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1. Introduction
The performance, health, and well-being of livestock are strongly affected by climate. High ambient temperatures, high direct and indirect solar radiation and humidity are environmental stressing factors that impose a strain on animals. Among the environmental variables affecting livestock, heat stress seems to be one of the most intriguing factors hampering animal production in many regions of the world. Even though new knowledge on the animal responses to the environment continually arises, managing livestock to reduce the impact of climate remains a challenge. Considerable efforts are, therefore, needed from livestock researchers to counter the impact of environmental stresses on livestock production. Besides ensuring the livelihood security to our poor and marginal farmers, stress mitigation can also improve the economy of livestock industry as a whole. Hence, it is crucial to understand the impact of environmental stress on livestock production and reproduction. These efforts may help in identifying the appropriate targets for developing suitable mitigation strategies.
Thermal stress effects on livestock are of multifactorial nature. It directly alters and impairs the cellular functions in various tissues of the body and the redistribution of blood flow, as well as the reduction in food intake, which ultimately results in reduced production performance. Reproductive functions of livestock are particularly vulnerable to climate change; it has been established that large ruminants are more prone to heat stress compared with small ruminants [1]. Heat stress is the major cause for infertility and reproductive inefficiency in livestock, resulting in profound economic losses. Heat stress reduces the libido, fertility and embryonic survival in livestock and favors the occurrence of diseases in neonates with reduced immunity. Heat stress affects the fertility and reproductive performance of livestock species through compromising the functions of the reproductive tract, disrupting the hormonal balance, decreasing the oocyte quality, and thereby decreasing embryo development and survival [2–4]. In the tropical and subtropical regions, during the hot season, both the poor quality of oocytes and embryos results in decreased conception rate and subsequently with more days open resulting in huge economic losses to the dairy industry [5]. The high ambient temperature and relative humidity directly affect reproduction by altering or impairing various tissues or organs of the reproductive system of animal [6]. The threshold level of temperature humidity index (THI) for the high performance in terms of milk yield and reproduction is around THI 72 in tropical and subtropical climates. However, recent studies on THI in temperate climate emphasized that the THI lower than 68 is suitable for cattle performance and welfare [7].
This chapter is an attempt to cover in detail the impact of various heat stress factors on livestock reproduction, in both the female and male. Apart from these influences, the chapter also elaborates on available mitigation strategies directed to sustain livestock reproduction in the changing climate scenario.
2. Impact of heat stress on female reproduction
High environmental temperatures impair the female reproductive process at various stages of pubertal development, conception and embryonic mortality. Stress inhibits the reproductive performance of livestock species by activating the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, which subsequently excites the pituitary gland to release adrenocorticotropic hormone (ATCH) (Figure 1). The ACTH stimulates the release of glucocorticoids and catecholamines, which act extensively to alleviate the effect of stress. However, ACTH-stimulated glucocorticoid release is responsible for an inhibitory effect on the reproductive axis. Heat stress reduces the length and intensity of estrus, alters follicular development and increases the rate of apoptosis in the antral and pre-antral follicles. Extreme environmental temperatures delay the onset of puberty in male and female animals. Furthermore, heat stress during follicular recruitment suppresses the subsequent growth and development to ovulation [8]. Changes in the follicular growth disturb further progress and function of the oocytes [9, 10]. The chronic release of ACTH, such as the associated with heat stress, inhibits the ovulation and follicular development by altering the efficiency of follicular selection and dominance and glucocorticoids are critical to mediating this inhibitory effect on reproduction [11]. Further, high level of glucocorticoids during heat stress directly inhibits the meiotic maturation of oocytes, and, in addition, corticotropic releasing hormone (CRH) inhibits the ovarian steroidogenesis, derived of the decrease in the secretion of luteinizing hormone (LH). The consequent decrease in estradiol results in reduced length and intensity of estrus expression [12].
Figure 1.
Impact of heat stress on female reproductive performance.
2.1. Reproductive hormones in female livestock
The reproductive hormones play a vital role as they regulate various stages of development and function in the female reproductive system. The high ambient temperature and solar radiation as a result of climate change may affect the reproductive rhythm via the hypothalamic-hypophyseal-ovarian axis [13]. Various studies also revealed a significant negative correlation between environmental temperature and the reproductive hormone concentration, which in turn cause compromised reproductive efficiency in farm animals [14, 15]. The foremost important factors that regulate the ovarian activity are the gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH), from the hypothalamus, and the gonadotropins (FSH and LH), from anterior hypophysis.
In cattle, the immediate 16 h exposure to a higher temperature (40°C) on day 12 of the estrous cycle lead to a significant reduction of GnRH-induced FSH secretion [16], whereas tonic FSH secretion was elevated probably due to reduced inhibition of negative feedback from small follicles [8]. Heat stress decreases LH pulse amplitude and frequency in cattle with low estradiol, thereby compromising the maturation and ovulation of the dominant follicles, while low tonic LH levels also hinder luteal development by inhibiting follicular growth and turnover in cyclic cows [2]. Furthermore, the decrease in the pre-ovulatory release of LH during heat stress reduced the expression of estrus behavior and delayed ovulation. Also in goats, exposition to high environmental temperatures induced lower follicular fluid and plasma estradiol concentrations and reduced LH receptor levels following lagged ovulation [8]. Estradiol secretion in the ovarian follicle is depressed under heat stress, primarily due to reduced theca cell androstenedione production associated with low 17α-hydroxylase expression. In addition, reduced granulosa cells aromatase activity and viability also contribute to poor estradiol secretion. In the case of dominant follicles, subsequent plasma progesterone concentrations are reduced during heat stress and result in the small size of ovulatory follicles with low tonic LH stimulation of luteinization and steroidogenesis [17]. Moreover, low progesterone secretion limits the endometrial function and subsequent embryo development. The increased level of circulating prolactin leads to suspension of estrous cycles and infertility during heat stress [18–20].
2.2. Follicular growth and development
Heat stress damages the developing follicles whenever the core body temperature exceeds 40°C [9]. Heat stress alters the follicular development by reducing steroid hormone secretion, which disrupts the oocyte growth, reduces the growth of dominant follicles and increased growth of subordinate follicles. Heat stressed lactating Holstein cows present smaller follicular diameter compared to non-stressed cows (14.5 vs. 16.4 mm, respectively) showed and also reduced fluid volume (1.1 vs.1.9 ml, respectively) [21]. In addition, heat stress was associated with reduced follicular dominance by prompting numerous large follicles with diameters above 10 mm, with prolonged dominance of ovulatory follicles [10]. Thus, the selection and dominance of normal follicles could be disturbed by high tonic follicular stimulating hormone (FSH) availability [2]. Low LH and the negative animal energy balance during summer prevent the maturation and ovulation of dominant follicles [17]. As the prolonged follicular dominance disrupts the normal oocyte maturation and reduces their developmental competence, the development of small dominant follicles during higher temperature results in ovulation of the infertile oocyte or sub-functional corpora lutea. The regression of the premature dominant follicle before attaining the larger size leads to a substantial reduction in ovulation percentage [8, 11, 17].
2.3. Effects of heat stress on estrus incidences
The seasonal cycle of reproduction in female animals is primarily controlled by the photoperiod, and it was found to be affected drastically by climate changes. Some studies proved the negative influence of heat stress on estrus incidence and duration and hence on estrus detection [6]. The length and intensity of estrus are inversely associated with the environmental temperatures, with higher temperatures triggering an increase prevalence of anestrus and silent heat in farm animals [18, 22]. A significant reduction in the interestrous interval was reported in Japanese black cattle during summer (21.5 days) compared to winter (23.4 days) [23]. Also, Bulbul and Ataman [24] report a decrease in estrus occurrences in cattle with an ambient temperature above 20.5°C. Likewise, decreased estrus duration and delayed onset of estrus were reported in heat stressed Bharat Merino ewes, which were attributed to abnormal LH pulsatility and lower estrogen synthesis during heat stress condition [25]. Malpura ewes exposed to multiple stresses (heat stress, nutritional stress, and walking stress) recorded lower estrous percentage and estrus duration in compared to control (41.7 vs. 66.67% and 14.4 vs. 32 h, respectively) [26, 27]. Similarly, a lower rate of estrus detection was reported in summer compared to spring and winter in dairy cattle. Contrasting to cattle, buffalos exhibit estrus when the ambient temperature is low, with THI value of less than 70 [1, 28].
In addition to ambient temperature, the humidity and solar irradiation also affected the expression of reproductive rhythm in buffaloes and cattle [29]. A diurnal rhythm of estrus behavior has been observed in the majority of Murrah buffaloes, with 60% of estrus exhibited between 22.00 and 6.00 h [28].
2.4. Sexual behavior
Sexual behavior acts as a core indicator of the reproductive activity in livestock females. It was found to be negatively influenced by environmental stressors like elevated temperature [30]. Reduced sexual behavior is reported in livestock during the hottest parts of the day. Wilson et al. [31] suggested that heat stress inhibits the follicular growth during the pre-ovulatory period of proestrus and reduces the intensity of estrus signs by decreasing the level of estradiol. Heat stress also modifies cow behavior, such as decreased walking time during estrus, which contributes to poor estrus detection in dairy cows during summer compared to winter [22]. Cows are less likely to exhibit standing heat during day time in summer months and often shows estrus at night hours when the ambient temperature is low [32]. Upadhyay et al. [28] reported that the low level of estradiol on the day of estrus also leads to poor expression of heat in Indian buffaloes during the summer period, favoring feeble estrus detection in buffalos during the summer season [29]. In cows, behavioral estrus is markedly reduced in summer, when THI is around 78 [28, 29, 33], while the incidence of anestrus and silent ovulation increases [34]. The cows in estrus mount more frequently during winter compared to summer, when detection of estrus is challenging. Furthermore, Japanese Black cattle exposed to heat stress showed lower locomotor activity during estrus, which was attributed to a reduced estradiol 17β production [23].
2.5. Effect on oocyte competence
Heat stress reduces oocyte developmental competence by affecting growth and maturation through an increase in oxidative damage and apoptotic cell death, as well as by inducing irreversible changes on cytoskeleton and meiotic spindle [10]. The elevated temperature may negatively affect the oocyte growth, protein synthesis and the formation of transcripts required for subsequent embryonic development [35]. Reduced mRNA content and storage protein for early embryonic development along with altered membrane integrity affects signal transduction and protein transport. Therefore, prolonged follicular dominance leads to premature meiosis and aged oocytes with the poor developmental prospect. Incomplete dominance could result in ovulation of an aged follicle containing oocytes with reduced competence. Among other effects, incompetent oocytes become transcriptionally inactive by reaching a diameter of 110 μm and lose the ability to synthesize heat shock protein 70 (HSP70) in response to heat shock [36].
In summer, heat stressed Holstein cows exhibit lower proportion of oocytes and cleaved embryos that could have otherwise developed into blastocysts by day 8 [11]. Oocytes exposed in vitro to different temperatures (38.5, 40 and 41°C) showed altered maturation, namely a decreased in the percentage of mature oocytes retrieved when cultured at 40 and 41°C, compared with the proportion obtained during culture at 38.5°C [31]. Oocytes cultured at 41°C arrested their development at metaphase 1 stage [37]. Other in vitro experiments demonstrated that under elevated temperature conditions the oocytes evidence a decrease in protein synthesis, disturbed microfilament and microtubule architecture, disorganization of the meiotic spindle and increased incidence of induced cell death due to apoptosis [35]. The protein impairment and the increased production of free radical in oocytes alter the zona pellucida layer and the oocyte cytoplasm which in turn impair sperm penetration. Therefore, reduced oocyte competence and stress induced oocyte lesions in the early stages of follicular growth result in poor fertility rate [2].
However, even though Bos indicus cows exhibited reduced oocyte quality during chronic heat exposure, they do not show any significant changes in the oocyte quality or competence during acute heat stress [38, 39]. This suggests that either the animal genetics or the length of heat stress may determine the impact of heat stress in cattle reproduction. Thereby, multifactorial mechanisms are involved in the reduction of fertility of domestic animals during heat stress [6].
2.6. Fertility
The high yielding lactating cows are more adversely affected by heat stress than heifers because of their increased metabolism, which generates greater internal heat production thus lowering their fertility rate in summer and autumn compared to winter periods [36]. Heat stress before insemination has been associated with decreased fertility in cattle and sheep [11]. Fertility decreases in buffaloes exposed to THI above 75 in subtropical climatic condition as compared to cattle, since buffaloes are more sensitive to heat stress [6]. The increase of uterine temperature by 0.5°C during hot days causes a decrease in the rate of fertilization [30] since in severely heat stressed cows most damages over the conceptus occur between estrus and day 7 of pregnancy [39].
Heat stress-related infertility is a current worldwide concern in the livestock industry, particularly in dairy cattle. A report reveals a higher percentage of reduction in conception rate during summer months as compared to cooler months [40]. The elevated environmental temperature on the day of insemination is negatively associated with conception rates [41–43]. Impaired conception was associated with heat stress in livestock, either during the breeding period or 42 days before and 40 days after insemination [42]. The conception rate in high yielding Israeli cows was 45% in winter and 20% in summer [2, 44, 45]. Also, Chebel et al. [46] reported a 20–27% drop in conception rates and a decrease in 90-day non-return rate to the first service in lactating dairy cows during summer. In dairy cows, the percentage of conception rate is reduced by 4.6% for each unit increase in THI above 70 and in practical reality, conception rate was often declined to less than 10% during summer [32, 47].
2.7. Embryonic growth and development
The embryonic loss is another important factor that affects fertility in cattle, and bovine embryos are sensitive to maternal heat stress during the first 2 weeks after breeding [17, 36]. A major source for a reduction in embryonic survival induced by heat stress may be due to the adverse effects of elevated body temperatures on developing zygotes and embryos. High ambient temperatures during oocyte maturation and ovulation or during the first 3–7 day of pregnancy reduced the embryonic viability and development. Although elevated temperatures affect the pre-attachment stage of embryos, the degree of the effect decreases as the embryo develops. Heat stress causes embryonic death by the interfering with protein synthesis, oxidative cell damage, reduction in successful pregnancy recognition and expression of stress-related genes associated with apoptosis. The exposure of lactating cows to heat stress after the 1st day of estrus has reduced the development of embryos to blastocyst stage after 8th day of estrus [39], the deleterious effects of heat stress on the embryos being most evident in early stages of its development [48]. In vitro or in vivo exposure of embryos to high temperatures until day 7 (blastocyst stage) is accompanied by lower pregnancy rates up to day 30 and higher rates of embryonic loss occurred on day 42 of gestation [48]. Embryos at day 1 are more susceptible to maternal heat stress than embryos at days 3–7. In addition, heat stressed embryo at the time of post-implantation period was found to be associated with foetal malnutrition and various other teratologic conditions in cows, which may ultimately culminate in embryonic death [22].
2.8. Impact on pregnancy
Heat stress negatively affects the ability of an animal to become pregnant through many mechanisms affecting fertilization, follicular development and early embryonic development (Figure 2). Ryan et al. [49] reported that when the rectal temperature of the animals increased from 38.5 to 40°C at 72 h after insemination, pregnancy rate decreased up to 50%. Amundson et al. [45] also found a significant reduction in the pregnancy rate in beef cattle during summer (62%) when the THI was equal to or above 72.9. Likewise, Amundson et al. [50] reported 3.2% decrease in pregnancy rates in Bos taurus cattle for each unit increase in THI above 70, and a decrease of 3.5% for each degree increase in ambient temperature above 23.4°C. Further, heat stress during pregnancy slows down the growth of the foetus, which was attributed to the decreased uterine blood supply [51], which hampers supply of nutrients and hormones to the conceptus [45]. Slow growing embryos fail to signal pregnancy to the maternal organism in due time. Therefore, the endometrial prostaglandin F2alpha (PGF2α) secretion tends to increase during heat stress and trigger luteolysis, thereby threatening the maintenance of pregnancy [29]. Each additional raise of 1.05 unit in the THI over 72, during the peri–implantation period, during 21–30 days and up to 90 days of gestation, increases the chance of pregnancy losses [39]. The placental weight and hormonal secretions are reduced and the vascular resistance is increased during heat stress, which further affects the reduction in perfusion of nutrients to the foetus [23].
Figure 2.
Impact of heat stress on pregnancy in livestock.
2.9. Impact on maternal recognition of pregnancy
The maximum pregnancy losses due to heat stress occur during the early embryonic period of 8–17 days of pregnancy [52, 53]. In addition, heat stress compromises the embryonic growth up to day 17, which was considered a critical period for production of interferon-tau by the embryo. The quantity of interferon-tau is crucial to reduce the pulsatile secretion of PGF2α thus facilitating the persistence of the corpus luteum for the maintenance of pregnancy. Hence, low-quality embryo and poor quality CL are important causes of early embryonic death during heat stress. The heat stress during late gestation period in dairy cows resulted in lower birth weight calves with reduced milk yield, which is associated with a reduced thyroxine, prolactin and growth hormone [54].
2.10. Pre-partum period and days open
The dry period is a critical period, in which the mammary gland involution, the rapid fetal growth and induction of lactation occurs, with subsequent mammary development [36]. Heat stress in the cow impairs the placental hormones secretion, which can negatively affect the intrauterine fetal growth and reduce milk yield [10]. Heat stress in mid to late pregnancy can affect endocrine responses that may increase foetal abortions, shorten the gestation length, lower calf birth weight, and reduce follicular and oocyte maturation in postpartum estrous cycles [55]. Pre-partum heat stress may also decrease thyroid hormones and placental estrogen levels, while increasing non-esterified fatty acid concentrations in blood that alters the growth of the udder and placenta, placental angiogenesis, nutrients supply to the unborn calf and subsequent milk production [10, 54].
The major impact of heat stress on postpartum involves a delay of the return to gestation due to decreased submission rate and low conception/pregnancy rates [55], as already mentioned. Ray et al. [56] reported that first lactation cows are more sensitive to summer stress with the significantly longer postpartum period than cows with multiple lactations. On the other hand, Lewis et al. [57] reported that the heat stress did not alter postpartum days from calving to first estrus, in clear contradiction with Jonsson et al. [58], who suggested that the heat stress induced reduction in dry matter intake may lead to increased negative energy balance, therefore prolonging the postpartum period and reducing the fertility in dairy cows. Further, the negative energy balance decreased the plasma concentrations of insulin and glucose and caused delayed ovulation [33]. The poor folliculogenesis and delayed ovulations during heat stress resulted in longer calving interval, reduced the birth weight and milk yield [51]. Further, longer service period in buffaloes during summer may be due to the higher incidence of silent estrus [1].
3. Male reproductive performance
Bulls are generally considered to be half of the herd and its fertility is directly associated with the fertilization of oocyte to produce a good, viable and genetically potential concepts. In mammalian species, the males have a unique physiological mechanism of testicular thermoregulation to maintain its reproductive activity in adverse environmental conditions [59]. The increased density of sweat glands in the scrotum of ruminants is crucial to the efficiency of local thermoregulation. The testicular temperature in bulls must be 4–5°C below the rectal temperature, and this difference in temperature is essential for an efficient sperm production [60]. The optimal ambient temperature for efficient sperm production could be approximately 15–20°C. Males are highly susceptible to the pooled effect of high ambient temperature, relative humidity, solar radiation and the wind, and this reduces both the quantity and quality of sperm production, thereby decreasing the male fertility [6, 61] (Figure 3). Also, high temperatures interfere with the oxidative metabolism of glucose in spermatic cells as a result of mitochondrial dysfunctions and the accumulation of reactive oxygen species and increase lipid peroxidation which is reflected in an increase of sperm primary defects [62].
Figure 3.
Impact of heat stress on the reproductive performances of livestock.
The scrotum of bull has thin skin with low fat, low pelage, highly vascularized [59], and its participation in the thermoregulation mechanism is coupled with physical mechanism of counter-current mechanism for heat exchange and blood flow regulation centered in the testicular cord. This complex mechanism allows the maintenance of testicular temperature between 2 and 6°C below body temperature [63]. The local thermoregulation is approbated by relaxation of the dartos (in the scrotum) which together with distension of the cremaster muscle (in the testicular cord) will increase the distance between the testes and the body cavity [63]. Marai et al. [64] reported that the length of the tunica dartos was greater in summer and autumn than in winter, in rams. Further, it has been established that a high ambient temperature during summer significantly increases the scrotal skin temperature in males. In spite of the efficiency of this mechanism, exposure of the animals to high environmental temperature changes the thermoregulatory mechanisms depending on the thermal gradient and may cause a degeneration of testicular parenchyma which was associated with subfertility and infertility in males, which will negatively impact semen quality and quantity with subsequent reduction in ruminants fertility [63].
The heat stress may also cause a temporary interruption in the semen production, sperm motility and an increase in the sperm secondary defects [65]. Some reports refer that the scrotal skin temperature exhibits highly negative correlation with serum testosterone, libido, sperm motility, sperm concentration and conception rate while it was positively associated with dead and total abnormal sperm [64, 66]. High testicular temperature also results in spermatogonia apoptosis in the seminiferous tubules, degeneration of Sertoli and Leydig cells and disruption of DNA strands, particularly in pachytene spermatocytes and round spermatids [55]. Further, direct exposure of the testes to high temperature also alters the spermatogenic cycle affecting the quality of ejaculate [22]. The changes in libido and sexual behavior in bulls are governed by an imbalance in hypothalamus-hypophyseal-gonadal axis culminating in low testosterone level, sperm output, and motility. In addition, semen attributes like sperm concentration, sperm motility, sperm viability, sperm morphology and acrosome integrity are negatively influenced by heat stress in bulls and bucks, which may ultimately lead to infertility [46, 55].
3.1. Spermatogenesis
The major indicators of sperm production capacity and spermatogenic functions are scrotal circumference and testicular consistency, tone, size and weight that are usually inversely related to higher ambient temperatures. Sahni and Roy [67] reported that the maximum and minimum temperatures for optimum spermatogenesis are 29.4 and 15.6°C, respectively. The elevated temperature hampers the process of spermatogenesis by degeneration of sperm cells and subsequently reduces the fertilizing ability of spermatozoa. Further, seminal characteristics are affected by high temperature and humidity, which affects the spermiogenic phase 18 days before semen collection [68].
Moreover, spermatogenesis is also extremely sensitive to ionizing irradiation and relative humidity above 50% can destroy the proliferating spermatogonia [50]. The analysis of semen obtained from heat stressed bulls showed a reduction in volume and motility along with numerous secondary sperm defects [65]. In addition, the total number of dead and abnormal sperm cells also increased in response to heat stress. The histological sections of testes from heat stressed males showed unchanged or increased interstitium while the spermatogenic elements were seldom found. Further, heat stress was reported to reduce the breeding efficiency in males as the number of testicular cells like secondary spermatocytes and spermatids, the ratio of Sertoli cells to other cells and the diameter of the seminiferous tubules are significantly reduced [35]. Kastelic et al. [69] reported that the minimal temperature gradient between proximal and distal poles of the scrotum in warm periods causes increased sperm damage, mass activity, sperm motility, and vigour. Exposure of the bull to extreme environmental temperature tends to damage the primary spermatocytes, spermatids, and spermatozoa. However, cold stress is likely to be less damaging than higher temperature, and it further was established that the animals during cold stress are able to maintain a scrotal temperature through scrotal thermoregulation [70].
3.2. Semen characteristics
As a consequence of heat stress in males, the biological phenomena such as sexual activity, endocrine secretions and testicular function, spermatogenesis and physical and chemical characteristics of semen are affected. Extremes of environmental temperature may cause low sperm quality, which is closely related to female low fertility, as a result of low fertilization rates and increased embryonic mortality. Abdel-Hafez [71] reported that the reaction time, percentage of sperm abnormalities, dead sperm and acrosomal damage were positively associated with testicular temperature while semen pH, ejaculate volume, sperm motility and sperm concentration (×109 ml) were negatively related. The semen volume, number of spermatozoa and motile sperm cells per ejaculation of bulls are lower in summer than in winter and spring. Nichi et al. [62] reported a higher percentage of major sperm defects during summer than winter in Simmental and Nellore bulls. Conversely, Karagiannidis et al. [72] refer an improvement of semen characteristics of bucks reared in Greece during summer and autumn. The critical temperature for the inhibition of spermatogenesis was established to be around 29.4°C under continuous exposure where the higher temperature can alter the scrotal thermo-regulatory mechanism [73].
High temperature can also affect semen production and quality during epididymal maturation or spermatogenesis, not only at the moment of semen collection but up to 70 days before collection. Even though the heat stress has minimal effects on the testicular endocrinology in bulls, the same level of heat stress alters the steroidogenesis in boars [74]. Coulter and Lunstra [75] reported that the percentage of sperm motility was 42% at the temperature gradient of 2–4°C whereas Menegassi et al. [68] reported 53% with a temperature gradient of 0.9°C during summer. The bulls representing an abnormal temperature pattern during heat stress enhanced the percentage of cytoplasmic droplets in sperm cells by 13.4%.
Pigs are very sensitive to hot conditions due to the low sweating capacity. Kunavongkrita et al. [76] reported lower semen volume with less sperm concentration (174 × 106) per mL during summer in comparison with winter (266 × 106) in bulls. The biochemical elements of semen such as fructose, citric acid, and sodium and potassium, total phosphorus and calcium concentration are reduced significantly during heat stress. The semen quality parameters are decreasing with higher lipid peroxidation production as an effect of oxidative stress during summer. The pH of the semen also showed high correlation with environmental temperatures. Further, reduced testosterone concentration was recorded in males exposed to heat stress apart from reducing the reaction time [77].
3.3. Effects of season on semen quality
Sexual behavior, semen quality and quantity are the main factors limiting the male reproductive efficiency in a year. Possible fluctuations in seminal quality are associated with factors such as breed, age, seasonality, temperature, photoperiod and other factors of different etiologies [78]. The month and season of the year show a significant effect on semen quality parameters. The semen output increases when the relative humidity is around 50% and decreases markedly in sperm concentration and total sperm output at temperature of 37°C with 80% relative humidity [79]. The semen volume and sperm concentration are lowest in the summer and gradually increase during the spring and reach a peak in late autumn [78]. Heat stressed bulls produced low quality semen with high number of abnormal heads and cytoplasmic droplets during summer [80]. The seasonal infertility in rams during summer months was attributed to an early occurrence of the acrosome reaction, which could be due to a decreased in acrosomal stabilizing protein in the seminal plasma [55].
4. Mitigation strategies to ameliorate the impact of heat stress
The effects of heat stress on livestock cause huge economic losses to the farmers, but there are few opportunities to recover some of the losses by adapting suitable strategies to mitigate heat stress (Figure 3). There are three major key components to sustain the productivity of animals in hot environment: through physical modifications of environment, nutritional management and genetic development of breeds that are less sensitive to heat stress [5]. These strategies may either be used individually or in combination to obtain better results by providing optimum productive environment for farm animals. In addition, summer infertility may also be treated with advanced reproductive technologies comprising gonadotropins, timed artificial insemination and embryo transfer. Strategies that are cost effective and involve indigenous knowledge have the better success rate in adopting those strategies by the farmers.
4.1. Physical modification of environment
In general, livestock environmental management is an emerging area in animal science, which is getting more attention in the era of climatic change, attempting to provide a suitable microclimate to ensure optimum production by preventing the adverse environmental impacts on animal production systems. Primary means of altering the environment may be broadly divided into two categories comprising (i) provision of shade and (ii) evaporative cooling techniques [6]. The environmental modifications such as shade and cooling systems are critical in arid and semi-arid zones during heat stress to maintain milk production, milk component levels, reproductive performance and animal welfare [81]. The basics of providing shade are attributed to the efforts in reducing heat load from direct solar irradiation in livestock. These shading structures could be either natural or artificial. Trees are considered to be the most cost effective methodology to provide shade since they protect from the sun and capture radiation by evaporation of humidity in the leaves. Buffington et al. [82] pointed out that painting of upper part of the shade unit with white color and installing a 2.5 cm thick of isolating material may considerably reduce solar radiation. The height of shades in the corral must be from 3.6 to 4.2 m in order to guarantee reduction in solar radiation. It has been established that shading reduces the incoming radiant heat load by 30% or more and shading of the feed and water also offered production advantages for British and European breeds of cattle [83]. The cooling systems alleviate heat load from livestock by using the principle of evaporation, combining water misting and forced ventilation through use of spray and fans, and are frequently placed inside free-stall barns or under shades in open space corrals. Milk production and reproductive performance of dairy cattle are improved by the use of an evaporative cooling system [84]. Furthermore, the animals that are cooled with sprinklers consume more feed with less quantity of water, which has increased milk, fat, protein and production performance [85]. Fogging and misting systems use fine droplets of water, which are immediately dispersed into the air stream by quick evaporation and cool the surrounding environment.
4.2. Nutritional management of heat stress
Ensuring appropriate nutritional level to the livestock is crucial to optimize livestock production in the changing climatic condition. Importance should be given for providing balanced nutrition to ensure optimum reproduction in animals as the energy balance are closely associated with their fertility [86]. The environmental temperatures are highest in arid and semi-arid regions where the available feed resources are both of low quality and quantity which directly affect the reproductive performance of the livestock species. Combating the heat stress effects on the metabolism is therefore very essential, as animals subjected to mild to severe heat stress needs to be supplemented 7–25% extra maintenance requirements [87]. Therefore, to meet their energy requirements, it is essential to enhance the nutrient density by feeding high quality forage, concentrates and fat supplementations. In addition to the supplementation of low fiber, high protein diet was also found to be helpful by reducing the water requirement for metabolism. Feeding of feed additives stabilizes the distorted rumen environment and also improves the energy utilization [88]. Moreover, fat content in the diet has favorable effects on concentrations of cholesterol, progesterone, rate of synthesis and metabolism of PGF2 α, follicle growth and pregnancy rates in dairy herds [89]. Also, dietary supplements of vitamins, trace elements and minerals can ameliorate the adverse effects of heat stress. Vitamin E and selenium injections reduce the rectal temperature and body weight loss in sheep during summer [19]. Supplementation of inorganic chromium in the feed of buffalo calves reared under high ambient temperature improved heat tolerance and the animal immune status without affecting nutrient intake and growth performance. It was also demonstrated that the adverse effect of heat stress on the productive and reproductive efficiency of Malpura ewes were reversed through mineral mixture and antioxidant supplementation [19]. DiGiacomo et al. [90] also reported that the feeding of betaine, a trimethyl form of glycine, ameliorate heat stress in sheep. Feeding buffers during heat stress is highly beneficial to animals, since buffers assist in the prevention of low rumen pH and rumen acidosis [91]. Also, the addition of common macro minerals Na+ and K+ in feed increases dry matter intake and production performance [91]. Inclusion of ascorbic acid in the feed ameliorates, heat stress induced problems like poor immunity, feed intake, weight gain, oxidative stress, body temperature, fertility and semen quality [92]. In addition, supplementation of L-ascorbic acid, both singly and in combination with l-tocopherol acetate, was found to be helpful to heat-stressed layers [92].
4.3. Genetic selection of heat-tolerant breeds
Scientific advances allow improving the environmental modifications and nutritional management in the view of alleviating the impacts of thermal stress on animal performance. However, long-term strategies are foreseen for adaptation to climate change, namely regarding the differences in thermal tolerance existing between livestock breeds, endowed with tools to select thermo-tolerant animals. However, the selective breeding of dairy cows for higher milk production has increased the susceptibility of cows to heat stress by compromising the summer production and reproduction. Furthermore, selection for high milk yield reduced the thermoregulatory range of the dairy cow and resulted in heat stress which has magnified the seasonal depression in fertility [15]. Hence, the identification of heat-tolerant animals within high-producing breeds will be useful only if these animals are able to maintain high productivity and survivability when exposed to heat stress conditions. Cattle with shorter hair, hair of greater diameter and lighter coat color are more adapted to hot environments than those with longer hair coats and darker colors [93]. This phenotype has been characterized in B. taurus in tropical environment, and this dominant gene is associated with an increased sweating rate, lower rectal temperature and lower respiratory rate in homozygous cattle under hot conditions [94]. The heat shock protein genes that are associated with thermo-tolerance have been used as markers in the marker-assisted selection breeding program. The association of polymorphisms in heat tolerant genes is reported in various breeds such as HSP90AB1, in Thai native cattle [95], or the HSF1 gene, HSP70 A1 A gene and HSBP1 in Chinese Holstein cattle [96, 97]. In addition to HSPs, there are also other thermo-tolerant genes reported in ruminant livestock species which undergo changes in their expression pattern while subjecting them to heat stress. The other genes of economic importance include ATP1B2, thyroid hormone receptor, interleukins, fibroblast growth factor, protein kinase C, NADH dehydrogenase, phosphofructokinase and glycosyl transferase, among others [6, 97]. However, further detailed studies are required to elucidate the expression pattern of these genes in diversified animal species before they may be considered as biological markers to be used in marker assisted selection program to develop thermo-tolerant breeds, which can produce and reproduce normally.
4.4. Hormonal treatment and assisted reproductive technologies
Hormonal treatments have the potential to minimize the heat stress effects in animals. The administration of GnRH in the early stages of estrus coincides with the endogenous LH surge and improves the conception rate successfully. GnRH agonist or hCG injected on day 5 of the estrous cycle results in ovulation or luteinization of the first wave dominant follicle and forms an accessory corpus luteum (CL) that enhances the plasma progesterone levels to compensate its decrease in chronic heat stress [2, 98]. The timed artificial insemination (AI) program also improves summer fertility when associated with an injection of GnRH to induce a programmed recruitment of the ovulatory follicle. This protocol should be followed by PGF2α injection 7days later to regress the CL which permits the final maturation of ovulatory follicles. Further, a second dose of GnRH 48 h after PGF2α may induce ovulation and the insemination of cows at 16 h to ensure successful conception [99]. The Ovsynch protocol successfully synchronized the ovulation in buffaloes and increased conception rate when combined with timed AI [100]. El-Tarabany and El-Tarabany [101] reported that the CIDRsynch and Presynch protocols improved the conception and pregnancy rate of Holstein cows under subtropical environmental conditions. Embryo transfer (ET) improves pregnancy rates during summer because embryos are transferred after the time at which they are more sensitive to heat stress. Compared to AI, pregnancy rates in cows exposed to heat stress have been improved by transfer of either frozen or unfrozen embryos produced by superovulation [102].
5. Conclusion
Under the climate change scenario, elevated temperature and relative humidity will definitely impose heat stress on all the species of livestock and will adversely affect their reproductive ability. This chapter discussed in detail the impact of heat stress on both female and male reproductive performance. This chapter also elaborated on ameliorative strategies that should be given consideration to prevent economic losses incurred due to environmental stresses on livestock reproduction. Fortunately, proven strategies exist to mitigate some effects of heat stress on animal reproduction. These include housing animals in facilities that minimize heat stress, use of timed AI protocols to overcome poor estrus detection and implementation of embryo transfer programs to bypass damage to the oocyte and early embryo caused by heat stress. Management alternatives, such as the strategic use of shade, wind protection, sprinklers and ventilation in the summer, also need to be considered to help livestock cope with adverse conditions. In addition to these measures, manipulation of diet energy density and intake may also be beneficial for livestock challenged by environmental conditions. There are also several promising avenues of research that may yield new approaches for enhancing reproduction during heat stress. These include administration of antioxidants and manipulation of the growth axis. Opportunities also exist for manipulating animal genetics to develop an animal that is more resistant to heat stress. Genes in animals exist for regulation of body temperature and for cellular resistance to elevated temperature and identification and incorporation of these genes into heat sensitive breeds in a manner that does not reduce production and reproduction would represent an important achievement.
\n',keywords:"antioxidants, cooling devices, estrus, fertility, shade, thermo-tolerant genes",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/55491.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/55491.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55491",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55491",totalDownloads:4346,totalViews:1686,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:25,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,introChapter:null,impactScore:16,impactScorePercentile:99,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"October 6th 2016",dateReviewed:"April 10th 2017",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"September 6th 2017",dateFinished:"May 20th 2017",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Heat stress affects the fertility and reproductive livestock performance by compromising the physiology reproductive tract, through hormonal imbalance, decreased oocyte quality and poor semen quality, and decreased embryo development and survival. Heat stress decreases the secretion of luteinizing hormone and estradiol resulting in reduced length and intensity of estrus expression, increased incidence of anoestrus and silent heat in farm animals. Oocytes exposed to thermal stress lose its competence for fertilization and development into the blastocyst stage, which results in decreased fertility because of the production of poor quality oocytes and embryos. Furthermore, low progesterone secretion limits the endometrial functions, and subsequently embryo development. In addition, the increased secretion of endometrial prostaglandin F2 alpha during heat stress threatens the maintenance of pregnancy. In general, the percentage of conception rate was found to be reduced by 4.6% for each unit increase in temperature humidity index (THI) above 70, and heat stress during pregnancy further slows down the growth of the foetus and results in lower birth weight. In tropical and subtropical regions, during hot days, the testicular temperature may increase and impair both the spermatogenic cycle and semen quality, which culminates in decreased bull fertility. The effects of heat stress on livestock can be minimized via adapting suitable scientific strategies comprising physical modifications of the environment, nutritional management and genetic development of breeds that are less sensitive to heat stress. In addition, the summer infertility may be countered through advanced reproductive technologies involving hormonal treatments, timed artificial insemination and embryo transfer, which may enhance the chances for establishing pregnancy in farm animals.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/55491",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/55491",book:{id:"5861",slug:"theriogenology"},signatures:"Govindan Krishnan, Madiajagan Bagath, Prathap Pragna,\nMallenahally Kusha Vidya, Joy Aleena, Payyanakkal Ravindranathan\nArchana, Veerasamy Sejian and Raghavendra Bhatta",authors:[{id:"89780",title:"Dr.",name:"Veerasamy",middleName:null,surname:"Sejian",fullName:"Veerasamy Sejian",slug:"veerasamy-sejian",email:"drsejian@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Central Sheep and Wool Research Institute",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"177210",title:"Dr.",name:"Raghavendra",middleName:null,surname:"Bhatta",fullName:"Raghavendra Bhatta",slug:"raghavendra-bhatta",email:"ragha0209@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Central Sheep and Wool Research Institute",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"177220",title:"Dr.",name:"M",middleName:null,surname:"Bagath",fullName:"M Bagath",slug:"m-bagath",email:"bbagath@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Central Sheep and Wool Research Institute",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"201967",title:"Dr.",name:"Govindan",middleName:null,surname:"Krishnan",fullName:"Govindan Krishnan",slug:"govindan-krishnan",email:"vet.krish@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Central Sheep and Wool Research Institute",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"201968",title:"Ms.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Pr",fullName:"Archana Pr",slug:"archana-pr",email:"archana107pr@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Central Sheep and Wool Research Institute",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"201969",title:"Ms.",name:"Pragna",middleName:null,surname:"Prathap",fullName:"Pragna Prathap",slug:"pragna-prathap",email:"pragnaprathap@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Central Sheep and Wool Research Institute",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"201970",title:"Ms.",name:"Aleena",middleName:null,surname:"Joy",fullName:"Aleena Joy",slug:"aleena-joy",email:"aleena1457@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Central Sheep and Wool Research Institute",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"201971",title:"Dr.",name:"Vidya",middleName:null,surname:"Mk",fullName:"Vidya Mk",slug:"vidya-mk",email:"gowdavidya20@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Central Sheep and Wool Research Institute",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Impact of heat stress on female reproduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Reproductive hormones in female livestock",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Follicular growth and development",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3. Effects of heat stress on estrus incidences",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.4. Sexual behavior",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.5. Effect on oocyte competence",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"2.6. Fertility",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"2.7. Embryonic growth and development",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"2.8. Impact on pregnancy",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"2.9. Impact on maternal recognition of pregnancy",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"2.10. Pre-partum period and days open",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13",title:"3. Male reproductive performance",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"3.1. Spermatogenesis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"3.2. Semen characteristics",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"3.3. Effects of season on semen quality",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17",title:"4. Mitigation strategies to ameliorate the impact of heat stress",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"4.1. Physical modification of environment",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"4.2. Nutritional management of heat stress",level:"2"},{id:"sec_19_2",title:"4.3. Genetic selection of heat-tolerant breeds",level:"2"},{id:"sec_20_2",title:"4.4. Hormonal treatment and assisted reproductive technologies",level:"2"},{id:"sec_22",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Singh SV, Upadhyay RC, Ashutosh, Hooda OK, Vaidya MM. Climate change: impacts on reproductive pattern of cattle and buffaloes. Wayamba Journal of Animal Science. 2011; 8:199-208'},{id:"B2",body:'Wolfenson D, Roth Z, Meidan R. Impaired reproduction in heat-stressed cattle: basic and applied aspects. Animal Reproduction Science. 2000; 60:535-547'},{id:"B3",body:'Gendelman M, Roth Z. 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Testicular thermoregulation in Bos indicus, crossbred and Bostaurusbulls: relationship with scrotal, testicular vascular cone and testicular morphology, and effects on semen quality and sperm production. Theriogenology. 2004; 61(3):511-528.'},{id:"B64",body:'Marai IFM, El-Darawany AA, Fadiel A, Abdel-Hafez MAM. Physiological traits as affected by heat stress in sheep. Small Ruminant Research. 2007;71:1-12'},{id:"B65",body:'Pinto ME, de-Alencar-Araripe MA, Alencar AA. Effects of scrotal insulation on testis size and semen criteria in Santa Ines hairy sheep raised in the State of Ceara. Northeast of Brazil Rev. Brasileira Zootec. 2001; 30(6):1704-1711'},{id:"B66",body:'Ruediger FR, Chacur MGM, Alves FCPE, Oba E, Ramos AA. Digital infrared thermography of the scrotum, semen quality, serumtestosterone levels in Nellore bulls (Bostaurusindicus) and theircorrelation with climatic factors. Ciências Agrárias Londrina. 2016;37(1):221-232'},{id:"B67",body:'Sahni KL, Roy A. A note on summer sterility in Romney Marsh rams under tropical conditions. Indian Journal of Veterinary Science. 1967;37:335-338'},{id:"B68",body:'Menegassi SRO, Barcellos JOJ, Dias EA, Koetz C, Pereira GR, Peripolli V, McManus, Canozzi MEA, Lopes FG. Scrotal infrared digital thermography as a predictor of seasonal effects on sperm traits in Braford bulls. International Journal of Biometeorology. 2015;9(3):357-364'},{id:"B69",body:'Kastelic JP, Cook RB, Pierson RA, Coulter GH. Relationships among scrotal and testicular characteristics, sperm production, and seminal quality in 129 beef bulls. Canadian Journal of Veterinary Research. 2001;65(2):111-115'},{id:"B70",body:'Setchell, BP. Heat and the testis. Journal of Reproduction Fertility. 1998;114:179-194'},{id:"B71",body:'Abdel-Hafez, M.A.M., 2002. Studies on the reproductive performance in sheep [Ph.D. thesis]. Zagazig, Egypt: Faculty of Agriculture, Zagazig University'},{id:"B72",body:'Karagiannidis A, Varsakeli S, Karatzas G. Characteristics and seasonal variations in the semen of Alpine, Saanen and Damascus goat bucks born and raised in Greece. Theriogenology. 2000;53:1285-1293'},{id:"B73",body:'McDowell RE. Improvement of Livestock Production in Warm Climates. San Francisco: Freeman; 1972. pp. 410-449'},{id:"B74",body:'Barth AD, Bowman PA. The sequential appearance of sperm abnormalities after scrotal insulation or dexamethasone treatment in bull. Canadian Veterinary Journal. 1994;34:93-102'},{id:"B75",body:'Lunstra DD, Coulter GH. Relationship between scrotal infrared temperature patterns and natural-mating fertility in beef bulls. Journal of Animal Science. 1997;75:767-774'},{id:"B76",body:'Kunavongkrita A, Suriyasomboonb A, LundeheimcN, Hearda TW. Management and sperm production of boars under differing environmental conditions. Theriogenology. 2005;63:657-667'},{id:"B77",body:'Balic IM, Milinkovic ST, Samardzija M, Vince S. Effect of age and environmental factors on semen quality, glutathione peroxidase activity and oxidative parameters in Simmental bulls. Theriogenology. 2012;78(2):423-431'},{id:"B78",body:'Petrocelli H, Batista C, Gosalvez J. Seasonal variation in sperm characteristics of boars in southern Uruguay. Revista Brasileira de Zootecnia. 2015;44(1):1-7'},{id:"B79",body:'Mathevon M, Buhr MM, Dekkers JCM. Environmental, management, and genetic factors affecting semen production in Holstein bulls. Journal of Dairy Science. 1998;81:3321-3330'},{id:"B80",body:'Koivisto MB, Costa MTA, Perri SHV, Vicente WRR. The effect of season on semen characteristics and freezability in Bos indicus and Bos taurus bulls in the southeastern region of Brazil. Reproduction in Domestic Animals. 2009;44:587-592'},{id:"B81",body:'Brantly S. Mitigating heat stress in cattle. Working Trees Info Sheet. USDA National Agroforestry Service. 2013. http://nac.unl.edu/Working_Trees/infosheets.htm'},{id:"B82",body:'Buffington DE, Collier RJ, Canton GH. Shade man-agement systems to reduce heat stress for dairy cows in hot, humid climates. Transactions American Society of Agricultural Engineers. 1983;26:1798-1803'},{id:"B83",body:'Slimen IB, Najar T, Ghram A, Dabbebi H, Ben Mrad M. Reactive oxygen species, heat stress and oxidative-induced mitochondrial damage. Internal Journal of Hyperthermia. 2014;30(7):513-523'},{id:"B84",body:'SejianV, Valtorta S, Gallardo M, Singh AK. Ameliorative measures to counteract environmental stresses. In: Sejian V, Naqvi SMK, Ezeji T, Lakritz J, Lal R. (Eds). Environmental Stress and Amelioration in Livestock Production. Germany: Springer-Verlag GMbH Publisher; 2012. pp. 153-180'},{id:"B85",body:'Igono MO, Johnson HD, Stevens BJ, Krause GF, Shanklin MD. Physiological, productive, and economic benefits of shade, spray, and fan system versus shade for Holstein cows during summer heat. Journal of Dairy Science. 1987;70:1069-1079'},{id:"B86",body:'Sejian V, Samal L, Haque N, Bagath M, Hyder I, Maurya VP, Bhatta R, Ravindra JP, PrasadCS, Lal R. Overview on adaptation, mitigation and amelioration strategies to improve livestock production under the changing climatic scenario. In: Sejian V, Gaughan J, Baumgard L, Prasad CS. (Eds). Climate Change Impact on Livestock: Adaptation and Mitigation. New Delhi, India: Springer-Verlag GMbH Publisher; 2015. pp. 359-398'},{id:"B87",body:'National Research Council. Effect of Environment on Nutrient Requirement of Domestic Animals. Washington, DC: National Academy Press; 1981'},{id:"B88",body:'Zimbelman RB, Baumgard LH, Collier RJ. Effect of encapsulated niacin on evaporative heat loss and body temperature in moderately heat-stressed lactating Holstein cows. Journal of Dairy Science. 2010;93(6):1986-1997'},{id:"B89",body:'Staples CR, Burke JM, Thatcher WW. Influence of supplemental fats on reproductive tissues and performance of lactating cows. Journal of Dairy Science. 1998;81:856-871'},{id:"B90",body:'DiGiacomo K, Simpson S, Leury BJ, Dunshea FR. Dietary betaine improves physiological responses in sheep under chronic heat load in a dose dependent manner. Journal of Animal Science. 2015;90(3):269-275'},{id:"B91",body:'Chauhan SS, Celi P, Leury B, Liu F, Dunshea FR. Exhaled breath condensate hydrogen peroxide concentration, a novel biomarker for assessment of oxidative stress in sheep during heat stress. Animal Production science. 2015;56(7):1105-1112'},{id:"B92",body:'Abdin Z, Khatoon A. Heat stress in poultry and the beneficial effects of ascorbic acid (vitamin c) supplementation during periods of heat stress. World\'s Poultry Science Journal. 2013;69:135-152'},{id:"B93",body:'Bernabucci U, Lacetera N, Baumgard LH, Rhoads RP, Ronchi B, Nardone A. Metabolic and hormonal acclimation to heat stress in domesticated ruminants. International Journal of Animal Bioscience. 2010;4(7):1167-1183'},{id:"B94",body:'Mariasegaram R, Chase CC, Jr Chaparro JX, Olson TA, Brenneman RA, Niedz RP. The slick air coat locus maps to chromosome 20 in Senepol-derived cattle. Animal Genetics. 2007;38(1):54-59'},{id:"B95",body:'Deb R, Sajjanar B, Singh U, Kumar S, Singh R, Sengar G, Sharma A. Effect of heat stress on the expression profile of Hsp90 among Sahiwal (Bos indicus) and Frieswal (Bos indicus × Bos taurus) breed of cattle. Gene. 2014;536:435-440'},{id:"B96",body:'Li Q, Han J, Du F, Ju Z, Huang J, Wang J, Li R, Wang C, Zhong J. Novel SNPs in HSP70A1A gene and the association of polymorphisms with thermo tolerance traits and tissue specific expression in Chinese Holstein cattle. Molecular Biology Reports. 2011;38:2657-2663'},{id:"B97",body:'Wang Y, Huang J, Xia P, He J, Wang C, Ju Z, Li J, Li R, Zhong J, Li Q. Genetic variations of HSBP1 gene and its effect on thermal performance traits in Chinese Holstein cattle. Molecular Biology Reports. 2013;40:3877-3882'},{id:"B98",body:'Samal L. Heat stress in dairy cows - reproductive problems and control measures. International Journal of Livestock Research. 2013;3(3):14-23'},{id:"B99",body:'Pursley J, Silcox RW, Wiltbank MC. Effect of time of artificial insemination on pregnancy rates, calving rates, pregnancy loss and gender ratio after synchronization of ovulation in lactating dairy cows. Journal of Dairy Science. 1998;81:2139-2144'},{id:"B100",body:'Hoque MN, Talukder AK, Akter M, Shamsuddin M. Evaluation of ovsynch protocols for timed artificial insemination in water buffaloes in Bangladesh. Turkish Journal of Veterinary & Animal Sciences. 2014;38:418-424'},{id:"B101",body:'El-Tarabany MS, El-Tarabany AA. Impact of thermal stress on the efficiency of ovulation synchronization protocols in Holstein cows. Animal Reproduction Science. 2015;160:138-145'},{id:"B102",body:'Stewart BM, Block J, Morelli P, Navarette AE, Amstalden M, Bonilla L, Hansen PJ, Bilby TR. Efficacy of embryo transfer in lactating dairy cows during summer using fresh or vitrified embryos produced in vitro with sexsorted semen. Journal of Dairy Science. 2011;94:3437-3445'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Govindan Krishnan",address:null,affiliation:'
ICAR—National Institute of Animal Nutrition and Physiology, Bangalore, Karnataka, India
ICAR—National Institute of Animal Nutrition and Physiology, Bangalore, Karnataka, India
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1. Introduction
Over the years, increasing demographic pressures have contributed to an exponential increase in contaminants in the water ecosystems, associated with the intensification of agricultural and industrial activities. Some of these contaminants have raised particular concern and have been classified as specific pollutants and priority substances, identified in the Directive 2013/39/EU of the European Parliament [1] and the Agência Portuguesa do Ambiente (APA) [2]. To perform the ecological assessment of aquatic ecosystems, there are two major comprehensive frameworks worldwide, using multiple lines of evidence (LoE), with special emphasis on ecological data (biological communities): the Water Framework Directive (WFD), adopted in Europe through the Directive 2000/06/EC, and the Ecological Risk Assessment (ERA), adopted for example by the US Environmental Protection Agency. WFD and ERA approaches integrate information from different LoE, as the extent of the application of ecotoxicological evidence clarifying cause-effect relationships; the availability of expert judgment in the fine-tuning of sampling practices, strategic analysis, data interpretation, and decision procedures; on the practical meaning of the concept of LoE integration (“one-out, all-out” principle versus integrated risk quantification) [3]. The WFD is an extensive legislative framework for the protection of ground and surface waters in Europe, with defined Environmental Quality standards (EQS) for several parameters [biological, chemical, physicochemical (supporting biological elements), and hydromorphological elements] that must be complied by the different member states, and also advise additional monitoring of substances of national or regional interest [1]. However, it is estimated that a very high number of substances are present in the environment, and for Europe, it is estimated the existence of more than 100,000 compounds [4, 5]. Therefore, the definition of these lists of compounds with environmental concern, although relevant, becomes unreliable, in terms of representation in aquatic ecosystems, since complex mixtures of chemicals occur (e.g., emerging pollutants, metabolites, and transformation products). A list of priority substances, which represent a significant risk to or via the aquatic environment at the EU level, will have to be reexamined by the European Commission (EC) and should not exceed 4 years. In recent years, there has been a growing agreement among authorities and scientists that the tools currently used and proposed by the WFD for water quality assessment require a review to achieve a clearer and future-proof methodology [6, 7]. In this context, ERA is reflected as a complementary alternative for the bioassessment of the quality of freshwater, such as reservoirs. This approach considers some valuable WFD principles and metrics but, at the same time, includes complementary methods, one of which is the incorporation of effects-based tools (e.g., ecotoxicological assays; biomarkers in organisms) for a better assessment of cause-effect relationships; reflecting an effective integration of distinct LoEs (e.g., chemical, ecological and ecotoxicological) [3].
In environmental terms, pollution occurs due to a complex mixture of organic and inorganic compounds that can result in lethal and sub-lethal effects on aquatic organisms, associated with potentially significant losses of habitat and biodiversity. Currently, the assessment of water quality, using organisms as bioindicators of water quality has been widely used, since the biological responses integrate the complex influence of the stressing agents [4, 6, 8, 9, 10], in addition to the complex mixture of compounds that occur in the ecosystem under analysis. According to several studies, the effect-based water quality assessment (e.g. biological responses of organisms to natural waters) has been successful in the identification of ecotoxicological risks in surface waters and the ranking of locations based on these risks, namely for natural water bodies (e.g. rivers, transitional or coastal waters)[5, 6, 11], but also to heavily modified water bodies (e.g. reservoirs)[8, 9, 10]. Bioassays with Daphnia sp. (mostly Daphnia magna) are regularly used in ecotoxicological studies because they have high fertility values, easy to maintain in laboratory conditions, ubiquitous, and important bioindicators for aquatic environments due to their sensitivity to contaminants and position (trophic level: primary consumers) in the aquatic food webs [6, 9, 11].
To answer the research needs outlined above, the present study aimed to apply effect-based approaches (individual and biochemical responses of D. magna to natural waters) in the water quality assessment of Portuguese reservoirs, defining classes of disturbances and ranges of ecotoxicological potential. This work has been divided into two parts with specific objectives. Part 1 of this study was presented in [9], which demonstrated that biochemical parameters (metabolism, oxidative stress, and lipid peroxidation biomarkers) improved the sensitivity of the biomonitoring strategy using bioassays with the standard species D. magna, in the assessment of the ecological quality of water reservoirs, in different sampling periods (Autumn 2018 and Spring, Autumn 2019). The biochemical parameters revealed sensitivity in the evaluation of effects incited by exposure to natural waters from reservoirs, making them useful and reliable in this type of evaluation. According to the results of [9], the biomarker indicative of lipid peroxidation (levels of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances—TBARS) on D. magna represented a consistent tool for evaluation of water quality. This result reflected, in part, the prooxidative state of organisms, food performance, and possible stress scenarios, mainly due to the components of seston (e.g., quantity and quality of phytoplankton) and chemical contamination.
Part 2, the focus of the here-presented study, is intended to evaluate whether effect-based methods can be applied in natural waters quality assessment of reservoirs, by the definition of disturbance classes and ecotoxicological potential values. The integration of physical and chemical and effects-based monitoring approaches can complement and improve the water quality assessment strategies in the future, with the main objective of a nontoxic environment. For this, several ecotoxicological tools were applied, to gain insight into the ecotoxicological potential of the reservoirs understudy and compare the ecological potential with tools proposed by the WFD, as well as with previous studies, in the same areas under study. To this end, the present approach combined the evaluation of the individual (feeding rates) and cellular/molecular responses in D. magna after acute exposure to natural waters [e.g., biochemical biomarkers of oxidative response as activities of catalase (CAT) and glutathione S-transferases (GSTs), the latter also involved in the biotransformation process, lipid peroxidation (LPO measured as TBARS levels), and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity, involved in neurotransmission process].
2. Material and methods
2.1 Study areas, water sampling, and physicochemical parameters quantifications
Three reservoirs were selected for conducting this study (Figure 1): Miranda (M) and Pocinho (P) are main course reservoirs and belong to the hydrographic basin of the Douro river; and Aguieira (Ag) which is a northern reservoir that belongs to the Mondego hydrographic basin.
Figure 1.
Map of sampling areas (Miranda, Pocinho and Aguieira reservoirs) with the location of the sampling sites. The different colors represent the 1st level of detail of land occupation according to the land use report (2018).
The purpose for defining these reservoirs and respective sampling sites was based on previous studies of our research group [8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14], where the water quality was assessed, in the last years, using different indicators and methodologies complementary to the WFD.
Water samples were collected during the spring of 2020, in six sites of the three reservoirs (Figure 1): one site in Miranda, one site in Pocinho, and four sites in Aguieira. The sites were well-defined based on previous works conducted in these reservoirs [8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14].
In situ, the abiotic parameters pH, dissolved oxygen (mg/L and %), conductivity (μS/cm), and temperature (°C) were measured with a multiparameter probe (Multi 3630 IDS SET F). For conducting chemical analysis [e.g., nutrients, specific pollutants, and priority substances] and bioassays, 5 L of water were collected at each sampling site and transported to the laboratory at 4°C and in the dark. Chemical analyses were carried out within a maximum period of 48 hours after collection. D. magna assays were started within a maximum period of 24 hours, after sample collection.
2.2 Chemical analyses
A set of specific pollutants and priority substances were measured, according to the recommendations defined in the Agência Portuguesa do Ambiente [2] and the Directive 2013/39/EU [1]. Nitrites (NO2−) and nitrates (NO3−) were quantified by liquid chromatography of ions, as dissolved anions [15]. Total Kjeldahl nitrogen (NKj) determination was performed by the Kjeldahl nitrogen method after mineralization with selenium [16]. Calcium and magnesium determinations were effectuated by ion chromatography, as dissolved cations [17]. For the elements, total phosphorus (Ptotal), arsenic, cadmium, copper, mercury, nickel, lead, and zinc, the analysis was performed by the application of inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) [18]. Pesticides and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons were not quantified in our study, because, according to previous studies [8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14] the values of these specific pollutants and priority substances (quantified in autumn of 2018) were below the detection limits of the analytical method, in addition to, that no significant changes in the areas adjacent to the reservoirs were documented during the last years (2019, 2020).
2.3 Biological parameters by WFD—Ecological quality ratio (EQR) for phytoplankton
The phytoplankton community characterization was performed according to the Instituto da água I.P. [19] and Agência Portuguesa do Ambiente (APA) [2] guidelines and briefly described in [9]. For the determination of the ecological potential (EP), the results were expressed in an EQR, determined according to the WFD approach. According to APA [2], the EQS used in the classification of the biological quality (EQR) for Miranda and Pocinho reservoirs was carried out based on the typology “main course”. For main course typology, taking into account the biological elements proposed in the WFD to Portuguese reservoirs, the EP is only classified into two classes: moderate or less, and good or more (Table 1). Aguieira is a northern type of reservoir, and the EP is classified into four classes: Good or more, Moderate, Poor, or Bad (Table 1).
Ecological potential (chemical and physico-chemical elements)
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
Biological (Phytoplankton EQR)
North [2] [1.0–0.60] – Good or more [0.6–0.4] – Moderate [0.4–0.2] – Poor [0.2–0] – Bad Main course [2] ≥0.17 – Good or more <0.17 – Moderate or less
0.16
0.12
0.77
0.37
0.33
0.61
Ecological potential (biological)
Moderate or less
Moderate or less
Good or more
Poor
Poor
Good or more
Table 1.
Results of the physical and chemical parameters, and specific pollutants and priority substances concentrations of Portuguese reservoirs. The bold values represent the values outside of the environmental quality standards (EQS). The biological parameter phytoplankton and respective EQS for the main course and north reservoirs are also presented.
Sampling sites: Miranda – M, Pocinho – P and Aguieira – Ag1 to Ag4. Temperature (Temp), Conductivity (Cond), pH, Dissolved oxygen (O2), nitrites (NO2−), nitrates (NO3−), Ammonium (NH4+), Total Kjeldahl nitrogen (NKj), Total phosphorus (Ptotal), Arsenic (As), Zinc (Zn), Copper (Cu), Cadmium (Cd), Mercury (Hg), Nickel (Ni), Lead (Pb), Calcium (Ca), Magnesium (Mg), Iron (Fe), Manganese (Mn), and Ecological Quality Ratio (EQR).
2.4 Water treatments
The water collected in each sampling site of each reservoir was processed in 3 treatments, namely: NF (Non-Filtered water with all components present in the sample); F1 (water filtered through a Whatman GF/C filter with 1.2 μm porosity); and F2 (water filtered through a sterile filter system with a porosity of 0.22 μm) as already defined in previous studies of our group [10, 12].
2.5 Test organisms
2.5.1 Culture maintenance of D. magna
Successive generations of monoclonal cultures of D. magna were continuously kept in controlled laboratory conditions of 16h light and 8h dark photoperiod and temperature of 20 ± 2°C. Cultures were renewed every 2 days and were maintained in synthetic water medium “ASTM hard water” [20], supplemented with a standard organic additive, Ascophyllum nodosum extract [21], to provide essential microelements to Daphnia. D. magna were fed with Raphidocelis subcapitata at a rate of 3.0x105 cells/mL/day. For conducting the bioassays, daphnids with 4 or 5 days, born between the 3rd and 5th broods were used.
2.5.2 D. magna feeding rate assays
D. magna feeding rate assays were conducted according to [22] with some adaptations described in [9]. For each water sample, bioassays were performed on 6-well plates, where each plate corresponded to specific water treatment (NF, F1, or F2). For each water treatment and control (ASTM hard water medium), 5 replicate wells with 5 D. magna individuals, and a blank well (water sample with Raphidocelis subcapitata without daphnids) were performed. The blank well is performed to account for the potential algal growth during the assay period. Mortality was also considered in this study. Feeding rate results were expressed according to [23]. The percent inhibition in feeding rate (% IFR), relatively to the control, was calculated for each water treatment (NF, F1, and F2) as follows:
%IFR=FRc−FRt/FRc×100E1
where:
% IFR: percent inhibition of feeding rate;
FRc: mean value for feeding rate in the control group;
FRt: value for feeding rate for the water treatment.
At the end of the feeding rate assays, pools of organisms from each treatment were preserved for posterior biochemical determinations (oxidative stress, lipid peroxidation, and neurotransmission biomarkers) and stored in microtubes at—80°C until analyses were performed.
2.5.3 Biochemical determinations
For determination of biomarkers of oxidative stress [catalase (CAT) and isoenzymes glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) activities] and levels of lipid peroxidation (LPO) [levels of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS)], samples were thawed on ice, and a 1 mL of ice-cold phosphate buffer (50 mM, pH = 7.0 with 0.1% of Triton X-100) was added to each biological sample. Samples were sonicated for 20 s and centrifuged at 14,000 rpm, for 10 min, at 4°C, in a refrigerated centrifuge (Eppendorf 5810R). The supernatant fraction was divided into aliquots and used to perform the biochemical analyses. For the quantification of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity, the samples were homogenized with a sonicator, in a volume of 750 μL of ice-cold phosphate buffer (0.1 M phosphate buffer, pH = 7.2), and centrifuged at 6000 rpm for 3 min. The supernatants after centrifugation were collected and used for AChE activity determinations.
All biochemical analyses were adapted to 96-well microplates [9, 24], and spectrophotometric readings were performed in a microplate reader Thermo Scientific, model Multiskan GO (version 1.00.40), with SkanIt Software 3.2.
The total soluble protein concentration of samples was performed according to the Bradford method [25], using a standard of γ-globulin 1 mg/mL. This method is based on the binding of a dye (Bradford’s reagent) to the total soluble proteins, forming a stable complex [24]. This determination permits expressing the enzymatic activities and TBARS levels, as a function of the total soluble protein content of the samples.
CAT is an antioxidant enzyme with peroxidic activity and is responsible for the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) in H2O + O2, where H2O2 consumption occurs with the oxidation of hydrogen donors (phenols, formic acid, and methanol) [24]. The method consists of the monitoring of this decomposition and was performed according to [26]. The enzymatic activity was expressed in nmoles of H2O2 consumed, per minute, per milligram of total soluble protein.
The GSTs activity was quantified according to [27]. GSTs catalyze the conjugation of glutathione in its reduced form (GSH) with the substrate 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene (CDNB), forming a thioether, whose formation was observed by measuring the increase of the absorbance [24]. Enzyme activities were expressed in mmol of thioether produced, per minute, per milligram of total soluble protein.
LPO was measured through the determination of the levels of TBARS, according to [28], which measures the absorbance of the complex resulting from products of oxidative free radical attack to membrane lipids, with thiobarbituric acid. Results were expressed as millimoles of malondialdehyde (MDA) and MDA-like compounds equivalents, per mg of total soluble protein.
The quantification of the AChE activity was performed by the Ellman method [29]. This enzyme is responsible for the degradation of the synthetic substrate acetylthiocholine into acetate + thiocoline [24], which occurs with the increase in the yellow color produced when thiocoline is complexed with dithiobis nitrobenzoate (DTNB). The enzymatic activity was expressed as nmol of the complex formed, per minute, per milligrams of total soluble protein.
2.6 Water ecotoxicological assessment
At the end of all quantifications of enzyme activities and LPO levels, the percent inhibition in each biochemical determination (% IX), comparatively to the control, was calculated for each water treatment (NF, F1, and F2) as follows:
Xc: mean value for CAT activity, GSTs activity, TBARS levels, or AChE activity in the control group;
Xt: value for CAT activity, GSTs activity, TBARS levels, or AChE activity for the water treatment.
2.7 Statistical analyses
The data from all test variables (the percent inhibition of feeding rate, CAT and GSTs activities, TBARS levels, and AChE activity) were previously analyzed to assure normality and uniformity of variance (Shapiro–Wilk and Levene tests, respectively). All parameters were analyzed by analysis of variance (one-way ANOVA), followed, when significant differences were detected (p < 0.05), by a Tukey test to discriminate differences between treatments (NF, F1, and F2). The data are presented as mean and respective standard errors. The analyses were performed using software SPSS Statistics (version 26) and Sigmaplot (version 11.0).
3. Results and discussion
3.1 General physicochemical characteristics and trace elements concentrations (chemical analysis) in the water samples
Table 1 summarizes the results of physicochemical parameters and chemical analyses including the quantifications of the concentrations of the specific pollutants and priority substances, measured for each site over the sampling period, as recommended by APA [2] and European Parliament and the Council [1]. According to the physicochemical parameters used in the WFD, for Portuguese heavily modified and artificial water bodies, only the pH, O2, NO3- and Ptotal have an environmental quality standard (EQS) values established for a good ecological potential (GEP).
In general, water samples from the three reservoirs were characterized by a basic pH (values range from 8.6 and 9.7, Table 1), with almost values above the EQS (> 9.0, except M and Ag3). The water pH is an important parameter as it can determine the solubility and biological availability of nutrients, but also metals [30]. Dissolved oxygen (%) showed values above the maximum of 120%, in all sites studied. Considering the electrical conductivity, the values ranged between 73 and 438 μS/cm. Higher values of this parameter were registered in the reservoirs belonging to the Douro river basin, Miranda and Pocinho (> 260 μS/cm). In different Aguieira sites, the values showed a low variation between the locations of 73–90 μS/cm. The sites M, P, and Ag3 showed higher contents of nutrients (mainly total phosphorus) when compared with the values of EQS (Table 1). Two types of reservoirs are referred to in the work of [31]: Type 1—lowland “run-of-river” reservoirs located in the main rivers (e.g., Douro), at lower altitudes, had larger catchments, lower residence time, and were higher in mineral content (hardness and conductivity), than Type 2, which are deeper high altitude reservoirs (e.g., Mondego). Considering this distinction, Miranda and Pocinho are reservoirs of Type 1 and Aguieira is Type 2 (for more information see [31]), and in fact, our physicochemical results are supported by these assumptions (Table 1). Higher nutrient concentrations (Ptotal) were observed at Miranda and Pocinho sites than at the Aguieira sites (Table 1). According to [31], Type 1 reservoirs are more nutrient-rich (total phosphate and nitrates due to more extensive agriculture and intensive) than Type 2, corroborating our results. If we consider land occupation (Figure 1) in the area surrounding the sampling site of Miranda, the water pressures are associated with the artificialized territories and forests. For Pocinho, agriculture is highly representative in terms of land occupation. The land occupation in the Mondego river basin area, where the Aguieira reservoir is located, has the surrounding areas mainly represented by forests, agricultural areas, and artificialized territories (Figure 1). Kroll et al. [32] show a solid association between land occupation (urban, agriculture, and forest areas) and nutrients indices in nearby aquatic ecosystems. These findings demystify and support some of the results (e.g., nutrient levels) presented here, as well as work previously developed in these same locations [9].
Concerning the metals, only mercury (Hg) and zinc (Zn) exceeded the EQS (Table 1) defined by the Directive 2013/39/EU of the European Parliament [1] and APA [2], respectively. Hg was present in concentrations above 0.07 μg/L (EQS) at all sites (> 0.63 μg/L). For Zn, concentrations above 7.8 μg/L (EQS) were quantified in all locations of the three reservoirs (> 24.7 μg/L). Several metals such as mercury and zinc (among others) can be highly toxic even in residual quantities [33]. Hg is an important pollutant of water throughout the world, and several human activities are linked to Hg pollution (silver and gold mining, coal combustion, and dental amalgams), and is known to be an inhibitor of enzymes’ activities [9, 30, 34, 35]. The speciation of Zn in water is modulated by pH and dissolved organic matter, which normally binds most of the aqueous zinc [30]. Zn concentrations in natural waters span six orders of magnitude and are strongly influenced by human activities [30]. There are a comprehensive set of proteins that function as transporters, chelators, and molecular sensors for Zn, and are involved in the regulation of Zn uptake by homeostatic processes that are partially understood. However, several studies have proposed theories to explain how zinc compounds affect aquatic animals [30]. However, inter- and intra-specific differences cannot be disregarded, as well as doses and exposure times.
Anthropogenic activities have been found to contribute more to environmental contamination (e.g., water eutrophication which was recognized in the middle and late stages of the twentieth century) due to the everyday manufacturing of materials to meet the demands of the population [36, 37], in its various aspects that include, agriculture, industry, and urban areas. As mentioned by [37] human interference is to a greater extent caused by social and economic pressures, which are associated with the largest changes that occurred in agricultural and forest areas as a result of the extensification of agriculture, deforestation, afforestation, and urbanization. In Europe, these are the trends observed over the last years [38, 39].
3.2 Ecological quality ratio (EQR) for phytoplankton
In general, the phytoplankton EQR (Table 1) shows that the Miranda and Pocinho reservoirs had the worst water quality (moderate or lower), taking into account the defined classes for the main water course typology. The Aguieira reservoir tended to have low water quality, with Ag2 and Ag3 being the most problematic sites with the lowest EQR values recorded. All reservoirs were characterized as eutrophic, especially due to high concentrations of Ptotal recorded over the last few years [8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, 31, 35, 40], a condition also observed in the present study (Table 1). The bioavailability of nutrients such as phosphorus favors the overgrowth of phytoplanktonic communities [8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14], namely, cyanobacteria organisms, that were already associated with poor water quality and recurrently reported blooms was been in these reservoirs [8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14]. The most prevalent and main group of cyanobacteria detected in all reservoirs was Microcystis. However, Anabaena, Woronichinia, and Pseudanabaena (and others) were also detected, but in a much smaller percentage. The percentage of cyanobacteria detected in Miranda and Pocinho was 54.05, and 57.32%, respectively. Lower percentages of cyanobacteria were observed in the Aguieira sites, namely, 1.07% (Ag1), 4.75% (Ag2), 10.75% (Ag3), and 27.30% (Ag4). However, other phytoplankton indicators are included in the assessment of this reservoir typology (e.g., Algae Group Index (AGI) [8, 10], which is strongly interfering with the final classification of the Ag4 site.
3.3 Water ecotoxicological assessment
The proposal of classes of disturbances (defined by colors) and ecotoxicity results for D. magna, after exposure to treatments of the natural waters of Miranda, Pocinho, and Aguieira reservoirs, are presented in Figures 2–4, respectively. For each figure, the values represent the percentage of inhibition of: A – Feeding rate (% IFR); B – CAT activity (% ICAT); C – GSTs activity (% IGSTs); D – TBARS levels (% ITBARS); E – AChE activity (% IAChE), comparatively to the control. Based on the biological responses under study (percent inhibition of different parameters, previously mentioned), ecotoxicity classes were proposed (Figures 2–4) to achieve an approach to the ecotoxicological potential for each sampling site (Figure 5). Based on the criteria to define the equivalent quality potential, to those presented in the WFD, an estimation of the ecotoxicological potential has been suggested.
Figure 2.
Proposal of classes of disturbances (defined by colors) and ecotoxicity results for D. magna, after exposure to treatments of the natural waters of Pocinho reservoir (NF—Non-filtered water; F1 and F2—Filtered with 1.2 μm and 0.22 μm respectively). The values represent the percentage of inhibition of: A – Feeding rate (% IFR); B – CAT activity (% ICAT); C – GSTs activity (% IGSTs); D – TBARS levels (% ITBARS); E – AChE activity (% IAChE), comparatively to the control. Different letters (a, b, and c) stand for significant differences between treatments, detected by the Tukey test (p < 0.05).
Figure 3.
Proposal of classes of disturbances (defined by colors) and ecotoxicity results for D. magna, after exposure to treatments of the natural waters of Miranda reservoir (NF—Non-filtered water; F1 and F2—Filtered with 1.2 μm and 0.22 μm respectively). The values represent the percentage of inhibition of: A – Feeding rate (% IFR); B – CAT activity (% ICAT); C – GSTs activity (% IGSTs); D – TBARS levels (% ITBARS); E – AChE activity (%IAChE), comparatively to the control. Different letters (a and b) stand for significant differences between treatments, detected by the Tukey test (p < 0.05).
Figure 4.
Proposal of classes of disturbances (defined by colors) and ecotoxicity results for D. magna, after exposure to treatments of the natural waters of Aguieira reservoir (NF—Non-filtered water; F1 and F2—Filtered with 1.2 μm and 0.22 μm respectively). The values represent the percentage of inhibition of: A – Feeding rate (% IFR); B – CAT activity (% ICAT); C – GSTs activity (% IGSTs); D – TBARS levels (% ITBARS); E – AChE activity (% IAChE), comparatively to the control. Different letters (a, b, and c) stand for significant differences between treatments, detected by the Tukey test (p < 0.05).
Figure 5.
Ecotoxicological potential of the sampling sites, according to natural water treatments (NF, F1, and F2), ecotoxicity results (defined in previous Figures 2–4), and ecological potential according to WFD parameters (Table 1).
For the parameters, feeding rate (FR), and TBARS levels (A and D for each Figures 2–4) only two classes of ecotoxicity were defined: non-disturbed (green) and disturbed (yellow). Different aspects of Daphnia biology, as feeding rate is affected by quality (i.e., the number of organic compounds and carbon/nitrogen/phosphate ratio) and quantity of available food [41]. In all reservoirs and sites studied, regarding the parameter of feeding rates (A of Figures 2–4), all reservoirs are characterized as not disturbed, since the feeding rates were positive, especially after filtration treatments. However, we draw particular attention to the Ag3 site, where a significant decrease in the percentage of inhibition of the feeding rate, between NF and F2 was observed. This means that, after the filtrations, seston components were removed, including suspended particles, phyto- and zooplanktonic elements, and bacteria, which could be interfering with the feeding capacity of Daphnia magna. [41] hypothesized that in addition to physical cues (e.g., concentration and physical properties of seston composition in the water), Daphnia detect and uses chemical cues, using their chemosensory system, to locate the most nutritious patches of food in the surrounding environment.
According to [9], lipid peroxidation (LPO) measured as TBARS levels were the most responsive biomarker, in the evaluation of the water quality of the reservoirs under study. If we consider that LPO corresponds to the chain of reactions of oxidative degradation of lipids, resulting in cell damage (e.g., tissue damage), in which free radicals “steal” electrons from the lipids in cell membranes, the distinction of only two classes of ecotoxicities seemed to us to be the most correct and coherent form (D of Figures 2–4). We considered that this biological response, that is, the occurrence or not of oxidative damage, results in the generality of the ability of antioxidant defenses to act to prevent, avoid, or neutralize this oxidative damage by free radicals. Organisms can adapt to increasing free radicals (as reactive oxygen or nitrogen species) production by upregulating antioxidant defenses, such as the activities of antioxidant enzymes (e.g., CAT, GSTs, among others) [42]. Failure of antioxidant defenses to detoxify excess free radicals production can also lead to significant enzyme inactivation, protein degradation, DNA damage, and lipid peroxidation [42]. In particular, LPO is considered to be a major mechanism, leading to impaired cellular function and alterations in physicochemical properties of cell membranes, which in turn disrupt vital functions of D. magna, such as growth, longevity, and reproduction but also feeding behavior. Therefore, an increase in LPO was considered a negative consequence, representing oxidative damage; and a significant decrease will be a positive consequence, that is, the nonoccurrence of oxidative damage, which may be associated with several pathways that avoided, prevented, or neutralized it.
Relatively to the other parameters analyzed (enzymatic activities: B, C, and E of Figures 2–4), based on the biological responses under study (percentage of inhibition), five ecotoxicity classes were proposed, as represented in all figures. Based on the criteria to define the equivalent quality potential, to those presented in the WFD, an estimation of the ecotoxicological potential has been suggested. Classes of ecotoxicity have been defined and to facilitate the analysis of global results, different colors were assigned to each class, according to the ecotoxicity degree of the percent inhibition of the parameter under evaluation. For the present work, we consider the following ranges of values (%) and respective ecotoxicity classes: ≤ − 5 to ≥5 (non disturbed—blue); ≤ − 5 to −30 and ≥ 5 to 30 (slightly disturbed—green); ≤ − 30 to −60 and ≥ 30 to 60 (marginally disturbed—yellow); ≤ − 60 to −90 and ≥ 60 to 90 (moderately disturbed—orange); ≤ − 90 and ≥ 90 (highly disturbed—red). The definition of this range of ecotoxicity classes had as main influences the percentage of effect of 10, 50, and 90% (values with high significance in ecotoxicology), as previously reported by [10]. The range of purposed ranges of ecotoxicity was adjusted, whereby equivalent variations were defined with five ecotoxicity classes, as suggested in the works by [10, 11]. Roig et al. [11] considered an approach to evaluate the ecotoxicological status of rivers (Ebro River watershed, NE Spain), in which the ecotoxicity of pore water has been evaluated in several models organisms, including D. magna. Rodrigues et al. [10] and Roig et al. [11] also proposed five classes of ecotoxicity, based on different endpoints, since they evaluated the effects in several aquatic organisms. Roig et al. [11] for D. magna, this range was demarcated according to the EC50 values and was expressed as % dilution, for pore water assays, from nontoxic (>100) and highly toxic (<10). Rodrigues et al. [10] defined five ecotoxicity classes for R. subcapitata, and this range was defined according to the percent inhibition of yield, from non perturbed (≥ − 10) and highly perturbed (<−90).
Enzymes (e.g., CAT, GSTs, AChE) are proteins that catalyze non-spontaneous chemical reactions in different metabolic pathways, with different physiological functions. CAT is an antioxidant enzymatic defense, GSTs have a dual role in detoxification but also antioxidant defense, and AChE is involved in the neurotransmission process. Enzyme and substrate concentrations influence the reaction rate, altering their activities, which can be significantly inhibited or stimulated [43] after different compound exposure. Antioxidant enzymes (e.g., CAT and GSTs) can be induced by increasing the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) as a protection mechanism against oxidative stress (adaptation to stress resulting from directly or indirectly generating ROS). In contrast, they can be inhibited when deficiency of the system occurs, inducing a precarious state, making organisms more susceptible to toxic agents (e.g., significant enzyme inactivation or protein degradation by toxicants, or due to the potential attack by excessive concentrations of free radicals) [42, 43]. For example, Hg concentrations (0.08, 0.4, and 2 μg/L) promote perturbations in antioxidant enzymes (e.g. superoxide dismutase; glutathione peroxidase; glutathione reductase; and GSTs) and generate oxidative stress/damage indirectly by binding to antioxidant enzymes containing the thiol group and resulting in depletion of nonenzymatic antioxidant GSH, a scavenger of ROS, for 24 h and 48 h, in neonates and juveniles of D. magna [34]. This study corroborates our work, as the quantified Hg concentrations varied between 0.63 and 1.85 μg/L. However, we cannot neglect the mixture of potential compounds present, as well as their interactions and other features of water. Several factors can alter the catalytic activity of enzymes. Altogether, they reflect the current metabolic situations and trigger changes in the inherent characteristics of the enzyme and its interaction to promote or impede enzymatic reactions. Factors such as pH, temperature, effectors, and inhibitors (e.g., chemical compounds dissolved in water) can modify the enzyme concentration and/or conformation but also the substrate concentrations, influencing the reaction rate, and altering its catalytic activity.
AChE is an enzyme involved in the physiological hydrolytic degradation of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh), in cholinergic synapses and neuromuscular junctions of most organisms [29], and as such, it is indispensable for the normal functioning of the nervous system (neuromuscular transmission) [44]. This biomarker is used as an indicator of neurotoxicity since it results in severe neurotransmission impairment, which leads to ACh accumulation at synaptic clefts, causing nervous overstimulation and eventually death [45]. Changes in normal neurotransmission may have adverse impacts on key functions, such as food consumption, energy metabolism, growth, and reproduction; ultimately, the impairment of neuronal transmission may result in the death of exposed organisms [46]. The US EPA [47] suggests that a significant AChE activity alteration by 20% or more can be considered a clear toxicological effect of stress exposure. However, we agree that the greater the effect on this biomarker, the worse the final consequence, in terms of the aforementioned sub-individual effect (e.g., food consumption, growth, reproduction, and escape from predators). Another factor affecting AChE activity is allosteric control, which can involve stimulation of enzyme action as well as inhibition. Allosteric stimulation and inhibition allow the production of energy and materials by the cell when they are needed and inhibit production when the supply is adequate [48]. The rate of an enzymatic reaction increases with increased substrate concentration, reaching maximum velocity when all active sites of the enzyme molecules are engaged. The cholinergic system plays a major role in the neurotransmission process, and the simultaneous stimulation of nicotinic and muscarinic receptors by ACh may be necessary to synchronize and balance ionic and metabolic events within cells, which are perturbed [49]. Thus, an increase in AChE activity can be associated with perturbations in several metabolic pathways, which can be mediated by ACh. External factors such as food supply, ambient temperature, and water quality (e.g. contaminants mixture) can also alter the activity of cholinesterases [50]. These factors impair the determination of the “normal” activity of ChE and thus hinder the identification of “abnormal” activity, including that caused by anticholinesterases [50].
3.3.1 Ecotoxicity results from the reservoir and its relationship with WFD parameters (physical and chemical elements, chemical analysis, and biological element)
3.3.1.1 Miranda reservoir
Figure 2 corresponds to the proposal of classes of disturbances (defined by colors) and ecotoxicity results for different parameters quantified in D. magna, after exposure to treatments of the natural waters of Miranda reservoir. Based on the WFD parameters previously discussed, the feeding rates of D. magna exposed to natural waters from Miranda (NF) were not affected (Table 2) by the high presence of cyanobacteria, nor by the levels of total phosphorus, or the concentrations of zinc and mercury, which were recorded above the EQS. Even after the filtration treatments (F1 and F2), these rates were not altered and D. magna did not show disturbances in terms of feeding rates (Figure 2A; Table 2). However, in sub-individual terms (biomarkers), regarding CAT activity, we found that with the application of treatments with filtrations (F1 and F2) there was an increase in oxidative stress (Table 2), which resulted in a worse classification class in F2 treatment (moderately disturbed; Figure 2B). These results are supported by previous work [8, 9], since higher concentrations of phosphorus can promote an overgrowth of phytoplanktonic organisms [9] and, consequently, the blooms of cyanobacteria as Microcystis, which fact confirms our findings, in this work. In turn, these cyanobacterial blooms can result in dangerous levels of toxins such as microcystin-LR toxic to D. magna [9, 51, 52, 53]. Furthermore, it is important to note that the observed variations in CAT activity may still be associated with mercury and zinc levels above the Eq. [9], which may be more bioavailable for D. magna after F2 treatment since only the seston components were removed.
FR
CAT
GSTs
TBARS
AChE
d.f.
F
p
d.f.
F
p
d.f.
F
p
d.f.
F
p
d.f.
F
p
M
2, 13
0.020
0.981
2, 8
10.13
0.012
2, 8
5.554
0.043
2, 8
7.186
0.026
2, 8
7.282
0.025
P
2, 14
3.163
0.079
2, 8
5.803
0.040
2, 8
33.136
0.001
2, 8
47.753
<0.001
2, 8
6.777
0.029
Ag1
2, 14
1.522
0.258
2, 8
4.756
0.048
2, 8
5.659
0.154
2, 8
0.870
0.466
2, 8
1.347
0.329
Ag2
2, 14
0.065
0.938
2, 8
21.056
0.002
2, 8
8.066
0.020
2, 8
87.577
<0.001
2, 8
2.425
0.169
Ag3
2, 14
4.791
0.030
2, 8
2.740
0.143
2, 8
6.310
0.033
2, 8
99.326
<0.001
2, 8
1.054
0.405
Ag4
2, 14
2.889
0.095
2, 8
4.756
0.048
2, 8
2.596
0.154
2, 8
408.549
<0.001
2, 8
3.646
0.092
Table 2.
ANOVA summary table (test differences between natural water treatments – NF, F1, and F2) for the D. magna feeding rate (FR), CAT and GSTs activities, TBARS levels, and AChE activity, for Miranda, Pocinho and Aguieira. For each one, the degrees of freedom (d.f.), F statistics, and associated p-value was shown. Bold values stand for statistically significant differences. Significant values, (after Tukey test, p < 0.05), were represented in the figures with different letters (a, b, c).
Regarding the activity of GSTs, there was an improvement in the ecotoxicological classification, with the application of the F2 treatment (slightly disturbed; Figure 2C). As mentioned in previous studies, changes in the activities of antioxidant enzymes, such as CAT and GSTs, may be associated with the physiological responses of organisms to environmental adaptations, through the influence of phyto and zooplanktonic communities and suspended particles [9]. Chemical analyzes showed very low levels of most quantified contaminants, except for mercury and zinc. On the other hand, as suggested by [54] nutrients seem to be very important in controlling the performance of D. magna, and in fact, this corroborates the results observed in the F2 treatment, in the case of GSTs activity.
The results of the TBARS levels showed significant differences between NF and F2 treatments, although some degree of oxidative damage is still observed (Figure 2D; Table 2). This may indicate that the samples contained some type of disturbing and oxidizing agent, and potentially triggered oxidative stress (previously discussed), with a consequent increase in peroxidative damage (LPO). As mentioned earlier, high amounts of cyanobacteria present in this site, concomitantly with high concentrations of phosphorus and in addition to the high levels of mercury, can be associated with the results of TBARS levels. The accumulation of nutrients (e.g., phosphorus total) in Miranda reservoir can lead to eutrophication causing abnormal growth of the primary producers, which can compromise the quality and balance of the aquatic ecosystem, including the balance between biochemical pathways and physiological functions of organisms, as mentioned by [9, 53].
The results of the AChE activity showed significant differences between NF and F2 in the water treatments, although some degree of neurotoxic alteration was still observed between NF and F2 treatments, an improvement was observed considering the associated ecotoxicological class (Figure 2E; Table 2). AChE activity stimulation and inhibition allow the production of energy and materials by the cell when they are needed and inhibit production when the supply is adequate [48], and in this study seems to have been affected by the seston components, as can be seen from the changes between NF and F2. A direct relationship between the degree of AChE inhibition and toxicity might not always be expected. The reason for such variability can mainly be attributed to biological differences between species that include AChE sequence differences as well as differences in molecule affinities for the AChE-active site.
3.3.1.2 Pocinho reservoir
Figure 3 corresponds to the proposal of classes of disturbances and ecotoxicity results for different parameters quantified in D. magna, after exposure to treatments of the natural waters of Pocinho reservoir. Similar to what was observed for Miranda the feeding rates of D. magna exposed to natural waters from Pocinho (NF) were not significantly affected (Table 2) by the high presence of cyanobacteria (57.32%), nor by the levels of total phosphorus, or the concentrations of zinc and mercury, which were recorded above the EQS (Table 1). Even after the filtration treatments (F1 and F2), these rates were not significantly altered, which shows that in terms of feeding behavior, D. magna did not show significant disturbance in terms of feeding rates, despite apparent differences between treatments (Figure 3A). However, in sub-individual terms (biomarkers), regarding CAT activity, we found that with the application of treatments with filtrations (F1 and F2), an improvement in the ecotoxicological category was observed between the NF and F1 treatments, but the classification from F1 to F2 worsened again (Figure 3B). However, in general, there was an improvement between NF and F2, although not significant (Table 2), but sufficient to decrease the ecotoxicological category from moderately disturbed to marginally disturbed. Thus, at this location, we can see a potential negative interference of the various components of seston in CAT activity, which were removed by the F1 treatment, essentially highlight by the percentage of cyanobacteria. In F2, we may have a potential influence of the high concentration of zinc (80.7 μg/L), compared to the other sites and reservoirs (Table 1). In the absence of other biological communities, zinc bioavailability may be greater and result in increased toxicity to D. magna. Zn toxicity thresholds of D. magna can alter by a factor > 10 as a result of ecological interactions and are highly dependent on Ptotal and pH value, with the lowest Zn thresholds found in higher-P and higher-pH waters [55]. However, only a few cases corroborate this finding in this work, and Pocinho does not fit into this perspective. Furthermore, Fettweis et al. [55] evaluate the effects of 25 to 310 μg/L of Zn and pH 7.3 and 7.8 on 21-d daphnid population size and they concluded that the indirect effects of Zn via producer-consumer relationships can outweigh the direct toxic effects. According to the mentioned work, a higher phytoplankton Zn sensitivity at higher pH, affecting food supply to D. magna, and an increased algal P content at higher Zn, offering a nutritional benefit to daphnids that counteracts direct Zn toxicity under P limitation [55]. These explanations can help to understand what happened between NF for F1 and F2, not only in sub-individual but also individual responses (feeding rate).
Regarding GSTs activity (Figure 3C), a worsening was observed between NF and filtration treatments (F1 and F2). In this case, we can refer to a potential greater bioavailability of metal levels (Zn and Hg or others), in the absence of all seston components, essentially the various biological communities in F2 treatment. These results (Table 2) may indicate a potential interference of GSTs, in the antioxidant defense or detoxification of eventually dissolved compounds, which increased along with the water treatments, from NF to F2.
The levels of TBARS (Figure 3D; Table 2), all previous findings, both in terms of analysis of our results (potential greater bioavailability of dissolved compounds in F2 treatment for Daphnia, which is a filtering organism) and by comparison with other studies [9, 55], are reflected in this parameter, since it obtained a worse classification (disturbed), after F2 treatment, comparatively with NF treatment. In fact, Rodrigues et al. [9] had already selected TBARS levels as a relevant parameter in ecotoxicological assessment studies of water quality with D. magna. Then, since oxidative damage (TBARS levels) is an indicator of LPO as a potential consequence of oxidative stress, we can infer that it may be associated with the functional inefficiency of antioxidant enzymes. However, the changes observed in the enzymatic activities of CAT and GSTs support this fact.
The results regarding the AChE activity show an improvement between NF and F2, wherein in this last treatment we achieved the classification of not disturbed. These results indicate that the seston components (present in NF) could be causing some degree of neurotoxic stress, but when organisms were exposed to F2 treatment, these effects were mitigated. In this case, based on EQS values, the altered WFD parameters (pH, Ptotal, Zn, and Hg), did not show potential toxicity in terms of neurotransmission.
3.3.1.3 Aguieira reservoir
Figure 4 corresponds to the proposal of classes of disturbances (defined by colors) and ecotoxicity results for different parameters quantified in D. magna, after exposure to treatments of the natural waters of Aguieira reservoir. Similar to what was observed for the studied Douro River reservoirs (Miranda and Pocinho), the feeding rate parameter, in all treatments demonstrated a classification of not disturbed for all studied locations (Figure 4A). Apart from the Ag3 site, no significant differences in this parameter, among the treatments were recorded (Table 2). This site presented characteristics that differentiated them from the other Aguieira sites, namely the higher levels of total phosphorus recorded (0.08 mg P/L). Furthermore, higher percentages in terms of cyanobacteria biovolume (10.75%) were observed at this site. In fact, this site was the one that showed the greatest concern in previous studies [8, 10, 12] due to the high nutrient levels, and other metal elements (Zn, Hg), conditions also observed in the present study. In this sense, eutrophication in this reservoir, reported by other authors [9, 10, 12, 31, 40], has been a concern in terms of water quality, and in fact, supports our results. Indeed Ag3 site, with the application of filtration treatments (mainly F2), showed an improvement in feed rates, which reinforces the idea that the presence of several seston components is potential stress inductors for D. magna that can be reflected in food behavior.
Contrary to expectable, and about the antioxidant defense biomarker, catalase activity (Figure 4B; Table 2), a worse classification was observed in the locations Ag1 and Ag4 (in general moderately disturbed), compared to Ag2 and Ag3. In Ag2 and Ag3, a classification of slightly disturbed was observed after filtrations (e.g., F2 treatment). This classification is taking into account the seston components; on the other hand, Ag1 and Ag4 report different scenarios. These sites presented high pH values, and levels of Zn and Hg higher than defined EQS (Table 1). In addition, an ecological potential, taking into account biological EQR, the classification was good or more (Table 1). For this site, we observe that from NF to F2 there was an increase in oxidative stress, possibly associated with greater availability of dissolved compounds (besides quantified) to D. magna, in F2 treatment. In fact, the results of GSTs activity support this potential finding (Figure 4C), but only for Ag1. According to Rostern [30], the pH and concentration of inorganic metal ions (e.g., Zn and Hg) are key factors for toxicity in the physiology and behavior of aquatic organisms. In previous studies, metals such as Zn and mainly Hg are known to be inhibitors of enzymes’ activities and can disrupt antioxidant defenses [9, 30, 34, 35]. However, some care must be considered when comparing sites in the same reservoir, as we only analyze a tiny part of potential dissolved compounds. Moreover, the biological responses observed in the biomarkers, represent the results of an integrated response to complex mixtures. Furthermore, the land occupation also represents an important source of variation of contaminants input, and consequently biomarkers’ response. In addition, land occupation is different in each site and also between reservoirs (Figure 1).
Regarding the TBARS levels (Figure 4D), despite significant variations between treatments (Table 2), in the various sites, the results allowed classifying all treatments as not disturbed. Based on this evidence, we can observe that the antioxidant defenses, despite being altered and indicating potential oxidative stress associated with natural water treatments, in terms of lipid peroxidation, were able to prevent the occurrence of oxidative damage in exposed organisms. In fact, we cannot consider only the antioxidant defenses involved in this work. Other unquantified defenses and metabolic pathways may have acted to neutralize and prevent the occurrence of lipid peroxidation, which could indicate disturbances in cell membranes, which were not observed.
The activity of acetylcholinesterase, despite showing high variations in terms of percentage of inhibition (Figure 4E), was not significant between treatments (Table 2), for organisms exposed to treatments, with water samples from Aguieira site. The nonoccurrence of significant differences may be associated with high differences between replicates for the same treatment. The different toxicity for organisms exposed to the same conditions, but belonging to different replicates, can be considered if we considered the intraspecific variations [56]. In this sequence, the authors refer that the origin of population, animal body size, and pre-exposure history [e.g., organisms from different cultures, different broods (although meeting the criteria of the assay guidelines)] are realistic variables for zooplankton populations that cause different acute toxicities in D. magna [56]. If we consider, for example, the results of the mercury concentrations detected (Table 1), potential neurotoxicity would be expected. Mercury is known to be a neurotoxin that causes structural damage to the brain and inhibits enzymes’ activities needed for normal neurotransmission [30]. Tsui and Wang [56] suggested that acute Hg toxicities were not simply caused by the different Hg body burdens, and several other mechanisms may operate to result in such a varied Hg toxicity (e.g., reduction of Hg uptake, enhancement of intrinsic tolerance, and increase of antioxidant/detoxification activity). The same authors also measured the metal concentrations in water and living D. magna and the results provided useful information to explain whether the apparent tolerance modification was due to a change in metal accumulation and/or to a change in other subtle parameters (e.g., intrinsic tolerance and detoxification activity), which can also alter the neurotoxicity results.
3.3.1.4 Physicochemical and ecological potential vs. ecotoxicological approach
One of the fundamental using biomarkers in ecological risk assessment is based on their potential ability to anticipate effects at higher levels of biological organization. Due to the different sensitivity between ecotoxicological tools evaluated in this work, and the presence of some confounding factors that could play an important role in the final ecotoxicity evaluation, the result of the final ecotoxicological potential has been calculated as the worst classification of all biochemical parameters quantified in D. magna (Figure 5). According to this methodology, CAT and AChE activities parameters were the ones that most contributed to the final ecotoxicological potential. Except for Miranda, for the final NF treatment, in which the yellow color resulted from the parameters GSTs activity and TBARS levels. If we consider the totality of the data, we do not observe an improvement in the ecotoxicological potential, with the filtration treatments, with a few exceptions. The only site where this improvement was evident was Ag2, which is corroborated by previous studies conducted in the same site but using the microalga R. subcapitata [10]. As was done in the previous study, and due to the different sensitivity between WFD parameters (physicochemical, chemical, and biological elements) individually considered, the final ecological potential according to WFD parameters has been calculated. This approach is more in line with the results of the ecotoxicological potential, since considering the contamination classes of ecotoxicity and respective colors, they present greater similarities (Figure 5) with NF treatment (with all components), with the site Ag3 representing an exception. Several reasons were pointed out throughout the manuscript, evidenced by this site, compared to the remaining Aguieira sites reservoir, or even with Miranda and Pocinho. In general, when we considered the sampling points where the ecological potential qualification was bad or poor the similarities between ecologic and ecotoxicological potential were fully agreed upon. The results of the present work allow us to confirm that, when chemical stressors or seston components affect the organism’s homeostasis, an ecotoxicological approach, provided by suitable ecotoxicological tools, could detect these changes with accurate sensitivity. In fact, Rodrigues et al. [9] already demonstrated that feeding bioassays and biomarkers (e.g., antioxidant defense and TBARS levels) proved to be useful and reliable tools in the assessment of water quality. Notice that an accurate battery of ecotoxicological tools is a direct measure of organism functional responses, and they could have more impact on the decision-making process than criteria based on concentrations of chemicals or other physical and chemical parameters, as previously demonstrated by [10, 11].
4. Conclusions
The results of the current case study corroborate that cost-effective and rapid screening short-term ecotoxicological tools, performed with natural waters, using the model organism D. magna, could be useful to complement the determination of the water ecological potential of reservoirs. In the case study of Portuguese reservoirs, ecotoxicological tools evaluated (feeding bioassay and biomarkers) have been performed obtaining good sensitiveness and complementarity between methodologies, in most situations (intra- and inter-reservoirs). Moreover, high coincidences with the ecological potential, recognized following the WFD parameters evaluation, have been found especially when ecosystems’ disturbance due to several stressors was observed (e.g., seston components as some phytoplanktonic organisms as cyanobacteria, presence of organic pollutants, and metals). For future comparative studies, we also suggest the evaluation of the water treatments like those performed in this work, mainly the F2 (water filtered through a sterile filter system with a porosity of 0.22 μm), to evaluate seston quality, as it proved to be an important source of stress for D. magna. This set of biological responses has presented good concordance with the ecological potential of the reservoirs. These results encourage working further on the applicability of cost-effective ecotoxicity tests and early warning tools for the evaluation of water quality and their integration into the current monitoring programs.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by National Funds (through the FCT—Foundation for Science and Technology) and by the European Regional Development Fund (through COMPETE2020 and PT2020) through the research project ReDEFine (POCI-01-0145-FEDER-029368) and the strategic program UIDB/04423/2020 and UIDP/04423/2020. Sara Rodrigues and Sara Antunes are hired through the Regulamento do Emprego Científico e Tecnológico – RJEC from the Portuguese Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT) program (2020.00464.CEECIND and CEECIND/01756/2017, respectively).
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Ethical approval
All applicable international, national, and/or institutional guidelines for the care and use of animals were followed.
\n',keywords:"water framework directive, lentic ecosystems, model species, bioassays and biomarkers, ecotoxicity classes",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/82525.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/82525.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/82525",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/82525",totalDownloads:5,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"June 3rd 2022",dateReviewed:"June 8th 2022",datePrePublished:"July 22nd 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"July 5th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Several types of stressors come into natural water bodies, degrading their quality, and having harmful effects on aquatic biota. As a result, many attempts have been made to develop complementary techniques to those imposed by the Water Framework Directive (WFD) to improve the water quality assessment strategy in a shorter time and be more faithful to the components and contaminants of the ecosystem. Daphnia magna has been extensively used as a model organism for ecotoxicity testing, and its ecotoxicological responses to several disturbance factors have been being well characterized. From this perspective, this work aimed to evaluate the applicability of the feeding bioassays with D. magna, as well as early distress tools (biochemical biomarkers), in the assessment of water quality of natural waters of reservoirs. Samplings were performed in several sites in three Portuguese reservoirs and were conducted in the spring of 2020. Bioassays and biomarkers results showed sensitivity to different reservoirs since the sites are minimally or moderately impacted. Biological responses can be related to several environmental factors, such as surrounding areas, seston composition, and chemical analysis (WFD), among others not quantified. This set of biological responses has presented good concordance with the ecological potential of the reservoirs.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/82525",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/82525",signatures:"Sara Rodrigues, Ivo Pinto, Sandra Nogueira and Sara C. Antunes",book:{id:"11662",type:"book",title:"Limnology - The Importance of Monitoring and Correlations of Lentic and Lotic Waters",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Limnology - The Importance of Monitoring and Correlations of Lentic and Lotic Waters",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Carmine Massarelli and Dr. Claudia Campanale",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11662.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80356-537-8",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-536-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-538-5",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"315689",title:"Dr.",name:"Carmine",middleName:null,surname:"Massarelli",slug:"carmine-massarelli",fullName:"Carmine Massarelli"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Material and methods",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Study areas, water sampling, and physicochemical parameters quantifications",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Chemical analyses",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Biological parameters by WFD—Ecological quality ratio (EQR) for phytoplankton",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.4 Water treatments",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.5 Test organisms",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"2.5.1 Culture maintenance of D. magna",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"2.5.2 D. magna feeding rate assays",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"2.5.3 Biochemical determinations",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"2.6 Water ecotoxicological assessment",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"2.7 Statistical analyses",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13",title:"3. Results and discussion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"3.1 General physicochemical characteristics and trace elements concentrations (chemical analysis) in the water samples",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"3.2 Ecological quality ratio (EQR) for phytoplankton",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"3.3 Water ecotoxicological assessment",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_3",title:"Table 2.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15_4",title:"Table 2.",level:"4"},{id:"sec_16_4",title:"3.3.1.2 Pocinho reservoir",level:"4"},{id:"sec_17_4",title:"3.3.1.3 Aguieira reservoir",level:"4"},{id:"sec_18_4",title:"3.3.1.4 Physicochemical and ecological potential vs. ecotoxicological approach",level:"4"},{id:"sec_22",title:"4. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_23",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_26",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"},{id:"sec_23",title:"Ethical approval",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'European Parliament and of the Council. 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Remote Sensor Research. 2020;12(20):3414. DOI: 10.3390/rs12203414'},{id:"B38",body:'Feranec J, Jaffrain G, Soukup T, Hazeu G. Determining changes and flows in European landscapes 1990–2000 using CORINE land cover data. Applied Geography. 2010;30:19-35. DOI: 10.1016/j.apgeog.2009.07.003'},{id:"B39",body:'Bordalo AA, Teixeira R, Wiebe WJ. A water quality index applied to an international shared river basin: The case of the Douro river. Environmental Management. 2006;38:910-920. DOI: 10.1007/s00267-004-0037-6'},{id:"B40",body:'Vasconcelos V, Morais J, Vale M. Microcystins and cyanobacteria trends in a 14 year monitoring of a temperate eutrophic reservoir (Aguieira, Portugal). Journal of Environmental Monitoring. 2011;13:668-672. DOI: 10.1039/c0em00671h'},{id:"B41",body:'Lari E, Steinkey D, Steinkey RJ, Pyle GG. Daphnia magna increase feeding activity in the presence of four amino acids. Journal of Plankton Research. 2018;40(5):537-543. DOI: 10.1093/plankt/fby038'},{id:"B42",body:'Barata C, Varo I, Navarro JC, et al. Antioxidant enzyme activities and lipid peroxidation in the freshwater cladoceran Daphnia magna exposed to redox cycling compounds. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part C. 2005;140(2):175-186. DOI: 10.1016/j.cca.2005.01.013'},{id:"B43",body:'Rodrigues S, Antunes SC, Correia AT, Nunes B. Acute and chronic effects of erythromycin exposure on oxidative stress and genotoxicity parameters of Oncorhynchus mykiss. Science Total Environment. 2016;545:591-600. DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.10.138'},{id:"B44",body:'Lionetto MG, Caricato R, Calisi A, et al. Acetylcholinesterase as a biomarker in environmental and occupational medicine: New insights and future perspectives. BioMed Research International. 2013;321213:1-8. DOI: 10.1155/2013/321213'},{id:"B45",body:'Rodrigues S, Antunes SC, Correia AT, Nunes B. Toxicity of erythromycin to Oncorhynchus mykiss at different biochemical levels: Detoxification metabolism, energetic balance, and neurological impairment. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 2019;26(1):227-239. DOI: 10.1007/s11356-018-3494-9'},{id:"B46",body:'Rhee JS, Kim BM, Jeong CB, et al. Effect of pharmaceuticals exposure on acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity and on the expression of AChE gene in the monogonont rotifer, Brachionus koreanus. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part C. 2013;158(4):216-224. DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpc.2013.08.005'},{id:"B47",body:'US EPA. SCE policy issues related to the food quality protection act. Office of pesticide programs science policy on the use of cholinesterase inhibition for risk assessment of organophosphate and carbamate pesticides. Federal register. 1998:63'},{id:"B48",body:'Britannica. The Editors of Encyclopaedia. “enzyme”. Encyclopedia Britannica. 2022, Available from: https://www.britannica.com/science/enzyme [Accessed: April 27, 2022]'},{id:"B49",body:'Uberti F, Bardelli C, Morsanuto V, et al. Stimulation of the nonneuronal cholinergic system by highly diluted acetylcholine in keratinocytes. Cells, Tissues, Organs. 2017;203:215-230. DOI: 10.1159/000451023'},{id:"B50",body:'Liu HC, Yuan BQ, Li SN. Developing antibodies from cholinesterase derived from prokaryotic expression and testing their feasibility for detecting immunogen content in Daphnia magna. Journal of Zhejiang University-SCIENCE B. 2016;17(2):110-126'},{id:"B51",body:'Chen W, Song L, Ou D, Gan N. Chronic toxicity and responses of several important enzymes in Daphnia magna on exposure to sublethal microcystin-LR. Environmental Toxicology. 2005;20(3):323-330. DOI: 10.1002/tox.20108'},{id:"B52",body:'Freitas EC, Pinheiro C, Rocha O, Loureiro S. Can mixtures of cyanotoxins represent a risk to the zooplankton? The case study of Daphnia magna Straus exposed to hepatotoxic and neurotoxic cyanobacterial extracts. Harmful Algae. 2014;31:143-152. DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2013.11.004'},{id:"B53",body:'Wojtal-Frankiewicz A, Bernasińska J, Frankiewicz P, et al. Response of Daphnia’s antioxidant systems to spatial heterogeneity in cyanobacteria concentrations in a lowland reservoir. PLoS One. 2014;9:e112597. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0112597'},{id:"B54",body:'Palma P, Ledo L, Alvarenga P. Ecotoxicological endpoints, are they useful tools to support ecological status assessment in strongly modified water bodies? Science and Total Environment. 2016;541:119-129. DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.09.014'},{id:"B55",body:'Fettweis A, De Schamphelaere K, Smolders E. Zinc toxicity to Daphnia magna in a two-species microcosm can be predicted from single-species test data: The effects of phosphorus supply and pH. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry. 2018;37(8):2153-2164. DOI: 10.1002/etc.4171'},{id:"B56",body:'Tsui MTK, Wang WX. Acute toxicity of mercury to Daphnia magna under different conditions. Environmental Science & Technology. 2006;40:4025-4030. DOI: 10.1021/es052377g'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Sara Rodrigues",address:"sara.rodrigues@fc.up.pt",affiliation:'
Faculty of Sciences, Department of Biology, University of Porto, Portugal
CIMAR/CIIMAR, Interdisciplinary Center for Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, Portugal
Faculty of Sciences, Department of Biology, University of Porto, Portugal
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Sara C. Antunes",address:null,affiliation:'
Faculty of Sciences, Department of Biology, University of Porto, Portugal
CIMAR/CIIMAR, Interdisciplinary Center for Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, Portugal
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Our journals are currently in their launching issue. They will be applied to all relevant indexes as soon as they are eligible. These include (but are not limited to): Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed, MEDLINE, Database of Open Access Journals (DOAJ), Google Scholar and Inspec.
\n\n
IntechOpen books are indexed by the following abstracting and indexing services:
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BKCI is a part of Web of Science Core Collection (WoSCC) and the world’s leading citation index with multidisciplinary content from the top tier international and regional journals, conference proceedings, and books. The Book Citation Index includes over 104,500 editorially selected books, with 10,000 new books added each year. Containing more than 53.2 million cited references, coverage dates back from 2005 to present. The Book Citation Index is multidisciplinary, covering disciplines across the sciences, social sciences, and arts & humanities.
Produced by the Web Of Science group, BIOSIS Previews research database provides researchers with the most current sources of life sciences information, including journals, conferences, patents, books, review articles, and more. Researchers can also access multidisciplinary coverage via specialized indexing such as MeSH disease terms, CAS registry numbers, Sequence Databank Numbers and Major Concepts.
Produced by the Web Of Science group, Zoological Record is the world’s oldest continuing database of animal biology. It is considered the world’s leading taxonomic reference, and with coverage back to 1864, has long acted as the world’s unofficial register of animal names. The broad scope of coverage ranges from biodiversity and the environment to taxonomy and veterinary sciences.
Provides a simple way to search broadly for scholarly literature. Includes peer-reviewed papers, theses, books, abstracts and articles, from academic publishers, professsional societies, preprint repositories, universities and other scholarly organizations. Google Scholar sorts articles by weighing the full text of each article, the author, the publication in which the article appears, and how often the article has been cited in other scholarly literature, so that the most relevant results are returned on the first page.
Microsoft Academic is a project exploring how to assist human conducting scientific research by leveraging machine’s cognitive power in memory, computation, sensing, attention, and endurance. Re-launched in 2016, the tool features an entirely new data structure and search engine using semantic search technologies. The Academic Knowledge API offers information retrieval from the underlying database using REST endpoints for advanced research purposes.
The national library of the United Kingdom includes 150 million manuscripts, maps, newspapers, magazines, prints and drawings, music scores, and patents. Online catalogues, information and exhibitions can be found on its website. The library operates the world's largest document delivery service, providing millions of items a year to national and international customers.
The digital NSK portal is the central gathering place for the digital collections of the National and University Library (NSK) in Croatia. It was established in 2016 to provide access to the Library’s digital and digitized material collections regardless of storage location. The digital NSK portal enables a unified search of digitized material from the NSK Special Collections - books, visual material, maps and music material. From the end of 2019, all thematic portals are available independently: Digital Books, Digitized Manuscripts, Digitized Visual Materials, Digital Music Materials and Digitized Cartographic Materials (established in 2017). Currently available only in Croatian.
The official DOI (digital object identifier) link registration agency for scholarly and professional publications. Crossref operates a cross-publisher citation linking system that allows a researcher to click on a reference citation on one publisher’s platform and link directly to the cited content on another publisher’s platform, subject to the target publisher’s access control practices. This citation-linking network covers millions of articles and other content items from several hundred scholarly and professional publishers.
Dimensions is a next-generation linked research information system that makes it easier to find and access the most relevant information, analyze the academic and broader outcomes of research, and gather insights to inform future strategy. Dimensions delivers an array of search and discovery, analytical, and research management tools, all in a single platform. Developed in collaboration with over 100 leading research organizations around the world, it brings together over 128 million publications, grants, policy, data and metrics for the first time, enabling users to explore over 4 billion connections between them.
The primary aim of DOAB (Directory of Open Access Books) is to increase discoverability of Open Access books. Metadata will be harvestable in order to maximize dissemination, visibility and impact. Aggregators can integrate the records in their commercial services and libraries can integrate the directory into their online catalogues, helping scholars and students to discover the books.
OAPEN is dedicated to open access, peer-reviewed books. OAPEN operates two platforms, the OAPEN Library (www.oapen.org), a central repository for hosting and disseminating OA books, and the Directory of Open Access Books (DOAB, www.doabooks.org), a discovery service for OA books.
OpenAIRE aims at promoting and implementing the directives of the European Commission (EC) and the European Research Council on the promotion and funding of science and research. OpenAIRE supports the Open Access Mandate and the Open Research Data Pilot developed as part of the Horizon 2020 projects.
An integrated information service combining reference databases, subscription management, online journals, books and linking services. Widely used by libraries, schools, government institutions, medical institutions, corporations and others.
SFX® link resolver gives patrons and librarians a wealth of features that optimize management of and access to resources. It provides patrons with a direct route to electronic full-text records through OpenURL linking, delivers alternative links for further resource discovery, access to journals, and more. Released in 2001 as the first OpenURL resolver, SFX is continuously enhanced to support the newest industry developments and meet the evolving needs of customers. The records include a mix of scholarly material – primarily articles and e-books – but also conference proceedings, newspaper articles, and more.
A non-profit, membership, computer library service and research organization dedicated to the public purposes of furthering access to the world's information and reducing information costs. More than 41,555 libraries in 112 countries and territories around the world use OCLC services to locate, acquire, catalogue, lend and preserve library materials.
The world’s largest collection of open access research papers. CORE's mission is to aggregate all open access research outputs from repositories and journals worldwide and make them available to the public. In this way CORE facilitates free unrestricted access to research for all.
Since 2002, Research4Life has provided researchers at more than 10,500 institutions in over 125 lower and middle-income countries with free or low-cost online access to up 151,000 leading journals and books in the fields of health, agriculture, environment, applied sciences and legal information. There are five programs through which users can access content: Research for Health (Hinari), Research in Agriculture (AGORA), Research in the Environment (OARE), Research for Development and Innovation (ARDI) and Research for Global Justice (GOALI).
Perlego is a digital online library focusing on the delivery of academic, professional and non-fiction eBooks. It is a subscription-based service that offers users unlimited access to these texts for the duration of their subscription, however IntechOpen content integrated on the platform will always be available for free. They have been billed as “the Spotify for Textbooks” by the Evening Standard. Perlego is based in London but is available to users worldwide.
MyScienceWork provides a suite of data-driven solutions for research institutions, scientific publishers and private-sector R&D companies. MyScienceWork's comprehensive database includes more than 90 million scientific publications and 12 million patents.
CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure) is a key national information construction project under the lead of Tsinghua University, and supported by PRC Ministry of Education, PRC Ministry of Science, Propaganda Department of the Communist Party of China and PRC General Administration of Press and Publication. CNKI has built a comprehensive China Integrated Knowledge Resources System, including journals, doctoral dissertations, masters' theses, proceedings, newspapers, yearbooks, statistical yearbooks, ebooks, patents, standards and so on. CNKI keeps integrating new contents and developing new products in 2 aspects: full-text academic resources, software on digitization and knowledge management. Began with academic journals, CNKI has become the largest and mostly-used academic online library in China.
As one of the largest digital content platform in China,independently developed by CNPIEC, CNPeReading positions herself as “One Platform,Vast Content, Global Services”. Through their new cooperation model and service philosophy, CNPeReading provides integrated promotion and marketing solutionsfor upstream publishers, one-stop, triune, recommendation, online reading and management servicesfor downstream institutions & libraries.
ERIC (Education Resources Information Center), sponsored by the Institute of Education Sciences (IES) of the U.S. Department of Education, provides access to education literature to support the use of educational research and information to improve practice in learning, teaching, educational decision-making, and research. The ERIC website is available to the public for searching more than one million citations going back to 1966.
The ACM Digital Library is a research, discovery and networking platform containing: The Full-Text Collection of all ACM publications, including journals, conference proceedings, technical magazines, newsletters and books. A collection of curated and hosted full-text publications from select publishers.
BASE (Bielefeld Academic Search Engine) is one of the world's most voluminous search sengines especially for academic web resources, e.g. journal articles, preprints, digital collections, images / videos or research data. BASE facilitates effective and targeted searches and retrieves high quality, academically relevant results. Other than search engines like Google or Bing BASE searches the deep web as well. The sources which are included in BASE are intellectually selected (by people from the BASE team) and reviewed. That's why data garbage and spam do not occur.
Zentralblatt MATH (zbMATH) is the world’s most comprehensive and longest-running abstracting and reviewing service in pure and applied mathematics. It is edited by the European Mathematical Society (EMS), the Heidelberg Academy of Sciences and Humanities and FIZ Karlsruhe. zbMATH provides easy access to bibliographic data, reviews and abstracts from all areas of pure mathematics as well as applications, in particular to natural sciences, computer science, economics and engineering. It also covers history and philosophy of mathematics and university education. All entries are classified according to the Mathematics Subject Classification Scheme (MSC 2020) and are equipped with keywords in order to characterize their particular content.
IDEAS is the largest bibliographic database dedicated to Economics and available freely on the Internet. Based on RePEc, it indexes over 3,100,000 items of research, including over 2,900,000 that can be downloaded in full text. RePEc (Research Papers in Economics) is a large volunteer effort to enhance the free dissemination of research in Economics which includes bibliographic metadata from over 2,000 participating archives, including all the major publishers and research outlets. IDEAS is just one of several services that use RePEc data.
As the authoritative source for chemical names, structures and CAS Registry Numbers®, the CAS substance collection, CAS REGISTRY®, serves as a universal standard for chemists worldwide. Covering advances in chemistry and related sciences over the last 150 years, the CAS content collection empowers researchers, business leaders, and information professionals around the world with immediate access to the reliable information they need to fuel innovation.
BKCI is a part of Web of Science Core Collection (WoSCC) and the world’s leading citation index with multidisciplinary content from the top tier international and regional journals, conference proceedings, and books. The Book Citation Index includes over 104,500 editorially selected books, with 10,000 new books added each year. Containing more than 53.2 million cited references, coverage dates back from 2005 to present. The Book Citation Index is multidisciplinary, covering disciplines across the sciences, social sciences, and arts & humanities.
Produced by the Web Of Science group, BIOSIS Previews research database provides researchers with the most current sources of life sciences information, including journals, conferences, patents, books, review articles, and more. Researchers can also access multidisciplinary coverage via specialized indexing such as MeSH disease terms, CAS registry numbers, Sequence Databank Numbers and Major Concepts.
Produced by the Web Of Science group, Zoological Record is the world’s oldest continuing database of animal biology. It is considered the world’s leading taxonomic reference, and with coverage back to 1864, has long acted as the world’s unofficial register of animal names. The broad scope of coverage ranges from biodiversity and the environment to taxonomy and veterinary sciences.
Provides a simple way to search broadly for scholarly literature. Includes peer-reviewed papers, theses, books, abstracts and articles, from academic publishers, professsional societies, preprint repositories, universities and other scholarly organizations. Google Scholar sorts articles by weighing the full text of each article, the author, the publication in which the article appears, and how often the article has been cited in other scholarly literature, so that the most relevant results are returned on the first page.
Microsoft Academic is a project exploring how to assist human conducting scientific research by leveraging machine’s cognitive power in memory, computation, sensing, attention, and endurance. Re-launched in 2016, the tool features an entirely new data structure and search engine using semantic search technologies. The Academic Knowledge API offers information retrieval from the underlying database using REST endpoints for advanced research purposes.
The national library of the United Kingdom includes 150 million manuscripts, maps, newspapers, magazines, prints and drawings, music scores, and patents. Online catalogues, information and exhibitions can be found on its website. The library operates the world's largest document delivery service, providing millions of items a year to national and international customers.
The digital NSK portal is the central gathering place for the digital collections of the National and University Library (NSK) in Croatia. It was established in 2016 to provide access to the Library’s digital and digitized material collections regardless of storage location. The digital NSK portal enables a unified search of digitized material from the NSK Special Collections - books, visual material, maps and music material. From the end of 2019, all thematic portals are available independently: Digital Books, Digitized Manuscripts, Digitized Visual Materials, Digital Music Materials and Digitized Cartographic Materials (established in 2017). Currently available only in Croatian.
The official DOI (digital object identifier) link registration agency for scholarly and professional publications. Crossref operates a cross-publisher citation linking system that allows a researcher to click on a reference citation on one publisher’s platform and link directly to the cited content on another publisher’s platform, subject to the target publisher’s access control practices. This citation-linking network covers millions of articles and other content items from several hundred scholarly and professional publishers.
Dimensions is a next-generation linked research information system that makes it easier to find and access the most relevant information, analyze the academic and broader outcomes of research, and gather insights to inform future strategy. Dimensions delivers an array of search and discovery, analytical, and research management tools, all in a single platform. Developed in collaboration with over 100 leading research organizations around the world, it brings together over 128 million publications, grants, policy, data and metrics for the first time, enabling users to explore over 4 billion connections between them.
The primary aim of DOAB (Directory of Open Access Books) is to increase discoverability of Open Access books. Metadata will be harvestable in order to maximize dissemination, visibility and impact. Aggregators can integrate the records in their commercial services and libraries can integrate the directory into their online catalogues, helping scholars and students to discover the books.
OAPEN is dedicated to open access, peer-reviewed books. OAPEN operates two platforms, the OAPEN Library (www.oapen.org), a central repository for hosting and disseminating OA books, and the Directory of Open Access Books (DOAB, www.doabooks.org), a discovery service for OA books.
OpenAIRE aims at promoting and implementing the directives of the European Commission (EC) and the European Research Council on the promotion and funding of science and research. OpenAIRE supports the Open Access Mandate and the Open Research Data Pilot developed as part of the Horizon 2020 projects.
An integrated information service combining reference databases, subscription management, online journals, books and linking services. Widely used by libraries, schools, government institutions, medical institutions, corporations and others.
SFX® link resolver gives patrons and librarians a wealth of features that optimize management of and access to resources. It provides patrons with a direct route to electronic full-text records through OpenURL linking, delivers alternative links for further resource discovery, access to journals, and more. Released in 2001 as the first OpenURL resolver, SFX is continuously enhanced to support the newest industry developments and meet the evolving needs of customers. The records include a mix of scholarly material – primarily articles and e-books – but also conference proceedings, newspaper articles, and more.
A non-profit, membership, computer library service and research organization dedicated to the public purposes of furthering access to the world's information and reducing information costs. More than 41,555 libraries in 112 countries and territories around the world use OCLC services to locate, acquire, catalogue, lend and preserve library materials.
The world’s largest collection of open access research papers. CORE's mission is to aggregate all open access research outputs from repositories and journals worldwide and make them available to the public. In this way CORE facilitates free unrestricted access to research for all.
Since 2002, Research4Life has provided researchers at more than 10,500 institutions in over 125 lower and middle-income countries with free or low-cost online access to up 151,000 leading journals and books in the fields of health, agriculture, environment, applied sciences and legal information. There are five programs through which users can access content: Research for Health (Hinari), Research in Agriculture (AGORA), Research in the Environment (OARE), Research for Development and Innovation (ARDI) and Research for Global Justice (GOALI).
Perlego is a digital online library focusing on the delivery of academic, professional and non-fiction eBooks. It is a subscription-based service that offers users unlimited access to these texts for the duration of their subscription, however IntechOpen content integrated on the platform will always be available for free. They have been billed as “the Spotify for Textbooks” by the Evening Standard. Perlego is based in London but is available to users worldwide.
MyScienceWork provides a suite of data-driven solutions for research institutions, scientific publishers and private-sector R&D companies. MyScienceWork's comprehensive database includes more than 90 million scientific publications and 12 million patents.
CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure) is a key national information construction project under the lead of Tsinghua University, and supported by PRC Ministry of Education, PRC Ministry of Science, Propaganda Department of the Communist Party of China and PRC General Administration of Press and Publication. CNKI has built a comprehensive China Integrated Knowledge Resources System, including journals, doctoral dissertations, masters' theses, proceedings, newspapers, yearbooks, statistical yearbooks, ebooks, patents, standards and so on. CNKI keeps integrating new contents and developing new products in 2 aspects: full-text academic resources, software on digitization and knowledge management. Began with academic journals, CNKI has become the largest and mostly-used academic online library in China.
As one of the largest digital content platform in China,independently developed by CNPIEC, CNPeReading positions herself as “One Platform,Vast Content, Global Services”. Through their new cooperation model and service philosophy, CNPeReading provides integrated promotion and marketing solutionsfor upstream publishers, one-stop, triune, recommendation, online reading and management servicesfor downstream institutions & libraries.
ERIC (Education Resources Information Center), sponsored by the Institute of Education Sciences (IES) of the U.S. Department of Education, provides access to education literature to support the use of educational research and information to improve practice in learning, teaching, educational decision-making, and research. The ERIC website is available to the public for searching more than one million citations going back to 1966.
The ACM Digital Library is a research, discovery and networking platform containing: The Full-Text Collection of all ACM publications, including journals, conference proceedings, technical magazines, newsletters and books. A collection of curated and hosted full-text publications from select publishers.
BASE (Bielefeld Academic Search Engine) is one of the world's most voluminous search sengines especially for academic web resources, e.g. journal articles, preprints, digital collections, images / videos or research data. BASE facilitates effective and targeted searches and retrieves high quality, academically relevant results. Other than search engines like Google or Bing BASE searches the deep web as well. The sources which are included in BASE are intellectually selected (by people from the BASE team) and reviewed. That's why data garbage and spam do not occur.
Zentralblatt MATH (zbMATH) is the world’s most comprehensive and longest-running abstracting and reviewing service in pure and applied mathematics. It is edited by the European Mathematical Society (EMS), the Heidelberg Academy of Sciences and Humanities and FIZ Karlsruhe. zbMATH provides easy access to bibliographic data, reviews and abstracts from all areas of pure mathematics as well as applications, in particular to natural sciences, computer science, economics and engineering. It also covers history and philosophy of mathematics and university education. All entries are classified according to the Mathematics Subject Classification Scheme (MSC 2020) and are equipped with keywords in order to characterize their particular content.
IDEAS is the largest bibliographic database dedicated to Economics and available freely on the Internet. Based on RePEc, it indexes over 3,100,000 items of research, including over 2,900,000 that can be downloaded in full text. RePEc (Research Papers in Economics) is a large volunteer effort to enhance the free dissemination of research in Economics which includes bibliographic metadata from over 2,000 participating archives, including all the major publishers and research outlets. IDEAS is just one of several services that use RePEc data.
As the authoritative source for chemical names, structures and CAS Registry Numbers®, the CAS substance collection, CAS REGISTRY®, serves as a universal standard for chemists worldwide. Covering advances in chemistry and related sciences over the last 150 years, the CAS content collection empowers researchers, business leaders, and information professionals around the world with immediate access to the reliable information they need to fuel innovation.
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Trejo-Téllez and Fernando C. Gómez-Merino",authors:[{id:"113365",title:"Dr.",name:"Libia I.",middleName:null,surname:"Trejo-Téllez",slug:"libia-i.-trejo-tellez",fullName:"Libia I. Trejo-Téllez"},{id:"113414",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando C.",middleName:null,surname:"Gómez-Merino",slug:"fernando-c.-gomez-merino",fullName:"Fernando C. 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Stress is any adverse environmental condition that hampers proper growth of plant. Abiotic stress creates adverse effect on multiple procedures of morphology, biochemistry and physiology that are directly connected with growth and yield of plant. Abiotic stress are quantitative trait hence genes linked to these traits can be identified and used to select desirable alleles responsible for tolerance in plant. Plants can initiate a number of molecular, cellular and physiological modifications to react to and adapt to abiotic stress. Crop productivity is significantly affected by drought, salinity and cold. Abiotic stress reduce water availability to plant roots by increasing water soluble salts in soil and plants suffer from increased osmotic pressure outside the root. Physiological changes include lowering of leaf osmotic potential, water potential and relative water content, creation of nutritional imbalance, enhancing relative stress injury or one or more combination of these factors. Morphological and biochemical changes include changes in root and shoot length, number of leaves, secondary metabolite (glycine betaine, proline, MDA, abscisic acid) accumulation in plant, source and sink ratio. Proposed chapter will concentrate on enhancing plant response to abiotic stress and contemporary breeding application to increasing stress tolerance.",book:{id:"9345",slug:"sustainable-crop-production",title:"Sustainable Crop Production",fullTitle:"Sustainable Crop Production"},signatures:"Summy Yadav, Payal Modi, Akanksha Dave, Akdasbanu Vijapura, Disha Patel and Mohini Patel",authors:[{id:"186963",title:"Dr.",name:"Summy",middleName:null,surname:"Yadav",slug:"summy-yadav",fullName:"Summy Yadav"},{id:"308004",title:"Ms.",name:"Payal",middleName:null,surname:"Modi",slug:"payal-modi",fullName:"Payal Modi"},{id:"308005",title:"Ms.",name:"Akanksha",middleName:null,surname:"Dave",slug:"akanksha-dave",fullName:"Akanksha Dave"},{id:"308006",title:"Ms.",name:"Akdasbanu",middleName:null,surname:"Vijapara",slug:"akdasbanu-vijapara",fullName:"Akdasbanu Vijapara"},{id:"308007",title:"Ms.",name:"Disha",middleName:null,surname:"Patel",slug:"disha-patel",fullName:"Disha Patel"},{id:"308008",title:"Ms.",name:"Mohini",middleName:null,surname:"Patel",slug:"mohini-patel",fullName:"Mohini Patel"}]},{id:"45540",doi:"10.5772/56621",title:"Genes and QTLs for Rice Grain Quality Improvement",slug:"genes-and-qtls-for-rice-grain-quality-improvement",totalDownloads:3768,totalCrossrefCites:21,totalDimensionsCites:49,abstract:null,book:{id:"3554",slug:"rice-germplasm-genetics-and-improvement",title:"Rice",fullTitle:"Rice - Germplasm, Genetics and Improvement"},signatures:"Jinsong Bao",authors:[{id:"52135",title:"Dr.",name:"Jinsong",middleName:null,surname:"Bao",slug:"jinsong-bao",fullName:"Jinsong Bao"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"70658",title:"Factors Affecting Yield of Crops",slug:"factors-affecting-yield-of-crops",totalDownloads:4179,totalCrossrefCites:31,totalDimensionsCites:46,abstract:"A good understanding of dynamics involved in food production is critical for the improvement of food security. It has been demonstrated that an increase in crop yields significantly reduces poverty. Yield, the mass of harvest crop product in a specific area, is influenced by several factors. These factors are grouped in three basic categories known as technological (agricultural practices, managerial decision, etc.), biological (diseases, insects, pests, weeds) and environmental (climatic condition, soil fertility, topography, water quality, etc.). These factors account for yield differences from one region to another worldwide. The current chapter will discuss each of these three basic factors as well as providing some recommendations for overcoming them. In addition, it will provide the importance of climate-smart agriculture in the increase of crop yields while facilitating the achievement of crop production in safe environment. This goes in line with the second goal of 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development of United Nations in transforming our world formulated as end hunger, achieve food security, improve nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture.",book:{id:"8153",slug:"agronomy-climate-change-food-security",title:"Agronomy",fullTitle:"Agronomy - Climate Change & Food Security"},signatures:"Tandzi Ngoune Liliane and Mutengwa Shelton Charles",authors:[{id:"313819",title:"Dr.",name:"Liliane",middleName:null,surname:"Tandzi",slug:"liliane-tandzi",fullName:"Liliane Tandzi"},{id:"314316",title:"Prof.",name:"Charles Shelton",middleName:null,surname:"Mutengwa",slug:"charles-shelton-mutengwa",fullName:"Charles Shelton Mutengwa"}]},{id:"40178",title:"Molecular Markers and Marker-Assisted Breeding in Plants",slug:"molecular-markers-and-marker-assisted-breeding-in-plants",totalDownloads:23145,totalCrossrefCites:85,totalDimensionsCites:153,abstract:null,book:{id:"3060",slug:"plant-breeding-from-laboratories-to-fields",title:"Plant Breeding from Laboratories to Fields",fullTitle:"Plant Breeding from Laboratories to Fields"},signatures:"Guo-Liang Jiang",authors:[{id:"158810",title:"Dr.",name:"Guo-Liang",middleName:null,surname:"Jiang",slug:"guo-liang-jiang",fullName:"Guo-Liang Jiang"}]},{id:"60074",title:"Pollen Germination in vitro",slug:"pollen-germination-in-vitro",totalDownloads:2819,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Pollen germination in vitro is a reliable method to test the pollen viability. It also addresses many basic questions in sexual reproduction and particularly useful in wide hybridization. Many pollen germination medium ranging from simple sugars to complex one having vitamins, growth regulators, etc. in addition to various minerals have been standardized to germinate pollen artificially. The different media, successful pollen germination methods, procedures from pollen germination studies with wheat, rye, brinjal, pigeonpea and its wild relatives are discussed.",book:{id:"6659",slug:"pollination-in-plants",title:"Pollination in Plants",fullTitle:"Pollination in Plants"},signatures:"Jayaprakash P",authors:[{id:"235465",title:"Dr.",name:"Jayaprakash",middleName:null,surname:"P",slug:"jayaprakash-p",fullName:"Jayaprakash P"}]},{id:"62376",title:"Genotype × Environment Interaction: A Prerequisite for Tomato Variety Development",slug:"genotype-environment-interaction-a-prerequisite-for-tomato-variety-development",totalDownloads:2347,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) is the second most important vegetable crop in the world due to its high level of nutrition particularly in vitamins and antioxidants. It is grown in several ecologies of the world due to its adaptability and ease of cultivation. Besides field conditions, tomatoes are grown in controlled environments which range from hydroponics and simple high tunnel structures to highly automated screen houses in advanced countries. However, the yield and quality of the fruits are highly influenced by the environment. This results in unpredictable performances in different growing environments in terms of quality, a phenomenon known as genotype by environment (G × E) interaction which confounds selection efficiency. Various approaches are employed by plant breeders to evaluate and address the challenges posed by genotype by environment interaction. This chapter discusses various field and controlled environments for growing tomatoes and the effect of these environments on the performance of the crop. The various types of genotype × environment interactions and their effect of the tomato plant are discussed. Finally, efforts are made to suggest ways and methods of mitigating the confounding effects of genotype × environment interaction including statistical approaches.",book:{id:"6422",slug:"recent-advances-in-tomato-breeding-and-production",title:"Recent Advances in Tomato Breeding and Production",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Tomato Breeding and Production"},signatures:"Michael Kwabena Osei, Benjamin Annor, Joseph Adjebeng-\nDanquah, Agyemang Danquah, Eric Danquah, Essie Blay and Hans\nAdu-Dapaah",authors:[{id:"204223",title:"Dr.",name:"Agyemang",middleName:null,surname:"Danquah",slug:"agyemang-danquah",fullName:"Agyemang Danquah"},{id:"217531",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Michael Kwabena",middleName:null,surname:"Osei",slug:"michael-kwabena-osei",fullName:"Michael Kwabena Osei"},{id:"217760",title:"Dr.",name:"Joseph",middleName:null,surname:"Adjebeng-Danquah",slug:"joseph-adjebeng-danquah",fullName:"Joseph Adjebeng-Danquah"},{id:"217768",title:"MSc.",name:"Benjamin",middleName:null,surname:"Annor",slug:"benjamin-annor",fullName:"Benjamin Annor"},{id:"247378",title:"Dr.",name:"Eric Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Danquah",slug:"eric-y.-danquah",fullName:"Eric Y. Danquah"},{id:"248095",title:"Prof.",name:"Essie",middleName:null,surname:"Blay",slug:"essie-blay",fullName:"Essie Blay"},{id:"248096",title:"Prof.",name:"Hans",middleName:null,surname:"Adu-Dapaah",slug:"hans-adu-dapaah",fullName:"Hans Adu-Dapaah"}]},{id:"45153",title:"Irrigation of Sandy Soils, Basics and Scheduling",slug:"irrigation-of-sandy-soils-basics-and-scheduling",totalDownloads:5648,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:null,book:{id:"3357",slug:"crop-production",title:"Crop Production",fullTitle:"Crop Production"},signatures:"Mohamed S. Alhammadi and Ali M. 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He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. 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He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. 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He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. 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He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. 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He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. 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He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"117248",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Macnab",slug:"andrew-macnab",fullName:"Andrew Macnab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. 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The emergence of any viral disease is hard to anticipate, which often contributes to death. A viral disease can be defined as an infectious disease that has recently appeared within a population or exists in nature with the rapid expansion of incident or geographic range. This series will focus on various crucial factors related to emerging viral infectious diseases, including epidemiology, pathogenesis, host immune response, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment, and clinical recommendations for managing viral infectious diseases, highlighting the recent issues with future directions for effective therapeutic strategies.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11402,editor:{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. 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Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188"},editorialBoard:[{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"188219",title:"Prof.",name:"Imran",middleName:null,surname:"Shahid",slug:"imran-shahid",fullName:"Imran Shahid",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188219/images/system/188219.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Umm al-Qura 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\r\n\tThe era of antibiotics led us to the illusion that the problem of bacterial infection is over. However, bacterial flexibility and adaptation mechanisms allow them to survive and grow in extreme conditions. The best example is the formation of a sophisticated society of bacteria defined as a biofilm. Understanding the mechanism of bacterial biofilm formation has changed our perception of the development of bacterial infection but successfully eradicating biofilm remains a challenge. Considering the above, it is not surprising that bacteria remain a major public health threat despite the development of many groups of antibiotics. Additionally, increasing prevalence of acquired antibiotic resistance forces us to realize that we are far from controlling the development of bacterial infections. On the other hand, many infections are endogenous and result from an unbalanced relationship between the host and the microorganism. The increasing use of immunosuppressants, such as chemotherapy or organ transplantation, increases the incidence of patients highly susceptible to bacterial infections in the population.
\r\n
\r\n\tThis topic will focus on the current challenges and advantages in the diagnosis and treatment of bacterial infections. We will discuss the host-microbiota relationship, the treatment of chronic infections due to biofilm formation, and the development of new diagnostic tools to rapidly distinguish between colonization and probable infection.
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Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. Fungal infectious disease outbreaks are common during the post- disaster rebuilding era, which is characterised by high population density, migration, and poor health and medical conditions.\r\nSystemic or local fungal infection is mainly associated with the fungi directly inhaled or inoculated in the environment during the disaster. The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. It will provide significant opportunities and support for scientists, clinical doctors, mycologists, antifungal drug researchers, public health practitioners, and epidemiologists from all over the world to share new research, ideas and solutions to promote the development and progress of medical mycology.",annualVolume:11400,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"302145",title:"Dr.",name:"Felix",middleName:null,surname:"Bongomin",fullName:"Felix Bongomin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/302145/images/system/302145.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gulu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Uganda"}}},{id:"45803",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Payam",middleName:null,surname:"Behzadi",fullName:"Payam Behzadi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/45803/images/system/45803.jpg",institutionString:"Islamic Azad University, Tehran",institution:{name:"Islamic Azad University, Tehran",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}}]},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Blood Borne Parasites, Intestinal Parasites, Protozoa, Helminths, Arthropods, Water Born Parasites, Epidemiology, Molecular Biology, Systematics, Genomics, Proteomics, Ecology",scope:"Parasitic diseases have evolved alongside their human hosts. In many cases, these diseases have adapted so well that they have developed efficient resilience methods in the human host and can live in the host for years. Others, particularly some blood parasites, can cause very acute diseases and are responsible for millions of deaths yearly. Many parasitic diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases because they have received minimal funding over recent years and, in many cases, are under-reported despite the critical role they play in morbidity and mortality among human and animal hosts. The current topic, Parasitic Infectious Diseases, in the Infectious Diseases Series aims to publish studies on the systematics, epidemiology, molecular biology, genomics, pathogenesis, genetics, and clinical significance of parasitic diseases from blood borne to intestinal parasites as well as zoonotic parasites. We hope to cover all aspects of parasitic diseases to provide current and relevant research data on these very important diseases. In the current atmosphere of the Coronavirus pandemic, communities around the world, particularly those in different underdeveloped areas, are faced with the growing challenges of the high burden of parasitic diseases. At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. Therefore, it is important to conduct studies that examine parasitic infections in the context of the coronavirus pandemic for the benefit of all communities to help foster more informed decisions for the betterment of human and animal health.",annualVolume:11401,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Venda",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"188881",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando José",middleName:null,surname:"Andrade-Narváez",fullName:"Fernando José Andrade-Narváez",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRIV7QAO/Profile_Picture_1628834308121",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Yucatán",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"269120",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajeev",middleName:"K.",surname:"Tyagi",fullName:"Rajeev Tyagi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRaBqQAK/Profile_Picture_1644331884726",institutionString:"CSIR - Institute of Microbial Technology, India",institution:null},{id:"336849",title:"Prof.",name:"Ricardo",middleName:null,surname:"Izurieta",fullName:"Ricardo Izurieta",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/293169/images/system/293169.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Florida",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Novel Viruses, Virus Transmission, Virus Evolution, Molecular Virology, Control and Prevention, Virus-host Interaction",scope:"The Viral Infectious Diseases Book Series aims to provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends and discoveries in various viral infectious diseases emerging around the globe. The emergence of any viral disease is hard to anticipate, which often contributes to death. A viral disease can be defined as an infectious disease that has recently appeared within a population or exists in nature with the rapid expansion of incident or geographic range. This series will focus on various crucial factors related to emerging viral infectious diseases, including epidemiology, pathogenesis, host immune response, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment, and clinical recommendations for managing viral infectious diseases, highlighting the recent issues with future directions for effective therapeutic strategies.",annualVolume:11402,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",editor:{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"188219",title:"Prof.",name:"Imran",middleName:null,surname:"Shahid",fullName:"Imran Shahid",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188219/images/system/188219.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Umm al-Qura University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"214235",title:"Dr.",name:"Lynn",middleName:"S.",surname:"Zijenah",fullName:"Lynn Zijenah",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSEJGQA4/Profile_Picture_1636699126852",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zimbabwe",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"178641",title:"Dr.",name:"Samuel Ikwaras",middleName:null,surname:"Okware",fullName:"Samuel Ikwaras Okware",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178641/images/system/178641.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Uganda Christian University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Uganda"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/239441",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"239441"},fullPath:"/profiles/239441",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()