Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
IntechOpen is proud to announce that 179 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
Throughout the years, the list has named a total of 252 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
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1. Tendon macro- and microscopic overview
Anatomically, tendons are located in muscle origin/insertion and, further, in tendon intersections within the muscles. These complexly arranged tissues have great importance in movement generation, having as main actions the transfer of tension produced by the muscles to the subsequent unit, thus determining the degree of articular movement produced [1, 2]. Moreover, tendons act as a mechanism of energy storage, improving movement economy and power amplification for activities as jumping and acceleration, based on their spring-like properties [1, 3]. More recently, studies have shown that a stretch applied to an active muscle-tendon unit (MTU) can be taken up solely by tendon stretch, with little or no muscle fascicle lengthening, acting like a mechanical buffer to protect muscle fascicles, attenuation damage associated with active lengthening [4]. In addition, the energy absorbed by the tendons during movement can be used to maximize the power generated, as it can also be dissipated as heat, increasing energy release time to the muscles, thus decreasing the peak force experienced by the MTU [3, 4, 5]. All these functional aspects can promote more efficient movements, consuming less energy and preventing muscle damage [1, 4, 5] (Figure 1).
Figure 1.
Tendon hierarchical structure (adapted from Kannus, [8]).
The tendinous actions require an unrestricted slip by the adjacent tissue. For this reason, synovial sheaths form a closed system around many tendons to provide lubrication and to cushion the tendon during its action. Some tendons that do not have this system find in their periphery a loose peritendinous adipose and vascularized layer, which allows the free excursion of the tendon [6]. When healthy, they present white color, due to the presence of hypovascularized zones and fibroelastic texture, characterizing this tissue resistance to mechanical stresses [7]. In relation to its composition, because it is a connective tissue, the division happens between cells and the extracellular matrix (ECM) [7]. The ECM tendon is formed by approximately 70% of water, with great part associated with proteoglycans, glycosaminoglycans (GAGs), adhesion glycoproteins, non-collagenous proteins, and fibrous proteins (collagen and elastin) [1]. The water and GAG presence in the tendons is extremely important for maintaining the spacing among the collagen fibers, facilitating their slippage [9]. The highly organized collagen bundles represent 60–95% of the dry weight of the tendon, from which 90% are type I collagen and the remainder part is divided into types III (0–10%), IV (2%), V, and VI, respectively [2, 9].
The collagen formation occurs through the three spiral and helical peptide chains. Structural formation occurs intracellularly, with subsequent secretion into the ECM, where it is converted into collagen. The fibrillar structure is stabilized by various post-translational modifications, allowing the formation of intermolecular and interfibrillar cross-links. These cross-links’ large amount makes this structure highly resistant to stresses, shear forces, and even compression [10]. There are two main types of cross-links—enzymatic cross-links, confined in the terminal domains, and advanced glycation end-products (AGEs)—which may be formed at various sites along the collagen length [11]. It has been shown that enzymatic cross-links are essential in the formation and functioning of collagen fibrils, stabilizing the structure, while AGEs accumulate with age and diabetes and may impair the normal function of fibrils, leading to decreased viscoelasticity of the tendon [12, 13].
Since tendons are attached to two totally distinctive structures in morphological and functional terms (muscles and bones), two types of tendon junctions are found and differ in relation to the number of cross-links. The myotendinous junction (MJT) is more compliant, thus having smaller amount of cross-links, so that the perfect junction can occur [14, 15]. This decrease occurs due to increased shear forces, mainly from muscle activity. On the other hand, the osteotendinous junction (OJT) is less compliant, with much greater amount of cross-links [16]. This regional difference is also identified by biomechanical studies, which show greater stress in the tendon distal region, when compared to the proximal region. Thus, a study proposes that, besides that the tendon acts as a protective factor for the muscle (mechanical buffer), it seems that the tendon proximal region acts as a mechanical buffer of the tendon distal region, which undergoes greater mechanical loads and has greater stiffer [17].
Type I collagen molecules are generally heterotrimeric, composed of two α1 polypeptide chains and one α2 polypeptide chain, interlaced in a triple helix, as previously mentioned. Studies have shown that the α2 chain is the most hydrophobic, thus playing a stabilizing role for this molecule [18]. The type III collagen (second most commonly found type) is located mainly in the epitendon and endotendon. Authors have shown that their proportion changes under conditions of tissue injury. Among its functions, types I and V collagen heterotypic fibril formation and fibrillar diameter control stand out [1]. Type IV collagen is found primarily in the basement membrane, where it is considered the main structural component.
A small amount of elastin (2%) still contemplates the composition of tendon. This low proportion is directly related to the almost inelastic aspect of the tendon, its extensibility varying between 8 and 10% before reaching the point of total rupture. This aspect is extremely important, so that the function of conducting tension, performed by the tendon, is efficient [2, 9]. The tendinous arrangement is considered to be a highly organized hierarchical structure [9]. The tropocollagen molecules are organized and grouped into microfibrils and, later, into collagen fibrils. These primary beams bind to the formation of fascicles (smaller functional units of the tendon). Covering the fascicles is the endotendon, a layer of connective tissue, with nerve and vascular and lymphatic structures. By grouping the endotendons in an organizational way, we find the epitendon, the layer responsible for involving the tendon itself. Finally, the paratendon, a more vascularized layer, which can become a double layer, is filled with synovial fluid (produced by the synovial membrane) in tendons subject to friction [19, 20].
In relation to non-collagenous proteins, proteoglycans and glycoproteins are essential to ensure the binding between collagen fibers, water molecule diffusion, and collagen fibrillogenesis and to maintain the matrix structure, being essential for tissue viscoelastic capacity [19]. There are two groups of proteoglycans in the tendon, accounting for 1–5% of the dry weight of the tendon, with high hydrophilicity, attracting water molecules. The small leucine-rich proteoglycans (SLRPs) (decorins, fibromodulins, biglicans, and lumicans), which have a small core protein (40 kDa) and large proteoglycans, also called modular proteoglycans (aggrecan and versican), have a core protein of about 220–370 kDa. The proteoglycan amount in the tendon can vary, depending on the tension and compression (mechanical stimuli) that it receives [21]. Among the glycoproteins, tenascin-C acts on the stability and structuring of ECM, and its expression is greater in tissues where ECM turnover is more active. About fibronectin, it serves as a bridge between cells and ECM [22].
Regarding the cellular environment, the tenoblasts and tenocytes comprise 90–95% of the elements, together with endothelial cells and mast cells [1, 9]. The tenoblasts are spindle-shaped cells, immature, and highly metabolic and present many cytoplasmic organelles. These cells, over time, differentiate into tenocytes, more elongated cells, and are distributed in rows among the collagen fiber bundles, located mainly in the peritendinous region [23, 24]. The tenocytes are arranged in parallel rows along the force transmission axis and interact with the ECM through the integrins (adhesion cell surface receptors) that connect the intracellular cytoskeleton to the matrix, allowing the propagation of mechanical signals from the outside to the inside and from the inside to the outside (bidirectional), a process known as mechanotransduction, that is, the cellular capacity to feel and respond to external mechanical stimuli, extremely important for the maintenance of the tendinous function, besides the organization of its structure [25]. Additionally, tenocytes have extensive communication with adjacent cells through gap junctions. The communication junctions are extremely complex structures, having two hemicanals, also called connexons, with a central pore. These open connexons allow free metabolites and ion passage among the gap junctions [26, 27]. These connexons are numbered, and the most important ones, in terms of cellular communication and tendons regeneration, are those of number 32 and 43. Connexin 43 is responsible for the inhibition of the collagen syntheses within the tenocytes, as a response to mechanical loading. Connexin 32 may have a stimulatory role, but all we need to know is that they aid communication among cells within the tendon to help with regeneration and adaptation [27].
2. Biomechanical aspects inherent to tendon function
Tendons have biomechanical characteristics similar to springs. They are not able to produce mechanical energy, but are able to conserve energy, increase potency during functional activities, and absorb external forces to prevent injury in the muscle [1, 3, 4]. The parallel arrangement of its collagen fibers along the tendon long axis is directly correlated with its ability to control the tensile loads, mainly unidirectionally and making tendon highly effective in transmitting tension generated by the skeletal muscle to the bone. A good example of the opposite is the ligaments, which have an interlocking arrangement, thus having greater ability to control tension loads in different directions [1, 9].
Nevertheless, a look with microscopic scales identifies a zigzag pattern of collagen fibers, somewhat different from the perfect alignment along the tendon long axis described earlier, known as crimps [28]. Crimps form a “crimp angle” of 20° from the long axis of the tendon. When tendons are unloaded or in the low-load “toe region” of the stress-strain curve (this topic will be better described below), collagen crimps that are present, and they “disappear” when loaded to induce a tensile strain of about 4%. Thus, crimps are physiological markers of tendon tension [29, 30].
The ECM composition characterizes this tissue as viscoelastic, guaranteeing the return to its original size, after being submitted to a certain level of deformation force [31, 32]. Tendon deformation, which occurs during movement, is dependent on the applied load. With higher stress levels, the tendons deform less and become stiffer, maximizing their ability to carry mechanical loads. Otherwise, with lower tensions, tendons have greater ability to deform and thus generate greater gains and adaptations in their ability to absorb energy [33]. This feature guarantees metabolic expenditure reduction during locomotion, as well as strength and power maximization during movement, a strategy known as the stretch-shortening cycle, where there is the use of the elastic capacity of passive structures, such as the tendon, for the energy accumulation during its elongation, transformed into a more powerful movement and with less energy expenditure during muscle shortening (concentric contraction) [34, 35].
For a better understanding of the biomechanical aspects of this tissue, experimental tests are performed, trapping the muscle-tendon complex at one end and the bone at the other end [36]. The tendon is then exposed to a controlled load along its longitudinal axis, recording force, and displacement until tissue failure. The results about mechanical properties are described in four main ways in literature [37]. The tendon deformation/elongation capacity relative to its normal length is characterized as strain, while the tendon force relative to its cross-sectional area is known as stress. Changes in tendon length, relative to the forces applied on it, generate stiffness. Finally, Young’s modulus, or modulus of elasticity, which describes the relationship between tendon stress and strain, represents the properties, independently of the cross-sectional area (CSA) [24, 36, 38].
A typical stress-strain curve has four distinctive regions. The first region is called toe region, where the crimped/zigzag pattern disappears when the strain of the tendon is below 2% and reappears when tension is released. Following the toe region, there is a linear region, in which the strain is lower than 4% (the physiological upper limit of strain in tendons) and the collagen fiber bundles are no longer crimped. If the strain remains lower than 4%, the fibers and fibrils have been shown to recoil back to their normal resting state, but strain greater than 4% can produce a microscopic damage (Figure 2). The slope of this region is Young’s modulus, representing tendon stiffness. As the strain on the fibrils continues, the gap between the molecules increases and macroscopic failure can occur, with strain beyond 8–10%, eventually leading to tendon rupture [24, 38].
Figure 2.
Stress-strain curve and its four distinct regions: (I) toe region, (II) linear region, (III) plastic region, and (IV) failure region. The toe region represents the alignment of the collagen fibers. At 2% tension, all fibers are already out of their crimped state. In the linear region, the collagen fibers respond to the load in a linear fashion. The two subsequent regions (plastic and failure) represent the beginning and the total failure of the collagen fibers (accumulation of microdamages) (adapted from Robi et al. [39]).
3. General aspects of tendon mechanical properties in response to exercise
Similar to the skeletal muscle, the tendon has the capacity to adapt according to their mechanical environment. In general, human movement occurs through force-generated muscle contraction, which is transmitted to the bone by aponeurosis and tendon [40]. On the other hand, movement is also essential for tendons [33, 41]. Since 1977, Beckham and coworkers have already noticed incomplete formation of cheek tendons during embryogenesis when muscle contraction was inhibited [42]. This result showed us that the relationship between the tendon and mechanical stimulus could be essential for tendon survival. Currently, we know the tendon answers metabolically to mechanical stimulus, and this exists in humans, for instance, tendon stiffness increase is related to mechanical loading imposed over it following a period of enhanced mechanical loading [33]. Moreover, short-term bout, as well as long-term loading-bearing, produces elevated collagen synthesis response [40]. A possible mechanism that explains the structural changes noticed following mechanical loading is the tendon responsiveness to mechanotransduction, promoting the interaction between fibroblasts and ECM. It is believed that this interaction between fibroblasts and ECM permits the cells to sense and respond to mechanical stimuli, promoting intracellular signaling that will improve protein synthesis and, consequently, tendon structures through collagen and growth factor autocrine/paracrine release (Figure 3).
Figure 3.
Possible mechanism for loading induced collagen synthesis: (1) fibroblast connected to extracellular matrix via integrins. (2) Transcription and synthesis of growth factors induced by mechanical loading via changed intracellular signaling. (3) Autocrine-paracrine action of growth factors leading to increased collagen transcription and synthesis. Adapted from Heinemeier and Kjaer [43].
4. Biomechanical adaptations of the tendon in response to exercise training
Evidence-based interventions that elucidate biomechanical adaptations in the tendon are valuable to monitor the effectiveness of training programmers, as well as for the development, evaluation, and implementation of effective intervention programs aimed at injuries. The technique improvement for biomechanical evaluation in the tendon has directly influenced sports medicine, ergonomics, manufacturing sports equipment, and many other aspects of human life. Exercise training potentiates an increase of tensile strength, energy absorption, and stiffness, which may help to enhance the tendon quality. Several reports have already described that these alterations in tendon mechanical properties, due to changes in the loading levels, can improve the muscles’ operating range and, consequently, the athletic performance [43].
4.1 Stiffness
Tendon stiffness is a crucial component for human locomotion and athletic performances because it keeps strain energy storage and returns properly and facilitates the muscle force potential due to force-length-velocity relationship [44]. Stiffness properties permit tendon to receive more or less stress, and this is directly related to tendon size. Thus, tendon stiffness is characterized by change in tendon length (ΔL) (deformation) in relation to the force applied to the tendon (ΔFt), but this parameter is dependent on the cross-sectional area (CSA) and length of the tendon, for instance, greater CSA and shorter length (deformation) will lead to greater stiffness [3] (Figure 4).
Figure 4.
Patella tendon force-derformation curve. Relationship between the force applied to the tendon (Ft) and the tendon deformation (elongation (ΔL). Adapted from Heinemeier and Kjaer [43].
It has been demonstrated that tendon stiffness can increase after exercise training to maintain physiological ranges of strain. Tendon has been shown to undergo mechanical changes in response to diverse training regimens, including resistance and endurance training. The stiffness may vary according to limb dominance and specific activity. For example, patellar tendon stiffness was greater in the lead leg of badminton and fencing athletes [40]. The changes of the tendon material and morphological properties are among the prime candidate mechanisms, which could account for an increase of tendon stiffness in response to exercise. Running exercises can improve the tendon stiffness. Investigation that used ultrasonography reports greater tendon stiffness in long-distance runners than sedentary subjects [45]. The tendon stiffness may be a potential parameter for improving athletic performance in running, such as peak ground reaction force and ground contact time. The recent findings suggest that stiffer tendon may help achieve better running performance, with greater running economy, in endurance runners [46]. The sprinters had higher normalized stiffness (relation between tendon force and tendon strain) of the triceps sural tendon than the endurance runners and subjects not active in sports, which suggest that higher muscle strength possibly increases the margin of tendon tolerated mechanical loading due to tendon greater stiffness [47].
The resistance training (RT) potential for modulate tendon stiffness in individuals with connective tissue disorders, healthy individuals, athletes, and the elderly are largely described [48, 49, 50]. Eccentric exercise, isometric and plyometric training, and vascular occlusion are commonly used as forms of loading exercise for increasing tendon stiffness and represent important strategies for training and rehabilitation [51, 52, 53]. However, adding RT to endurance training did not affect stiffness patellar tendon compared to endurance training only [54]. The effects of RT on tendon stiffness can be potentiated by training variable manipulation, such as exercise intensity and duration program [33]. Several studies demonstrated that higher muscle contraction intensity (i.e., 70% of RM) showed higher stiffness values than low-intensity exercise (30% of RM), which indicates that exercise intensity exerts important regulation on tendon adaptation following mechanical loading exercise, regardless the muscle contraction type.
In relation to the duration of the exercise program, several investigations suggest significant adaptations of tendon stiffness with only 8 weeks of intervention [33]; however, reduced elongation/strain over the whole force range can occur only after years of overload, indicating that there is a force-/strain-specific time course to these adaptations [55]. Although the use of RT may predict important biomechanical adaptations induced by training, the link between changes of tendon stiffness with different rest intervals, exercise order, and training volume remains to be determined.
On the other hand, aging can harm tendon biomechanical properties directly, as a result of biological change degeneration in the tendon and indirectly due to inactivity. In this context, studies suggest that RT is a therapeutic approach to minimize the deleterious effects of aging on biomechanical parameters in the tendon. In a recent review, the study suggests that the interventions should implement high mechanical loads with repetitive loading for up to 3–4 months to counteract age-related changes in muscle-tendon unit biomechanical properties [56]. Exercise training has demonstrated to promote stiffness [44] and increase the elastic modulus in elderly individuals [57]. Increased tendon stiffness is associated with a more rapid development of joint torque (~25%), which may be beneficial in the elderly. In rodent models, RT in old rats was effective for an increase in the stress-strain relationship, which improved the tendon capacity to support stress [36].
4.2 Tensile strength
The tendons need to be strong enough to sustain high magnitudes of loading, while their mechanical properties must remain functionally adequate for optimal muscle shortening or elastic energy storage. The tendons’ tensile strength represents the pull which a tendon can resist without rupturing. This biomechanical parameter is a key measure to evaluate tendon injury risk [1]. It is worth highlighting that tendon injuries are extremely common, with the top three being tears of the rotator cuff, Achilles, and wrist flexor tendon. Exercise training has been able to produce excellent outcomes in about 75% of cases, with increased tensile strength being a key component. Several factors can affect the mechanical forces on tendons during locomotion and exercise [58]. In general, different tendons in the body are subject to different levels of mechanical loads, and both muscle contraction level and tendon relative size influence mechanical forces on a tendon.
In the past, the studies about exercise effects on tensile strength were based on in vitro animal investigations [59]. Recent advanced practices allow for noninvasive, in vivo assessment of fascicle movement and cross-sectional area of human tendons. The different athletic activities induce distinct levels of force, even on the same tendon. The tensile strength of a tendon is dependent on collagen and many proteoglycans, which proportionate viscoelastic properties, possessing both solid and fluid-like characteristics and exhibiting changes to the stress-strain relationship regarding the rate at which they are loaded [58]. This dynamic entity remodels permanently in response to mechanical stimulation. Most studies with heavy resistance exercise and endurance activity seem to indicate that systematic exercise strengthens the tendon complex [33].
There is a paradox regarding the exercise effects on tensile strength since acute exercise can induce a decrease in this biomechanical parameter, which may be detrimental to tendon functions. However, chronic exercise stands out as a remarkable non-pharmacological strategy for increasing tensile strength. It has been demonstrated that Australian football athletes’ tendons presented a disorganization response to the mechanical loading of a game and that this disorganization returned to normal only after 4 days [60]. In the same research line, the football players showed an improvement in tendon structure over a 5-month preseason training period with increased fibrillar alignment [61]. Thus, exercise seems to improve tendon mechanical quality, including tensile strength. Tendons are able to withstand considerable forces during exercise, adapting to changes in mechanical load over time. Athletes of different modalities demonstrated improved viscoelastic properties, such as greater maximum tendon strain and suitable strain fluctuations when compared to nonathletes [62].
5. Tendon morphological properties in response to exercise training
Tendons’ morphological properties are crucial to their ability to function effectively in situations of greater demand, such as the exercise training. The measures are determined from both the geometrical form and material properties. In general, the technological advances for tendon elongation evaluation, by means of an ultrasound-based methodology, as well as the determination of the tendon CSA from magnetic resonance images, enabled more robust elucidations. Although morphology analysis appear to be relatively simple measurements, researchers still encounter several difficulties that must be taken into account and that still limit current techniques [63].
5.1 Cross-sectional area
The tendons need to adapt based on the ratio of their peak operating stress to their ultimate stress. In this aspect, the modulation in CSA is an adaptive mechanism required for keeping suitable safety factors in response to larger stress levels. Several studies in vivo reported that tendon stiffening after exercise training is accompanied by increases in CSA, which indicated that tendon hypertrophy can also occur with mechanical loading. In a recent systematic review and meta-analysis about human tendon adaptation in response to mechanical loading, it was demonstrated that exercise training induces positive effect for CSA, regardless of type of applied loading regimens. Accumulating evidences from animal and human studies suggest increases in tendon CSA following exercise interventions. In these studies an increase of 20–30% of CSA was noticed in athletes that performed weight-bearing exercise (running and jumping) compared to athletes that did not performed weight-bearing exercise (kayakers) [64, 65]. Interestingly, a tendon CSA increase of 30% in athletes that performed sports where one lower extremity is normally submitted to more loading (leading leg) than the contralateral side was also observed.
In addition, Konsgaard et al. [66] have showed that 12 weeks of heavy RT in healthy young men were efficient to promote increase in both quadriceps tendon CSA in middle and distal regions, as well as in stiffness when compared to other leg that accomplished light RT. Therefore, it is known that loading magnitude could interfere in tendon size. Interestingly, athletes with tendon degeneration cannot present pain symptoms after tendon damage has occurred. It has been demonstrated that around 52% of distance runners will sustain an Achilles tendon injury during their career. In the context, it is extremely essential to determine the difference between tendon remodeling and tendon degeneration. Tendon CSA changes may further indicate positive exercise adaptations or initial degeneration and tendon tissue repair [67].
On the other hand, Wiesinger et al. investigated the tendon structural integrity in athletes engaged in sports with contrasting requirements [68]. Curiously, researchers showed that tendon CSA area normalized to body mass was smaller in water polo players than in other athletes (patellar and Achilles tendon, −28 to −24%) or controls (patellar tendon only, −9%). In contrast, the normalized cross-sectional area was larger in runners (patellar tendon only, +26%) and ski jumpers (patellar and Achilles tendon, +21% and + 13%, respectively) than in controls, which indicate that tendon morphological properties can be modulated by functional requirements.
At last, some studies have demonstrated that there are differences in tendon plasticity between men and woman. It was noticed that men’s tendons hypertrophy with training, whereas trained women’s tendons are the same size as those of untrained women. This work suggests that gender-specific humoral factors may be involved in the training-induced adaptive morphological response of the human tendon. In fact, tendon adaptation inhibition following exercise when levels of estrogen are high was observed [3, 10].
5.2 Tendon elongation
Tendon elongation correlates significantly with clinical outcome, and lengthening is an important cause of morbidity and may produce permanent functional impairment [69]. Increases in tendon stiffness and tensile strength reported following exercise training could conceivably be attributed to tendon elongation. Nevertheless, current literature does not offer conclusive evidence to support this premise. Several research lines about the positive effects of exercise on tendon elongation are controversial [33, 45]. Few studies considered all relevant methodological aspects (e.g., accounting for gravitational forces, axes misalignment of joint and dynamometer, averaging multiple trials to reliably assess tendon elongation, measuring the tendon moment arm directly). Possibly these aspects affect the validity of the applied method. In addition, whenever variations between measured and calculated tendon elongations are observed, it should be standard practice to confirm that there are no shortcomings in the original elongation calculations or the standard stressing procedures.
On the other hand, in tendon injury mechanical theory, tendon tissue overload is blamed for the pathologic process. Sports injuries, such as Achilles tendon rupture, are serious injuries for which the best treatment is still controversial. The main objective of intervention strategies must be to restore normal length, thus obtaining an optimal function [69]. Once tendon lengthening has become permanent, its clinical management is often difficult. The emphasis on exercise programs should be placed on muscle strengthening.
6. Tendon molecular signaling in response to exercise training
In general, the maintenance or changes in tendon CSA, as well as in tendon elongation, are regulated by interaction between synthesis and degradation molecular pathways [70, 71, 72, 73]. In the tendon, the molecular adaptations stimulated by different types of exercise occur similarly to the skeletal muscle. Therefore, it is important to notice that in cases where training stimulates muscle hypertrophy and strength increase, the adaptations of muscles and tendons, which are collagen-rich tissues, are essential to maintain muscle-tendon unit integrity [74].
Tendons are distinct structures from muscles; however, tendon tissue has a direct continuation with the muscle ECM. This characteristic develops an essential mechanism that permits the communication of the mechanical properties of both muscles and tendons, allowing suitable force transmission between them [75]. Based on this communication, the externally applied mechanical load can stimulate ECM components through fibroblasts; however, ECM composition seems to be adapted specifically to changes in load. Therefore, it is possible to understand that mechanical stress can modulate the synthesis of ECM proteins, stimulating paracrine growth factor release, indirectly or directly triggering intracellular signaling pathway that will permit some ECM gene activation [76].
In order to investigate molecular signaling in response to exercise training, different approaches have been used, for instance, microanalysis, incorporation of stable isotope labeled proline into tendon tissue (C-13-proline), and mRNA gene expression of molecules present in the ECM. These approaches have been employed with the goal to analyze the modulations of several molecular mediators responsible for EMC remodeling, as well as molecules that present role key in tendon structure maintenance, such as collagens, proteoglycans, growth factors, as well as collagenases that could response to both endogenous and exogenous stimuli.
Currently, it is known that exercise induces collagen synthesis in the tendon, but the cellular mechanisms are still unclear. In the same way, growth factors as transforming growth factor-β-1 (TGF-β-1), connective tissue growth factor (CTGF), insulin-like growth factor (IGF), and mediator upstream involved in the collagen synthesis also might be involved in the ECM remodeling [77]. Enzymes involved in collagen processing, such as lysyl oxidase (LOX), in favor to cross-linking of collagen [78], as well as matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and their inhibitors (TIMPs) might contribute with tendon remodeling aggravated by exercise [79].
6.1 Collagens fibers and growth factors
The microanalysis has been employed to measure collagen pro-peptides which are responsible in the mature collagen synthesis.
Based on the microanalysis, it was possible to notice, in humans, elevated levels of collagen synthesis in peritendinous tissue in response to mechanical stimuli, in both acute and prolonged exercises [41]. These data corroborate with a previous study that used qPCR to investigate synthesized collagen by mRNA expression, but, in rats. In this study, the rats were submitted to 4 days of concentric, eccentric, or isometric training in the medial gastrocnemius muscle through sciatic nerve stimulation, simulating short-term strength training. Interestingly, in humans, high levels of type I and III collagen mRNA in the Achilles tendon in response in short-term resistance training were found, but no difference was seen between training types [77]. In this same study, researchers also investigated the regulation of TGF-β and CTGF key mediators for collagen fiber mRNA transcription.
TGF-β family is composed of more than 30 members identified in humans. This family orchestrates several cellular processes as proliferation, differentiation, protein metabolism, and growth and remodeling of the ECM in the tendon [80]. In the tendon, in particular, three TGF-β isoforms are known (TGF-β1, TGF-β2, and TGF-β3), but the most studied and that receive more attention is TGF-β1 isoform. In theory, latent TGF-β1 molecules are stored in ECM, in association with other ECM components such as fibrillin-1 and fibronectin. In cases when there is ECM remodeling necessity, for instance, injury tendon or overload following training, active TGF-β can be released of ECM through mechanical force or by matrix proteolytic enzymes as ADAMTS1, MMP-2, and MMP-9 [75]. In the case of mechanical force-mediated TGF-β activation, αvβ6 integrin, transmembrane proteins that connect intracellular cytoskeleton proteins together with ECM, suffers a conformational change that signals to liberate latent TGF-β; now matrix biologically active to binding in surface receptors are found in ECM cell. The binding between ligand (TGF-β) and their receptor permits activation of downstream intracellular signaling pathways, responsible for gene transcription, essential to ECM remodeling (for instance, collagen, MMPs, and TIMPs) (Figure 5) [75].
Figure 5.
Overview of TGF-β signaling pathways. Adapted from Gumucio et al. [75].
Interestingly, Heinemeyer et al. [77] confirmed in their study that TGF-β could be involved in collagen I and collagen III regulations in different types of training (concentric, eccentric, or isometric). Following 24 hours post training, a TGF-β increased gene expression in all types of training (concentric, eccentric, or isometric) with no difference among training types was noticed. These results are in accordance with previous studies that showed eccentric training is also accompanied by fibroblast proliferation, main cells responsible for synthesizing collagen in response to exercise [81, 82].
About ECM, connective tissue growth factor (CTGF), downstream mediator of TGF-β, in fibroblastic cells, also seems to be responsible for tendon ECM remodeling by exercise. It was noticed in human patellar tendon submitted to 1 hour of unilateral kicking exercise (workload of 67%) with frequency of 35 kicks per min and 2100 concentric contractions that CTGF gene expression total volume was increased, together with COL1A1 mRNA levels, 24 hours postexercise. On the other hand, tendon collagen protein synthesis between trained and untrained groups was not modified [83]. Despite that literature is still unclear about the mechanism that links mechanical loading, TGF-β-1, and CTGF, some results have reported that habitual loading is firstly related to stimulating proximal and distal portions of the tendon [40, 66]. However, future studies are necessary to obtain a better understating about the effect of exercise in this gene expression. Another point is inconsistency among loading protocol, so it is possible that some protocols have not reached to threshold enough stress-strain to stimulate the CTGF expression.
6.2 Proteoglycans
Other molecules, such as proteoglycans, are essential for fibrillogenesis regulation and tendon structure maintenance [84]. The proteoglycan regulation from exercise is still not clear on the literature, whereas most studies have observed the exercise effects over collagen and some growth factors responsible for gene expression of those molecules. However, it seems that resistance exercise appears not to induce changes in proteoglycan gene regulation. In the previous study, there were no observed changes in mRNA expression of the proteoglycans: decorin, biglycan, fibromodulin, and versican from resting levels at 4 or 24 hours after resistance training that corresponded to workload of 70% of the subject’s concentric maximum repetition [84]. Although, this study hasn’t found changes between proteoglycans, it is possible to infer that the regulation of these molecules could be related to mode, duration, and intensity of the exercise.
6.3 Matrix metalloproteinases
The ECM surrounding tendon provides structural support, protection, and maintenance of the functional integrity. The modulation of ECM function is controlled by matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs). The MMPs constitute a large family of endopeptidase zinc dependent that modulates ECM functions, degrading their constituents, such as proteoglycans, collagen, fibronectin, laminin, and other proteins during normal and pathological tissue remodeling. It has been reported that gelatinases (MMP-2 and MMP-9) play an important role in the ECM turnover induced by tissue injury and exercise training [84].
In order to compare exercise types (concentric, eccentric, or isometric) over gene expression of MMPs, a previous study noticed that MMP-2 mRNA expression increases moderately in the tendon in concentric and isometric exercises. On the other hand, MMP inhibitor, TIMP-1, and TIMP-2 increased gene expressions in response to all training types [77]. These data suggest a self-regulatory mechanism in attempt to protect the ECM against a high degradation of ECM compounds. In humans, it was found that MMP-2 mRNA decreased significantly 4 hours posteriorly to resistance training but returned to resting levels 24 hours after exercise. The mRNA expression of TIMP-1 did not change 24 hours post-acute exercise.
Interestingly in rodent models, previous data has already shown that acute or chronic exercises upregulate MMP-2 activity in the tendon, which is considered substantial mechanisms to tendon adaptation [85]. In contrast, anabolic-androgenic steroid treatment strongly inhibited this activity. Thus, anabolic-androgenic steroid treatment (AAS) can impair tissue remodeling in animal’s tendons undergoing physical exercise by downregulating MMP activity, thus increasing the potential for tendon injury [86].
In the same research line, it has been demonstrated that the effects of exercise training on tendon repair are not the same for different tendon types and tendon regions (distal, proximal, and intermediary). For example, Marqueti et al. [87], showed that the intermediate region of the trained animals with AAS supplementation differed from the proximal and distal regions. Moreover, trained animals with AAS supplementation decreased MMP-2 activity form in three regions of the calcaneal tendon (distal, proximal, and intermediary) but not on the deep flexor tendons. The results suggest that the differences in the response to exercise and AAS treatment are a result of distinct metabolism and recruitment of these tendon regions in the exercise program. In another study, Pereira et al. [85] investigated MMP-2 activity in different regions of the calcaneal tendon after RT in ovariectomized rats. The authors demonstrated that ovarian hormones modulate MMP-2 activity differently in proximal region when compared to distal region; however, acute and chronic RT promote sufficient local stimuli to increase total and active MMP-2. Furthermore, proximal region of the calcaneus tendon seems to be more sensitive than the distal region to both acute and chronic RT due to greater MMP-2 activity increase, even in the ovariectomy condition.
7. Conclusions
In summary, tendons are highly responsive to morphological, biochemical, and biomechanical modifications in response to exercise training. Those changes emphasize the importance of extracellular matrix investigation and its remarkable characteristics in this tissue type. With respect to mechanical loading, is well known that exercise exerts beneficial effects in distinct regions of tendons. However, tendon remodeling is not the same in different tendon regions concerning the same mechanical loading application. Also, muscle contraction intensity is a key element in tendon adaptive responses. Finally, accumulating evidence from animal and human studies suggests several beneficial effects of exercise on the tendon remodeling, which might contribute to clinical conditions and performance, as well as understanding the potential of mechanical loading in different types of exercise conditions.
\n',keywords:"tendon, exercise, extracellular matrix, mechanical loading",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/66124.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/66124.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66124",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66124",totalDownloads:720,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,dateSubmitted:"April 3rd 2018",dateReviewed:"June 23rd 2018",datePrePublished:"May 31st 2019",datePublished:"December 4th 2019",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"Tendons connect muscles to bones and transmit the force exerted by the corresponding muscle to the skeleton and, therefore, are key components for locomotion. They are responsive to mechanical factors, which are essential for cellular functioning, tendon development, homeostasis, and repairing. Mechanical signals are transduced via molecular signaling pathways which trigger tendon adaptive responses. Previous data have already shown that exercise training promotes physiological adaptive responses, such as morphological properties and biomechanical and biochemical adaptations.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/66124",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/66124",book:{slug:"tendons"},signatures:"Rita de Cassia Marqueti, Ivo Vieira de Sousa Neto, Fabricio Reichert Barin and Gracielle Vieira Ramos",authors:[{id:"253043",title:"Dr.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"de Cassia Marqueti",fullName:"Rita de Cassia Marqueti",slug:"rita-de-cassia-marqueti",email:"marqueti@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"253317",title:"MSc.",name:"Fabricio Reichert",middleName:null,surname:"Barin",fullName:"Fabricio Reichert Barin",slug:"fabricio-reichert-barin",email:"fabriciobarin@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"253318",title:"MSc.",name:"Gracielle",middleName:null,surname:"Vieira Ramos",fullName:"Gracielle Vieira Ramos",slug:"gracielle-vieira-ramos",email:"graciellevieiraramos@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"253320",title:"MSc.",name:"Ivo",middleName:null,surname:"Vieira de Sousa Neto",fullName:"Ivo Vieira de Sousa Neto",slug:"ivo-vieira-de-sousa-neto",email:"ivoneto04@hotmail.com",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Tendon macro- and microscopic overview",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Biomechanical aspects inherent to tendon function",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. General aspects of tendon mechanical properties in response to exercise",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Biomechanical adaptations of the tendon in response to exercise training",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"4.1 Stiffness",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"4.2 Tensile strength",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"5. Tendon morphological properties in response to exercise training",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"5.1 Cross-sectional area",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"5.2 Tendon elongation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10",title:"6. Tendon molecular signaling in response to exercise training",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"6.1 Collagens fibers and growth factors",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"6.2 Proteoglycans",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"6.3 Matrix metalloproteinases",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14",title:"7. 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Journal of Anatomy. 2006;208(4):445-450'},{id:"B75",body:'Gumucio JP, Sugg KB, Mendias CL. TGF-beta superfamily signaling in muscle and tendon adaptation to resistance exercise. Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews. 2015;43(2):93-99'},{id:"B76",body:'Chiquet M, Renedo AS, Huber F, Fluck M. How do fibroblasts translate mechanical signals into changes in extracellular matrix production? Matrix Biology. 2003;22(1):73-80'},{id:"B77",body:'Heinemeier KM, Olesen JL, Haddad F, Langberg H, Kjaer M, Baldwin KM, et al. Expression of collagen and related growth factors in rat tendon and skeletal muscle in response to specific contraction types. The Journal of Physiology. 2007;582(Pt 3):1303-1316'},{id:"B78",body:'Kagan HM, Li W. Lysyl oxidase: Properties, specificity, and biological roles inside and outside of the cell. Journal of Cellular Biochemistry. 2003;88(4):660-672'},{id:"B79",body:'Visse R, Nagase H. Matrix metalloproteinases and tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases: Structure, function, and biochemistry. Circulation Research. 2003;92(8):827-839'},{id:"B80",body:'Massague J. TGFbeta signalling in context. Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology. 2012;13(10):616-630'},{id:"B81",body:'Kjaer M, Langberg H, Heinemeier K, Bayer ML, Hansen M, Holm L, et al. From mechanical loading to collagen synthesis, structural changes and function in human tendon. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports. 2009;19(4):500-510'},{id:"B82",body:'Mendias CL, Gumucio JP, Bakhurin KI, Lynch EB, Brooks SV. Physiological loading of tendons induces scleraxis expression in epitenon fibroblasts. Journal of Orthopaedic Research. 2012;30(4):606-612'},{id:"B83",body:'Dideriksen K, Sindby AK, Krogsgaard M, Schjerling P, Holm L, Langberg H. Effect of acute exercise on patella tendon protein synthesis and gene expression. SpringerPlus. 2013;2(1):109'},{id:"B84",body:'Sullivan BE, Carroll CC, Jemiolo B, Trappe SW, Magnusson SP, Dossing S, et al. Effect of acute resistance exercise and sex on human patellar tendon structural and regulatory mRNA expression. Journal of Applied Physiology. 2009;106(2):468-475'},{id:"B85",body:'Pereira GB, Prestes J, Leite RD, Magosso RF, Peixoto FS, Marqueti Rde C, et al. Effects of ovariectomy and resistance training on MMP-2 activity in rat calcaneal tendon. Connective Tissue Research. 2010;51(6):459-466'},{id:"B86",body:'Marqueti RC, Parizotto NA, Chriguer RS, Perez SE, Selistre-de-Araujo HS. Androgenic-anabolic steroids associated with mechanical loading inhibit matrix metallopeptidase activity and affect the remodeling of the achilles tendon in rats. The American Journal of Sports Medicine. 2006;34(8):1274-1280'},{id:"B87",body:'Marqueti RC, Prestes J, Paschoal M, Ramos OH, Perez SE, Carvalho HF, Selistre-de-Araujo HS. Matrix metallopeptidase 2 activity in tendon regions: Effects of mechanical loading exercise associated to anabolic-androgenic steroids. European Journal of Applied Physiology. 2008;104:1087-1093'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Rita de Cassia Marqueti",address:"marqueti@gmail.com",affiliation:'
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1. Introduction
Stem borers constitute the most widely distributed and injurious group of insect pests of cereal crops. They are commonly known to be one of the limiting factors of cereal production worldwide. They are present in field throughout the crop growing stage from seedling to maturity. The stem borers found on cereal crops in Africa are mainly lepidopterans and dipterans. Cereal crops such as rice, sorghum, maize, sugarcane and pearl millet suffer from the attack of stem borers. The larval stage constitutes the most damaging developmental stage of the pest. They are concealed inside the stem where they feed on the internal cavity of the plant making them very difficult to control. Stem borers cause severe damage on plant stems particularly the destruction of the central leaves (dead-heart) and the drying of the panicle (white head). Their attack leads to significant yield losses. According to [1], the most serious pests of cereal crops in Africa include stem borers. The severity of damage depends not only on the species and density of the pest but also on the phenology stage of the crops. Yield losses of about 10 and 100% due to stem borer have been recorded in rice fields [2].
To control these pests, various strategies have been practiced. These include cultural practices, host plant resistance, habitat management, biocontrol and the use of synthetic pesticides. Each management method has some advantages and limitation regarding its impact on environment, human health and its economic costs and sustainability. Nowadays, the integrated management, combining two or several of these management methods appears to be the most effective and sustainable option. This chapter comprises two main sections. The first section gives an overview of the main stem borers and their host range in Africa and the second section describes the various management options used to control stem borers and discusses the advantage and limitation of each method while exploring option of combining multiple methods to sustainably mitigate the effect of the stem borer on stakeholder farmers in Africa. This chapter will support the current research on the sustainable management of stem borers attacking cereal crops and will contribute to increase their productivity in Africa.
2. Overview of the main stem borers of cereal crops in Africa
Several stem borers species have been reported to cause severe damage on various cereals crop in Africa.
The maize stalkborer, Busseola fusca (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) is reported to be of economic importance for maize and sorghum [3] while maintaining its population on some alternative hosts. The spotted stem borer, Chilo partellus (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) is considered to be one of the devastating stem borer of sorghum and maize [4, 5] and also makes severe damage on rice in some African countries (Togola, unpublished data). The African striped rice borer, Chilo zacconius Bleszynski (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) is among the major rice stem borer species occurring in the humid forest and savanna zones according to Akinsola [6]. The host range comprises cultivated rice, wild rice, Oryza longistaminata, Panicum sp., and Paspalum scrobiculatum but it has been found also on maize [7]. Other host plants include Pennisetum spp., Rottboellia cochinchinensis (Loureiro) W.D. Clayton, Saccharum officinarum L and Sorghum arundinaceum (Desv.) Stapf. [6, 8, 9]. The pink Stem Borer Sesamia calamistis (Noctuidae) is generally less important than Busseola fusca and Chilo partellus as a pest of cereal crops in Africa but may be locally abundant. It attacks sorghum, maize, rice and sugarcane as main host. It can be found also on wheat and pearl millet.as secondary crop host and at less extend on wild grass such as Pennisetum purpureum, Setaria sp., Rottboellia exaltata and Cyperus distans as alternative host [10, 11]. The millet stem borer Coniesta ignefusalis Hampson (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) is an important pest of pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum (L.) especially in West Africa [12]. The damage caused by C. ignefusalis is estimated to 15 and 100% of crop losses annually, depending on location and season [13]. The last generation enters diapause at the beginning of the dry season and stay for 6 months the time the next growing season comes. The sugarcane stem borer Eldana saccharina (Pyralidae) is a stem borer of cereal crops in Africa with particular economically importance on sugarcane. In the past E. saccharina appeared to be of very little important pest in Africa, except on sugarcane. But it has recently increased in importance on other crops such as maize, and sorghum in several African countries [14]. Also it can attack rice. Its hosts among wild grasses are Panicum maximum, Cyperus papyrus [15], Sorghum halepense, S. verticilliflorum and Pennisetum purpureum. The white rice borer Maliarpha separatella Ragonot (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) is an important stem-borer of rice in West Africa [16]. The larva bores into the stem from the lowest internode where it feeds on the internal tissue preventing the nutrient to rise up until the panicle. The damage caused by this stem borer is said to be unique among rice stem borers because it rarely causes deadhearts or whiteheads [7]. The symptoms of M. separatella damage are similar to that of the sheath rot caused by a fungus pathogen Sarocladium oryzae. The stem of the infested plant becomes weakened, the panicles incompletely exerted from the flag leaf and the grains incompletely filled with brown coloration. M. separatella is more severe in low land, irrigated and floated rice. It also attacks the wild rices Oryza longistaminata and Oryza punctata [17]. It was also reported on some wild grasses such as Andropogon tectorum and Echinochloa holubii [18]. The rice yellow stem borer Scirpophaga spp (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) are among the minor rice stem borers in Africa. Several species of Scirpophaga exist but the most dominant in Africa is S. melanoclista Meyrick [7]. The stalk-eyed fly Diopsis spp. (Diptera: Diopsidae) is a serious pest of rice in Africa. The two main species commonly found in rice in Africa are Diopsis thoracica Westwood and Diopsis apicalis Westwood [7]. Diopsid can be found in all rice ecological zones but preferentially in humid and shady lowland [19, 20, 21] and also in irrigated rice fields [7]. Damage from Diopsid larvae is similar to the primary damage made by Lepidopteran larvae resulting to the death of the central leaf of rice plant (deadheart). Feeding by the larvae significantly reduces the tiller density, the effective panicles, the grains weight and the total yield [7] and increases the number of immature panicles. The damage level increases according to Diopsis density. In endemic area 60% of the tillers can be infested [22]. Finally the African rice gall midge (AfRGM), Orseolia oryzivora Harris and Gagné (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) is an indigenous dipteran borer of rice that was first reported from southern Sudan in 1947 [23, 24]. The pest is now spread in more than 20 African countries where severe yield losses have been reported. The damage converted the shoot meristem into a gall. The infested plant is no longer able to develop into a floral meristem and then the reproductive potential of the plant is severely compromised [23]. Larval feeding causes severe damage to rice during the vegetative stages (seedling to panicle initiation). Heavy yield losses of 45–80% in farmers’ rice crops have been recorded in some fields [25, 26].
A clear knowledge of these stem borer species and their host crop are of key importance for a sustainable management action.
3. Management of the main stem borers of cereal crops in Africa
Because of the nature of the habitat of stem borers (internal shelter), their management requires some specific control measures and actions. Various strategies exist for managing stem borers’ population and damage in cereals crops. These include cultural practices, host plant resistance, biocontrol and use of synthetic pesticides.
3.1 Preventive cultural practices
Cultural practices are considered as classic pest control methods. This method consist of manipulating the cropping systems in order (1) to avoid the meeting of crop susceptible stage with pest highest density or (2) to improve the crop growing condition or (3) to make the environment unfavorable for pest proliferation. The cultural practices have the advantage to be easy to implement with less cost. They are more convenient for smallholder farmers in developing countries [27]. Preventives cultural practices comprise a wide range of agronomic practices. These tactics need to be undertaken as first line defense measures to prevent high infestation of stem borers in cereals fields. Among the most effectives cultural practices in controlling stem borers there is cereals intercropping or strip cropping with non-host crops such as cowpea, soybeans and groundnut. Also the choice of appropriate date for planting cereals crops allows the crops to escape to critical period where the pest pressure is high [28]. The sol fertilization and field hygiene are cultural practices that reinforce the plant vigor and increase its defense system. [29, 30] demonstrated that zinc fertilization and potassium fertilization significantly decrease stem borers population in rice and increase paddy yield. Other practice such as destruction of crop residues (burning, plowing or disking) appears to be an effective cultural tactic for limiting the number of diapausing larva of stem borer. [31] demonstrated that plowing and disking crop residues destroyed 24% of the stem borers’ population on sorghum and 19% of maize stem borers. Similarly, [32] reported that the destruction of sugarcane residue after harvest significantly reduced the infestation of subsequent crops by Eldana saccharina. Burning of crop residues was also reported to be effective against Chilo spp. and Busseola fusca as well [15]. Burning or composting old stalks before the onset of the rains is effective against B. fusca [13]. The management of the maize stalkborer B. fusca includes intercropping maize with non-hosts crops like cassava and cowpea or with a repellent plant such as silver leaf desmodium (Desmodium uncinatum) [33]. Others cultural practices such as destruction of alternatives host plants or ratoons, synchronized plantings, crop rotations, high cropping density, use of trap crops, good irrigation and good fertilization are good cultural tactics against the insect pests in general and stem borers in particular [27]. The use of trap crops or intercropping upland NERICA rice and maize have also been suggested as an effective method for controlling M. separatella in rice ecosystems in Nigeria [26]. Practices such as irrigation, planting density and dates of planting were all found to be effective as well important factors for consideration [17, 34]. According to [24], the management of the African rice gall midge take into account early and synchronized planting as rice fields planted early are less likely suffer serious damage than those planted late. Also destruction of alternative host plants such as rice ratoons, volunteers and Oryza longistaminata as well as the use of moderate levels of fertilizer (e.g. 60 kg/ha) prevent the build-up of AfRGM population. The same author highlighted the importance of plant spacing as close spacing provides a suitable micro-environment for the survival of the exposed life stages of AfRGM. Cleaning of the rice field especially the destruction of the wild rice are good cultural practice for managing the African striped rice borer, C. zacconius. The ‘push-pull’ method based on the intercropping of Desmodium with millet was report to effectively act as a repellent that ‘pushes’ the millet stem borer C. ignefusalis away from the millet [35]. The most useful advantage of the cultural practices is that they are compatible to all pest control measures. They represent an important component of the integrated pest management of the stems borers. The main disadvantage of the cultural practices is that they need to be continuous and collective process from field preparation to harvest. A good cultural practices field can get infested if the surrounding farmers do not apply same or no management option.
3.2 Varietal resistance
Plant resistance is the genetically inherited qualities that confer the plant ability to ward off or withstand pest attacks or recover from injury due to a pest [36, 37]. This method is the most farmer-friendly pest control option that can significantly reduce stem borer damage when supplemented with other options such as cultural or biological measures. It is most attractive as the use of insecticides is largely beyond the means of the small farmer. Considerable progress has been made in screening and breeding for host plant resistance to cereals’ stem borers but only limited number of varieties have shown good level of resistance. Wiseman [38] showed that the resistant cultivar should be the base from which integrated pest management strategies arise. Rana et al. [39] reported that antibiotic property in sorghum plays more role in plant resistance to stem borer than ovipositional non-preference. Some plant biophysical characters such as stem hardness, leaf hairiness are important in plant resistance to stem borers. Sorghum varieties having these traits are rejected by the moths for oviposition. Pearl millet varieties such as Zongo was reported to be moderately resistant to Coniesta ignefusalis [40]. According to [41], hairiness of leaves and leaf sheaths were partly responsible for the differences in genotypic vulnerability to C. ignefusalis. Also they reported that plants with trichomes were not preferred by this pest for oviposition. [42] reported good level of resistance in the sweet sorghums BR 501, BR 504, and BR 505 to the sugarcane borer Eldana saccharina. [20], found good source of resistance to diopsids among upland NERCA varieties. Also, they reported that rice varieties having ability to produce new tillers to compensate the infested stems can tolerate the damage by diopsid. So far no improved rice variety was identified to be resistant to O. oryzivora attack but some tolerance was noted in Oryza glaberrima and also in some improved released rice varieties in Nigeria such as Cisadane and FARO 51 [24]. Despite limited achievement on varietal resistance to stem borer, this option remain a promising IPM component. Recent advances in biotechnology can increase the prospects of generating resistance materials and accelerate the transfer of gene for improving new genotypes.
3.3 Biological control measures
Biological control is the manipulation of natural enemies with the aim to maintain pest population below the economic injury level (EIL). Several organisms such as insects, fungus, virus and bacteria can be used as biocontrol agents [13, 43]. Insects based organisms acting as natural enemies are either predators (using the host as food) or parasitoids (laying their eggs in the host). Most of these insects belong to hymenoptera or diptera orders [27]. Biocontrol appears to be one of the most effective and environment friendly management option of stem borers. Indeed, stem borer’s population and damage can be regulated by sustaining the action of natural enemies. This can be done through a good habitat management to favor the buildup of the population of natural enemies (spiders, wasps, ladybirds, etc.) or through mass rearing and field release of specific parasitoids to control target pest species. The success of the release of several parasitoids was reported in managing cereals stem borers in Africa. Two natural enemies of the maize stalkborer (B. fusca) are the larval parasitoids Cotesia sesamiae and Bracon sesamiae [31, 44]. Parasitoids such as Tetrastichus atriclavus, Apanteles sesamiae, and Pediobius furvus have been reported by [13] to be most important parasites of B. fusca. Similarly Cotesia flavipes and Xanthopimpla stemmator was reported to effectively control the spotted stem borer C. partellus [4]. The parasitoids Cotesia sesamiae, Xanthopimpla stemmator, Trichogramma spp, etc. are cited as good biocontrol agent against the pink Stem Borer Sesamia calamistis (Togola, unpublished data). The biological control of the cereal stem borers is mainly based on habitat management to sustain natural enemies including various parasitoids wasp. [45] found that that the contribution of egg parasitism is more important in controlling lepidopteran stem borers than parasitism of larvae and pupae. The African rice gall midge (AfRGM) is attacked by two parasitoids such as Platygaster diplosisae (Hymenoptera: Platygastridae) and Aprostocetus procerae (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) that can decrease the population of the pest below the economic injury threshold in rice-production systems [25]. Several insects species such as Cyrtorhinus viridis (Heteroptera: Miridae), Conocephalus longipennis (Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae) and Anaxipha longipennis (Orthoptera: Gryllidae) are predators of AfRGM [24]. The effectiveness and sustainability of the biological control methods depends on the availability of the biocontrol agent at suitable density. Practices such as habitat management or avoiding the use of wide spectrum chemicals can contribute to increase the carry-over of population of natural enemies and maintain the pest population below a critical level. The main constraints of the biocontrol measures are the difficulty to find the specific biocontrol agents for targeted pest species, the complexity of the mass rearing and the complication to be explained by extension workers and to be implemented by farmers.
3.4 Chemical control
Chemical control, despite all the danger and environmental hazard, remains an important option to consider in situation where the pest population is already established. Also it can be used as IPM component to supplement varietal resistance or cultural practices. Chemical control can be achieved by applications of granules or dusts to the leaf whorl early in crop growth to kill early larval instars of E. saccharina [10]. Controlling M separatella using chemical insecticides is effective but not widely practiced because of the high costs involved [46]. As for O. oryzivora, chemical control can be envisaged in conditions of high infestation of rice field. In all cases, choice of selective systemic insecticides is needed to avoid adverse effects on non-target organisms and biodiversity.
3.5 Integrated pest management option
The individual control methods discussed above have their limitations and none often is sufficient to adequately control stem borer outbreaks. Hence, the integrated pest management (IPM), also known as integrated pest control (IPC) appears to be the most appropriate option for managing these pests. IPM requires the combination of several compatible and complementary practices with the aim to maintain pest populations below the economic injury level (EIL) while reducing the use of high hazardous pesticides and sustaining the action of natural enemies. Several studies have reported the success of IPM in the management of cereals’ stem borers. [25] reported that varietal resistance/tolerance, cultural practices and biological control are important components of integrated management of rice stem borers. Similarly [24] found that the effective control of the African Rice Gall Midge relies on the combination of cultural practices, habitat management and moderate use of insecticide chemical. Kega [47] demonstrated that the use of resistant rice cultivars and entomopathogenic nematodes is a viable method to control M. separatella. Nwanze and Mueller [48] indicated that host plant resistance and cultural practices should be major components in the integrated management of sorghum stem borers. According to [49] an increase of yield can be obtained when sorghum varieties with tolerance or moderate resistance to stem borer are coupled with need-based application of pesticides. Youm et al. [41] suggested options such as early planting, destruction of crop residues and use pheromone bait traps for successful management of the millet stem borer C. ignefusalis. According to the conclusion from an international workshop organized by the International Institute for Semi-Arid Tropics, cultural methods and host plant resistance should be considered as the major components of the integrated management of cereals’ stem borers [50]. However these practices need to be reinforced with other measures such as biological control and if necessary the use of selective systemic chemical . It is important to quote that integrated stem borer management is likely to be severely constrained by the limited capability of farmers to implement several options . For this reason it is highly important that the IPM takes into account the community farming systems and know-how.
4. Conclusion
The stem borers represent a group of insects of economic importance to cereal crops in Africa. Because of the nature of their attacks and the complexity of their biology, the success of the management options will depends on the integration of various strategies ranging from cultural practices to host plant resistance, biological control and moderate use of systemic chemical when necessary. The cultural practices and host plant resistance remains the major component of the IPM of cereal’s stem borers. They can be reinforced by the biological and chemical control. The cultural practices involve farmers’ engagement and cooperation. As for varietal resistance, more research action is needed to identify or develop varieties that tolerate the stem borers attack. Regarding the deployment of chemical and biocontrol options, more intensive action from extension service is need to increase the capacity of farmers so that they can engage appropriate action to limit yield losses in cereal and increase their incomes.
\n',keywords:"IPM, environment friendly, yield loss, biocontrol, cultural practices",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/65296.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/65296.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65296",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65296",totalDownloads:250,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:1,dateSubmitted:"June 5th 2018",dateReviewed:"December 21st 2018",datePrePublished:"January 15th 2020",datePublished:"February 19th 2020",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"The economic importance of the stem borer in Africa results in their severe damage that affect directly cereal yield factors such as the density of fertile tillers and the number of effective panicles. The objective of this paper is to describe and discuss the management options of the main prevalent stem borer of cereal crops in Africa. Host plant resistance, cultural practices, biological control and reasoning chemical control are among the most encouraging options. Integrated pest management combining several compatible methods was highlighted as the most sustainable control option. This paper will served as support for the current research on cereal crops but also as relevant prospect document for entomologists and breeders from across the world.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/65296",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/65296",signatures:"Abou Togola, Ousmane Boukar, Manuele Tamo and Siva Chamarthi",book:{id:"7545",title:"Pests Control and Acarology",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Pests Control and Acarology",slug:"pests-control-and-acarology",publishedDate:"February 19th 2020",bookSignature:"Dalila Haouas and Levente Hufnagel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7545.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"235583",title:"Dr.",name:"Dalila",middleName:null,surname:"Haouas",slug:"dalila-haouas",fullName:"Dalila Haouas"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"261663",title:"Dr.",name:"Abou",middleName:null,surname:"Togola",fullName:"Abou Togola",slug:"abou-togola",email:"a.togola@cgiar.org",position:null,institution:null},{id:"274308",title:"Dr.",name:"Ousmane",middleName:null,surname:"Boukar",fullName:"Ousmane Boukar",slug:"ousmane-boukar",email:"o.boukar@cgiar.org",position:null,institution:null},{id:"274309",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuele",middleName:null,surname:"Tamo",fullName:"Manuele Tamo",slug:"manuele-tamo",email:"m.tamo@cgiar.org",position:null,institution:null},{id:"274310",title:"Dr.",name:"Siva",middleName:null,surname:"Chamarthi",fullName:"Siva Chamarthi",slug:"siva-chamarthi",email:"s.chamarthi@cgiar.org",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Overview of the main stem borers of cereal crops in Africa",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Management of the main stem borers of cereal crops in Africa",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Preventive cultural practices",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2 Varietal resistance",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.3 Biological control measures",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.4 Chemical control",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.5 Integrated pest management option",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"4. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Bosque-Pérez NA, Mareck JH. Distribution and species composition of Lepidopterous maize borers in southern Nigeria. Bulletin of Entomological Research. 1990;80(4):363-368'},{id:"B2",body:'Schulthess F, Bosque-Pérez NA, Gounou S. Sampling lepidopterous pests on maize in West Africa. Bulletin of Entomological Research. 1991;81(3):297-301'},{id:"B3",body:'Annecke DP, Moran VC. 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CABI; 2014 http://africasoilhealth.cabi.org/wpcms/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/48-cereals-millet-stem-borer1.pdf'},{id:"B36",body:'Painter RH. Insect resistance in crop plants. In: The Macmillan Company. New York; 1951'},{id:"B37",body:'Togola A, Boukar O, Belko N, Chamarthi SK, Fatokun C, Tamo M, et al. Host plant resistance to insect pests of cowpea (k L. Walp.): Achievements and future prospects. Euphytica. 2017;213(11):239'},{id:"B38",body:'Wiseman BR. Host plant resistance in crop protection in the 21st century. In: 11. International Congress of Plant Protection, Manila (Philippines). 1987, 5-9 Oct 1987'},{id:"B39",body:'Rana BS, Singh BU, Rao NGP. Breeding for Shoot Fly and Stem Borer Resistance in Sorghum. Pages 347-360 in Proceedings of the International Sorghum Entomology Workshop, 15-21 Jul. 1984, College Station, Texas, USA. Patancheru, A.P. 502324. India: International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics; 1985'},{id:"B40",body:'N’Doye M. Syntheses de quelques resultats sur les insectes foreurs des mille et sorgho au Senegal. Bambey, Senegal: Center de Recherches Agronomiques; 1977. p. 15'},{id:"B41",body:'Youm O, Harris KM, Nwanze KF. Coniesta Ignefusalis (Hampson), the Millet Stem Borer: A Handbook of Information1996. p. 53'},{id:"B42",body:'Reyes R. Sorghum stem borers in Central and South America. In: Proceedings of the International Workshop on Sorghum Stem Borers. ICRISAT Center; 1987, November. pp. 49-60'},{id:"B43",body:'Gahukar RT. Biological control of insect pests of sorghum and pearl millet in West Africa. In: Biological Control of Pests: Its Potential in West Africa. Dakar, Senegal; 1981, 9-13 February, 1981'},{id:"B44",body:'Kfir R. Natural control of the cereal stemborers Busseola fusca and Chilo partellus in South Africa. International Journal of Tropical Insect Science. 1997;17(1):61-67'},{id:"B45",body:'Mathez FC. Chilo partellus Swinh.,C. orichalcociliella stand (Lep: Crambidae) and Sesamia calamistis Hmps. (Lep: Noctuidae) on maize in the Coast Province, Kenya. Mitteilungen der Schweizerischen Entomologi-schen Gesellschaft. 1972;45:267-289'},{id:"B46",body:'Akinsola EA, Agyen-Sampong M. The ecology, nbionomics and control of rice stem-borers in West Africa. Insect Science and its Application. 1984;5:69-77'},{id:"B47",body:'Kega VM, Kasina M, Olubayo F, Nderitu JH. Management of Maliarpha separatella rag using effective entomopathogenic nematodes and resistant rice cultivars. Journal of Entomology. 2013;10(2):103-109'},{id:"B48",body:'Nwanze KF, Mueller RAE. Management options for sorghum stem borers for farmers in the semi-arid tropics. In: Proceedings of the International Workshop on Sorghum Stem Borers. ICRISAT Center; 1989. pp. 105-116'},{id:"B49",body:'Kalode MB, Bentur JS, Srinivasan TE. Screening and breeding rice for stem borer resistance. In: Proceedings of the International Workshop on Sorghum Stem Borers. 1987, November. pp. 17-20'},{id:"B50",body:'ICRISAT (International Crops Research Institute for Semi-Arid Tropics). International workshop on sorghum stem borers, 17-20 Nov, 1987, ICRISAT Center, India Patancheru. 1989. AP. 502324 India: ICRISAT'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Abou Togola",address:"a.togola@cgiar.org",affiliation:'
International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, Nigeria
International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, Nigeria
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However, other insect species will also pollinate cocoa flowers when these midges are scarce. In Côte d'Ivoire, inadequate pest control practices (insecticide spraying, mostly against the mirids Distantiella theobromae and Sahlbergella singularis) and landscape degradation as a result of deforestation and cocoa monoculture, have decreased overall pollinator population levels and, as a result, pollination services to cocoa trees. The current low average Ivorian cocoa yield of 538 kg per ha (in 2016) is the result of global agricultural mismanagement (deteriorated soils, lack of fertilizers, inadequate or absent pest control, absence of shade trees and intercrops). However, there is also an evidence of a pollination gap that could cause low cocoa yield. More research is needed to understand: (i) which agro-ecological efforts to enhance cocoa pollination can improve yield, and (ii) which strategies are effective in enhancing cocoa pollination. In this chapter, we briefly describe the cocoa sector. Next, the cocoa flower and pollinator biology and phenology are presented, followed by an overview of current environmental and management constraints to cocoa pollination in the context of Côte d'Ivoire, the largest cocoa producer in the world. We conclude with exploring possibilities to enhance pollination in the Ivorian small-scale cocoa sector.",signatures:"Gregor Claus, Wouter Vanhove, Patrick Van Damme and Guy\nSmagghe",authors:[{id:"62693",title:"Prof.",name:"Guy",surname:"Smagghe",fullName:"Guy Smagghe",slug:"guy-smagghe",email:"guy.smagghe@ugent.be"},{id:"238532",title:"Dr.",name:"Gregor",surname:"Claus",fullName:"Gregor Claus",slug:"gregor-claus",email:"gregor.claus@ugent.be"},{id:"238533",title:"Dr.",name:"Wouter",surname:"Vanhove",fullName:"Wouter Vanhove",slug:"wouter-vanhove",email:"wouter.vanhove@ugent.be"},{id:"238535",title:"Prof.",name:"Patrick",surname:"Van Damme",fullName:"Patrick Van Damme",slug:"patrick-van-damme",email:"patrick.vandamme@ugent.be"}],book:{title:"Pollination in Plants",slug:"pollination-in-plants",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"62693",title:"Prof.",name:"Guy",surname:"Smagghe",slug:"guy-smagghe",fullName:"Guy Smagghe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/no_image.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ghent University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Belgium"}}},{id:"231180",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Gianni",surname:"Tacconi",slug:"gianni-tacconi",fullName:"Gianni Tacconi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"231190",title:"Dr.",name:"Vania",surname:"Michelotti",slug:"vania-michelotti",fullName:"Vania Michelotti",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"231350",title:"Prof.",name:"Ryushiro",surname:"Kasahara",slug:"ryushiro-kasahara",fullName:"Ryushiro Kasahara",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"235465",title:"Dr.",name:"Jayaprakash",surname:"P",slug:"jayaprakash-p",fullName:"Jayaprakash P",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"237355",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Chan",slug:"david-chan",fullName:"David Chan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"238532",title:"Dr.",name:"Gregor",surname:"Claus",slug:"gregor-claus",fullName:"Gregor Claus",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"238535",title:"Prof.",name:"Patrick",surname:"Van Damme",slug:"patrick-van-damme",fullName:"Patrick Van Damme",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241355",title:"Prof.",name:"Rodney",surname:"Dyer",slug:"rodney-dyer",fullName:"Rodney Dyer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241356",title:"Mr.",name:"James",surname:"Lee",slug:"james-lee",fullName:"James Lee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]},generic:{page:{slug:"OA-publishing-fees",title:"Open Access Publishing Fees",intro:"
The Open Access model is applied to all of our publications and is designed to eliminate subscriptions and pay-per-view fees. This approach ensures free, immediate access to full text versions of your research.
As a gold Open Access publisher, an Open Access Publishing Fee is payable on acceptance following peer review of the manuscript. In return, we provide high quality publishing services and exclusive benefits for all contributors. IntechOpen is the trusted publishing partner of over 118,000 international scientists and researchers.
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The Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) is payable only after your full chapter, monograph or Compacts monograph is accepted for publication.
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Services included are:
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XML Typesetting and pagination - web (PDF, HTML) and print files preparation
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Permanent and unrestricted online access to your work
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Exceeds 20 pages (for chapters in Edited Volumes), an additional fee of 40 GBP per page will be required
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Your Author Service Manager will inform you of any items not covered by the OAPF and provide exact information regarding those additional costs before proceeding.
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Open Access Funding
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For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
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Dissemination and Promotion
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Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
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The Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) is payable only after your full chapter, monograph or Compacts monograph is accepted for publication.
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1,400 GBP Chapter - Edited Volume
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10,000 GBP Monograph - Long Form
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4,000 GBP Compacts Monograph - Short Form
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*These prices do not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT as long as provision of the VAT registration number is made during the application process. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
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Services included are:
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An online manuscript tracking system to facilitate your work
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XML Typesetting and pagination - web (PDF, HTML) and print files preparation
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Permanent and unrestricted online access to your work
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Exceeds 20 pages (for chapters in Edited Volumes), an additional fee of 40 GBP per page will be required
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If a manuscript requires Heavy Editing or Language Polishing, this will incur additional fees.
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Your Author Service Manager will inform you of any items not covered by the OAPF and provide exact information regarding those additional costs before proceeding.
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Open Access Funding
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To explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication, go to our Open Access Funding page. IntechOpen offers expert assistance to all of its Authors. We can support you in approaching funding bodies and institutions in relation to publishing fees by providing information about compliance with the Open Access policies of your funder or institution. We can also assist with communicating the benefits of Open Access in order to support and strengthen your funding request and provide personal guidance through your application process. You can contact us at oapf@intechopen.com for further details or assistance.
\n\n
For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
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Added Value of Publishing with IntechOpen
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Indexing and listing across major repositories, see details ...
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Long-term archiving
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Visibility on the world's strongest OA platform
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Live Performance Metrics to track readership and the impact of your chapter
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Dissemination and Promotion
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Benefits of Publishing with IntechOpen
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Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
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Most competitive prices in the market
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Optimized processes, enabling publication between 8 and 12 months
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+146,150 citations in Web of Science databases
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Currently strongest OA platform with over 130 million downloads
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