Composition of several plant material and humic substances (by Kononova) [16, 21].
\r\n\tThis cell has evolved an effective defense system to counteract the challenges as it is always in an oxygen-rich environment. The evolution of hemoglobin and deformability of erythrocyte membrane adapting to its function in circulation is especially striking. Erythrocyte aging and eryptosis strike a balance - the mixed population of cells and constant recycling every 120 days is a very distinct feature. Its metabolic shunt pathways and metabolites/enzymes alter and adapt with age and changes in the microenvironment.
\r\n\r\n\tErythrocyte and its cytoskeleton responses to various situations such as infections, hypoxia, hypothermia, intrigues researchers and biologists alike. This book aims to throw light on the significance of erythrocyte and its characteristic nature and survival in different physiological situations as it plays a very crucial role.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book hopes to bring different perspectives from various aspects and provide insights into the effective mechanisms evolved by erythrocytes, to counteract the challenges faced in its oxidation environment and the further research approaches.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-732-7",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-731-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-733-4",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"1b6073b9ff3f8f63004943bd263cd04e",bookSignature:"Dr. Vani Rajashekaraiah",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11725.jpg",keywords:"Erythrocyte, Hemoglobin, Erythrocyte Aging, Pathways, Metabolites, Deficiencies, Membrane Changes, Band 3, Deformability, Hemolysis, Disease Conditions, Free Radical Initiators",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 24th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 26th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 25th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 13th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 12th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Vani Rajashekaraiah, Associate Professor, JAIN (Deemed-to-be University), Bangalore has 20 years of research experience in Oxidative Stress Physiology and Hematology and 16 years of teaching experience. She has authored numerous journal papers and book chapters and has one published patent. She has received CSIR research fellowship and is a Member of the Society for Free Radical Research, India.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"352876",title:"Dr.",name:"Vani",middleName:null,surname:"Rajashekaraiah",slug:"vani-rajashekaraiah",fullName:"Vani Rajashekaraiah",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/352876/images/system/352876.jpg",biography:"Teaching Experience: 16 years\n•\tAssociate Professor in Biotechnology, School of Sciences, Block I, JAIN (Deemed-to-be University), Bengaluru from May 2018 till date. (Courses: Molecular Genetics, Molecular Biology and Genetic Engineering). \n Research Experience: 20 years in the field of Oxidative Stress Physiology and hematology.\n Current Research focus: Blood Storage (erythrocytes, platelets) and Drug-induced Thrombocytopenia\n Total publications in SCOPUS / Web of Science: 27 and International book chapters: 04.\n Research guidance: 3 PhD students (completed); 3 PhD students guiding currently.\n \t \n Six years of research experience as JRF (CSIR) and SRF (CSIR) in the field of High Altitude Physiology and Biochemistry, specialization in Oxidative Stress Physiology, from August 2002 to 2008. \no\tPursued research under the guidance of Dr. S. Asha Devi, Professor, Dept. of \n Zoology, Bangalore University, Bangalore-560056, towards Ph.D in Zoology.\n Title of the thesis- “Studies on Oxidative Stress in Erythrocytes of Rats Exposed to \n Intermittent Hypobaric Hypoxia”.",institutionString:"Jain University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Jain University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"185543",firstName:"Maja",lastName:"Bozicevic",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185543/images/4748_n.jpeg",email:"maja.b@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. Mauricio Barría",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88861",title:"Dr.",name:"R. Mauricio",surname:"Barría",slug:"r.-mauricio-barria",fullName:"R. 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However, treatment with artificial saliva and humectants is symptomatic, and although salivary gland massage can reinvigorate weak glands, to do so is difficult for people with disabilities and has varying effects, depending on operator skill. Thus, we have focused on increasing salivation through the use of vibrotactile stimulation, as reported by Hiraba et al. (2008). Before using this apparatus on patients, it was necessary to first estimate the effect on normal subjects.
\n\t\t\tThe biggest challenge with continuous use of stimulation is an adaptive effect. In particular, we were interested in determining whether the effect was continuous without attenuation, when patients continue using the apparatus every day (Despopoulos and Silbernagel, 2003). We investigated adaptation to the continuous use of vibrotactile stimuli for 4 or 5 days in the same subjects to determine whether this resulted in a decrease in salivation (Despopoulos and Silbernagel, 2003; Principles of Neural Science. 2000a). Before this experiment was performed, it was necessary to compare resting and stimulating salivary secretion and to investigate the most effective frequency for increasing salivary secretion. We examined the amount of salivation during vibrotactile stimuli with a single motor (1.9 µm amplitude) on the bilateral masseter muscle belly (on the parotid glands), using a dental cotton roll positioned at the opening of the secretory duct for 3 min. Furthermore, we examined the amount of salivation during vibrotactile stimuli with single and double motors (1.9 µm and 3.5 µm amplitudes) on the bilateral submandibular angles (on the submandibular glands). Then, we compared resting and stimulating salivation and investigated the most effective frequency for increasing salivary secretion. The effect of increased salivation in normal subjects was determined as the difference between resting and stimulating salivation.
\n\t\t\tWe defined a 5-min interval as the recovery time between resting and stimulating salivation from a preliminary study. First, we examined the most effective frequency for salivation of the parotid glands among 89, 114, and 180 Hz with a single motor, and then we found the most effective frequency for salivation of the submandibular glands between 89 and 114 Hz with single and double motors. We discuss the effects of vibrotactile stimulation based on these results.
\n\t\t\tFurthermore, to study the mechanism of increased salivation evoked by vibrotactile stimuli, we recorded changes in brain blood flow (BBF) at the frontal cortex and the pulse frequency during stimulation. When subjects listen to classical music (particularly Mozart), they develop a relaxed feeling. Specifically, the feeling of relaxation is produced by decreasing BBF in the frontal cortex. In particular, we suggest that the relaxed feeling is produced by an increase in parasympathetic activity. Furthermore, we examined changes in the pulse frequency during vibrotactile stimulation. A decrease in pulse frequency suggests an increase in parasympathetic activity (Principles of Neural Science. 2000b). Thus, we assumed a mechanism of increased salivation by exploring oxyhemoglobin (oxyHb) concentration in the BBF of the frontal cortex and changes in pulse frequency. We believe that the coordination is carried out by a highly interconnected set of structures in the brain stem and forebrain that form a central autonomic network (Principles of Neural Science. 2000b).
\n\t\tThe vibrotactile stimulation apparatus consists of an oscillating body and control unit, as shown in Hiraba et al. (2008) and Yamaoka et al. (2007). The oscillating body is composed of the headphone headset equipped with vibrators as a substitute for positions of the bilateral microphones, and vibrators utilizing the vibration electric motor (VEM) (Rekishin Japan Co., LE12AOG). The VEM was covered in silicon rubber (polyethyl methacrylate, dental mucosa protective material, Shyofu Co.) for conglobating the stimulation parts and preventing the warming of the VEM\'s temperature produced by the vibration of long periods (Hiraba et al. 2008). The control unit consists of three parts, the pulse width modulation (PWM) circuit in Figure 1 A-a, LCD monitor circuit (Figure 1 A-b) and power supply circuit (Figure 1 A-c), and it interfaced with a PWN electric motor, delivered vibration frequencies in the 60-182 Hz range (Yamaoka et al. 2007).
\n\t\t\t\tWe examined the amount of salivation during vibrotactile stimuli on the bilateral masseter muscle belly (on the parotid glands) and on bilateral parts of the submandibular angle (on the submandibular glands; Fig. 1B,\n\t\t\t\t\t1C). We determined the amount of salivation using a dental cotton roll (1 cm across, 3 cm length) positioned at the opening of the secretory ducts (right and left sides of the parotid glands and right and left sides of the submandibular and sublingual glands), during vibrotactile stimulation of the bilateral parotid and submandibular glands. The weights of the wet cotton rolls after 3 min of use were compared with their dry weights (Hiraba et al. 2008).
\n\t\t\tWe determined that a 3-min salivation measurement with a 5-min recovery time was sufficient from a previous experiment (Hiraba et al. 2008). First, we used three frequencies with a single motor (89, 114, 180 Hz-S) on the parotid glands (Fig. 1B, 1D) and conducted a practice exercise so that the participants could learn to avoid the foreign-body sensation of the cotton rolls for 3 min. Next, after a 5-min rest, we examined the amount of salivation during 89 Hz-S vibrotactile stimulation for 3 min. After every 5 min of rest, we examined the amount of salivation during 114 and 180 Hz-S vibrotactile stimulation for 3 min, respectively. We finally examined the amount of salivation on resting stimulation for 3 min (Fig. 1D). We conducted these tests with 19 normal subjects (6 males, 13 females; average age, 22 years). This experiment was performed between 3 and 5 pm in a temperature-controlled, quiet room.
\n\t\t\t\tPictures and diagrams of the vibratory machine (A), experimental techniques (B and C) and experimental schedules (D and E). B and C. Measuring salivation amount during vibrotactile stimulation of the bilateral masseter muscle belly (on the parotid glands, B) and the bilateral angle of the mandibular body (on the submandibular glands, C), using dental cotton rolls positioned at the opening of the secretory ducts (right and left sides of parotid glands and right and left sides of submandibular and sublingual glands). D and E. Time schedules for the vibrotactile stimuli, respectively. The designations 89 Hz-S, 114 Hz-S and 180 Hz-S indicate vibrotactile stimuli at 89, 114, and 180 Hz, respectively, with a single motor. The designations 89 Hz-D and 114 Hz-D represent vibrotactile stimuli of 89 and 114 Hz with double motors. We allowed a 5-min recovery time shown as “rest hours.” Variation per day in the effective salivation during 4 or 5 days of continuous use at 89 Hz-S vibrotactile stimulation for the right and left parotid glands, and the time schedule as shown in
After the three frequencies were tested on the parotid glands, we determined the most effective frequencies, which were 89 and 114 Hz-S. Second, we subjected the submandibular glands to the two frequencies (89 and 114 Hz) and two different amplitudes (Fig. 1C,\n\t\t\t\t\t1E). The amplitude of the oscillating bodies during vibrotactile stimulation was measured with a CCD laser displacement gauge (LK-G3000, Keyence Co., Osaka, Japan). We examined the 89 and 114 Hz frequencies and used oscillating bodies added as the frequency with double motors (single motor had a 1.9 µm amplitude, 89 and 114 Hz-S, and double motors had a 3.5 µm amplitude, 89 and 114 Hz-D). Specifically, 89 and 114 Hz-S, and 89 and 114 Hz-D were used in the next experiment. We examined the amount of salivation for the four frequencies (Fig. 1E). We conducted these experiments with 17 normal subjects (15 males, 2 females; average age, 22 years) for the resting-stimulation examination. This experiment was performed between 3 and 5 pm in a temperature-controlled, quiet room.
\n\t\t\t\tThe most effective salivation amount by vibrotactile stimulating the parotid glands occurred at 89 Hz-S, so we examined changes in salivation for 4 or 5 continuous days with the same time schedule (Fig. 1D). We also investigated the adaptation periods during continuous use of vibrotactile stimulation for 4 or 5 continuous days in the same subjects. We conducted resting-stimulation examinations with 26 normal subjects (11 males and 15 females; average age 25 years). This experiment was performed between 3 and 5 pm in a temperature- controlled and quiet room.
\n\t\t\tThe recording was conducted using a functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) OEG16 instrument (Spectratech Inc., Shelton, CT, USA) from the frontal cortex. As shown in Figures 4A and 4B, the fNIRS probe assembly consisted of six LEDs as light sources, each of which emitted two wavelengths, 770 nm and 840 nm, and six photodiodes as detectors (Fig. 4A,\n\t\t\t\t\t4B). The sources and detectors were symmetrically arranged in an area of 3.0×14.0 cm, with a nearest source-detector separation of 2.0 cm, and measurement points were at 16 points on the frontal cortex. During scanning, a Velcro band held the probe assembly securely to the forehead of subjects and extended from ear to ear horizontally and from hairline to eyebrows vertically. Each of the LEDs was turned on in sequence, and the diffuse NIR light from each source was acquired through the cortical region at the nearest detector. Thus, 16 source-detector pairs (channels) in total were measured (Fig. 4B). The sampling rate across all 16 channels was 0.76 Hz. In particular, we showed a 16-channel computerized analysis (as shown in Fig. 4B) and the original waves of four channel recording areas in the central parts (original waves in Fig. 4C recorded over the selected areas in Fig. 4A).
\n\t\t\t\tWe recorded BBF during vibrotactile stimulation. We also conducted a BBF experimental recording as subjects listened to classical music (Mozart, EinekleineNachtmusik). We conducted the examinations with 10 normal subjects (6 males, 4 females; average age, 22 years) for the resting-stimulation and classical music examinations. This experiment was performed between 3 and 5 pm in a temperature-controlled, quiet room.
\n\t\t\tWe recorded changes in pulse frequency (P225F, Nihon-Kohden Co., Tokyo, Japan) during vibrotactile stimuli at 89 and 114 Hz-S. Because the hemoglobin in blood absorbs red light irradiation, a pulse wave was calculated using a ratio between red light irradiation (660 µm) and infrared light (940 µm). The pulse frequency indicated by this apparatus was measured by averaging the pulse frequency during the previous eight pulses (Fig. 5C). First, the pulse frequency during rest was recorded for 1 min, and then those during 89 and 114 Hz-S vibrotactile stimuli were recorded for 2 min each. A 1-min rest period was taken between the 89 and 114 Hz-S vibrotactile stimuli. Finally, the pulse frequency during rest was recorded for 30 s. We conducted these examinations with 10 normal subjects (6 males, 4 females; average age, 22 years). This experiment was performed every day between 3 and 5 pm in a temperature-controlled, quiet room.
\n\t\t\tWe examined the differences between vibrotactile stimulating of parotid and submandibular glands (Fig. 1B,\n\t\t\t\t\t1C). First, we tested three frequencies of vibrotactile stimulation, 89, 114, and 180 Hz-S, on the parotid glands and determined the frequency most effective for salivation (Fig. 2A). We found that the most effective frequencies for submandibular gland salivation were 89 Hz-S, 89 Hz-D, 114 Hz-S, and 114 Hz-D (Fig. 2B)and that the erase most effective stimulation was 89 Hz-S (Fig. 2A,\n\t\t\t\t\t2B; p < 0.05).
\n\t\t\t\tWe examined the most effective salivation in each gland, including the right parotid, left parotid, right submandibular and sublingual and left submandibular and sublingual glands. As a result, the most effective stimulation for salivation of the parotid and submandibular glands was 89 Hz-S (Fig. 2A-a, 2B-a; resting salivation, 0.89±0.61 mL; 89 Hz-S, 1.46±0.90 mL; 89 Hz-D, 1.04±0.78 mL; 114 Hz-S, 0.93±0.76 mL and 114 Hz-D, 0.80±0.53 mL). Furthermore, a significant difference was observed between the vibrotactile stimulation at 89 Hz-S and that at 114 Hz-D (paired
Salivation from the parotid glands (A) and the submandibular glands (B) after each vibrotactile stimulation. A-a and B-a. Total number of salivations after each vibrotactile stimulation. A-b, A-c, B-b, B-c, B-d and B-e.Salivation amount for each gland after various vibrotactile stimuli. The increased salivation between 89 Hz-S and 114 Hz-D was significantly different (paired-
Because patients with hyposalivation often have a psychiatric disorder, we conducted an experiment to realistically approximate natural conditions. We examined whether effective salivation occurred continuously when vibrotactile stimulation was performed daily. In particular, we used the 89 Hz-S from the previous experiment, and because no difference was found between vibrotactile stimulation of the parotid and submandibular glands, we analyzed salivation evoked by vibrotactile stimulation of the parotid glands. Normal subjects (15 males, 11 females; average age, 25 years) used this apparatus continuously for 4 or 5 days at the same time and place (Fig. 3). None of the glands (right and left parotid glands, and right submandibular and sublingual glands) showed an attenuated response. Regression curves for each gland (Fig. 3A,\n\t\t\t\t\t3B, 3C and 3D) showed non-adaptation to continuous stimulation, because they showed parallel or over-increasing curves, indicating that continuous usage of this apparatus should not be a problem.
\n\t\t\t\tVariation in effective salivation per day during 4 or 5 days of continuous use of 89 Hz-S vibrotactile stimulation in the right (A) and left parotid (B) and the right (C) and left submandibular and sublingual glands (D). The time schedule, as shown in
The OEG16 spectroscope was used to record the hemoglobin concentration in the BBF from areas in the frontal cortex using 16 channels. In particular, we measured original waves in four channel recording areas (circled 1, 2, 3, and 4 in Fig. 4A). Figure 4B shows the schema of the oxyhemoglobin (oxyHb) concentration evoked by analyzing 16 channels during vibrotactile stimulation at 89 Hz-S. The contrasting red and blue zones indicate activity strength, and no response is shown in white (Fig. 4B). The results showed very weak oxyHb concentrations during the 89 Hz-S vibrotactile stimulation, as shown in Figure 4 C-b.
\n\t\t\t\tWe provided evidence of the real waves on the central parts (circled 1, 2, 3, 4; Fig. 4A) of the BBF recording in 16 channels (Fig. 4C). The red lines indicate changes in oxyHb concentrations, the blue lines indicate deoxyhemoglobin (deoxyHb), and the green lines indicate total hemoglobin (totalHb) during salivation measurements at rest and for each vibrotactile stimulation frequency. The first waves in Figure 4 C(a)indicate changes during the resting condition, the second waves (b) show changes during 89 Hz-S vibrotactile stimulation, the third waves (c) show changes during 89 Hz-D, the fourth waves (d) show changes during 114 Hz-S, the fifth waves (e) show changes during 114 Hz-D and the bottom waves (f) show changes during “A-” phonation. Each wave was recorded for 3 min, and each vibrotactile stimulation provided for 2 min is shown between the vertical lines. However, “A-“ phonation is shown by four applicable vertical lines. Although each wave
\n\t\t\t\tA. Frontal cortex recording sites. The circled numbers 1, 2, 3, and 4 indicate the recording sites for each wave, as shown in C. B.A computerized numerical analysis of variations in oxyhemoglobin (oxyHb) concentration during 89 Hz-S vibrotactile stimulation. Red (plus) and blue shading (minus) indicates differences in frontal cortex activation, whereas the white band indicates non-activation. C. Changes in blood brain flow during 2 min of various vibrotactile stimuli and vocalizing “A-“ sounds are shown at the central areas of the frontal cortex. C-a.During the resting condition.C-b.During 89 Hz-S vibrotactile stimulation.C-c.During 89 Hz-D vibrotactile stimulation.C-d.During 114 Hz-S vibrotactile stimulation.C-e.During 89 Hz-D vibrotactile stimulation.C-f. While vocalizing “A-“ sounds. The spaces between the solid bars (2 min.) represents the stimulating period. However, vertical lines during vocalizing “A-“ sounds were the timely accomplishment between good winds. Red, blue, and green lines indicate oxyhemoglobin, deoxyhemoglobin, and total hemoglobin concentrations, respectively.
Measured during resting salivation, at 114 Hz-D, and during “A-“ phonation showed increased activity, the 89 Hz-D and 114 Hz-S vibrotactile stimuli showed decreased activities. However, vibrotactile stimulation at 89 Hz-S was fairly close to zero value (0.14±1.10 mM mm s). In particular, when we focused on changes in oxyHb based on these results, increased oxyHb occurred during “A-” phonation, the resting condition (5.20±6.78 mM mm s) and at 114 Hz-D of vibrotactile stimulation (-0.13±3.54 mM mm s), whereas a decrease in oxyHb was revealed during vibrotactile stimulation at 114 Hz-S (-5.48±7.12 mM mm s) and at 89 Hz-D (-2.18±10.13 mM mm s). However, oxyHb during vibrotactile stimulation at 89 Hz-D (0.29±2.26 mM mm s) was near zero, similar to all of the data (oxyHb, deoxyHb, totalHb). From these results, we computed integral rates of oxyHb during 2 min, as shown by the area between the longitudinal bars in the central part (circled 1, 2, 3, and 4) of the recording wave (Fig. 4C).
\n\t\t\t\tFurthermore, we examined the integral rates while subjects listened to classical music for 2 min. We divided the subjects into two groups: one group did not like to listen to classical music (2.96±6.40 mM mm s,
We chose three typically responding subjects, as shown in Figure 5C. One subject showed a decrease in pulse frequency during both 89 Hz-S and 114 Hz-S vibrotactile stimulation, while the other two showed a decrease in pulse frequency at 89 Hz-S and an increase during 114 Hz-S stimulation (Fig. 5C). We divided the two groups into decrease pulse frequency and increase pulse frequency groups, based on 114 Hz-S vibrotactile stimulation. Although the 89 Hz-S vibrotactile stimulation created a sense of relaxation, the 114 Hz-S vibrotactile stimulation is either liked or disliked. Specifically, the 89 Hz-S vibrotactile stimulation will produce parasympathetic activity and evoke a relaxation response.
\n\t\t\tContinuous exposure to various sensory stimuli induces adaptation (Principles of Neural Science. 2000c). Thus, we examined whether adaptation occurred to the vibrotactile stimulation when normal subjects continuously used this apparatus every day for 4 or 5 days. However, we first investigated changes in total saliva secretion quantities by normal subjects in response vibrotactile stimulation by measuring the weights of cotton rolls set on the ducts of each gland. For the repeated measurements, we defined a recovery time of 5 min from a previous experiment, as resting salivation values before and after stimulating salivation were the same (Fig. 1D,\n\t\t\t\t\t1E).
\n\t\t\t\tThe most effective frequency for increasing the total amount of salivation during vibrotactile stimulation of the parotid and submandibular glands was 89 Hz-S (Fig. 2A-a, 2B-a). Furthermore, as shown in Figures 2 A-b and 2A-c, and 2B-b, 2B-c, 2B-d and 2B-e, no difference was found among the various glands. Because 89 Hz-S vibrotactile stimulation of the parotid and submandibular glands showed the same results in all glands, the results might not be directly affected by the vibrotactile stimulation on the parotid and submandibular glands. Specifically, the increased salivation evoked by vibrotactile stimulation at 89 Hz-S may be the result of somatosensory input from the facial skin and intraoral cavity.
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tBurdette and Gale (1988) reported that tonic masticatory muscle activity may be effective for treating patients with myofacial pain dysfunction. Furthermore, Vriama and Vanharantra (1994) reported that discographically painful discs always decrease pain during a vibration examination. These results assume that the peripheral stimuli provided by the vibration arrive at the central nervous system (spinal cord and brain stem) and that these effects are produced by a depressant effect on the cerebral cortex, depending on the somatosensory information, although they are not clearly organized. We believe that their interpretation does not adequately explain this situation. We suggest that vibrating stimuli may promote parasympathetic effects by inhibiting the sympathetic effects elicited by pain. We know serous salivation is evoked only by a parasympathetic effect. Furthermore, we found that salivation production responded to a specific frequency and amplitude.
\n\t\t\t\tVibration may effectively activate the muscle spindles of the masseter muscles, because the tonic vibration reflex (TVR) of the muscle spindles activates with 80–100Hz vibrations (Desmedt, Codaux 1975). However, we showed the same salivation response in various glands. We showed that increased salivation evoked by 89 Hz-S vibrotactile stimulation would be produced by somatosensory inputs from facial skin and the intraoral cavity, suggesting that increased salivation is not produced by a direct effect of muscle contraction.
\n\t\t\t\tNext, we examined the physiological characteristics of adaptation to vibrotactile stimulation by testing adaptation in 26 normal subjects for 4 or 5 days. Patients with decreased salivation (hyposalivation) would be using this machine daily; thus, we wanted to realistically approximate actual conditions. The results suggested that 89 Hz-S vibrotactile stimulation to the facial skin of the masseter belly may be appropriate for patients with decreased salivation, because the regression curve (negative gradient) did not decrease with continuous use of the apparatus (Fig. 3).
\n\t\t\tThe frontal cortex is associated with cognitive function, including memory, attention, abstract reasoning and higher cognitive activity (Principles of Neural Science. 2000a).
\n\t\t\t\tWe recorded changes in BBF in the frontal cortex to examine typical changes in fNIRS parameters based on increases in oxyHb and totalHb and decreased deoxyHb, as reported by Sakatani et al. (2006). In particular, increased fNIRS activity patterns in the frontal cortex are associated with speech, and decreased fNIRS activity patterns in the frontal cortex are associated with playing TV games and are thought to be dependent on network differences (Sakatani et al. 1999). The fNIRS responses may be influenced by mental stability, because they indicate control of sophisticated mental functions produced by complex networks. Because fNIRS activity increases while subjects are speaking and decreases while they play TV games, we suggest that the autonomic system has a profound effect. Specifically, we suggest that fNIRS activity during conscious speaking is associated with a sympathetic effect, and that playing a TV game is associated with reflective movement under a non-sympathetic effect.
\n\t\t\t\tThe effect of 89 Hz-S vibrotactile stimulation was almost zero for oxyHb, deoxyHb, and totalHb (Fig. 4 C-b). In particular, the fNIRS activity focuses on the excitatory behaviours to increase oxyHb. In animal experiments, changes in oxyHb and BBF are related, and fNIRS activity changes in oxyHb are used as a neuronal activity index (Hoshi et al. 2001). Thus, changes in oxyHb produced by an 89 Hz-S vibrotactile stimulation on the parotid and submandibular glands may indicate mental stability. The reason may be due to the same tendency of oxyHb concentration between the 89 Hz-S vibrotactile stimulation and subjects who liked to listen to classical music (Fig. 5 B-b). People relax when they listen to classical music, so we think that 89 Hz-S vibrotactile stimulation is produced by excitation of the parasympathetic system. In particular, although the 89 Hz-S vibrotactile stimulation always
\n\t\t\t\tIntegral values of oxyhemoglobin (oxyHb) concentration produced by vibrotactile stimuli for 2 min are shown in A and B. A. Integral values produced in the resting condition and after each stimulation (
Revealed parasympathetic excitation, listening to classical music showed different activity depending on music preference (Fig. 5 B-a, 5B-b). Those subjects who enjoyed Mozart classical music accepted it as relaxing, whereas those who disliked it perceived it as noise. However, 89 Hz-S vibrotactile stimulation may produce a balanced mental condition, regardless of preference. This phenomenon suggests that the effect caused by the 89 Hz-S vibrotactilestimulation and the feeling sensed by those listening to Mozart who enjoyed it may be the same. Thus, we suggest that these feelings were produced by parasympathetic activity.
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tBurdette and Gale (1988) reported that tonic masticatory muscle activity might be effective for treating patients with myofascial pain-dysfunction. Furthermore, Vriama and Vanharantra (1994) reported that discography always results in less pain during a vibration examination. They suggested that peripheral stimuli produced by the vibration arrive at the central nervous system (spinal cord and brain stem) and that these effects are caused by a depressant effect on the cerebral cortex, depending on the somatosensory information (Burdette and Gale, 1988; Vriama and Vanharantra, 1994). However, we believe that somatosensory information via the thalamus produces excitability in the primary somatosensory cortex. Furthermore, somatosensory information in the primary somatosensory cortex may project to the frontal cortex via the parietal association area (Handbook of Neuropsychology 1994), and this information may cause the excitatory effects.
\n\t\t\tWhen we are frightened, our heartbeat increases (Principles of Neural Science. 2000b). The parasympathetic nervous system is responsible for rest and digestion, and maintaining basal heart rate, respiration, and metabolism under normal, resting conditions (Principles of Neural Science. 2000b). We examined the parasympathetic effects with changes in pulse frequency during vibrotactile stimulation. We showed changes in pulse frequency in typical normal subjects in response to 89 Hz-S and 114 Hz-S vibrotactile stimuli (Fig. 5C). These results showed a decrease in pulse frequency during 89 Hz-S stimulation, but an increase in pulse frequency following the 114 Hz-S vibrotactile stimulation, except for one subject. Specifically, the 114 Hz-S vibrotactile stimulation showed variable results, because one subject was relaxed, whereas the others were not. However, the 89 Hz-S vibrotactile stimulation resulted in decreased pulse frequency in all subjects, suggesting that stimulating the face evoked parasympathetic stimulation (Fig. 5C). Thus, the parasympathetic activity elicited by 89 Hz-S vibrotactile stimulation, may produce an increase in salivation. We reiterate that a relaxed feeling was produced in all subjects during 89 Hz-S vibrotactile stimulation.
\n\t\t\t\tWe consider the following schema for this phenomenon. Vibrotactile stimulation to the face produces somatosensory information activity in the orofacial region, which projects to the trigeminal sensory complex (principal trigeminal sensory nuclei and trigeminal spinal tract nuclei) and solitary nuclei (Fig. 6). This somatosensory information is divided into the parabrachial nuclei, thalamus, and hypothalamus. Information projecting to the parabrachial nuclei arrives in the hypothalamus, amygdala, and frontal cortex and then to the thalamus and primary somatosensory cortex (SI). Petrides reported that information travelling to the SI goes around the frontal cortex via the parietal association area (Handbook of Neuropsychology 1994). We think that somatosensory information travelling via the parietal association area represents excitability. If the BBF in the frontal cortex via the parietal association area is excitable and that via the parabrachial nucleus is inhibitory, which wave forms will be revealed? We believe that BBF to the frontal cortex evoked by various stimuli shows various wave forms, depending on the condition. In particular, the 89 Hz-S vibrotactile stimulation may produce a relaxed feeling.
\n\t\t\tAutonomic function must ultimately be coordinated by adapting to environmental changes. The autonomic nervous system is a visceral sensory and motor system, and the visceral reflex is mediated by local circuits in the brain stem or spinal cord. These reflexes are regulated by networks of central autonomic control nuclei in the brain stem, hypothalamus and forebrain and are not under voluntary control, nor do they impinge on consciousness, with a few exceptions (Principles of Neural Science. 2000b). However, we think that changes in BBF in the frontal cortex may represent autonomic activity. This coordination is carried out by a highly interconnected set of structures in the brain stem and forebrain that form a central autonomic network (Fig. 6 and Principles of Neural Science. 2000b). Furthermore, the key component of this network is initiated by integral information in the parabrachial nucleus of the solitary tract and trigeminal sensory complex in the brain stem. These nuclei receive inputs from somatosensory and visceral afferents of the trigeminal, facial, glossopharyngeal, and vagus nerves and then use the information to modulate autonomic function. The somatosensory and visceral sensory outputs from the trigeminal and solitary nuclei are relayed to the forebrain and amygdala by the parabrachial nucleus, which is important for the behavioural responses to somatosensory, taste, and other visceral sensations (Principles of Neural Science. 2000b), and the information arriving in the amygdala will produce the pleasure-pain feeling. In contrast, the parabrachial nucleus is a taste-sensation relay nucleus in rats (Scott and Small 2009), and the rodent parabrachial nucleus sends integral limbic and reward system information (Yamamoto et al. 2009). Although their function in humans is unknown, we think that these nuclei may play a role as a relay nucleus for the autonomic system. On the other hand, we showed a projection from the trigeminal sensory complex, as the parabrachial nucleus can also record the response to tactile stimuli from facial skin (Chiang et al, 1994). Furthermore, somatosensory information is projected to the primary somatosensory cortex and is then relayed to the frontal cortex, via the parietal association area (Handbook of Neuropsychology 1994).
\n\t\t\t\tWhat does BBF activity in the frontal cortex mean? We think that the information via the parabrachial nucleus dominates that via the parietal association area. Thus, information in the frontal cortex is assumed to arrive via the parabrachial nucleus area. The hypothalamus is the centre of the autonomic system. We perceive emotional experiences such as fear, pleasure, and contentment and these reflect the interplay between higher brain centres and sub-cortical regions, such as the hypothalamus and amygdala (Principles of Neural Science. 2000a). Patients in whom the prefrontal cortex or the cingulate gyrus has been removed are no longer bothered by pain, but exhibit appropriate autonomic reactions; however, the sensation is not perceived as a powerfully unpleasant experience (Principles of Neural Science. 2000a). Furthermore, the anatomical connections of the amygdala with the temporal (cingulate gyrus) and frontal (prefrontal) association cortices provide the means by which visceral and somatosensory sensations trigger a rich assortment of associations or the cognitive interpretation of emotional states (Principles of Neural Science. 2000b).
\n\t\t\t\tPathways distributing somatosensory information in the brain. Somatosensory information evoked by vibrotactile stimulation is relayed by the trigeminal sensory complex and solitary and parabrachial nuclei, which arrives at the hypothalamus, thalamus, amygdala and frontal cortex, respectively. The autonomic system (particularly the parasympathetic nervous system) produces increased salivation. The lateral branch of the trigeminal sensory nucleus is projected to the parabrachial nucleus. Information from the parabrachial nucleus is received by the amygdala and frontal cortex. Furthermore, somatosensory information is projected to the primary somatosensory cortex and relayed to the frontal cortex via the parietal association area. Thus, this information finally leads to a relaxed feeling and BBF waves reflect parasympathetic activity (modified from schemas in Principles of Neural Science 2000b and Handbook of Neuropsychology 1994).
Finally, we showed oxyHb activity during “A-“ phonation (Fig. 4 C-f). Sympathetic activity increases when we speak. From our data, the facial stimulation effects evoked by 89 Hz-S vibrotactile stimulation evoked parasympathetic activity, depending on the decrease in pulse frequency, and oxyHb concentration reflected the non-activation of BBF waves in the frontal cortex. We suggest that the 89 Hz-S vibrotactile stimulation produced a relaxing sensation depending on excitation in the amygdaloid complex and parasympathetic activity in the hypothalamic nuclei. The relaxing sensation was reflected by the oxyHb concentration of the BBF wave in the frontal cortex.
\n\t\t\tWe showed that the most effective salivation response was produced by an 89 Hz vibrotactile stimulation with a single motor (1.9 µm amplitude) on the parotid glands, as reported previously (Hiraba et al. 2008). In this study, we focused on the submandibular glands secreting the greatest amount of saliva and explored changes in salivation during stimulation of the submandibular glands with 89 Hz and 114 Hz vibrotactile stimuli using single (89 Hz-S and 114 Hz-S) or double motors (3.5 µm amplitude, 89 Hz-D and 114 Hz-D), respectively. The increased salivation evoked by the 89 Hz-S vibrotactile stimulation was produced by somatosensory inputs from the facial skin and intraoral cavity. We examined the effects of vibrotactile stimulation on adaptation in normal subjects to test the effect of continuously using this apparatus every day by patients with hyposalivation. The results showed no adaptation with continuous use. Furthermore, we investigated changes in BBF in the frontal cortex during vibrotactile stimulation. Stimulating the submandibular and parotid glands at 89 Hz-S resulted in the most salivation. OxyHb concentrations in the BBF to the frontal cortex during an 89 Hz-S vibrotactile stimulation were the same as those in subjects who preferred listening to classical music. Furthermore, parasympathetic activity decreased pulse frequency during an 89 Hz-S vibrotactile stimulation, suggesting a close relationship between the BBF waves in the frontal cortex and the autonomic system. An 89 Hz-S vibrotactile stimulation may produce relaxation and salivation may be increased by parasympathetic excitation.
\n\t\tThis work was supported by a Sogoshigaku research grant and the Sato Fund of Nihon University School of Dentistry, as well grants from the Ministry of Education and Grants-in-Aid for Scientific Research (21592539).
\n\t\tHumic substances are a structurally specified fraction of soil organic matter that are thought to be an important component of the biosphere, as they are responsible for many physical and chemical processes in soil. Organic carbon accounts for approximately 62 percent of global soil carbon, with at least half of this carbon classified as the chemically resistant portion known as humic substances (HS) [1, 2, 3]. Plant and microbial biomass are the primary sources of organic matter production in soil, and their composition and properties are important major constraints for humification processes. When looking at the structural aspects of HS, we must understand the contributions of the different compound groups that make up those tissues. These compound types include intracellular (i.e. protein) and structural (for example, polysaccharides, lignin and aliphatic) compounds that shape membranes and cell walls, including membrane lipids and plant cuticles [4]. Due to their intimate relationships with soil mineral phases, they cannot be easily decomposed and are chemically complex to be used by microbes. One of the most notable properties of HS in soil is their ability to interact with metal ions, oxides, hydroxides, mineral and organic compounds [5], including toxic contaminants [3], to form water-soluble and water-insoluble complexes [4, 5].
Humic substances (HS) are important elements of natural organic matter (NOM) in soil, water, as well as geological organic substances including shales, brown coals, peat and lake sediments. They contribute to the brown or black color of surface soils and make up much of the characteristic brown color of rotting plant waste. They are major components of NOM in surface waters and can impart a dark color at higher concentrations, especially in brown fresh water ponds, lakes, and streams. The color of composts due to leaf-litter can range from yellowish-brown to black, depending on the degree of decay and concentration. It is well understood that HS are the most significant source of transient refractory organic carbon in the earth’s crust. Conventionally, the mixtures are processed into humic acids (HA), fulvic acids (FA), and humin (Hu). HA is recognized as the fraction precipitated from an aqueous solution at pH < 2 (under acidic conditions), FA residues in solution after HA precipitation, and the Hu fraction is insoluble in aqueous solvents [6] .
Humic substances are soil complexes produced during humification phase, are responsible for fossil coal, oil deposits, and other geological deposits. It is the Earth’s second most important organic phase, after photosynthesis. It is estimated that photosynthesis binds more than 5000 tons of atmospheric carbon per year, while the transformation of dead living organisms results in the creation of approximately 4000 tons of carbon [7], which is deposited annually on the Earth’s surface. Humic substances are naturally occurring organic material that are formed due to biochemical, chemical, and physical changes in dead plants, microbial residues, and fauna debris. Humic material formation is linked to the behavior of microorganisms, resulting in the accumulation of recalcitrant macromolecular compounds with unique properties [7]. Due to death of microbes a recalcitrant humic mass is created due to their assimilation. These progressive decay leads to biotic and abiotic transformation processes which ultimately produces diverse and heterogeneous mixtures of polydisperse materials, which are a major component of natural soil organic matter. Humic material can take hundreds or thousands of years for their formation, resulting in a wide range of humic substances. Humic substances are extremely heterogeneous in composition, structure, and are derived from a variety of organic matter sources. This sets them apart from naturally occurring biomolecules such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and others.
Humic substances happens to be the most common of the various organic substances found in nature. They account for approximately 25% of total organic carbon on Earth and can also be found in a variety of ecosystems such as lakes, rivers, sea sediments, soil, and coal composites. Humic substances influence the chemistry, cycling, and bioavailability of chemical elements in terrestrial and aquatic environments, as well as the distribution and degradation of xenobiotic and organic chemicals of natural origin [7]. For decades, scientists have discussed the formation mechanisms of HS [8, 9]. The lack of repeated sequences, as well as the variety of chemical and biological reactions involved in their formation, render HS very complex and multifaceted molecules capable of important signaling and nutritional functions in the soil–plant system. The polymeric origin of HS has a high molecular mass (100–300 kDa) [10], derived from lignin decomposition and abiotic catalysts such as primary minerals and layer silicates. Humic compounds are classified into three categories: (1) Humin, (2) Humic Acids (HAs), and (3) Fulvic Acids (FAs) [11]. Figure 1 summarizes several of the major chemical characteristics of humic compounds.
Chemical characteristics of humic compounds (modified and adapted from [
Figure 2, illustrates the hypothetical model structure of fulvic acid (Buffle’s model) [13], which contains aromatic and aliphatic structures, both extensively substituted with oxygen containing functional groups [15, 16].
Model structure of fulvic acid [
Humus is generally brownish or black colored complex variable of carbon-containing compounds that does not show cellular organization in the form of animal bodies or plant under a light microscope. Humus is distinguished from non-humic substances such as carbohydrates (a primary component of carbon), fats, waxes, alkanes, peptides, amino acids, proteins, lipids, and organic acids by the fact that distinct chemical formulae for these non-humic substances can be published. The majority of small molecules of non-humic compounds are easily destroyed by soil microbes. Soil humus, on the other hand, decay slowly under natural soil conditions. When combined with soil minerals, soil humus can survive in the soil for centuries. Humus is the primary component of soil organic matter, accounting for 65 to 75 percent of the total. Humus plays an important role as a fertility factor in all soils, far outweighing its percentage contribution to total soil mass.
Humins are derived from humic compounds that are not soluble in alkali, not soluble in acids, and are insoluble at neutral pH ranges. However, the physical and chemical properties of humins are partly known. Humin complexes are also recognized as macro organic substances due to their large molecular weights (MW) ranging from
Humic acids (HA) are organic acids that are a combination of weak aliphatic (carbon chains) and aromatic (carbon rings) organic acids that are insoluble in acidic water but soluble in alkaline water [18]. Humic acids are composed of humic compounds that precipitate from aqueous medium when the pH drops below 2. Due to their variable chemical composition, humic acids (HA) are also known as polydisperse. These complicated carbon-containing compounds are assumed to be 3-dimensionally flexible linear polymers that reside in the form of random coils with cross-linked bonds. On average, 35 percent of humic acid (HA) molecules are aromatic (carbon rings), with the remaining components being aliphatic (carbon chains) [17]. Humic acids (HAs) have molecular sizes ranging from
The proportion of humic substances that are soluble in water at all pH levels. They are known as fulvic acids because they remain in solution after humic acid has been removed by acidification (FA). Fulvic acids range in color from light yellow to yellow-brown. The elemental composition of various FA and HA reveals that C, H, O, N, and S are the main elements in their composition. These major elements are always present, regardless of their birth, country of origin, or continent of origin. An examination of a broad range of HS reveals that the percentage composition of C, O, H, and N varies as follows: C (45–60), O (25–45), H (4–7), N (10–13) and inorganic elements (ash) 0.5–5 Table 1 [20]. summaries the composition of humic substances.
The general properties for HA, and FA relate to their basic constituents (carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and sulfur) and their oxygen-containing functional groups (hydroxyl, carboxyl, carbone and phenolic) which give rise to their overall chemical properties, including their ability to react with ionic particles in solution. Because of their properties, HAs and FAs have been used in a variety of agricultural applications, including improving nutrient and water use, soil quality, and carbon sequestration [11]. Although a variety of mechanisms have been proposed and/or studied for the effects on humic substances on plant life, much can be learned from the imperfect understanding of these mechanisms. One such process is ion exchange, which allows the use of plant minerals by prevention of the development of insoluble mineral complexes in the soil and then enhances humic substances in exchange for hydrogen and carbonic acid, which can produce absorbable mineral ions for plant roots. In sequestration of radioactive metals in soil, the ion-exchange process also works [22]. As humic substances play a role in maintaining plant life and their ability to attach or sequester potentially harmful environmental toxicants, they can also easily be extrapolated such that they can improve human nutrition and provide some protection from unintended ingestion of dietary toxic elements.
Two active New Dietary Ingredient Notices (NDIN) for use in a dietary supplement containing additional minerals to improve the status of minerals and trace elements were subjected to a specific preparation of HA and FA derived from Hungarian peat [20]. The NDIN has recorded 9 unpublished and one published clinical evaluations in which mineral status in humans has been improved and/or absorption is inhibited and toxic element excreted [23]. However, it is not clear if these effects can generally be extrapolated to humic substances due to the possible variations between this and other humic preparations as well as the inclusion of exogenous minerals. The use of clinical or mechanical research on other humic preparations, important for humans, is restricted and there are no other studies of the above-mentioned results, although it was shown that the addition of a humic extract to the broiler feed was intended to improve the growth of chickens. Due to the heterogeneous existence of the humic substances, an extrapolation for the whole community has not been deemed sufficient toxicological evaluation of one particular unique material, while attempts have been made for the identification of an appropriate model. As a result, a number of toxicological studies have been reported on humic materials of diverse origin even though many of them have been performed to examine the mutagenic potential of byproducts produced during water disinfection because of the normal occurrence of low levels of humic material in surface waters. Chlorination of organic non-volatile substances found in HA and FA is known to lead to the development in bacterial mutation tests of compounds (such as mucochlorine acid and 2, three, three-trichloropropenal) under conditions of decreasing pH and sufficient chlorine and HA and chlorine.
Various authors have assumed that even though high molecular weight (HMW) and small molecular weight fractions (LMW) appear to be behaving differently, HS may be adsorbed by the root plant [24]. The mechanisms by which HS interacts with the root cells affecting the plant physiology and growth have not been significantly researched until today. Changes in size and growth were the first to be analyzed among the modifications caused by HS on treated plants. HS will promote plant growth with a view to increasing plant length and dry and fresh weight under specific conditions. These effects are apparently dependent on the dosage and source of the drug, the plant species and age and the conditions of the trial cultivation [25]. Many studies have recently confirmed the assumption that HS has direct effect on plant physiology, especially in regard to the development of root hair and side root [26, 27]. The impact of HS has been thoroughly evaluated on metabolic processes in plants. For example, several studies have shown that HS affects breathing, protein synthesis and the function of the enzyme in higher plants [28, 29]. With regard to the photosynthesis process, few reports are available which focus on the contents of chlorophyll and transport of electrons.
The productivity of crop plants will benefit significantly from regulation that mitigates the impact of abiotic stress on the growth and production of crops during ontogenesis. There are insufficient information currently available on control mechanisms and techniques. Optimizing plant growth conditions and providing regulators for water, nutrients and plant growth will help in avoiding abiotic pressure [30]. Bio-stimulants such as HS are also used in production systems with the aim to regulate physiological events in plants in order to improve productivity as well as these traditional strategies.
In the last two decades, scientists have increasingly utilized HS from natural materials [31]. In addition, HS provides new methods to alter physiological activity in plants to increase plant growth and abiotic stress tolerance. A number of examples show the ability of HS to improve plant abiotic stress tolerance. Treatment with hydrated leaves, anti-oxidants, radical growth and shooting under dry conditions, increased hydration of the leaves (
HS in the soil promotes root and spring growth through the improvement of mineral nutrition below the soil surface. In terms of plant production and active development, the function of these substances can be assessed [34], by their complementary and possibly diverse effects. HS regulates plant growth and mineral assimilation. In general, these effects are classified as direct and indirect. HS activities rely mainly on the structural features, functional groups and their inclination to associate with inorganic, organic and soil substratum molecules [35]. Furthermore, HS primarily affects the bioavailability of nutrients through its ability to form complexes containing metallic ions, thus enhancing micronutrient availability (zinc, manganese, copper and iron). On the other hand, HS targets plant cell membranes that can cause biochemical and molecular processes at post-transcriptional levels in the roots and shoot [32]. Targeted HS typically increase macronutrient and micronutrient consumption in plants.
Jackson [36], used 14C HS-listed substances, and found a small portion of them entering the root apoplastic pathway, especially those of low molecular weight. Therefore, the effect of HS to promote molecular systems and signal pathways of nutrient absorption present in cell membranes can be controlled. The full advantage of this direct influence is still unknown. Non-specific HS activity on the leaf and root can, however, be speculated on by controlling events at both the transcriptional and post-transcriptive stages, to modify molecular and biochemical processes.
Humic soil fractions comprise bio-molecular fragments that were explicitly omitted from conventional humic concepts. Many of these bio-molecular movements are closely linked to the humic fraction by seven covalently and cannot be effectively isolated [37]. Why should a whole group of constituent molecules be excluded? Simply because it can be classified as biomolecules if we consider humic material as a super-molecular association of constituent molecules. It is inappropriate and deceptive for these nuanced, heterogeneous mixes to purge humic fractions of closely related, identifiable bimolecular components [38]. A description that is applicable to experimental studies of the humic component should include all molecules which are closely linked within a humic fraction, i.e. those which cannot be eliminated without substantial changes in the chemical characteristics of the fraction. That will necessarily include biomolecules that are identifiable and play important structural roles. Will this wider concept of humic molecules be contrary to the recognized refractory nature?
Soil humic compounds are typically aged between hundreds and thousands of years on average and many biomolecules easily decomposed by energy-seeking microbes and nutrients. However, it can lead to biomolecules being protected against microbial degradation by binding them with humic fractions, creating identifiable but refractory biological molecules [39], is alternatively a “two-part” view of the stability of humic substances. Although the majority of humic material is permanent, some humic elements may be transient. The persistent material contributes to 14C, while the transitional components will contribute mainly to the C turnover rate. A significant portion of the transient, often refilled humic components may be made up of closely related, but easily degraded biomolecules. While most humic materials are permanent, some humic elements may be temporary. The continuous material contributes to 14C, while the intermediate components are primarily responsible for the C turnover rate [40]. A large part of the frequently refilled transient humic components can consist of closely related, but easily degraded biomolecules.
Humus is one of the largest reserves of carbon in the world. To date, industrial uses of humus and goods extracted from humus have been rare. In the second half of the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century the use of coal was more abundant and, in addition, it was a foundation of chemical production. The application Petroleum was also considered the key raw material of 20th-century chemical industry. HS applications can now be broken down into four major categories: agricultural, industrial, environmental and biomedical.
From an agronomic and agricultural point of view, HS plays a significant role as they have a huge impact on soil quality and productivity. HS also shows a high Base Exchange potential, which is essential to soil fertility, in addition to enhancing the soil’s physical properties and humidity. Many researchers and humates have observed the growth-promoting effect of humic substances in various preparations for plant growth improvement. Soil productivity in the presence of humic materials can be improved by various methods. However, in some case the consistency and fertility of the soil is greatly affected. In addition to the improvement of physical properties and moisture of the soil, HS shows a high Base Exchange potential, which is important for soil fertility. In various preparations for plant growth enhancement, several investigators have studied the growth-promoting effects of humic substances.
Natural organic colloids are important because they form water solutions with a large number of metals, including radionuclides. It is well known that the humic substances affects the absorption of natural solids into the surface and ground waters of radionuclides. Thus, these organics may be essential as a transport agents in the environment for radionuclides. In environmental chemistry, the key role of humic substances is to extract radioactive metals, organic chemical substances of anthropogenic nature and other contaminants from water [18]. Calcium humate ion exchange products were considered suitable for the extract from the water and removal of radioactive elements from water discharges from nuclear power plants for heavy metals such as iron, nickel, mercury and cadmium and copper [11]. They also use their selective bonds to destroy ammunition and chemical warfare agents [41]. For the last 30 years, interactions between humic and micro-organic materials has been widely studied and researched. Fermenting bacteria have been found capable of reducing humic materials. Many investigators have been studying the use of humics as energy source for various bacteria, fungi and higher microorganisms, but they have not exploited them. Many researchers including [42, 43], investigated the use of humic as an energy source for specific bacteria, mushrooms and higher micro-organisms but pointed out that humic materials cannot be exploited as a source of food.
Veterinary and human medicine uses humic substances manufactured on a commercial scale. Various studies have been published on the medicinal properties of humic materials. The proliferation of gastric damage caused by ethanol was greatly reduced by humic acids administered prophylactically to rats [44]. TPP given to rats with gastric and duodenal ulcers improved the healing process considerably [44]. The interest in the use of humic materials in medicine and biology has developed in the past few decades. There is an investigation into the possibility that soil humus extract could be an applicant for cosmetic and pharmaceutical products with amino acid complexes and vitamin B analogues [11]. Anti-virals, profibrinolytic, anti-inflammatory and estrogenic activities are the primary explanation for the increased attention given to humic acids [45].
In many mammalian cells, humic acid was, on the other hand, shown to be a toxic factor, although its precise cytotoxicity mechanism remains uncertain. Humic acid can be reduced from Fe (III) to Fe (II) under the wide range of pH values in aqueous conditions (4.0 to 9.0) and iron from ferritin reduction and release, but the process is partially inhibited by superoxide scavengers. It was shown that iron released from ferritin accelerates the lipid peroxidation caused by humic acid. Humic acids are also capable of reducing, releasing and supporting lipid peroxidation from ferritin storage. HAs coupled to freed iron can therefore disrupt the redox balance of the biological system and evoke oxidative stress. This may be one of the main pathways for cytotoxicity caused by HA [46]. Now is the time for new applications for humic substances, particularly in biomedicine, in less conventional areas.
HS has been widely studied in different fields of agriculture, such as ground chemistry, fertility and plant physiology as the major component of organic soil content. HS plays an important role in the regulation of pollutants’ activity and mobility in the atmosphere and makes a major contribution to improving the status of global soil fertility. Together with a strong demand for safe food and sustainable agriculture, these features have led to increasing the environmental importance of HS, recently recognized as a potential tool in facing global environmental problems. Many of its positive effects on soil structure and plant growth have been shown to depend on their chemical composition, but progress in HS research is known to be regulated by auxin. In addition, physiological and molecular evidence indicate that brassinosteroids may have a possible additional impact on the growth of plants. A critical review of literature shows that HS requires an auxin transduction pathway in order to determine its action in plant physiology but also show that the various signaling cascades in the global physiological response of plants to these substances (Figure 3). This could be used as a starting point for the clarification of mechanisms in the molecular response to HS in the plant. Further studies are required to evaluate the molecular goals and signaling trajectories involved in the intersection of the HS and the plant cells.
Schematic representation of impact of humic substances on plant biology.
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',metaTitle:"Publication Agreement - Monograph",metaDescription:"IntechOpen aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our authors. For that matter, we uphold a flexible copyright policy meaning that there is no transfer of copyright to the publisher and authors retain exclusive copyright to their work.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/publication-agreement-monograph",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"When submitting a manuscript, the Author is required to accept the Terms and Conditions set out in our Publication Agreement – Monographs/Compacts as follows:
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\\n\\nThe Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from those who might recognize themselves or be identified by others, for example from case reports or photographs.
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\\n\\nIntechOpen agrees to offer free online access to readers and use reasonable efforts to promote the Publication to relevant audiences.
\\n\\nIntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement on behalf of the Author and Co-Authors against third parties, for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements. In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Work, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement that is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\\n\\nIntechOpen has the right to include/use the Author and Co-Authors names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Work and has the right to contact the Author and Co-Authors until the Work is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
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\\n\\nThird Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\\n\\nEntire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by, or on behalf of, the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (known as the "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of any fraudulent pre-contract misrepresentation or concealment.
\\n\\nWaiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
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\\n\\nSeverance: If any provision, or part-provision, of this Publication Agreement is, or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted. Any modification to, or deletion of, a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\\n\\nNo partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for, or on behalf of, any other party.
\\n\\nGoverning law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim, including non-contractual disputes or claims arising out of, or in connection with it, or its subject matter or formation, shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of, or in connection with, this Publication Agreement, including any non-contractual disputes or claims.
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\n\nCORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S GRANT OF RIGHTS
\n\nSubject to the following Article, the Author grants to IntechOpen, during the full term of copyright, and any extensions or renewals of that term, the following:
\n\nThe foregoing licenses shall survive the expiry or termination of this Publication Agreement for any reason.
\n\nThe Author, on his or her own behalf and on behalf of any of the Co-Authors, reserves the following rights in the Work but agrees not to exercise them in such a way as to adversely affect IntechOpen's ability to utilize the full benefit of this Publication Agreement: (i) reprographic rights worldwide, other than those which subsist in the typographical arrangement of the Work as published by IntechOpen; and (ii) public lending rights arising under the Public Lending Right Act 1979, as amended from time to time, and any similar rights arising in any part of the world.
\n\nThe Author, and any Co-Author, confirms that they are, and will remain, a member of any applicable licensing and collecting society and any successor to that body responsible for administering royalties for the reprographic reproduction of copyright works.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, copyright in the Work and all versions of it created during IntechOpen's editing process, including all published versions, is retained by the Author and any Co-Authors.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, the Author and Co-Authors retain patent, trademark and other intellectual property rights to the Work.
\n\nAll rights granted to IntechOpen in this Article are assignable, sublicensable or otherwise transferrable to third parties without the specific approval of the Author or Co-Authors.
\n\nThe Author, on his/her own behalf and on behalf of the Co-Authors, will not assert any rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 to object to derogatory treatment of the Work as a consequence of IntechOpen's changes to the Work arising from the translation of it, corrections and edits for house style, removal of problematic material and other reasonable edits as determined by IntechOpen.
\n\nAUTHOR'S DUTIES
\n\nWhen distributing or re-publishing the Work, the Author agrees to credit the Monograph/Compacts as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen. The Author guarantees that Co-Authors will also credit the Monograph/Compacts as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen, when they are distributing or re-publishing the Work.
\n\nThe Author agrees to:
\n\nThe Author will be held responsible for the payment of the agreed Open Access Publishing Fee before the completion of the project (Monograph/Compacts publication).
\n\nAll payments shall be due 30 days from the date of issue of the invoice. The Author or whoever is paying on behalf of the Author and Co-Authors will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
\n\nThe Author shall obtain in writing all consents necessary for the reproduction of any material in which a third-party right exists, including quotations, photographs and illustrations, in all editions of the Work worldwide for the full term of the above licenses, and shall provide to IntechOpen, at its request, the original copies of such consents for inspection or the photocopies of such consents.
\n\nThe Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from those who might recognize themselves or be identified by others, for example from case reports or photographs.
\n\nThe Author shall respect confidentiality during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Author and Co-Authors are confidential and are intended only for the recipients. The contents of any communication may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
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\n\nThe Author and Co-Authors confirm and warrant that the Work does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Work contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy.
\n\nThe Author and Co-Authors confirm that: (i) the Work is their original work and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Work has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) Authors and any applicable Co-Authors have not assigned, and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign, any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\n\nThe Author and Co-Authors also confirm and warrant that: (i) he/she has the power to enter into this Publication Agreement on his or her own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) has the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Work to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licences in this Publication Agreement. If the Work was prepared jointly by the Author and Co-Authors, the Author confirms that: (i) all Co-Authors agree to the submission, license and publication of the Work on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) the Author has the authority to enter into this biding Publication Agreement on behalf of each Co-Author. The Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each Co-Author.
\n\nThe Author agrees to indemnify IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses, as well as all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of, or in connection with, any breach of the agreed confirmations and warranties. This indemnity shall not apply in a situation in which a claim results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\n\nNothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\n\nTERMINATION
\n\nIntechOpen has the right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Author and/or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Author and/or any Co-Author (being a private individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Author and/or any Co-Author (as a corporate entity) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for, or enters into, any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\n\nIn the event of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Author of the decision in writing.
\n\nIntechOpen’s DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\n\nUnless prevented from doing so by events beyond its reasonable control, IntechOpen, at its discretion, agrees to publish the Work attributing it to the Author and Co-Authors.
\n\nUnless prevented from doing so by events beyond its reasonable control, IntechOpen agrees to provide publishing services which include: managing editing (editorial and publishing process coordination, Author assistance); publishing software technology; language copyediting; typesetting; online publishing; hosting and web management; and abstracting and indexing services.
\n\nIntechOpen agrees to offer free online access to readers and use reasonable efforts to promote the Publication to relevant audiences.
\n\nIntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement on behalf of the Author and Co-Authors against third parties, for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements. In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Work, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement that is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\n\nIntechOpen has the right to include/use the Author and Co-Authors names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Work and has the right to contact the Author and Co-Authors until the Work is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\n\nMISCELLANEOUS
\n\nFurther Assurance: The Author shall ensure that any relevant third party, including any Co-Author, shall execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\n\nThird Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\n\nEntire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by, or on behalf of, the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (known as the "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of any fraudulent pre-contract misrepresentation or concealment.
\n\nWaiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\n\nVariation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall have effect unless it is in writing and signed by the parties, or their duly authorized representatives.
\n\nSeverance: If any provision, or part-provision, of this Publication Agreement is, or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted. Any modification to, or deletion of, a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\n\nNo partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for, or on behalf of, any other party.
\n\nGoverning law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim, including non-contractual disputes or claims arising out of, or in connection with it, or its subject matter or formation, shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of, or in connection with, this Publication Agreement, including any non-contractual disputes or claims.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2018-09-11
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. 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Naser",authors:[{id:"50322",title:"Dr.",name:"Humood",middleName:null,surname:"Naser",slug:"humood-naser",fullName:"Humood Naser"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"45422",title:"Urban Waterfront Regenerations",slug:"urban-waterfront-regenerations",totalDownloads:14203,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:null,book:{id:"3560",slug:"advances-in-landscape-architecture",title:"Advances in Landscape Architecture",fullTitle:"Advances in Landscape Architecture"},signatures:"Umut Pekin Timur",authors:[{id:"165480",title:"Dr.",name:"Umut",middleName:null,surname:"Pekin Timur",slug:"umut-pekin-timur",fullName:"Umut Pekin Timur"}]},{id:"51201",title:"Agriculture and Its Impact on Land‐Use, Environment, and Ecosystem Services",slug:"agriculture-and-its-impact-on-land-use-environment-and-ecosystem-services",totalDownloads:8512,totalCrossrefCites:36,totalDimensionsCites:77,abstract:"Human expansion throughout the world caused that agriculture is a dominant form of land management globally. Human influence on the land is accelerating because of rapid population growth and increasing food requirements. To stress the interactions between society and the environment, the driving forces (D), pressures (P), states (S), impacts (I), and response (R) (DPSIR) framework approach was used for analyzing and assessing the influence of agriculture on land use, environment, and ecosystem services. The DPSIR model was used to identify a series of core indicators and to establish the nature of interactions between different driving forces, pressures, states, impacts, and responses. We assessed selected indicators at global, national, and local levels. Driving force indicators describe growing population trend and linking land‐use patterns. The driving forces exert pressure on the environment assessed by indicators describing development in fertilizer and pesticides consumption, by number of livestock, and by intensification joined growing release of ammonia and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from agriculture, and water abstraction. The pressure reflects in the state of environment, mainly expressed by soil and water quality indicators. Negative changes in the state then have negative impacts on landscape, e.g., traditional landscape disappearance, biodiversity, climate, and ecosystem services. 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This study therefore examined land acquisition and use in Nigeria within the context of food and livelihood security. The chapter used secondary data obtained from the World Bank website, National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) and other sources. It was found that there are gender, location and income-group considerations in the allocation of land in Nigeria. While the urban land market is relatively more formal, the rural land market is informal and the transactions were not documented in most cases. The study found that bureaucratic bottlenecks, high cost of registering land and long registration procedures, and inconsistent policy regimes impede the development of land market in Nigeria. Based on the findings of the study, it was recommended that the government should reduce and make the processes to be completed in registering lands in Nigeria easier. The Land Use Act 1978 should be amended to capture the prevailing realities around customary laws and informal markets. The government should reduce the cost of land registration in Nigeria. Multilateral organisations and government should co-create and co-finance innovative interventions to improve activities in the land market.",book:{id:"7476",slug:"land-use-assessing-the-past-envisioning-the-future",title:"Land Use",fullTitle:"Land Use - Assessing the Past, Envisioning the Future"},signatures:"Isaac B. Oluwatayo, Omowunmi Timothy and Ayodeji O. 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Soil health is fundamental for plant growth and crops productivity. In the introduction part, the roles and dynamics of the microbial community in soils, primarily in the cycle of soil organic carbon and CO2 release and absorption, are deliberated. Next, the impact of crop management practices and climate change on the soil carbon balance are described, as well as other issues related to soil degradation, such as unbalanced nutrient recycling and mineral weathering. In response to these issues, various approaches to soil regeneration have been developed in order to foster an efficient and active soil microbiome, thereby balancing the CO2 cycle and carbon sequestration in the soil ecosystem.",book:{id:"11174",title:"Carbon Sequestration",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11174.jpg"},signatures:"Mohd N.H. Sarjuni, Siti A.M. Dolit, Aidee K. Khamis, Nazrin Abd-Aziz, Nur R. Azman and Umi A. Asli"},{id:"82181",title:"Geomechanics of Geological Carbon Sequestration",slug:"geomechanics-of-geological-carbon-sequestration",totalDownloads:21,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105412",abstract:"Geological Carbon Sequestration (GCS) is an effective way to fight against global warming by capturing and injecting CO2 into geological formations to ensure permanent storage as well as to prevent the environmental and health threats posed by carbon dioxide emissions. Security has been a key factor in the social acceptance of this technology, besides the issues related to economics. From a scientific point of view, the safety issues during CO2 injection and long-term storage are highly related to geomechanics. This chapter provides a basic knowledge of the geomechanical issues involved in the GCS process to increase the understanding of safety issues and to improve the social acceptance of the technology among researchers and those interested in the technology.",book:{id:"11174",title:"Carbon Sequestration",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11174.jpg"},signatures:"Yongcun Feng and Shui Zhang"},{id:"80102",title:"Soil Solution Chemistry in Different Land-Use Systems in the Northeast Brazilian Amazon",slug:"soil-solution-chemistry-in-different-land-use-systems-in-the-northeast-brazilian-amazon",totalDownloads:15,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101856",abstract:"For sustainable production systems, the nonuse of fire (where there is a greater loss of soil nutrients), would be a solution for the conservation of nutrients in the soil, with the use of management by cutting and grinding, introduction of AFSs (agroforestry systems), and maintenance of riparian vegetation. The concentrations of carbon and nutrients were evaluated in the soil solution in two small hydrographic basins in the municipality of Igarapé-Açu (Pará state) in the eastern Amazon region, Brazil. The evaluations were performed considering the biogeochemical cycling in six land-use classes—riparian forest, secondary forest (capoeira), pasture, slash-and-burn agriculture, chop-and-mulch agriculture, and an agroforestry system (AFS). The objective was to determine the effects of different land-use systems on the composition of the soil solution, aiming to recommend sustainable practices. The concentrations of nutrients were greater in the areas of slash-and-burn agriculture and pasture, indicating greater losses of these nutrients due to runoff and leaching. The loss of nitrate was highest in the slash-and-burn area, while the organic carbon and organic nitrogen losses were greatest in the riparian forest, then in the secondary forest and agroforestry areas.",book:{id:"11174",title:"Carbon Sequestration",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11174.jpg"},signatures:"Juliana Feitosa Felizzola, Ricardo de Oliveira Figueiredo, Wenceslau Geraldes Teixeira and Bruno Carneiro"},{id:"82009",title:"CO2 Injectivity in Deep Saline Formations: The Impact of Salt Precipitation and Fines Mobilization",slug:"co2-injectivity-in-deep-saline-formations-the-impact-of-salt-precipitation-and-fines-mobilization",totalDownloads:18,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104854",abstract:"Climate change is now considered the greatest threat to global health and security. Greenhouse effect, which results in global warming, is considered the main driver of climate change. Carbon dioxide (CO2) emission has been identified as the largest contributor to global warming. The Paris Agreement, which is the biggest international treaty on Climate Change, has an ambitious goal to reach Net Zero CO2 emission by 2050. Carbon Capture, Utilization and Storage (CCUS) is the most promising approach in the portfolio of options to reduce CO2 emission. A good geological CCUS facility must have a high storage potential and robust containment efficiency. Storage potential depends on the storage capacity and well injectivity. The major target geological facilities for CO2 storage include deep saline reservoirs, depleted oil and gas reservoirs, Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) wells, and unmineable coal seams. Deep saline formations have the highest storage potential but challenging well injectivity. Mineral dissolution, salt precipitation, and fines mobilization are the main mechanisms responsible for CO2 injectivity impairment in saline reservoirs. This chapter reviews literature spanning several decades of work on CO2 injectivity impairment mechanisms especially in deep saline formations and their technical and economic impact on CCUS projects.",book:{id:"11174",title:"Carbon Sequestration",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11174.jpg"},signatures:"Yen A. Sokama-Neuyam, Muhammad A.M. Yusof and Shadrack K. Owusu"},{id:"81863",title:"Exploiting the Attributes of Biocontrol Agent (Neochetina bruchi) as a Potential Ecosystem Engineer’s",slug:"exploiting-the-attributes-of-biocontrol-agent-neochetina-bruchi-as-a-potential-ecosystem-engineer-s",totalDownloads:8,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104775",abstract:"The biodiversity of lakes is continuously declining and diverse communities are being substituted by monoculture of invasive Eichhornia crassipes, resulting in a slew of environmental cascade effects. The ability of the Neochetina bruchi to self-perpetuate is a desirable aspect of biological control since it decreases the population to a reasonable level, making the approach more sustainable. N. bruchi is often referred to as “ecological engineers” because of the number of services it provides to the environment and enables herbicide application to be substantially reduced. Despite the presence of highly effective weevils against this weed, its effect on water hyacinth in association with the nutrients present in sites, is likely to vary with levels of disturbance caused by natural and anthropogenic factors. Understanding the aspects that determine the performance of these eco-engineers as valuable management tools will help to guide future endeavors. Our objective is to better comprehend their utility and limitations, along with critical knowledge gaps, to further enhance future applications.",book:{id:"10763",title:"Biodiversity of Ecosystems",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10763.jpg"},signatures:"Prerna Gupta and Sadhna Tamot"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:17},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:140,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/22.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 12th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:1,editor:{id:"356540",title:"Prof.",name:"Taufiq",middleName:null,surname:"Choudhry",slug:"taufiq-choudhry",fullName:"Taufiq Choudhry",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000036X2hvQAC/Profile_Picture_2022-03-14T08:58:03.jpg",biography:"Prof. Choudhry holds a BSc degree in Economics from the University of Iowa, as well as a Masters and Ph.D. in Applied Economics from Clemson University, USA. In January 2006, he became a Professor of Finance at the University of Southampton Business School. He was previously a Professor of Finance at the University of Bradford Management School. He has over 80 articles published in international finance and economics journals. His research interests and specialties include financial econometrics, financial economics, international economics and finance, housing markets, financial markets, among others.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Southampton",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"86",title:"Business and Management",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/86.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"128342",title:"Prof.",name:"Vito",middleName:null,surname:"Bobek",slug:"vito-bobek",fullName:"Vito Bobek",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/128342/images/system/128342.jpg",biography:"Dr. Vito Bobek works as an international management professor at the University of Applied Sciences FH Joanneum, Graz, Austria. He has published more than 400 works in his academic career and visited twenty-two universities worldwide as a visiting professor. Dr. Bobek is a member of the editorial boards of six international journals and a member of the Strategic Council of the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Slovenia. He has a long history in academia, consulting, and entrepreneurship. His own consulting firm, Palemid, has managed twenty significant projects, such as Cooperation Program Interreg V-A (Slovenia-Austria) and Capacity Building for the Serbian Chamber of Enforcement Agents. He has also participated in many international projects in Italy, Germany, Great Britain, the United States, Spain, Turkey, France, Romania, Croatia, Montenegro, Malaysia, and China. Dr. Bobek is also a co-founder of the Academy of Regional Management in Slovenia.",institutionString:"Universities of Applied Sciences FH Joanneum, Austria",institution:{name:"Universities of Applied Sciences Joanneum",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Austria"}}},editorTwo:{id:"293992",title:"Dr.",name:"Tatjana",middleName:null,surname:"Horvat",slug:"tatjana-horvat",fullName:"Tatjana Horvat",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hXb0hQAC/Profile_Picture_1642419002203",biography:"Tatjana Horvat works as a professor for accountant and auditing at the University of Primorska, Slovenia. She is a Certified State Internal Auditor (licensed by Ministry of Finance RS) and Certified Internal Auditor for Business Sector and Certified accountant (licensed by Slovenian Institute of Auditors). At the Ministry of Justice of Slovenia, she is a member of examination boards for court expert candidates and judicial appraisers in the following areas: economy/finance, valuation of companies, banking, and forensic investigation of economic operations/accounting. At the leading business newspaper Finance in Slovenia (Swedish ownership), she is the editor and head of the area for business, finance, tax-related articles, and educational programs.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Primorska",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"87",title:"Economics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/87.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"327730",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaime",middleName:null,surname:"Ortiz",slug:"jaime-ortiz",fullName:"Jaime Ortiz",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002zaOKZQA2/Profile_Picture_1642145584421",biography:"Dr. Jaime Ortiz holds degrees from Chile, the Netherlands, and the United States. He has held tenured faculty, distinguished professorship, and executive leadership appointments in several universities around the world. Dr. Ortiz has previously worked for international organizations and non-government entities in economic and business matters, and he has university-wide globalization engagement in more than thirty-six countries. He has advised, among others, the United Nations Development Program, Inter-American Development Bank, Organization of American States, Pre-investment Organization of Latin America and the Caribbean, Technical Cooperation of the Suisse Government, and the World Bank. Dr. Ortiz is the author, co-author, or editor of books, book chapters, textbooks, research monographs and technical reports, and refereed journal articles. He is listed in Who’s Who in the World, Who’s Who in America, Who’s Who in Finance and Business, Who’s Who in Business Higher Education, Who’s Who in American Education, and Who’s Who Directory of Economists. Dr. Ortiz has been a Fulbright Scholar and an MSI Leadership Fellow with the W.K. Kellogg Foundation. 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