Example of HTS cable specifications(CD type, for distribution system)
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This energy, which is easy to control, to be converted any type of energy, and clean, is becoming the standard how the society is developed well and the demand of electricity is increasing rapidly over the world.
However, in most highly developed electrical power system, there are several difficulties related from generation to distribution. Usually, power generation is located remote area from the load center, long transmission and distribution lines have to be constructed and maintained to meet required reliability, power quality and economic point of views. Reliable, cheap, efficient conductor is required to support desirable electric power systems.
Most of conductors used in modern power system facilities, for example, generator, transformer, transmission line, cable, motor etc., are copper or aluminum. They have resistance R which restricts the capability of thermal rating of electric facilities with the ohmic loss. If there is a conductor with no loss, we can make efficient electrical facilities. Superconductor, which is zero resistance, is a promising solution to make innovation on electric facilities.
This chapter introduces various power system facilities based on superconductor application. First of all, superconducting cable is most applicable solution to solve transmission congestion problem in high power density area such as metropolitan cities with its high density transmission capability. Recently developed superconducting cable in distribution class can deliver about 5 times more power than conventional XLPE cable at same dimension. DC superconducting cable is also in developing stage to eliminate AC loss in superconductor, and will be applied to HVDC transmission system.Section 2 introduces superconducting cable in power system.
Second promising one is Superconducting Fault Current Limiter(SFCL).With the development of power system, short circuit fault currents are increasing much more than conventional power system which is the components of present system. For example, a lot of circuit breakers have to be replaced higher level break capacity in case of source impedance is reduced by increased power system generation and/or reinforced transmission and distribution system.
SFCL can limit fault current fast, within 1/2 cycle, using quench effect of superconductor in case of current exceeds specified fault current. Also, it can supply a solution on power system voltage sag problem. Section 3 introduces various type of SFCL and their application.
Other promising applications in power system areSuperconducting Synchronous Condenser (DSC :SuperVar) and Superconducting motor. SuperVar is a good solution as reactive power compensator which can be applied to increase power transmission capability on voltage stability limited system. Also, it can support industry sector which require high voltage quality service. Section 4 introduces SuperVar and superconducting motor with their application.
There are a lot of superconductor application field in power system. However, the basic discussion has to be start with the study whether the power system requirements can have better solution from superconducting electric facilities. In this discussion, we will present to supply some examples how to consider superconducting facilities on modern electric power system. Lastly, we will discuss how to apply superconducting facilities to electric power system.
Traditionally, the main stream of power delivery system are composed by ACSR(Aluminum Cable StreelReinforaced) in overhead line and XLPE(Cross Link Poly Etheline) underground cable. In modern highly industrialized society, which requires much higher capacity in transmission and distribution line with the increase of electricity consumption due to energy transition to electricity and population convergence into metropolitan area. However, it is almost impossible to build new power delivery system in metropolitan area in environmental point of view.
Comparision of overhead power lines to HTS cable (http://www.DoE.gov)
Since superconducting phenomenon was developed by Kamerling Onnes in 1911, research and development on superconducting materical has been progressed actively over the world. After McFee suggessed superconducting cable at first in 1961, R&D on low temperature superconducting(LTS) cable using Helium cooling system had been studied during 1970\'s and 1980\'s.
In 1986, high temperature superconducting(HTS) material which use liquid Nitrogen(LN) instead of Helium had developed by Bednorz and Muller, research on HTS cable has been progressed continuously, and is in industrial application stage at present[1~3]. Several leading countries, including USA, China, Japan, Europe and Korea already experienced HTS(High Temperature Superconducting) cable test operation[ ], and finding good applicable places in engineering point of view.
HTS superconducting cable, which has zero resistance and low inductance, can increase power transfer capacity about 3~5 times more than conventional XLPE cable with the same size of underground right of way, and can reduce power transmission loss and construction cost. By DoE, USA, three level of HTS cable is compared to substitute the overhead lines.
Below figure shows the relative power increase compare HTS cable to XLPE cable.
Comparision of conventional cable to HTS cable
Superconducting cables are classified various point of view. By the electrical source, it is classified AC and DC. Also, by the superconductor material, it is classified HTS(High Temperature Superconductor) which is non-metal, Oxide compound substances such as BSCCO seires and LTS(Low Temperature Superconductor) which is mainly metal seires, such as NbTi.
LTS is cooled by liquid Helium because it has superconducting property nearly absolute temperature(-273.16℃). It is very hard to get near absolute temperature with normal materals and cooling system. Also, Liquid Helium is too expensive to normal use. LTS is easy to make conductor with its ductility, but operation in near zero absolute temperature is very difficult to be utilized in industrial field, such as power transmission system.
However, HTS is cooled by liquid Nitrogen[LN2] as it has superconducting property about 70[K], temperature gradient between HTS and normal room temperature are much more reduced than LTS case, it makes easier to design cooling system for HTS cable. HTS conductors are more difficult to manufacture and handle as its plasticity is worse than LTS, however it is recognized as cost effective measure compare to LTS as power cable application.
At present, LTS conductors are used for special application such as MRI(magnetic resonance imaging) system. Therefore, our discussion on power cable will focus on HTS cable, later.
HTS cable for power transmission is developed two types of design. The one is WD(Warm Dielectric Design), the other is CD(Cold dielectric coaxial Design).
Fig. 3 (a) shows the cross section of WD HTS cable. LN2 flows in the tube type former which sustains HTS cable on its outer circle. HTS conductors are surrounded by cryostate which insulates heat transfer. The dielectric is located outer of the cryostate. Therefore the dielectric does not to be cooled with LN2(Warm Dielectric). Because WD type HTS cable can not only preserve conventional cable dimension and use proved dielectric materials, but also limited HTS conductors are used(omit HTS shield), it is cost effective and efficient in design of cooling system. However, omitting shield layer produces magnetic interaction between phase to phase and limit power transfer capacity.
However, in fig 3 (b) which is the cross section of CD HTS cable, LN2 flows the outer and inner duct of cable and it cools not only HTS conductor but also dielectric material. Another important difference between CD and WD is that CD has return HTS screening conductors which shields outer magnetics and make low inductance.
WD and CD HTS cable (a) WD (b) CD
General conceptual diagram of HTS cable system is shown as below. The main components of HTS cable system are HTS cable, cooling facility, terminal and monitoring system.
General conceptual diagram of HTS cable system
Three kinds of HTS cable in outward appeareance are developed. Fig 5 shows single core cable, co-axial core cable, tri-axial cable.
HTS cable type classified by core
Usually, single core type is for transmission, tri-axial type is for subtransmission and co-axial type is distribution.
The performance of HTS cable depends on the quality of HTS tape. HTS tape for power cable has to be produced long enough to fulfill the required length of cable core to be installed, also have sufficient critical current density and uniform current and good mechnical characteristics.
Recently, the improvement of critical current and length in Bismuth series high temperature superconducting wire make possible to realize HTS power cable application in real field. BSCCO-2223, the recently developed HTS conductor which has almost 110[K] critical temperature, is mainly applied to make HTS cable.
Fig. 6 shows CD type HTS cable cross section. It is composed with Former(copper), conductor(HTS), Electrical Insulation(PPLP), electrical shielding(HTS), stainless sheath for thermal insulation and cladding material.
Cross section of HTS cable(CD type, for distribution system)
Table 2 shows one of HTS cable specification for 22.9kV distribution line. It is designed for replace present distribution cable system without changing underground right of way.
Item | Specification |
Former | Stranded copper |
Conductor | Bi-2223, 2 layer |
Shield layer | Bi-2223, 1 layer |
Electrical insulation | PPLP, 4.5 mm |
Cable core diameter | 35 mm |
Superconductor/shield | Bi-2223 tape |
Thermal insulation | Double corrugated pipe, MLI, Vacuum |
Oversheath | PE |
Cable outer diameter | 130 mm |
Example of HTS cable specifications(CD type, for distribution system)
Cooling facility is another important component of HTS cable system to maintain superconductivity with sufficient low temperature at various operating conditions. In fig.7, LN2 flows LN2 line, superconducting cable, refrigerator and pump. Cryostat prevents heat transfer from cable inner and outer.
HTS cable system at Albany project
Termination locates both ends of HTS cable. It connects HTS cable and normal temperature power line. Because of large difference of temperature between HTS cable and outer weather, termination has to sustain temperature difference and pump out heat from joint resistance.
Monitoring system checks electrical and thermal status of HTS cable system. Electrical variables are currents and voltages. Thermal variables are temperatures of every components, such as cable inlet, outlet, refrigerator inlet and outlet etc.
Brief comparison of electric characteristics among power delivery systems are suggested in table 2.
WD type can transfer about 2 times power than conventional cable at same power loss, however, CD type can transfer about 4.5 times power. Below table shows brief comparison between WD and CD type.
conventional | HTS(WD) | HTS(CD) | |
Pipe outer diameter(mm) | 200 | 200 | 200 |
Voltage(KV) | 115 | 115 | 115 |
Power rating(MVA) | 220 | 500 | 1000 |
power loss(W/MVA) | 300 | 300 | 200 |
Comparison of ratings between WD and CD HTS power cable
The capacity of WD HTS cable is about 2.5[kA] per phase at 132/150~400[kV] transmission voltage and 500~2000[MVA] per system[2]. CD type has better current capacity than WD type, 8[kA]/phase. Also, DC HTS cable can transfer 15[kA] and more at same design.
Power delivery system | Cable dimension | Electrical constants(Z1 /Z0 ) | ||||
Inside Radius [mm] | Outside Radius [mm] | Shield Radius [mm] | Resistance [Ω/km] | Inductance [mH/km] | Capacitance [nF/km] | |
Conventional XLPE | 2 | 25 | 40 | 0.03/0.15 | 0.36/1.40 | 257/175 |
HTS WD type | 12.7 | 14 | 29 | 0.0001/ 0.12 | 0.39/1.47 | 217/175 |
HTS CD type(VLI) | 12.7 | 14 | 29 | 0.0001/ 0.03 | 0.06/0.10 | 200/140 |
Comparision of electrical constants between WD and CD HTS power Cable
Table 3 introduces the electrical constants of HTS cable. We can find that CD type cable has only 1/6 positive sequence inductance over WD and XLPE cable which acts as impedance in AC system. This tells us CD type HTS cable shows excellent power transfer capability at steady state.
However, it has quench property if the conductor temperature rise over critical temperature, the resistivity increase dramatically. See Fig.8.
Temperature and Resistivity of HTS conductor
To sustain superconductivity of HTS cable in normal operation, it is very important to keep the temperature of cable system within permissible range. Depend on above figure, if temperature rise over about 97[K], quench happens.
Inlet and outlet temperature of HTS cable
Above figure shows the temperatures of inlet and outlet of HTS cable during load cycling operation. At both terminal, temperatures are below 73[K] and there are about 24 degrees temperature margin.
In this section, a sample of distribution level HTS cable operation status shall be introduced to understand each electrical components response to steady and transient state. HTS cable may be operated at unbalanced 3 phase currents, harmonics, various fault condition. Well designed HTS system has to survive expected abnormal state.
22.9kV, 50MVA distribution CD type HTS cable applied sample system is introduced in Fig.8 and Table 4.
Model distribution system
Items | Specification |
Rated Voltage | 22.9 kV |
Rated Current | 1,250 A |
Capacity | 50 MVA |
Length | 100 m |
Cable Type | 3 cores in one cryostat |
Dielectric Type | Cold dielectric |
Cable Size | Applicable for 175 mm duct |
Response to Fault Current | There shall be no damage for the cable and cable system when the fault of 25kA is applied to the cable for 5 cycles. |
Ratings of modeled HTS cable
CD type HTS cable modeling
To verify electrical characteristic more detail, each conductors and formers are modeled with EMTDC and compared with test results.
When the operating current of HTS cable increased up to 2/3 of rated current, the conductor and shield current are measured[Fig 10]
(a) Test (b) Simulation
Fig. 10. Test and simulation results (Balanced case 800Arms: conductor and shield current)
In a) and b), currents in conductor and shield are almost same and opposite phase. Errors of measured and simulated value are 1.7%(HTS conductor) and 0.7%(Shield), respectly. This errors are regarded as heat characteristics and AC loss effects of HTS cable.
Abnormal operation characteristics– 3 phase unbalanced case
Fig. represents the test and simulation results of 30% unbalanced case. Errors between test and simulation reaches 6.5% maximum.
Test and simulation results (Unbalanced case 600/600/800Arms: conductor and shield current)
Harmonics can increase AC loss of HTS cable due to hysteresis loss. Hysteresis loss model is as below equation.
f : frequency [Hz]
B : flux density[Wb/m2]
n : exponential index on material [2.1]
V : volumn of material
k : total constant
In case of high THD, especially higher order harmonics are included dominantly, the hysteresis loss will be increased because it is proportional to frequency. Regarding harmonics, HTS cable system has to increase cooling capacity and/or decrease operating capacity of HTS cable.
In abnormal operation status such as short curcuit current passing condition, superconducting cable has to pass large current securely. Usually, fault current rises 10 times more than normal current, this excessive current may over critical current (Ic) of superconductor. In this case, current quench may happen and very rapid temperature rise may take place and the HTS cable may be damaged. Therefore, various methods such as fast circuit breaker and/or parallel conductor(copper former) are applied to protect quench of HTS conductor.
In CD type HTS cable, most of fault currents are transferred from HTS conductor to former conductor because of superconductor resistance rise. When temperature is supposed as constant, HTS conductor resistance is calculated by next equation.
V-I curve of 66kV HTS cable
During fault current, the internal heat dynamics can be approximately fomulated by heat insulated equation because electric dynamics ends within very short time(0.1 seconds) compare to heat dynamics.
Therefore, quench dynamics are represented next heat balnace differential equation.
C(T) : heat capacity
The left side represent temperature rising rate of HTS cable, the first term of right side represent heat transfer to superconductor, and k(T) is heat transfer rate, Q(T) is internal heat generation due to current, W(T) is cooling heat.
Therefore,
I(t) is current, ρ is resistivity of tape, A is cross secion area.
If we suppose fault current flows within very short time, heat transfer and cooling effect can be disregarded. Therefore, equation (2) simplified as (4).
In quench state, voltage of quench area will be increase and cable impedance(R+jX) is increased too.
Every nonconductors in cable acts heat resistances of heat tranfer. The heat resistance of each insulation can be calculated as follows.
T : Heat resistance of each insulation layer in unit length [K∙m/W].
ρth : heat resistance of material
r1, r2 : inner and outer radius of insulator
Most of problem related cable rating is determined by passed time and modeled by heat balance equation. However, solving it is very difficult with numerical analysis. Therefore, in most calculation case, we define heat capacity of cable as equation (6) and use simple approach.
V = cable volumn[m3]
c = heat capacity of material [J/m3℃]
Next Figure represents and example of heat equivalent circuit between conductor and sheath of cable. Qc represents heat capacity of conductor and sheath. Heat capacity of dielectrics are calculated.
Equivalent heat transfer circuit of HTS cable
T1 : Total heat resistance of dielectric material
Qi : Total heat capacity of dielectric material
Qc : heat capacity of conductor
heat capacity coefficient ρ can be calculated equation (7)
Di: Cable inner diameter
dc : conductor diameter
Fig. 14 shows the simulation results of single line to ground fault case on above distribution system
Current and temperature of HTS cable in fault condition(SLG)(a) fault current at Single line fault (b) temperature of conductor and shield
With the fault current of A phase, HTS conductor of phase A temperature rises from 67[K] to 97[K] during fault time. If quench temperature is 105[K] normally, there is little margin to this HTS cable system.
In electrical network, there are various faults, such as lightning, short circuits, grounding etc., which occurs large fault current. If these large currents are not properly controlled for power system security, there happens unexpected condition like fire, equipment and facility damage, and even blackout. Therefore, Circuit Breakers are installed and have the duty to cut off fault current, however, it takes minimum breaking time to cut, and sometimes fail to break.
Fault Current Limiter(FCL) is applied to limit very high current in high speed when faults occur. Different with normal reactor, normal impedance is very low and have designed impedance under faulted situation. Fault limiting speed is high enough that it can limit fault current within 1/4 cycle. Also, this function has to be recovered fast and automatically, too.
Various FCLs are developed and some of them are applied in power system. Most typical FCL is to change over circuit from low impedance circuit to high impedance circuit. Circuit breakers and/or power electronics devices are used to control FCL circuits. Fuse or snubber circuits are used to protect high recovery voltage. These FCLs are attractive as it implements normal conductor, however, there are weak points such as slow current limiting speed and big size in distribution and transmission level as well.
Superconducting fault current limiter (SFCL) has been known to provide the most promising solution of limiting the fault current in the power grid. It makes use of the characteristic of superconductor whose resistance is zero within critical temperature (Tc) and critical current (Ic). If fault current exceeds Ic, superconductor lose superconductivity and the resistance increase dramatically (called quench) and limit circuit current.
Various types of SFCLs have been built and showed desired current limitation up to medium voltages.Some of them were actually field-tested in the electrical power grid. However, the SFCLs seem to be not near to commercial operation in the grid. This means that the SFCL is not ready to satisfy the utilities in various conditions. The conditions are dependent upon the application conditions, general purpose applications and special purpose ones.
We can classify these SFCLs as three types, which are resistance type(R-type), Inductance type (L-type) and saturable core type. R-type makes use of quench resistance of superconductor directly. L-type makes use of superconductor as trigger element for circuit inductance which limits fault current. Saturable core type makes use of superconductor magnet to saturate reactor iron core. In normal operation, this reactor has a little reactance in saturation state. However in fault state, fault current releases saturation state and increases impedance, therefore limits fault current.
The conceptual circuit of R-type and L-type SFCL is shown Fig. 15. In SFCL(Limiter), Rpis fault limiting resistance when R-type. In case of L-type, Rp will change as Lp(fault limiting inductance). If iac reaches critical current, Rsc should be quenched and its superconducting characteristics will be lost (resistance will be increased dramatically), so fault current will be limited by Rp.
R-type and L-type SFCL conceptual circuit
The mathematical model of SFCL is expressed as equation (8).
Tsis time constant of impedance, t0 is delay time of SFCL, Zs is impedance of SFCL.
By the equation (8), impedance dynamics of SFCL is as Fig. 16.
Characteristics of SFCL impedance
R-type SFCL can limit peak current if proportional to Rs. L-type has slow damping characteristic because of transient DC component. The superconductor resistance value of SFCL (Rsc) is dependent to its type, it rise about 25 [pu] exponentally within 1[ms].
The conceptual circuit diagram of saturable core type SFCL is shown Fig. 17. In normal state, two core fluxs are saturable with currents Io. When fault current iac flows, saturable fluxs are decreased and inductance of L1 and L2 increase along with B-H curve.
Saturable core type SFCL conceptual circuit
Saturable core type characteristics
Currently two types of SFCLs are widely developed at medium and high voltage scale, the resistive type and the saturable iron-core type SFCLs. Since a resistive SFCL component is limited in current and voltage ratings, inevitable is a large number of components to be assembled, so a large cryostat to cool them. Likewise, the saturable iron-core type carries large size iron cores.
To match these requirements, hybrid SFCL is developed for medium voltages class. The hybrid structure is composed of superconducting parts and conventional switches. This resulted in drastic reduction of superconductor volume, followed by smaller cryostat. The design also provides standing alone current limitation, reclosing capability, and other functions.
Design innovation of resistive SFCLs. (a) conventional resistive type, (b) hybrid type with a conventional breaker, (c) hybrid type with a fast switch
The first installed one is developed by ABB. After that, various SFCLs are developed for distribution and transmission application to protect bus and/or feeder from high fault currents. Fig. 20 shows recently developed and installed SFCLs for distribution level.
Distribution class SFCLs, (a) Boxberg, Germany (b) Shandin, USA, (c) Kochang, Korea
place | developer | Voltage (kV) | Type | status |
ABB P/P, Swiss | ABB | 10.5 | R-type | Operated 1997(6month) |
Puji S/S, China | Innopower | 10.5 | Saturable Core | In operation (2008~) |
SCE Shandin S/S USA | Zenergy Power | 15 | Saturable Core | In operation (2009~) |
Tokyo Gas, Japan | Toshiba | 6.6 | In operation (2007~) | |
Lancashire, U.K | Nexans SC | 12 | R-type | In operation (2010~) |
Boxberg P/P, Germany | Nexans SC | 12 | R-Type | In operation (2009~) |
San Dionigi S/S Italy | CESI RICERCA | 9 | R-Type | In operation (2011~) |
Kochang, Korea | KEPRI/LS | 22.9 | Hybrid | In operation (2009~) |
SCE, USA | AMSC/Siemens | 115 | R-Type | In operation (2011~) |
AEP, USA | ZenergyPower | 138 | Saturable Core | In operation (2011~) |
SFCL Developments for Transmission level
The utilities used to require that the SFCL must be robust, reliable, of low cost, and (almost)maintenance-free for long time use. These would be universal conditions that any SFCL is expected to satisfy. In addition, there may be local conditions associated with the special purpose application of an SFCL by local demands. The local conditions may be specific size, cost, current limitation performance, reclosing capability, and so on.
SFCL sample system
SFCL has many good points, such as small size, faster fault current limiting, little parts, no power increase in fault circuit. Therefore, various applications are expected as belows, for example.
Increase power transfer flexibility applied to bus-tie between distribution transformers
Reduce voltage sag applied to sensitive load.
Reduce ground fault current applied to neutral impedance for transformer
Below is case study result how SFCL is work in 22.9kV distribution system.
variables | Llimit | Rlimit | rAquench(normal) | rAquench(fault) |
Value | 0.005[H] | 1.0[Ω] | 0[Ω] |
Constants of sample SFCL
In this simulation, maximum quench resistance is 5 [Ω]. Fig 22 shows how SFCL limits fault current compare to non-SFCL circuit. The fault current could be reduced dramatically within 1/4 cycle by SFCL.
Simulation result of SFCL dynamics
Synchronous Condensers(SC) are a good facility to support dynamic reactive power both capacitive and inductive area to improve system voltage characteristics. They are rotating machine rotating in synchronous speed. When we operate a synchronous generator connected power grid without driving motor, it is operated as synchronous condenser.
Its reactive power can be controlled with field current excitation. When overexcited, it generates capacitive reactive power. If under-excited, it generates inductive reactive power.
Today, this machine is not preferred because of high power loss and maintenance problem. Static reactive compensators such as STATCOM (Static Compensator) and/or SVC (Static Var Compensator) are preferred alternatives with rapid response and easy maintenance. However, synchronous condenser has excellent characteristic to support dynamic rating compare to above static compensators.
Dynamic Synchronous Condenser (DSC) has upgraded existing SC technology by using a conventional armature mated with a field winding made from High Temperature Superconducting (HTS) wires. With the upgrading of field magnetic flux density as HTS conductor, it can provide up to 8 [pu] current for short periods to support transient VAR requirements. Key benefits of DSC are as follows:
Fast response to transient voltage variation at both reactive power
Low losses
Simple installation (small footprint)
Low maintenance
No harmonic generation
The major components of a DSC are shown in Figure 23. The field winding employs HTS conductorwhich is cooled witha cryocooler to about 35-40K. The cryocoolermodules are located in a stationary frame and a fluid suchas gaseous helium or liquid neon is employed to coolcomponents on the rotor. The stator winding employsconventional copper windings.
Conceptual diagram of a DSC(a) superconducting field winding in cryocooler, (b) DSC model picture
The DSC has low synchronous reactance which increasespower system stability and reactive power/voltage compensation compare to a conventional SC. The characteristics DSC are summarized below:
With low synchronous reactance, DSC provides less voltage drop ratio between no-load and full-load operations
The sub transient reactance (xd”) of the machine is also low(0.11 pu) which lets the machine provide up to 8 pu firstpeak current for a terminal short circuit.
The majorparameters of the machine are shown in table 7.
Parameters | value |
Synchronous reactance (xd) | 0.5 pu |
Transient reactance (xd’) | 0.22 pu |
Sub-transient reactance (xd”) | 0.11 pu |
Armature short-current time constant ( | 0.045 sec |
D-axis transient short circuit time constant ( | 7.31 hr |
D-axis transient short circuit time constant ( | 0.01 sec |
Armature resistance (ra) | 0.007 pu |
Table 7. DSC electric parameters
Figure 24 compares the efficiency of the DSC with aconventional synchronous condenser. The HTS fieldwinding eliminates 50% ofconventional machine fieldlosses. Especially, It has good efficiency in light load condition.
DSC versus conventional machine efficiency
The DSC has no dynamic stability limit within its MVArating. The machine can run stably without requiring anyfeedback control for dynamic voltage stabilization. Thismachine also has a superior dynamic stability during smalloscillations and requires no field forcing for damping suchoscillations. Figure 25 shows its damping of oscillationsfollowing a sudden change of load.
DSC damping of low frequency oscillation following sudden load change
Before HTS cable application to power system, system planners have to understand the characteristics of power system and HTS cable. HTS cable system shall be applied special place in network which requires higher density power transmission.
There are several feasibility studies for HTS cable application. J. Jipping et al examined application validity of HTS cable for future load growth in a viewpoint for heat capacity and fault current. D. Politano et alexamined technical economical efficiency for substitution high voltage transmission line for HTS cable. K. C. Seong et al examined transmission capability problem of power systems in a viewpoint for power flow and examined validity for HTS cable application. G.J.Lee et.el[ ] presented HTS cable application method to increase voltage stability limit. Recently, Ultera finished feasibility study of Amsterdam HTS project which will connect 6km, 50kV 250MVA HTS cable in 2013~2014 to increase inter-substation power transfer. Also, AMSC is planning to use DC HTS cable to interconnect North America network (Tres-Amigas Project).
For every application, total power system planning techniques are needed for the future’s HTS cable implementation.
In this section, an example of HTS application study method shall be introduced to increase voltage stability limit. Fig 26 represents study procedure.
IEEE 39 bus system is considered for the sample system (Fig. 27). N-1 contingency is applied to estimate initial steady state transfer capacity. From the initial load condition (6098MW), maximum incremental transfer capacity applied N-1 contingency case is 3900MW. Therefore, system transfer capacity regarding security limit is 9,998MW.
Analysis procedure of HTS cable application
IEEE 39 bus systems (HTS cable application: red line)
SI calculation of sample system
To consider power system reliability, N-1 contingency criteria was applied. Equation (3.1) and (3.2) shows the severity index (SI, over load index and voltage index) used in ranking.
Over-load index
Equation 3.1 represents over-load index.
Voltage index
Consumption of reactive power can be known by voltage ranker which represents increment of reactive power loss by increased load factor of line. Equation 3.2 represents voltage index.
where
The results of SI on sample system results are shown in Table 3.4 and Table 3.5. As a result of calculation, the first two contingency cases of each SI are determined as the object cases of voltage stability calculation.
P-V curve (HTS cable application)
Ranking No. | Contingency Line | PI[p.u.] | |
From Bus | To Bus | ||
1 | 21 | 22 | 10.8136- |
2 | 23 | 24 | 8.6842 |
3 | 6 | 11 | 8.6463 |
4 | 13 | 14 | 8.6206 |
5 | 15 | 16 | 8.5228 |
Performance index by line overload index
Ranking No. | Contingency Line | PI[p.u.] | |
From Bus | To Bus | ||
1 | 28 | 29 | 10.8884 |
2 | 2 | 3 | 10.3888 |
3 | 16 | 21 | 10.2108 |
4 | 2 | 25 | 9.9931 |
5 | 6 | 7 | 9.8334 |
Performance index by line voltage index of case I
Table 10 is the summary of the overloaded lines at severe contingency cases. HTS cable is applied as the order of severity of overloaded line. The replaced system is shown as Fig.29. Considered HTS cable constants are L = 0.10[uH/km], C=0.29[uF/km] respectly.
Incremented transfer capacity after HTS cable replacement is 8,880MW in base case and 5720MW in N-1 contingency case. Therefore, increased transfer capacity becomes 1820MW.
from | to | contingency | rating | flow | overload(%) |
16 | 24 | OVRLOD 1 | 600.0 | 630.4 | 105.0 |
22 | 23 | OVRLOD 1 | 600.0 | 665.5 | 107.9 |
23 | 24 | OVRLOD 1 | 600.0 | 945.9 | 157.5 |
16 | 21 | OVRLOD 2 | 600.0 | 681.0 | 111.3 |
21 | 22 | OVRLOD 2 | 900.0 | 955.9 | 104.2 |
4 | 14 | OVRLOD 3 | 500.0 | 566.2 | 113.7 |
10 | 13 | OVRLOD 3 | 600.0 | 620.8 | 102.3 |
13 | 14 | OVRLOD 3 | 600.0 | 636.3 | 105.5 |
6 | 11 | OVRLOD 4 | 480.0 | 636.8 | 132.3 |
10 | 11 | OVRLOD 4 | 600.0 | 618.2 | 102.1 |
Overloaded lines at N-1 contingency
In power system, proper SFCL application places are considered as (a)~(c) points of Fig.29. Point (a) is to limit fault current of distribution feeder. SFCL at (b) point reduces fault current impact of adjacent transformer in case of parallel operation and protects bus bar. Point (c) is general solution to reduce transformer secondary fault current and extend Circuit Breaker changing time when distribution system experiences high fault current.
SFCL application
The infrastructure of electric power system is based on conductor. With the change of power industry, such as Kyoto protocol and Energy crisis, superconducting technology is very promising one not only to increase efficiency of electricity but also to upgrade security of power system. Among various superconducting technology, most applicable ones –HTS cable, Fault current limiters, Dynamic SC are introduced and discussed how to apply.
Other superconducting facilities, like transformer, generator, SMES, Superconducting Flywheel, are in testing and will be implemented with the changes of power market needs.
However, the most critical obstacle of power system application is superconductor material and cooling system. Present HTS superconductors have to be improved much more than conventional ones, but still have difficulties in general use, such as extreme low temperature operation, hard manufacturing, AC loss and high cost. Cooling system is also hard task which have close relation of HTS failure due to quench mechanism. In operating point of view, monitoring and control to protect the local hot spot is another task to overcome.
More advanced superconductors and application methods are expected in power system usage in near future.
Thanks to support all referenced paper authors and researchers in the field of superconductor application in power system, especially Dr. OK-Bae Hyun and Si-Dol Hwang in KEPRI.
As a consequence of the continuous population growth worldwide along with the shortage of food sustainability [1], it is necessary to create an alternative agricultural productivity systems [2, 3]. One of the sustainable alternative strategies is the utilization of plant growth-promoting bacteria (PGPB) in agricultural practices [4]. Promoting plant growth (PGP) has numerous correlation capabilities either by endophyte in plant tissue [5], rhizosphere in seed surface as well as plant root [6], symbiosis in root nodules, and phyllosphere in stem and/or leaf surface (Turner). PGPB involve 1-aminocyclopropane-l-carboxylic acid (ACC) deaminase that is applied to seedling which could effectively stimulate plant growth by reducing plant ethylene rates [7] under drought, salinity [8, 9], flooding, and contaminant condition [10] and increasing phosphate solubility and availability in soil, along with the increase in plant biomass, root area, and total N and P contents in rice [11].
Rice production is reduced under saline agriculture system (Figure 1); therefore, it is becoming increasingly important to imply plant growth-promoting traits for mitigation of salt stress [12, 13, 14]. Promoting plant growth was shown to enhance growth effectively, and the growth-stimulating effect was also suggested to be beneficial in crop production under stressful conditions. Mechanisms for inducing plant growth-promoting response (PGPR) toward abiotic stress are usually interpreted as the result of certain phytohormone production, including ABA, GA, or IAA, or lower ethylene levels in roots of the ACC, which generates systemic bacterial resistance and enhances exopolysaccharides.
Schematic description of the different plant promotion processes by PGPR.
A wide spectrum of endophyte bacteria is well adjusted to the rice niche under abiotic stress condition. The emergence of rice seedlings and growth and development parameters were previously reported to be significantly affected by many PGPR strains [15]. Beneduzi et al. [16] evaluated efficient bioinoculant for rice growth improvement by bacillus strain (SVPR30). Bisht and Mishra [17] reported that rice root length and shoot length increased by 9.7 and 13.9%, respectively, when inoculated with B. thuringiensis (VL4C); Nautiyal et al. [18] reported that rice inoculation with B. amyloliquefaciens (SN-13) under saline conditions in hydroponic/saline soils has improved stress sensitivity due to an altered transcription of 14 genes, including SERK1, ethylene-responding factor EREBP, NADP-malic enzyme (NADP-Me2), and SOS1. Additionally, downregulated expression of glucose-insensitive growth (IGG) and serine–threonine (Sapk4) protein kinase in the hydroponic setup and upregulated MAPK5 were observed in the greenhouse experiments [19]. The inoculation of SN13 improved the gene transcription involved in the sensitivity of ionic and salt stresses [20]. Endophytic bacteria can give N to rice without loss compared with other bacteria, because of their strong relationship with the plant [21]. Endophytic bacteria are a better N supplier to rice than other bacteria. Endophytic bacteria are the bacteria derived from the plants’ inner tissues or extracted from plants with a sterilized layer, which have no infection symptoms [22]. The rice yield achieved by N2-fixing Pseudomonas sp. was improved by 23% by Mäder et al. [23]. Several studies showed significantly greater K, N, and P levels with an increased rice output of 9.2% in co-inoculation with N2-fixing microbes relative to the use of prescribed amounts of fertilizers as N, P, and K [24, 25]. There have been detailed documentations that rice is generally infected with a large variety of endophytic bacteria (Azospirillum, Herbaspirillum, Rhizobium, Pantoea, Methylobacterium, and Burkholderia, among others) [22]. Diazotrophs colonized effectively in the roots of rice may have a higher N fixation potential [26]. Endorhizosphere bacteria contribute far more than rhizospheric bacteria to N fixation since there is no competition with other rhizospheric microorganisms in the endorhizosphere and under low oxygen; carbon sources are provided [27, 28].
The bacterial IAA was shown in Etesami and Alikhani [29] to have significant roles in improving efficiency in the use of N and in increasing nitrogen-based substances in rice. Estrada et al. [30] also found that diazotrophic P-solubilizing bacteria improved the absorption of nutrients in rice, while Rangjaroen et al. [31] suggested that Novosphingobium diazotrophic is an important microbial tool of nitrogen providing for further production which renders it as a healthy biomonitor to improve organic rice cultivation.
De Souza et al. [32] demonstrated the decrease of in vitro phosphate solubility and minimization of acetylene (low reduction in acetylene) in rice shoots by bacteria, including Herbaspirillum sp., Burkholderia sp., Pseudacidovorax, and Rhizobium sp. Therefore, non-N2 fixation growth promotion mechanisms include an IAA development and improved nutrient balanced absorption. Glick [7] shows that if a bacterium is used to produce nitrogen-solubilizing for plants, which have PGP traits (IAA, ACC deaminase, siderophore, and phosphate solubility), it should be used, and the genetic characteristics in plants should be transferred. The application of P fertilizers in rice production has continuously increased [33]. Sahrawat et al. [34] show that the use of rice P fertilizers has been continuously increased since it is one of the key restrictive factors in many regions of the world for the production of upland rice. Othman and Panhwar [35] detected that the sum of nutrition provided by aerobic rice is the same as the flooded rice, but the abundance of P is a challenge due to its immediate immobilizing and fixing with calcium (Ca2+), iron (Fe3+), and aluminum (Al3+) elements. P deficiency in aerobic crops is also widely seen as a phenomenon [36]. The secretion of organic acids and the interaction of mycorrhizal fungi are among these methods that are very weak in rice under flooding conditions. Islam and Hossain [37] have stated that P deficiency is quite normal which increases the demand for mycorrhizal fungal interactions under flood conditions. Panhwar et al. [38] detected that the rice plants need an ancillary structure that quickly goes beyond such degraded regions and receives P for exorbitant neighboring soil composition through the development of a vast network of phosphate-solubilizing bacteria (PSB) which might satisfy some of the nutrient needs.
The growth of many plants including staple rice is hindered by micronutrient-deficient soils [39]. The toxicity of Fe is also important as Fe is one of the major constraints on the production of lowland rice. Furthermore, the scarcity of Mn in upland rice is also commonly seen [40].
A significant increase in the number of tilers provided by plan (15.1%), crop panicles (13.3%), overall grain intake Zn (52.5%), and a modest yield of the dry product by pot (12.9%) has been shown by Vaid et al. [41]. This rise was detected through soil solubilization of insoluble Zn, all of which as a result of the production of bacterial gluconic acid.
Fe, Zn, Cu, and Mn concentrations were increased by 13–16% (Brevundimonas diminuta PR7) and in rice co-inoculation (Providencia sp. PR3) (Ochrobactrum anthropi PR10); Adak et al. [42] detected that Fe absorbance was enhanced by 13–46% using cyanobacterial inoculants and 15–41% in Zn with the use of cyanobacterial inoculums, in rice cultivation for various modes.
Metals as zinc (Zn), molybdenum (Mo), cobalt (Co), chromium (Cr), selenium (Se), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), magnesium (Mg), and nickel (Ni) have essential nutrients necessary for a diversity of biological and physiological functions [43]. Biological functions that are not identified are identified as nonessentials: bismuth (Bi), antimony (Sb), platinum (Pt), indium (In), arsenic (As), beryllium (Be), mercury (Hg), barium (Ba), gallium (Ge), gallium (G), gold (Au), lead (Pb), barium (Be), nickel (Ni), silver (Ag), aluminum (Al), as well as uranium (U) [44].
Ma and Takahashi [45] demonstrate that the rice PGPB ability can be used to resolve deficits in micronutrients and to biofertilize (Table 1 and Figure 1). Rice is a plant that accumulates Si and considered an Si accumulator as silicon content in dry weight of the shoots may reach up to 10%, and therefore, the plants require high Si content. Rice is associated with Si depletion in its unit area; due to the removal from the earth of 100 kg of Si for brown rice (about 20 kg/hm2 SiO2) and exports to the farm by the extraction of straw residues during harvest and the conniving for exogenous use of Si in rice growing, Si in paddy field is available [66].
Results of bacteria added to plants | References | |
---|---|---|
Mutation | Physicochemical | [3] |
PGPR; Novosphingobium | Optimize rice cultivation | [31] |
Bioindicator | Wastewater irrigation | [43, 44, 46, 47] |
Indicators | Sustainable rice cultivation | [2] |
Plant microbiome and Herbaspirillum seropedicae and Bacillus amyloliquefaciens | Plant growth | [1, 4, 5, 11, 18, 28, 48] |
Seed endosphere; PGPR and ACC Deaminase and Corynebacterium and diazotrophic spp. | Plant growth | [7, 15, 21, 22, 25, 26, 49] |
Soil Rhizobacteria | Heavy metals | [50, 51, 52, 53, 54] |
Azospirillum | N2 fixing | [55] |
Arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis and Pseudomonas putida | Salinity stress; biological control; drought stress | [20, 29, 56, 57] |
PGPR | Cu-contaminated | [43, 58] |
Exogenous application | Cd-contaminated | [10, 59, 60] |
Genomic rice | Cr-contaminated | [61] |
Ochrobactrum sp. and Bacillus spp. and biofortification | Heavy metals | [40, 62] |
Ar-contaminated | [63] | |
Endophytic and PGPR and Bacillus safensis | Salt stress | [8, 9, 12, 64] |
Genetically engineered | Hg | [65] |
Acinetobacter sp. and PGPR | Zinc solubilizing | [19, 39, 41] |
Bacterial species | Si solubilization | [42, 45, 66, 67, 68, 69] |
Phosphate-solubilizing bacteria | Phosphate solubilization | [33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38] |
Plant growth-promoting Rhizobacteria used in rice production.
Bocharnikova et al. [67] and Ning et al. [68] previously reported that Si-deficient paddy soils may be needed to generate an economically sustainable rice crop capable of producing high yield and disease resistance. Si fertilizers are being used for growing rice production in many countries and have positive effects. Vasanthi et al. [69] detected that the Bacillus globisporus, B. crustacea, B. flexus, B. megaterium, Pseudomonas fluorescens, and Burkholderia eburnean can activate K and Si in feldspar, muscovite, and biotite silicate mineral resources. Specific pathways are used to generate disproportionate protons, organic ligand, organic acid, anion, hydroxyl, EPS, and enzymes. However, the solubilizing Si, K, and P in soil might be accompanied by an increased supply of Fe and Mn metals in plants by interacting with P-fixing sites.
Gandhi and Muralidharan [19] show that the rice growth, development, yield, and Zn solubility from ZnO and ZnCO3 to Acinetobacter sp. have been greatly increased.
This gene recombination processing was also extended to rice, which produces rice transgenics generated via a partial weapon bombardment containing a 250 lM HgCl2-resistant merA gene [65]. Recently, mercury toxicity has been identified as a triggering factor in aromatic amino acid biosynthesis (tryptophan and phenylalanine), aggregation of calcium, and activation of MAPK in rice [70]. The synthesis and accumulation of the Glybet were stimulated by Pseudomonas alkaline inoculation in rice plants [64]. Chakrabarty et al. [63] detected that the As (III)-treated rice seedlings proposed signal transduction regulation and hormonal and crop defense signaling mechanisms (ABA metabolism). Comparative rice-treated transcriptomic study showed explicitly the shifts in plant reaction to metal pressure in the rates of phytohormones: As and Pb resistant by Bacillus spp. There are various PGPR features that contribute to the bioremediation and rice cultivar growth promotion; Cd-resistant Ochrobactrum sp. was first reported by Pandey et al. [62]. The presence of CDPKs was demonstrated by Cr pressure as their activity increased with increasing Cr (VI) concentration. Huang et al. [61] showed that rice roots have long- and short-term stress transcription profiling. Yeh et al. [59] have demonstrated Cd-induced gene transcription of OsMAPK2 and MBP kinase in rice plant. The activation of heavy metal mediated MAPK by ROS production, build-up, and alteration of the antioxidant system in the rice; ROS is well-rated for its disruption specific pathways such as auxin, ethylene, and jasmonate (JA) phytohormone. However, exposure to JAs has shown that antioxidant reaction has been enhanced due to rice stress sensitivity of Cd [60]. However, an extensive study on heavy metal in plants has shown great interest in the extensive study of the plant microbial-metal relationship due to its direct impact on enhanced production of biomass and improved metal tolerances [50].
Plants have developed a number of defense mechanisms to resist heavy metal stresses and toxicities such as reducing heavy metal consumption, sequestering metal into vacuoles, binding phytochelatins or metallothionein, and antioxidant activation [51]. The toxic substances As, Pb, Cd, and Hg are considered by Disease Registry Agency as the most toxic metals (Figure 1) for their toxicity frequency and above all their flora and fauna exposure potential. Pb toxicity leads to ATP inhibition, lipid peroxidation, and damage to DNA through the production of ROS [43].
In recent decades there has been rapid progress in the area of plant reactions and the tolerance of stress of metal when related bacteria are present with plants. The activation of these genes, which are crucial to heavy metal stress signaling, also suggests dynamic crosspieces of stress and resistance between plant, microbes, and heavy metals [52]. Heavy metal remediation is necessary to protect and preserve the environment. There are only a small number of evidence that heavy metals are remediated by extracellular capsules, heavy metal precipitation, and oxidation reduction [53].
It will be used in the immediate future for remediation of contaminated soils, as shown by the beneficial effects of microbe causes and the planned interconnection between heavy metal resistance and plant growth abilities [58]. Additionally, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) ecological species and ecotypes, metal and edaphic conditions of its availability, and soil and water, including soil fertilizer and requirements of plants for growing under light or root conditions, depend on various factors of exposure to heavy metals in the environment [56].
AMF changes salt stress toxicity. AMF exists due to enhanced mineral nutrition and as a result of various physiological processes such as photosynthesis, water usage efficiency, osmoregulator production, higher K+/Na + ratio, and molecular changes caused by the expression of genes [57].
The synergistic effects on plant growth, particularly in growth restrictions, of the co-inoculation with PGPR and AMF, have shown that the growth responses are significant when rice plants are inoculated with AMF and Azospirillum. All of these findings thus show that rice mycorrhization is important [55].
The methods employed by PGPB to promote plant remediation cycle include enhancing plant metal resistance and increasing plant growth as well as altering plant metal accumulation; however, the recent PGPB studies in metal phytoremediation showed that plant inoculation with plant-building bacteria-induced metal phytotoxicity can be alleviated and the production of plant biomass produced in metal-contaminated soils can be strengthened [48, 49, 54]. The reuse of wastewater as a strategy to adjust to climate change is shown in Vietnam. Chung et al. [46] illustrated that rice wastewater effluents can be irrigated for at least 22,719 ha (16% of the urban rice area) in plants annually. Additionally, Jang et al. [47] found that there is no significant environmental risk to rice paddy agroecosystems that were associated with wastewater irrigation (Table 1 and Figure 1).
The main limiting factors for cultivation worldwide are water stress conditions [71]. Wastewater water has a negative effect on the production and yield of rice. Selected PGPR might be the perfect candidate for heavy metal pollution and related surface constraints for growth and yields of rice plants irrigated with wastewater as PGPR extracted wastewater strains of bioremediation products show positive results in the literature.
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