Application of non-wovens in the indoor environment of buildings
\r\n\tThe outcome of cancer therapy with radiation has been improving over the years due to technological progress. However, due to the biological property of cancer, current radiotherapy has limitations. Therefore, in consideration of the dynamics of tumor cells caused by radiation irradiation, attempts are being made to overcome the current drawbacks and to improve radiotherapy. It is expected that carbon ion beams, hyperthermia, oxygen effect, blood flow control, etc. will be used in the future in order to improve the treatments. This book aims to introduce research results of various radioprotective agent development research and hypoxia sensitizers.
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Therefore, the Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ) is of a particular importance for people’s comfort, health, and productivity.
Textiles are part of every indoor environment and influence its basic metrics. Textiles and clothing are an excellent tool to maximize comfort and personification of the working and living environment. Textiles affect the comfort of people in the indoor environment as [3]:
Unlike clothing that can be changed, and linen, which is easy to replace, the other textile items in the indoor environment are relatively constant and their correct selection is essential for IEQ.
Non-woven textiles are an important part of textiles in the indoor environment. Different groups of non-woven materials can be found in buildings and means of transport: floor coverings, wallcoverings, upholstery and furniture textiles, filters, etc. Depending on their application, they can be classified as:
The purpose of the chapter is to discuss the application of non-wovens indoors from the point of view of the basic metrics of the indoor environment used to assess the quality of living and working. Different types of applications are considered: non-woven textiles, used as floor coverings, bedding, furniture, wallcoverings, walls, and curtains, as well as non-woven textiles, applied in cars. The influence of the non-woven materials on Indoor Air Quality (IAQ), Indoor Thermal Quality (ITQ), Indoor Lighting Quality (ILQ), Indoor Sound Quality (ISQ), Indoor Odor Quality (IOQ), and Indoor Vibration Quality (IVQ) is presented. The risk factors, related with the use of non-wovens indoors and their possible role as sources of pollutants are also detailed.
Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ) is a complex term in the field of indoor climate engineering, which reflects the combined impact of the different characteristics of the indoor environment on the basic senses of the human body. Figure 1 summarizes the basic metrics of the IEQ: Indoor Air Quality (IAQ), Indoor Thermal Quality (ITQ), Indoor Lighting Quality (ILQ), Indoor Sound Quality (ISQ), Indoor Odor Quality (IOQ), and Indoor Vibration Quality (IVQ). Textile and particularly non-woven textiles may contribute to all these characteristics of the indoor environment.
Basic metrics of the Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ)
The review article [4] discusses the difficulty to assess which of the basic metrics and particular characteristics of the indoor environment plays the most important role for the quality of life and work of the inhabitants. The authors attribute that fact to concomitant problems of investigations cited in their work: problems with the studies’ settings, the percentage of respondents, or the analysis of the data obtained.
A later study [5], however, has already reported such results. According to their analysis, the
Amount of space
Visual privacy
Noise level
Colors and textures
Comfort of furnishing
The first two characteristics are related with the ergonomics of the working and living environment, but at the same time they influence basic metrics of the IEQ like Indoor Air Quality (IAQ). Noise level contributes to Indoor Sound Quality (ISQ). The last two characteristics are also related with the ergonomics, but at the same time they are relevant to Indoor Thermal Quality (ITQ), Indoor Lighting Quality (ILQ), and Indoor Sound Quality (ISQ).
Non-woven textiles in the indoor environment can contribute to the amount of space and visual privacy being used as freestanding constructions that divide the indoor space into smaller areas. Non-wovens, as all textile materials, decrease the noise in the built environment and car compartments. All visible non-woven textiles (floor coverings, wallcoverings, upholstery textiles, etc.) influence people’s comfort through their colors and textures. At the same time, both visible and hidden non-woven textiles in furniture systems, car seats and compartments influence the comfort of people, which is related to furnishing convenience.
Comfort is a relative and subjective category, but when it is associated with the interaction between the human body and textiles it can be considered as physical, physiological, and psychological comfort. Figure 2 summarizes the main factors related to textiles and clothing, which define human comfort in the indoor environment.
Factors that determine human comfort in the indoor environment, related to textiles and clothing
The
The
The
The concept of Sick Building Syndrome (SBS) was developed in the 1970s. Nowadays, it is associated with the negative attributes of the Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ). The SBS concept summarizes the dissatisfaction of the occupants from IEQ and series of clinical complaints, related to the stay of people in buildings. However, traditional clinical studies have not completely identified the causes of those complaints. Female subjects and elderly people are more sensitive to IEQ, but the mechanisms by which such sensitivity occurs, remain unspecified enough [6]. SBS is still a subject of clinical, chemical, and engineering studies; for the past decades, significant knowledge about the factors that determine SBS has been accumulated.
The main risk factors, related to indoor air quality (IAQ), which can provoke dissatisfaction among the inhabitants have been summarized in [7]. The results from that research are visually presented in Figure 3.
Risk factors for IAQ: summary of data from [
Textiles are among the risk factors for the quality of the indoor environment. Their influence on the IEQ is related with the ability of the textile surfaces to accumulate dust and odors, to emit dust and odors, to play the role of insulation layer thus affecting the thermal environment, to have influence upon the acoustics and lighting, etc. The type of the textiles macrostructure: woven, non-woven, or knitted, is also very important, as it determines the application of the particular textile in the indoor environment and its possible contribution to the IEQ.
The up-to-date knowledge on the airborne pollutants in the indoor environment differentiates between the following pollutants of the indoor environment:
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)
Microbial Volatile Organic Compounds (MVOCs)
Particulate matter
Inorganic compounds – CO2, CO, O3
Semi-Volatile Organic Compounds (SVOCs)
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) (formaldehyde, pesticides, ingredients of paints, dyes, etc.) are the most widely discussed pollutants that impair indoor air quality [7-9]. The highest levels of VOCs emissions indoors are measured immediately after building finishing or installation of furniture, flooring, etc. Due to their absorption ability textiles should not be installed in the indoor environment during the intensive release of VOCs from other items.The period of VOCs emissions can last from days to months, depending mainly on ventilation (natural or HVAC system), temperature, and humidity [10].
Semi-Volatile Organic Compounds (SVOCs) are associated with the presence of phthalates, pesticides, and flame retardants, which can be frequently found on textile surfaces in the indoor environment [11]. Microbial volatile organic compounds (MVOCs) are formed in the metabolism of fungi and bacteria [12]; therefore, they can be found in the indoor environment due to presence of moisture and mold growth.
A recent work [13] has summarized the state of the art in the field of the Very Volatile Organic Compounds (VVOCs) – an important subgroup of indoor pollutants that involves a wide spectrum of chemical substances. However, there is still no clear definition of VVOCs and techniques for their assessment.
Needle-punched non-woven textiles can be found as backing of carpets and wall coverings, and also as low-quality blankets, hidden layers in furniture systems, and wadding/padding. Spunlaced/hydroentangled non-woven materials are used in furnishing and bedding, as coverings and sheets. Spunbonded non-wovens are applied as a backing layer for wallcoverings, carpets, curtains, and furniture. They are also used as upholstery layers, filters, and tablecloths. Tablecloths are also made of wet-laid and spunlaced non-wovens. Chemically bonded non-woven textiles are applied as wadding and padding. The same is the application of the thermally bonded non-wovens, which are also applied in carpets underlying and furniture systems, including as upholstery textiles. The tufting technology is used for production of carpets for both built environment and car interiors.
Table 1 summarizes the main applications of different types of non-wovens in the indoor environment.
\n\t\t\t\t \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Backing for wallcoverings | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | + | \n\t\t\t+ | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t |
Bedding coverings | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | + | \n\t\t\t+ | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t |
Bedsheets | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | + | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t |
Blankets | \n\t\t\t+ | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t |
Carpet underlay/backing | \n\t\t\t+ | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | + | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | + | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t |
Curtain backing | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | + | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t |
Filters | \n\t\t\t+ | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | + | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t |
Floor covering | \n\t\t\t+ | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | + | \n\t\t
Furniture backing | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | + | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | + | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t |
Tablecloths | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | + | \n\t\t\t+ | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | + | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t |
Upholstery | \n\t\t\t+ | \n\t\t\t+ | \n\t\t\t+ | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | + | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t |
Wadding and padding | \n\t\t\t+ | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | + | \n\t\t\t+ | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t |
Application of non-wovens in the indoor environment of buildings
Several specific requirements have to be taken into account when designing non-wovens for application in the indoor environment. These requirements are related with both the product in question and its particular function: strength, dimensional stability, volume density, wear resistance, air-permeability, etc. There are other design considerations, however, related to the basic metrics of IEQ, which should be taken into account.
Non-wovens influence all basic metrics of IEQ. They may be used for sound control in residential and public buildings, or for glare reduction. As many textiles in public places, non-wovens are required to be flame-resistant. This additional treatment may be in a conflict with the demands for indoor air quality. The maintenance of the textiles surfaces is related to their ability to accumulate dust; therefore, the cleaning of the visible non-woven textiles in the indoor environment has to be easy. The last is also related with the products, as the cleaning agents themselves could frequently be sources of airborne pollutants.
Non-wovens have very good insulation abilities, used as floor coverings, wallcoverings, upholstery textiles (hidden layers or outer, visible layer), bedding, and they influence the indoor thermal quality. At the same time they can be a source of unpleasant odors, decreasing the indoor odor quality, especially in the case of floor coverings, including carpet backing. The sources of unpleasant odors could be either the non-woven item itself or the adhesive materials used for fixing the carpet to the floor.
Non-woven textiles, used as floor coverings in the indoor environment, increase the aesthetic comfort of the inhabitants. At the same time they influence thermal, acoustic, visual and odor environment, as well as indoor air quality.
Textile floor coverings have several advantages over other types of flooring (tiles, cement, wood, linoleum, bamboo, etc.) [9]. They increase the quality of the thermal environment; their insulation varies between 0.1 m2K/W and 0.3 m2K/W [14]. The insulation abilities are even better if a combination between hard flooring and textile floor covering is used.
Non-woven carpets influence the quality of the acoustic environment as they reduce noise levels indoors. They absorb the sound of steps and dropped objects and the absorption is higher when a pile carpet (tufted carpet) is used. At the same time, the quality of desired sound (music, speech) remains constant.
From economical point of view, the use of textile floor covering indoors can decrease or even eliminate the costs for sound and thermal insulating materials, especially in residential buildings.
Textile floor coverings do not reflect light; therefore, they can be used for glare reduction in the indoor environment, especially when hard flooring is also applied. The contact between sunlight and the textile fibers (mainly wool) leads to photobleaching effect, which requires additional treatment. However, all treatments of carpets, including those for stain blocking, fire resistance, moths blocking, etc., may affect negatively the indoor air quality (IAQ).
Several authors report and analyze the connection between IAQ and wall-to-wall non-woven carpets. Tufted carpets release Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) weeks after their installment in the indoor environment, due to the adhesives used for their fixation [15]. The cleaning of the near-wall zones is also very important, as they are a big source of airborne pollutants due to difficulty of access [16].
The surface pile of tufted carpets is indicated as a very important source of airborne pollutants in the indoor environment [15, 17-19]. The pile accumulates dust and particles, thus converting the tufted carpet into a “reservoir” for pollutants [9]. In addition, wool fibers can absorb formaldehyde, oxides of nitrogen and other toxic pollutants from the air [14]. Regular vacuum cleaning and wet extraction with cleaning products is a way of reducing the VOCs absorbed in the floor covering, but the cleaning products themselves are also a source of VOCs [9].
Tufted and needle-punched floor coverings can also be a source of VOCs and SVOCs in the indoor environment because of the backing. Tufted carpets need more complex finishing than woven carpets to obtain dimensional stability [20]. Synthetic latex is applied for backing of both needled and tufted floor coverings, which can be associated with airborne pollutants and unpleasant odors.
At the same time, Whitefoot [14] has reported the absence of scientific evidence that the removal of carpet alone has a proven effect on the health of the inhabitants. The author has discussed the advantage of pile carpets, including non-woven carpets, the surface of which can trap airborne pollutants and allergens, thus decreasing health problems related to allergy and asthma.
The study by Kidesø et al. [21] has concluded that heavy-weight needle-punched and tufted carpets from polypropylene and polyamide are particularly appropriate for residential buildings. The authors especially have underlined the requirement for smooth surface or surface with very low pile. The use of floor coverings with synthetic fibers, however, increases the risk of Microbial Volatile Organic Compounds (MVOCs) in the air. The higher humidity of the indoor air may provoke the development of mold and mildew; as a result, the carpet becomes a source of microbial airborne pollutants. Regular cleaning and use of antimicrobial additives is a solution against MVOCs, especially in indoor environments with high traffic and high humidity [22]. At the same time, antimicrobial treatment (applied on the carpet fibers, the carpet backing, etc.) must exclude volatile organic chemicals (VOCs and SVOCs), toxins, allergens, carcinogens, and other substances that are dangerous for humans and animals [23].
Bed linen and blankets are mainly related to two types of hazards in the internal environment: Microbial Volatile Organic Compounds (MVOCs) and particulate matter. In specific cases, Semi-Volatile Organic Compounds (SVOCs) can be also detected, usually for relatively short periods of time.
The main task of bedding in the indoor environment is to provide thermophysiological comfort for the person at rest [24]. Since at rest the human body produces minimal heat energy, higher requirements are demanded for the thermal insulation capacity of textiles for bedding [25]. Like the fabrics for clothing, textiles for bedding and blankets should absorb and transport water vapor emitted by the human body during rest and sleep. The role of bedding is critical for bedridden patients, adults with a high degree of immobility, and infants, because they spend a substantial part of their time in bed [26,27]. To avoid discomfort and getting bedsores, bedding items as material, structure, and finishing, should ensure the thermophysiological comfort by transferring air, heat, and moisture and not be a cause of allergic reactions.
Bed linen and blankets are serious battery of particulate matter. That, in a combination with high humidity and improper ventilation, leads to the development of MVOCs and microorganisms that cause allergic diseases. Non-wovens are excellent barrier against microorganisms (dust mites) because of their low porosity: with an average size of mites around 10 μm, the average pore size in fabrics for bedding has to be 6 μm or less. Non-woven mattress covers create impenetrable layer against microorganisms. Another solution is the use of textiles with zero permeability, but they do not provide breathability and reduce the comfort in general; they are also unsuitable for people with sensitivity to synthetic materials.
Non-woven textiles participate as visible or hidden elements in textile mattress pads, where a non-woven web is usually quilted between two woven or non-woven layers. Spunbonded polyester is used as face cloth because of its high wear resistance and resistance to washing.
An essential characteristic of the non-woven textiles for bedding is their ability to be subject to antimicrobial treatment [28]. Thus, the amount of MVOCs and unpleasant odors in the indoor environment is reduced by inhibiting the growth of mold, mildew, etc. The antimicrobial treatment, which can involve both antibacterial and antifungal treatments, is performed as part of the finishing of the non-wovens textiles (i.e., coating and spraying) or by adding additives directly to the fiber spinning dope.
Non-woven webs and fiber fills are frequently used in the production of pillows, quilts, and duvets. The use of hollow fibers increases the insulation abilities of fiber fills. Polypropylene spunbonds of around 50 g/m² replace the tightly woven fabrics, used as a nonremovable pillow cover [29]. Non-woven textiles are also applied as outer covering of economical quilts and duvets. Cheaper needle-punched blankets are produced from regenerated fibers for disposable and emergency use, though high-quality needle-punched blankets are also produced from natural and synthetic fibers [30].
The comfort, related with upholstery textiles, is generally associated with their touch [31,32]. In fact, the touch of the textiles is one of the factors for physical and neurophysiological comfort of the individual. However, the comfort of furniture, covered with fabrics, is determined by the thermophysiological comfort of the person. The thermophysiological comfort, in turn, depends on the behavior of the textile barrier between the body and the piece of furniture [33].
Non-woven textiles are applied in 80–90% of foambacked furniture systems and mattresses [34]. They are the outermost layer of the system (being the upholstery layer) or are used to provide support for the upholstery fabric. Currently, there is a trend of replacing the traditional woven covers of mattresses, made of cotton yarns, with filament non-wovens made of polyester and polypropylene.
Different types of non-woven coverings are in use [34]:
Bonded polyester non-wovens as the outermost layer of furniture systems, which are not subjected to high loads
Thermobonded non-wovens as the outermost layer of foambacked upholsters
Laminated or quilted non-wovens as the outermost layer of foambacked upholstery with high dimensional stability
Inside furniture systems, non-wovens are used for support, insulation, and comfort. Needle-punched waddings and paddings, made from natural and chemical fiber that are recycled from textile production waste, or virgin fiber from acrylic, polypropylene, and polyethylene terephthalate are among the most commonly used [35]. The non-wovens replace the polyurethane foams in furniture systems and mattresses. These are products, based on stitch-bonding technologies, which provide thermal insulation and reduce noise and vibration during operation of furniture and mattresses. Composite non-woven textiles, produced by a web from bi-component fibers, are also in use. They have the same quality as foam of the same thickness [34], but demonstrate higher air permeability, which is important for ensuring both the thermophysiological comfort and the retention of MVOCs.
There is no risk for the Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) in terms of gas emissions from the upholstery textiles [36]. The upholstery surface, however, creates the same problems of accumulation of dust and particulate matter as the floor coverings. Therefore, furniture systems can be a source of VOCs, MVOCs, etc. due to accumulation of dust and allergenic particles from other sources of harmful substances in the indoor environment.
A solution of that problem is the use of synthetic leather as outermost layer of furniture pieces. Non-wovens are successful substitute for genuine leather. Different materials and technologies are applied for the production of synthetic leather. At the same time, synthetic leathers are an excellent substitute for both woven and knitted upholstery fabrics, which positively influences the IAQ of the indoor environment. Synthetic leather does not accumulate dust as woven and knitted textiles; it is not permeable toward the inner layers of the furniture system and can be cleaned more easily compared to traditional textiles.
Non-woven textiles are used more as commercial wallcoverings, applied in the interiors of public buildings (hotels, offices, hospitals). They must meet a series of requirements for flammability, abrasion resistance, washability and stain resistance, tear strength, etc.
The application of non-woven textiles for wallcoverings in the indoor is developing in two main directions: backing for wallcoverings and wallcoverings.
Non-wovens are used in fabric-backed vinyl wallcoverings, where a non-woven substrate is laminated to form a decorative surface of solid vinyl. Light or medium weight wallcoverings are produced with a non-woven backing. Traditional wallcovering substrates are produced with a non-woven backing: needle-punched or stitch-bonded layers [34].
Non-woven wallcoverings influence the IAQ as they can accumulate dust and are used in big areas in the indoor environment. Certainly, their effect on accumulation of dust and particles, released from other sources in the indoor environment is much lower than in the case of carpets and upholstery. Flocked wallcoverings, which have velvet appearance or 3D effects, require special attention. Being overlaid with very fine fibers of cotton, silk, or man-made fibers, the flocked wallcoverings must be subjected to frequent cleaning.
Non-wovens are applied for the production of textile wallcoverings with a variety of designs and textures. Products from synthetic/polyolefin fibers are additionally treated for higher abrasion and stain resistance. Polyolefin and polyester fibers are also applied for the production of acoustic wallcoverings. They have different levels of sound absorption, thus influencing the Indoor Sound Quality (ISQ).
Non-woven textiles are used as filters in Heating, Ventilation, and Air-Conditioning (HVAC) systems in buildings. HVAC systems provide clean air for the inhabitants in public and residential built environment, including buildings where natural ventilation is not possible (i.e., due to closed glass facades). They also provide clean air for sensitive work places, which require zero dust and microbial emissions: operating rooms in hospitals, pharmaceutical production lines, production of electronic components and devices, research laboratories, etc.
Six types of non-woven filters used in residential buildings have been identified [37]. Five of them contain non-woven media: fiberglass filters, pleated filters with non-woven mats, reusable filters, electret filters, and deep pleated filters. All require regular change or cleaning: from one month in periods of normal use (for fiberglass filters) to once a year (for deep pleated filters).
Non-wovens are also used in air purifiers: portable units in the indoor environment, aimed to remove particles and odors and provide clean air for the occupants. Pleated and electret filters are used, like Technostat ® needle-punch felt media [38]. Glass microfiber HEPA filters, filter media of blends between synthetic and glass fibers, as well as composites with non-woven media are also in use. Non-woven felts from a mixture of natural and synthetic fibers are applied for a backing support [38].
In their role of filter media non-woven materials can influence the Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) and indoor odor quality (IOQ). HVAC systems and air purifiers increase the quality of the indoor environment when working properly and maintained correctly. Noncompliance with the requirements for cleaning or replacement of the particular filter media can lead to change of the indoor environmental quality for the worse. The main reasons are either the incapacity of the filters to retain dust and particles, or the growth of airborne microbial contaminants, which are spread from the filter media to the air of the enclosure, leading to increment of VOCs, MVOCs, and other pollutants of the indoor environment.
The use of non-woven textiles in the sector of transportation is growing and the car industry is leading this trend. A number of applications of non-wovens in car construction are described in details in [39,40]: lining of doors boot and hoodcase, seat construction (including upholstery cover), filters, engine housing, etc. The requirements for the types of the non-wovens used and their characteristics depend on the particular application and related stresses and loads, as well as the long-term effect from their application for example, specific requirements for the non-woven items in car construction are their light resistance and temperature resistance [40].
Non-woven textiles in cars and other means of transport may influence all six basic metrics of the Indoor Environmental Quality, including the Indoor Vibration Quality (IVQ), which is rarely discussed in the case of built environment. The way the non-woven items in cars affect the IEQ is similar to the application of non-woven textiles in buildings, where they are used as upholstery coverings, floor coverings, backing, etc.
The level of emissions from all items in the interior of the car, including the non-wovens, is important for both the IEQ and the fogging, which may occur. All non-wovens have to be environmental friendly with low emissivity, including in cases of extreme indoor temperatures. Therefore, the car industry takes special care to use materials that have low emission potential, either as release of volatile chemicals (VOCs, SVOCs, VVOCs) or as reaction products. The last is closely related with the temperature and partial pressure drop.
The Indoor Odor Quality (IOQ) in cars is influenced by the non-wovens applied and is preconditioned in many cases by the emission of substances that influence the IAQ [41,42]. The emissions frequently occur at high temperatures only, but due to condensation on flat surfaces (mainly the windscreen and side windows) they form unacceptable fogging.
Non-woven materials in the car are used for thermal and acoustic insulation, thus improving the Indoor Thermal Quality and Indoor Sound Quality not only in the car compartment, but also in the boot and the engine housing. The main insulated parts are the dashboard, the roof, and the floor, the side walls and the rare wall, the parcel shelf, the doors, the tailgate, the ABC pillars, the boot sides, the air-conditioning conduit, etc. [39]. Non-woven textiles made of recycled natural fibers are still competing with polyurethane foams for being used as insulation materials in cars. Chemically bonded fiber webs with volume densities from 50 to 150 kg/m3 are used for acoustic insulation [39]. At the same time, high-density webs are applied for production of car components like the roof or the parcel shelf, which can emit strong-smelling amines immediately after the installment. According to the study in [42], these emissions decrease rapidly after days, eliminating their negative effect on the IOQ.
Thermally bonded non-wovens with volume densities from 40 to 130 kg/m3 from polypropylene fibers have been developed in order to replace the chemically bonded cotton webs and to avoid the undesired emission inside the cars [39]. These non-woven insulations demonstrate less fogging capacity and lower emissions.
Thermally bonded non-wovens with special shape of the fiber cross section (triangular, star-shaped, etc.) are also used to improve the Indoor Sound Quality.
Non-woven textiles of different type are widely used as covers in car compartments: needle-punched, spunbonded with reinforcement, thermally bonded, or meltblown non-wovens. Tufted fabrics are applied as floor coverings and light non-woven webs are also used as backing of the tufted floor coverings. Needle-punched fabrics are also in use, but for cheaper car models. In any case, cut pile of the tufted floor coverings are preferable than the loop pile, which accumulates more dust and particulate matter.
The analysis of the market and the research in the field, including the patents, show that much more effort, know-how, and economical support are put in the development of non-woven fabrics for car interiors than for the interior of buildings. Therefore, new materials and blends, methods for bonding, lamination, and new composite materials can be found much more in the car production industry than in the construction of buildings. The driving force of one of the biggest industries in the world – the automotive industry – is of particular importance for the advances in the field of non-woven textiles.
Textiles are an important factor for Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ). The increasing application of non-woven textiles in the built environment and means of transport requires more research to be performed for the estimation of the particular influence of non-woven textiles of different types on the metrics of the indoor environment. Every step for improvement of IEQ will increase the human comfort, will improve human health, and will support higher productivity and school work performance.
Maize is known as the Queen of Cereals’ due to its’ demand and wider adaptability. It is the second most important cereal crop in the world in terms of acreage and production. Global production of Maize was about 1040 million MT in the year 2016–2017, where in USA and China contributed about 38 and 23%, respectively. In India, maize is the 3rd most important food crop after rice and wheat, where about 15 million farmers are engaged in maize cultivation [1]. In India, Andhra Pradesh ranks first in maize production followed by Karnataka with per cent share of 20.9 and 16.5, respectively [2]. It has a share of 9% in about Rs. 100 billion agriculture sector gross domestic product [3]. Maize can be cultivated successfully in loamy sand to heavy clay, well aerated, neutral pH soils. As of tropical origin, it is highly sensitive to water stagnation, so avoid the cultivation in low-lying or poor drainage fields. Furthermore, extended low temperature less 5°C severally affects the crop. Optimum range of temperature for better crop growth and yield realization is 25–35°C [4]. Being day neutral, maize crop can be cultivated throughout the year which leads to high yield levels in a short period of time. In this chapter, we are going to discuss an array of different production technologies to be followed by farmers for successful cultivation and better realization of yields. A brief outline of the chapter is given below.
\nCentral America and Mexico is the primary centre of origin of maize which consists of a diversity of maize crop. Various studies reveal that maize crop was a significant crop in Mexico about 5000 years ago. USA has the largest area under maize crop followed by Brazil, China, Mexico and India. USA also stands first in terms of production followed by China. In India, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Punjab are the major maize growing states. Highest acreage and production is in Uttar Pradesh while average yield/ha is recorded in Andhra Pradesh [2, 5].
\nMaize crop can grow under diverse conditions from sea level to about 3000 m altitude throughout the year in many parts of the country. In Northern India,
Type of cultivar/hybrid to be grown depends on the crop season namely, spring,
Length of cropping season (days) | \nType of cultivar | \n
---|---|
More than 100 | \nLate maturing | \n
90 to 100 | \nMedium maturing | \n
80 to 90 | \nEarly maturing | \n
Choice of cultivar as per length of growing season.
Due to occurrence of diverse climatic conditions in country, planting time varies from place to place. Optimum planting time in different agro-climatic regions is described in \nTable 2\n [2]. The optimum time to sow the crop depends on availability of irrigation facilities. For example, if irrigation facilities are available, maize crop can be sown about 2 weeks before onset of monsoon while under rainfed conditions, crop is sown with the onset of monsoon to have optimum moisture regime so that proper plant stand can be maintained in field. In Punjab, Maize crop can be sown during all seasons at following sowing times (\nTable 3\n) [7, 8]:
\nAgro-climatic region | \nOptimum planting time | \n
---|---|
Indo-gangatic plains | \n15 June–15 July | \n
North-western hills | \nApril-early May | \n
North-eastern hills | \nFirst fortnight of March | \n
Peninsular region | \nMay–June | \n
Optimum planting of maize in different agro-climatic regions.
Season | \nPlanting time | \n
---|---|
\n | \nLast week of May to last week of June | \n
Spring | \n20th of Jan to 15th of Feb | \n
Season wise planting time maize.
Being a non-tillering crop it cannot compensate for the lost space if proper plant stand is not maintained under field conditions. So maintenance of 60–65,000 plants/ha is pre-requisite for realizing maximum yield. Sowing of the crop should be done 60 × 20–25 cm crop geometry. For hybrids and composites, seed rate can be used with respect to seed weight and requirement of plant population as given in \nTable 4\n [2, 8].
\nHybrids | \n20–25 kg/ha | \n
Composites | \n18–20 kg/ha | \n
Seed rate of maize hybrids and composites.
Seed treatment plays a pivotal role in prevention of diseases and availability of nutrients to growing crop. For instance, seed treatment of maize with Bavistin or Derosal or Agrozim 50 WP (Carbendazim) @ 3 g/kg seed prevents the attack of seed and soil borne diseases in maize crop. Furthermore, treatment of seed with consortium (biofertilizer) @ 1.25 kg/ha helps in yield enhancement and improvement of soil health [2, 7, 8].
\nCrop geometry has direct effect on inter and intra-plant competition in field crops. Maize crop can be planted in varied crop geometries (\nTable 5\n) depending upon the purpose of cultivation [2, 8]. Interculture operations like thinning, gap filling and earthing-up play critical role in performance of maize crop. Thinning needs to be performed about 10 days after germination to keep 1 plant/hill. Further, 2 earthing-ups are required in maize crop. First at 35–40 and 2nd at 60–65 days after germination [9].
\nPurpose | \nCrop geometry | \n
---|---|
Grain crop | \n60 cm × 20 cm; 75 cm × 20 cm | \n
Baby corn | \n30 cm × 20 cm; 60 cm × 15 cm | \n
Fodder | \n30 cm × 10 cm | \n
Crop geometry of maize to be followed as per requirement.
Although crop establishment is a series of events that depends on interactions of seed, soil moisture, method of sowing, machinery etc. but method of planting plays an important role in establishment of crop under given set of conditions. Maize is mainly sown directly through seed by using different methods of tillage & establishment. Recently, resource conservation technologies (RCTs) namely, zero tillage, minimum tillage, surface seeding etc. had came in practice in various maize based cropping system and are cost effective and environment friendly. Following are major planting methods that vary from situation to situation.
\nMaize crop can be cultivated without any primary tillage under no-till (\nFigure 1\n) with decreased cost of cultivation and better resource use efficiency. In this situation, maintenance of proper soil moisture at sowing and band placement of seed and fertilizers with zero-till seed-cum-fertilizer planter with furrow opener as per the soil texture and field conditions is pre-requisite. The technology is followed by large number of farmers especially under rice-maize and maize-wheat systems in peninssular and eastern India. If the field is infested with weeds, farmers can go for foliar spray of gramoxone 24 SL (paraquat) @ 1250 ml/ha about 24 hours before planting of maize crop [2, 7, 8].
\nMaize crop sown under zero tillage system.
This planting method (\nFigure 2\n) is considered best for cultivation during monsoon and winter seasons both under excess and limited water availability conditions. On non-uniform lands, this method is most suitable for successful cultivation of maize crop. Planting of crop needs to be done on the southern side of the east–west ridges/beds for better exposure to sunlight during winters and better crop stand. Raised bed planter having inclined plate, cupping or roller type seed dropping system should be used for planting that facilitates proper placement of seed and fertilizers in single operation for having good crop stand, higher productivity and resource use efficiency. Irrigation water can be saved to the tune of 20–30%. Under temporary excess soil moisture/water logging due to heavy rains, the furrows will act as drainage channels and crop can be saved from excess soil moisture stress [2, 5, 7, 8].
\nPlanting of maize crop on the ridges.
Maize crop can be cultivated by conventional tillage flat planting (\nFigure 3\n) depending upon soil type and availability of irrigation facilities. Light soils have high infiltration rate and low water holding capacity, so farmers can go for flat planting of maize crop. Under rainfed conditions, to have better moisture availability to crop for longer period, flat planting becomes better alternate. Flat planting is also beneficial when no tillage system gets infested with high weed population and chemical/manual weed control becomes non-economical [7, 8].
\nFlat sowing of maize crop.
It is better establishment technique winter maize (\nFigure 4\n) in the intensive cropping system where field cannot be vacated on time, to prevent the delayed planting and crop loss due to low temperature. Under this situation, nursery of the crop is raised on a smaller portion of land and seedlings are transplanted in required field as and when they achieve certain age. For example, if the fields are to be vacated during December–January, it is advisable to go for nursery sowing 30–40 days before the transplanting. Seedlings can be transplanted in the furrows followed by light irrigation [2, 5].
\nMaize crop establishment through transplanting system.
Furrow planting (\nFigure 5\n) of maize is recommended when crop is to be cultivated during spring season as high evaporative losses may lead to water deficit stress in flat and raised bed or ridge sowing [2, 5, 7, 8].
\nCrop establishment by furrow planting.
Water requirement of the maize crop varies from 400 to 600 mm [10]. Excess or shortage of moisture can have harmful impact on the crop growth. Proper drainage of standing water and meeting the crop needs at critical stages play a pivotal role in better crop performance. Especially for winter maize, it is advisable to keep soil wet (frequent & mild irrigation) during 15 December to 15 February to protect the crop from frost injury [3].
\nFlood method of irrigation is followed where maize crop is cultivated with flat sowing. Crop is irrigated as and when required. Generally, young seedlings, knee high stage (V8), flowering (VT) and grain 7.
\nfilling (GF) are critical stages and hence irrigation should be ensured at these stages [2, 7, 8].
\nWhen crop is cultivated as ridge/raised bed planting, furrow irrigation is followed. Care needs to be taken at first irrigation that water should not overflow on the ridges/beds. As a thumb rule, the irrigation should be applied in furrows up to 2/3rd height of the ridges/beds. In raised bed and in limited irrigation water, the irrigation water can also be applied in alternate furrows to save irrigation water. In rainfed conditions, tied-ridges prove helpful in conserving the rainwater, increasing its availability in the root zone for longer period [2, 7, 8, 11].
\nHigh temperature and high evaporative demand during summer season enhances the water requirement of maize crop as a result of which farmers go for a number of irrigation. To increase the water use efficiency of crop, above ground drip irrigation is recommended by Punjab Agricultural University. In this, broad beds are prepared at 1.20 m apart from centre to centre of furrow. These beds are 80 cm wide on the top and 40 cm wide furrows between beds. The beds are covered with U.V stabilized plastic film (Black) of 25 micron thickness (23 grams per m2). Two rows of maize are planted at a spacing of 60 cm keeping plant to plant distance of 20 cm. One lateral pipe is used to irrigate two rows of maize. The drippers are spaced 30 cm apart and are operated at a discharge of 2.2 L per hour as given in \nTable 6\n [7, 8, 12]. Prevailing climatic regimes of an area affect the efficiency of drip irrigation system [12].
\nMonth | \nTiming of irrigation (min) | \n
---|---|
February | \n22 | \n
March | \n64 | \n
April | \n120 | \n
May | \n130 | \n
Month-wise timing of above ground drip irrigation in spring maize.
* If discharge rate is different, time of irrigation may be adjusted proportionally by the formula:
\nIn field experiments, sub surface drip irrigation and fertigation resulted in 18.4% higher system productivity with saving of 28.5% applied irrigation water. Sub-surface irrigation technology can be followed in maize-wheat-summer moong cropping system. For this system, Place drip inline having dripper having 20 cm spacing at 20 cm depth with lateral to lateral spacing of 67.5 cm for sub surface drip irrigation in maize-wheat-summer moong cropping system. Sow one row of maize, two rows of wheat and two rows of summer moong on each drip inline during respective season. If discharge of the dripper is 2.2 L/hour, the schedule given in \nTable 7\n can be followed for sub-surface drip irrigation in above mentioned cropping system [7, 8, 10].
\nCrop | \nMonth | \nTiming of irrigation (min) | \n
---|---|---|
Maize | \nJuly | \n35 | \n
August | \n35 | \n|
September | \n50 | \n|
October | \n30 | \n|
Wheat | \nDecember | \n30 | \n
January | \n65 | \n|
February | \n70 | \n|
March | \n50 | \n|
Summer Moong | \nMay | \n60 | \n
June | \n45 | \n
Month-wise timing of sub-surface drip irrigation in maize-wheat-summer moong cropping system.
If discharge rate is different, then time of irrigation may be adjusted proportionally by the formula:
\nThis technique (\nFigure 6\n) involves alternate wetting and drying of two halves of root zone of crop plants during consecutive irrigations. The PRD technique was developed on the basis of knowledge of root-to-shoot chemical signaling (can be negative or positive) about soil conditions that regulates the shoot physiology. Alternating is essential for maintaining a constant emission of signals from the root-to-shoot, because prolonged exposure of root to drying soil may cause anatomical changes which reduce the ability of root to sense soil drying and not able to sustain the production of ABA for long time period [10]. Different methods to apply the PRD technique can be separation of root system into two parts with sheet particularly in pots, controlled alternate surface drip irrigation on half part of the root zone, controlled alternate subsurface drip irrigation on half part of the root zone or controlled alternate furrow irrigation [10].
\nField view of partial root drying irrigation technique in maize.
Maize crop is infested with grassy and broad leaf annual weeds. Among grassy,
Non-chemical weed control measures can physical or cultural that means manual removal of weeds from the maize fields. In cultural method, Give two hoeings 15–30 days after sowing with khurpa/kasaula/wheel-hoe/triphali/tractor-drawn cultivator. Mulching is practice of keeping crop residues or plastic sheets on the soil surface within the crop rows. Mulching helps in temperature regulation, water conservation as well weed control in field crops [7, 8].
\nSometimes due to continuous rains during the early stages of maize growth it becomes impossible to enter in the field. Also due to scarce availability of farm labour, the only effective way to control weeds is the use of herbicides. Spray of atrataf 50 WP (atrazine) @ 2 kg/ha on medium to heavy textured soils and 1.25 kg/ha in light soils within 10 days of sowing, using 500 L of water prove propitious in keeping weed population low in maize fields. Spray the herbicide uniformly at recommended rates to minimize residual toxicity to crops sown after maize. Alternatively, spray 262.5 ml/ha laudis 420 SC (tembotrione) in 375 L of water at 20 days after sowing provides effective control of mixed weed flora. For the control of
Among the cereal crops, maize in general and specifically hybrids are very responsive to nutrients applied through organic or inorganic means. The rate of application depends on soil nutrient status and cropping system. For realizing required yield, the dose of applied nutrients should be as par the soil supplying capacity and crop demand. As the response of maize crop to organic manures is remarkable so integrated nutrient management (INM) is very important option in maize based systems.
Apply 10–15 t/ha of good quality farmyard manure per hectare to the maize crop year after year [7, 8].
Green manure the field, to be put under maize with Dhaincha/Sunhemp/Cowpea. Cowpea/Dhaincha/Sunhemp should be sown during second fortnight of April using 12/20/20 kg seed per acre, respectively. The 50 days old green manure crop should be burried and allowed to decompose for about 10 days before sowing of maize. In case, summer moong crop is grown the straw should be burried before sowing of maize [7, 8].
Inoculate the maize seed with recommended bio-fertilizer as described earlier. For this, mix half kg packet of recommended consortium bio-fertilizer with 1 L of water and then thoroughly mix it with maize seed on clean pucca floor. Let it dry in shade and sow the seed immediately. Inoculation with bio-fertilizer should be done after treating the seed with fungicide. The seed inoculation with consortium biofertilizer increase grain yield as well as improves soil health [7, 8, 11].
Paddy straw compost @ 450 kg/ha along with recommended dose of fertilizers can be an alternate to farm yard manure [7, 8].
As a general recommendation, one could apply 120 kg N, 60 kg P2O5 and 40 kg K2O per hectare for hybrids and 80 kg N, 30 kg P2O5 and 20 kg K2O per hectare for composites. Drill one third of nitrogen and the entire quantity of phosphorous and potassium at the time of sowing. Top dress one third of nitrogen at the knee-high stage and the remaining one third at the pre tasseling stage. It may be noted that application of nitrogen fertilizer more than recommended dose is no substitute for FYM [7, 8].
Decreased Zn availability visuals emerge on middle leaves (2nd or 3rd from tip) of plants which include white or light yellow band and reddish veins on both sides of the midrib [7, 8]. Remedial measures are described in \nTable 8\n:
Method of application | \nZnSO4 (33%) | \nZnSO4 (21%) | \n
---|---|---|
Broadcasting | \n16.25 kilogram/ha | \n25 kilogram/ha | \n
Foliar application | \n1.88 + 0.94 kilogram unslaked lime | \n3 + 1.5 kilogram unslaked lime | \n
Remedial measures for Zn deficiency in maize.
It refers to simultaneous application of irrigation water and fertilizers by drip irrigation. By this method, FUE can go up to 80%. In drip irrigation model for spring maize, certain recommendations are made in respect to fertilizer application along with drip irrigation. For the medium fertility soils application of 200 kg of urea, 80 kg of mono ammonium phosphate (MAP) and 40 kg of muriate of potash (white)/ha is recommended. Start fertigation 12 days after sowing of maize and apply 25% of the fertilizers in four equal splits during first month on weekly basis. Rest of the fertilizer should be applied in equal splits on weekly basis upto first week of May. Furthermore, in sub-surface drip irrigation, fertilizer can be applied to maize crop when grown in maize-wheat-summer moong cropping system. For instance, Apply sub surface drip irrigation at 3 days interval for maize and summer moong with fertigation of 80% recommended dose of NPK. In maize, apply 1/5 dose of NPK at sowing and fertigate remaining P and K in 5 splits and N in 7 splits at 9 days interval starting from 15 DAS. Apply sub surface drip irrigation at 7 days interval up to mid-February and thereafter at 5 days interval to wheat with fertigation of 80% recommended dose of NPK. In wheat, apply 1/5th dose of NPK at sowing and fertigated the remaining NPK in 8 splits at 7 days interval starting from crown root initiation. In summer moong, fertigated NPK dose in 5 equal splits at 6 days interval starting from 10 DAS. Use urea, mono ammonium 119 phosphate and muriate of potash as source of N, P and K, respectively [7, 8].
\nIPM (\nFigure 7\n) is highly efficient and eco-friendly strategy which includes integrated use of all possible alternates that can be biological, physical, cultural or chemical for controlling pests. Growers who are aware of the potential for pest infestation follow a four-tiered approach. The four steps include: set action thresholds, monitor and identify pests, prevention and control [11, 13].
\n
\n
\n
\n
Components of IPM.
This approach encompasses use of living entities for the control of insect-pests and diseases. Living entities can be predators, herbivores or parasites along with intensive human interference. For controlling maize borer and other insects, apply bio-insecticides like Neemazal (1%) @ 300 ml/ha. The maize borer can also be managed by using tricho-cards twice having 40,000 eggs of Corcyra parasitized by
\n
Summer plowing of field.
Destruction of perennating stages in stubbles, cobs, stalks.
Cut and bury the severely infested plant parts.
Spray the crop 2–3 weeks after sowing as soon as borer injury to the leaves is noticed with Coragen 18.5 SC (chlorantraniliprole) @ 75 ml using 150 L water/ha with knap-sack sprayer [7, 8, 11].
Damage of maize crop by maize stem borer.
\n
Spring crop should be sown between January 20 and February 15.
Seed should be treated with gaucho (imidacloprid) 600 FS @ 6 ml/kg seed [7].
Attack of shoot fly in maize crop.
\n
Collection and destruction of young larvae by cutting and burying the attacked plant parts.
\n
In recent years, non-associated pests (\nFigures 10\n and \n11\n) have been reported in different parts of India with the details as below (\nTable 9\n) [3]:
\nAttack of army worm in maize crop.
Attack of pollen eating beetle on maize tassels.
Pest name | \nPlant part infested | \nRegion | \n
---|---|---|
\n | \nCob | \nSouthern India | \n
\n | \nPollen | \nNorthern India | \n
Recently reported pest infestations in maize.
\n
\n
Maize crop infested with banded leaf and sheath blight.
\n
Maydis leaf blight attack in maize crop.
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Removal of secondary host, that is,
Proper drainage of the fields.
Spray mancozeb @ 500 g/ha in 250 L of water after about a fortnight of sowing. Give two more sprays at 10-day intervals. Grow recommended varieties [7, 8, 11].
Maize crop attacked by brown stripe downy mildew.
For use as grain, cobs should be harvested when grains are at about 20% moisture. Whereas to consume as sweet corn, harvesting should be done when tassel starts turning brown and swelling of cob initiates. In case of baby corn, harvest young cob when the silk is near emergence [6].
\nSystem in which >2 crops are cultivated in proper sequence on given piece of land during a year. Efficiency of the system is determined by a number of factors namely, manpower, choice of crop/cultivar, availability of irrigation facilities etc. technical competence, need based farm activities play a critical role in performance of multiple cropping. Following strategies can be adopted for successful adoption of intensive cropping:
\n\nMaize crop can be cultivated along with other crops as intercrops for better utilization of resources, enhanced income per unit area and time basis. For instance, intercropping of 1 row of fodder cowpea or maize, groundnut and soybean in
Crops like wheat, paddy, potato, sugarcane, chickpea, berseem, barley, oats etc. can be grown successfully after harvest of maize crop. Following are some of the most appropriate maize based cropping systems [2, 8]:
Cowpea/pearl millet/maize (fodder)
Spring maize-basmati-wheat
Maize/rice-wheat
Maize/rice-potato-wheat
Maize-potato/
Maize-potato-onion
Maize-potato-mentha
Maize-wheat/celery-pearl millet fodder
Maize/rice-
Maize-vegetable pea/potato-spring maize
Maize-potato-sugarcane-wheat
Maize-wheat-sugarcane
Maize drying is a vital operation which involves removal of moisture from the cobs/grains. It is carried out because high moisture grain will deteriorate rapidly due to grain respiration and heating, germination of grains, mold (fungal) growth and subsequent incidence of mycotoxins (e.g. aflatoxin) and increase insect multiplication and damage. The optimum moisture content of maize should be 14% or less [14].
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A portable maize dryer 3 ton capacity has been developed by Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana as per international norms and recommended to dry maize grains from a moisture level 25 to 15% in 8–10 hours. This cross-flow dryer has three pass, indirect type diesel fired heating system. A control panel to regulate and display the temperature of heated air, exit air and speed of air blower with variable frequency drive is provided for better operation. The dryer can maintain air temperature 60–75°C with the grain temperature of 45°C for seed and 60°C for commercial purpose. The dryer is capable of drying maize grain @ 1.0–1.5% per hour consuming about 4 L/hour. of diesel initially for 1 hour. A provision of heat recovery from flue gases ensures higher fuel efficiency with reduced diesel consumption to about 2 L/hour, later on. The dryer can be operated both with tractor PTO or electricity. One each of skilled and unskilled labor is required to operate this dryer [8].
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Adoption of production techniques namely, selection of cultivars, irrigation techniques, INM. IPM and other technological interventions certainly prove propitious in achieving the potential yield targets.
Maize crop provides better opportunity to scientific community in exploration of resource conservation technologies like zero tillage, partial root drying irrigation, integrated pest management etc.
Characteristically, maize crop can fit well in diverse crop rotations and intercropping options, which enhances its preference in intensive agriculture.
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\\n\\nAs a gold Open Access publisher, an Open Access Publishing Fee is payable on acceptance following peer review of the manuscript. In return, we provide high quality publishing services and exclusive benefits for all contributors. IntechOpen is the trusted publishing partner of over 128,000 international scientists and researchers.
\n\nThe Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) is payable only after your full chapter, monograph or Compacts monograph is accepted for publication.
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\n\n*These prices do not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT as long as provision of the VAT registration number is made during the application process. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
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