Goat Science",fullTitle:"Goat Science"},signatures:"António Monteiro, José Manuel Costa and Maria João Lima",authors:[{id:"190314",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"Cardoso",surname:"Monteiro",slug:"antonio-monteiro",fullName:"António Monteiro"},{id:"203680",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria João",middleName:null,surname:"Lima",slug:"maria-joao-lima",fullName:"Maria João Lima"},{id:"203683",title:"MSc.",name:"José Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Costa",slug:"jose-manuel-costa",fullName:"José Manuel Costa"}]},{id:"70760",title:"Induction and Synchronization of Estrus",slug:"induction-and-synchronization-of-estrus",totalDownloads:1745,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Estrus cycle is a rhythmic change that occur in the reproductive system of females starting from one estrus phase to another. The normal duration of estrus cycle is 21 days in cow, sow, and mare, 17 days in ewe, and 20 days in doe. The species which exhibit a single estrus cycle are known as monstrous and species which come into estrus twice or more are termed polyestrous animals. Among them some species have estrus cycles in a particular season and defined as seasonal polyestrous. It includes goats, sheep, and horses. On the other hand, cattle undergo estrus throughout the year. The estrus inducers can grossly be divided into two parts, that is, non-hormonal and hormonal. Non-hormonal treatments include plant-derived heat inducers, mineral supplementation, uterine and ovarian massage, and use of Lugol’s iodine. The hormones that are used in estrus induction are estrogen, progesterone, GnRH, prostaglandin, insulin, and anti-prolactin-based treatment. Synchronization can shorten the breeding period to less than 5 days, instead of females being bred over a 21-day period, depending on the treatment regimen. The combination of GnRH with the prostaglandin F2α (PGF2α)- and progesterone-based synchronization program has shown a novel direction in the estrus synchronization of cattle with the follicular development manipulation.",book:{id:"8545",slug:"animal-reproduction-in-veterinary-medicine",title:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",fullTitle:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine"},signatures:"Prasanna Pal and Mohammad Rayees Dar",authors:[{id:"299126",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad Rayees",middleName:null,surname:"Dar",slug:"mohammad-rayees-dar",fullName:"Mohammad Rayees Dar"},{id:"311663",title:"Dr.",name:"Prasanna",middleName:null,surname:"Pal",slug:"prasanna-pal",fullName:"Prasanna Pal"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"25",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82991",title:"Diseases of the Canine Prostate Gland",slug:"diseases-of-the-canine-prostate-gland",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105835",abstract:"In dogs, the most frequent diseases of the prostate gland are benign prostate gland hyperplasia (BPH), acute and chronic prostatitis, squamous metaplasia, and prostate tumors. New diagnostic tools comprise diagnostic markers in the blood and urine, as well as advanced imaging methods. The therapy can be initialized with the 5α-reductase-inhibitor finasteride or an anti-androgenic compound, and prolonged with a long-acting gonadotropin-releasing-hormone (GnRH)-agonist such as deslorelin. In case of prostatitis, effective antibiotics must be applied for weeks. Antibiotics must be able to penetrate into the prostate tissue; fluoroquinolones, clindamycin, and erythromycin are good choices and are in addition effective against mycoplasms. The chronical prostatitis cannot be differentiated from a neoplasia by sonography; a biopsy, histological, and bacteriological examination are required. Tumors of the prostate gland are seldom and mostly occur in castrated but in intact dogs. For the final diagnosis, a biopsy must be taken. Partial and total resection of the prostate gland by use of laser technique is possible but coincedes with many side effects and the prognosis is still futile. Immunotherapy combined with NSAIDs, targeted noninvasive thermotherapy, BRAF gene inhibitors, or prostate artery chemoembolization are promising methods.",book:{id:"11580",title:"Recent Advances in Canine Medicine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11580.jpg"},signatures:"Sabine Schäfer-Somi"},{id:"82956",title:"Potential Substitutes of Antibiotics for Swine and Poultry Production",slug:"potential-substitutes-of-antibiotics-for-swine-and-poultry-production",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106081",abstract:"Early of the last century, it was detected that antibiotics added to the animal feeds at low doses and for a long time can improve technical performances such as average daily gain and gain-to-feed ratio. Since then, the antibiotics have been used worldwide as feed additives for many decades. At the end of the twentieth century, the consequences of the uses of antibiotics in animal feeds as growth promoters were informed. Since then, many research studies have been done to find other solutions to replace partly or fully to antibiotic as growth promoters (AGPs). Many achievements in finding alternatives to AGPs in which probiotics and direct-fed microorganism, prebiotics, organic acids and their salts, feed enzymes, bacteriophages, herbs, spices, and other plant extractives (phytogenics), mineral and essential oils are included.",book:{id:"11578",title:"Antibiotics and Probiotics in Animal Food - Impact and Regulation",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11578.jpg"},signatures:"Ho Trung Thong, Le Nu Anh Thu and Ho Viet Duc"},{id:"82905",title:"A Review of Application Strategies and Efficacy of Probiotics in Pet Food",slug:"a-review-of-application-strategies-and-efficacy-of-probiotics-in-pet-food",totalDownloads:12,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105829",abstract:"In companion animal nutrition, probiotics (direct-fed microbials) are marketed as functional ingredients that add value to pet foods due to the impact they have on gastrointestinal and immune health of dogs and cats. The nature of the beneficial effect each probiotic strain exerts depends on its metabolic properties and perhaps most importantly, the arrival of a sufficient number of viable cells to the large bowel of the host. Pet food manufacturing processes are designed to improve food safety and prolong shelf-life, which is counterproductive to the survival of direct-fed microbials. Therefore, a prerequisite for the effective formulation of pet foods with probiotics is an understanding of the conditions each beneficial bacterial strain needs to survive. The aims of this chapter are: (1) To summarize the inherent characteristics of probiotic strains used in commercial pet foods, and (2) To review recently published literature on the applications of probiotics to pet foods and their associated challenges to viability.",book:{id:"11578",title:"Antibiotics and Probiotics in Animal Food - Impact and Regulation",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11578.jpg"},signatures:"Heather Acuff and Charles G. Aldrich"},{id:"82773",title:"Canine Transmissible Venereal Tumor: An Infectious Neoplasia in Dogs",slug:"canine-transmissible-venereal-tumor-an-infectious-neoplasia-in-dogs",totalDownloads:14,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106150",abstract:"Canine transmissible venereal tumor is the oldest cancer in dogs and is transplanted via viable cancer cells. This cancer has a specific host, easy transmission, noticeable gross lesions, a predictable growth pattern, an immunologic relative host response, unique molecular characteristics, and is responsive to chemotherapeutic treatment. These points make researchers and practitioners interested in this cancer. Genital cases are noticeable and therefore easier to diagnose and treat than extragenital cases. By contrasting the anatomical features of the two types of cases, we highlight the uniqueness of canine transmissible venereal tumors and discuss the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of this ancient cancer.",book:{id:"11580",title:"Recent Advances in Canine Medicine",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11580.jpg"},signatures:"Chanokchon Setthawongsin, Somporn Techangamsuwan and Anudep Rungsipipat"},{id:"82797",title:"Anatomical Guide to the Paranasal Sinuses of Domestic Animals",slug:"anatomical-guide-to-the-paranasal-sinuses-of-domestic-animals",totalDownloads:5,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106157",abstract:"Paranasal sinuses are paired cavities within the skull, which develop by evagination into the spongy bone between the external and internal plates of the cranial and facial bones. Thus, each sinus is lined by respiratory epithelium and has direct or indirect communication to the nasal cavity. The purpose of this chapter is to present an anatomical reference guide of the paranasal sinuses in domestic animals, including large and small ruminants (cattle, buffalo, sheep, and goats), camels, canines (dog) and equines (horse and donkey), appropriate for use by anatomists, radiologists, clinicians, and veterinary students. Topographic descriptions and the relationships between the various air cavities and paranasal sinuses have been visualized using computed tomography and cadaver sections images. The anatomical features (including head bones, muscles, and soft tissues) have been compared using both dissected heads and skulls and computed tomography images. This chapter will therefore be useful as a normal reference guide for clinical applications.",book:{id:"10665",title:"Updates on Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10665.jpg"},signatures:"Mohamed A.M. Alsafy, Samir A.A. El-Gendy and Catrin Sian Rutland"},{id:"81844",title:"Typical Changes in Carbon and Nitrogen Stable Isotope Ratios and Mercury Concentration during the Lactation of Marine Mammals",slug:"typical-changes-in-carbon-and-nitrogen-stable-isotope-ratios-and-mercury-concentration-during-the-la",totalDownloads:4,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103067",abstract:"The increase and decrease in the δ15N values of offspring owing to the suckling of δ15N-enriched milk (nursing) and the feeding shift from milk to solid food (weaning), respectively, are thought to be common traits observed in mammals. However, there are a few studies on lactation in marine mammals, especially large whales, because samples of calf, lactating mother, and milk are difficult to obtain. In this chapter, we review the studies on reproduction of marine mammals using δ13C and δ15N values analyzed in several tissues and describe the typical changes reported to date in those values and Hg concentrations in offspring and milk during lactation. Next, we present data on ontogenetic changes in δ15N and δ13C profiles and Hg concentration, especially focusing on the lactation period, in muscle samples of hunted bowhead whale, and stranded common minke whale (mysticetes), Dall’s porpoise (odontocete), and the harbor seal (phocid). 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. 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Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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