\r\n\tThis cell has evolved an effective defense system to counteract the challenges as it is always in an oxygen-rich environment. The evolution of hemoglobin and deformability of erythrocyte membrane adapting to its function in circulation is especially striking. Erythrocyte aging and eryptosis strike a balance - the mixed population of cells and constant recycling every 120 days is a very distinct feature. Its metabolic shunt pathways and metabolites/enzymes alter and adapt with age and changes in the microenvironment.
\r\n
\r\n\tErythrocyte and its cytoskeleton responses to various situations such as infections, hypoxia, hypothermia, intrigues researchers and biologists alike. This book aims to throw light on the significance of erythrocyte and its characteristic nature and survival in different physiological situations as it plays a very crucial role.
\r\n
\r\n\tThis book hopes to bring different perspectives from various aspects and provide insights into the effective mechanisms evolved by erythrocytes, to counteract the challenges faced in its oxidation environment and the further research approaches.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-732-7",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-731-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-733-4",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"1b6073b9ff3f8f63004943bd263cd04e",bookSignature:"Dr. Vani Rajashekaraiah",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11725.jpg",keywords:"Erythrocyte, Hemoglobin, Erythrocyte Aging, Pathways, Metabolites, Deficiencies, Membrane Changes, Band 3, Deformability, Hemolysis, Disease Conditions, Free Radical Initiators",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 24th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 26th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 25th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 13th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 12th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Vani Rajashekaraiah, Associate Professor, JAIN (Deemed-to-be University), Bangalore has 20 years of research experience in Oxidative Stress Physiology and Hematology and 16 years of teaching experience. She has authored numerous journal papers and book chapters and has one published patent. She has received CSIR research fellowship and is a Member of the Society for Free Radical Research, India.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"352876",title:"Dr.",name:"Vani",middleName:null,surname:"Rajashekaraiah",slug:"vani-rajashekaraiah",fullName:"Vani Rajashekaraiah",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/352876/images/system/352876.jpg",biography:"Teaching Experience: 16 years\n•\tAssociate Professor in Biotechnology, School of Sciences, Block I, JAIN (Deemed-to-be University), Bengaluru from May 2018 till date. 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Asha Devi, Professor, Dept. of \n Zoology, Bangalore University, Bangalore-560056, towards Ph.D in Zoology.\n Title of the thesis- “Studies on Oxidative Stress in Erythrocytes of Rats Exposed to \n Intermittent Hypobaric Hypoxia”.",institutionString:"Jain University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Jain University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"185543",firstName:"Maja",lastName:"Bozicevic",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185543/images/4748_n.jpeg",email:"maja.b@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. 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\n
1. Introduction
\n
Rice (Oryza sativa L.) was domesticated roughly 10,000–14,000 years ago. Today, rice is the most widely grown food crop in approximately 113 countries, providing a major dietary caloric and protein supply (Figure 1).
\n
Figure 1.
Pictures showing rice plants grown in the USA, 2018. Blast-resistant rice breeding and differential lines grown in Crowley, Louisiana (a, b). Blast-resistant plants and two mapping populations with blast resistance genes grown in a greenhouse and a field, respectively, Stuttgart, Arkansas, USA (c, d). Pictures were taken from rice grown in experimental stations in the USA with an iPhone.
\n
Rice has been a staple food source for many cultures globally and is particularly critical for developing countries where other food resources are limited. Rice grains feed more than 3.5 billion people [1]. Rice germinates under a wide range of temperatures, from 10 to 40°C, and requires about 3–6 months to mature. There are two primary methods of rice production: transplanting of rice seedlings from a nursery to paddy rice fields to ensure uniformity and weed control and sowing seeds in a rice field directly to conserve labor. Rice production was particularly enhanced during the green revolution through the deployment of high-yielding uniform rice varieties, especially semidwarf rice. However, the wide deployment of well-adapted uniform varieties consequently made rice more vulnerable to both biotic and abiotic stressors (Figure 2). Many major rice-growing countries today including China, India, Japan, Korea, Brazil, the USA, the Philippines, and Thailand have been experiencing old and new obstacles that inhibit the stable production of rice. As such, the question of whether the current methods of rice cultivation are sufficient, or whether we are there yet, or have plateaued, remains unanswered.
\n
Figure 2.
Diagram showing the major challenges of rice protection.
\n
\n
\n
2. Major challenges and opportunities for rice grains
\n
Major challenges and opportunities for rice grains are embedded during rice propagation, protection, postharvest pest management, processing, and marketing (Figure 2). First, rice diseases have had a major impact on the stability of rice production. For example, the famine in Bengal, India, in 1942 was mainly due to rice brown spot disease [2], and a rice blast epidemic in Korea caused a major food shortage in the 1970s [3]. The most common rice diseases are caused by fungal and bacterial pathogens. Fungal diseases include rice blast, sheath blight, false smut, rice brown spot, rice stackburn, leaf smut (Figure 3), and grain discoloration diseases include rice blast, bacterial panicle blight, false smut, and kernel smut (Figure 4).
\n
Figure 3.
Photographs showing examples of rice diseases on leaf, sheath, and grains. (a) Leaf blast caused by M. oryzae; (b) sheath blight caused by Rhizoctonia solani; (c) brown spot caused by Cochliobolus miyabeanus, called Helminthosporium leaf spot; (d) stackburn caused by Alternaria padwickii; (e) rice leaf smut caused by Entyloma oryzae; and (f) straighthead disorder. Pictures were taken from diseased plants under greenhouse and field conditions in Stuttgart, Arkansas, USA.
\n
Figure 4.
Examples of rice diseases under field and greenhouse conditions. (a) Rice blast disease showing leaf and kernel blast; (b) sheath blight disease showing symptoms on leaf and stems; (c) bacterial panicle blight disease in a field (3 days after detached leaves from five susceptible rice varieties were inoculated with B. glumae), top; (d) rice false smut disease with two 2× enlarged detached smut balls in the top; (e) rice false smut disease in a field showing the late stage of false smut balls; (f) rice kernel smut with two 3× enlarged smut kernels on the top (all pictures were based on predicted symptoms of rice in greenhouses and fields in Crowley, Louisiana, and Stuttgart, Arkansas, USA).
\n
Bacterial diseases include bacterial blight and bacterial panicle blight (Figure 4c). Insects are another type of stressor for rice production, whose importance varies with the country, location, and time. Rice water weevil (Lissorhoptrus oryzophilus), rice stink bug (Oebalus pugnax), fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda), rice stalk borer (Chilo plejadellus), and grasshoppers (Orthoptera) are commonly found in the southern USA. For decades, the common remedy for pest management has been an increased application of pesticides and the alteration of cultural practices with limited use of natural genetic resistance. Most rice pathogens and insects adapt to their food sources through genetic changes, resulting in more virulent races. Consequently, rice pests are becoming more resistant to pesticides and newly deployed resistance genes.
\n
Rice thrives in a wide range of geographic and climatic regions, especially where many other crops would fail. As a semiaquatic crop, rice uniquely requires a lot of water as evident by its Chinese name, “water grain.” A lack of sufficient clean water is problematic for producing healthy and safe rice as the presence of water is particularly critical during the rice vegetative and reproductive growth stages. There are numerous reasons for the current limit in clean water supply for rice production: depletion of groundwater, increased water usage by human consumption, and contamination due to improper disposal of industrial waste and pesticide contamination [4]. The abiotic stressors of rice include extreme temperatures during the seedling and reproductive stages; high concentrations of salt; soil heavy metals including cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), and arsenic (As); and drought. Straighthead is the most common abiotic disorder in the USA (Figure 3f). However, the importance of abiotic stress varies with the region in which the rice is being grown.
\n
It is evident that human life in the twenty-first century is much better than that of past centuries due to continued economic growth. As more people are being liberated from starvation, a demand for improved infrastructure to accommodate the incoming population has increased [5]. However, global urban land expansion often encroaches on croplands necessary for rice production. It was predicted that urban expansion will result in the loss of approximately 1.8–2.4% of croplands by 2030 [6]. Most of these land losses take place in the productive lands in top rice-producing countries in Asia. As a result, the lost croplands were predicted to be responsible for 3–4% of worldwide crop production loss in 2000 [6].
\n
Despite rice being a critical food crop for humanity, the monetary value of rice is extremely low. Farmers must grow rice in the interest of the continued survival of humanity, but increasing the crop value could cause an instability in food security and, as a result, society as well. Therefore, rice is not a competitive crop compared to many other nonessential agricultural products that generate higher income. Rice investment, as such, is among the lowest in many parts of the world. The current obvious challenge is developing methods of protecting rice grains despite its insufficient funding and resources. Today, the majority of rice is grown by small-scale farmers for local consumption [7]. The global market is less than 10% of total rice production with unique restrictions on the trade. Accordingly, the rice market is volatile and distorted [8]. Clearly, it is safe to conclude that human intervention is the most impacting factor that directly influences the outcomes of the interactions of rice with pests and with environmental conditions (Figure 5).
\n
Figure 5.
Graphic presentation of primary factors that impact the rice bowl. The human intervention of host-pathogen-environment interactions is the key factor for securing the rice bowl. The Rice bowl at the center was taken with an iPhone.
\n
The mission of this book is not to solve the problems of yesterday but to solve those of today and tomorrow. It was estimated that rice yield must increase by more than 1.2% annually to meet the demand for food security as of 2005 [9]. The ability to sustainably grow rice is essential for the continued growth of the human population on the planet Earth. However, a shortage of labor will drive the adoption of direct seeding rather than transplanting and will impact the uniformity of space for each individual plant creating a microclimate conducive to disease epidemics. Additionally, water shortage will not only reduce the productive growth of rice plants but will also result in more crop losses caused by rice blast disease [10]. It is of utmost importance that each of us, everywhere, increases the efficiency of developing long-lasting resistance to stressors. In order to achieve this goal, a better understanding of the available scientific knowledge of rice host-pathogen interactions and its optimal environment (climate and human resources, marketing and rice utilization) will be needed.
\n
Rice was the first food crop whose genome sequence was determined [11, 12, 13]. Shortly after, high-resolution genetic maps, expression maps, databases, and bioinformatics tools for rice research were developed [14, 15, 16, 17]. These genomic resources were used to develop a basic molecular toolbox for rice breeding and crop protection. Most recently, advances with next-generation DNA sequencing, coupled with rapidly developed bioinformatics tools, have paved a road for a deeper understanding of genetics and genomics of rice, pathogens, and host-pathogen interactions under changing environmental conditions [18, 19] (Figure 6).
\n
Figure 6.
Diagram showing tools and resources for protecting rice grains in the post-genomic era.
\n
The majority of chapters in this book describe the current update on plant resources, genomics, and methods for crop protection and production. This book also includes the methods to improve the market value of rice and better cultural practices and rice processing to ensure profits and marketability of rice grains. These tools, resources, and knowledge are implemented interchangeably into the current efforts to produce rice sustainably (Figure 5).
\n
\n
\n
3. Conclusion
\n
The book presents the power of genetics, genomics, and modern cultural practices for the production of one of the most important food crops, rice. The strategies and knowledge extracted from various rice resources, discovered resistance genes, observed mechanisms of host-pathogen interactions, cultural practices of rice labor, and rice processing and utilization of rice grains and husk are highlighted. It is anticipated that the knowledge in this book will guide stable rice production, protection, processing, and marketing. This book may also be useful for students and specialists who are interested in plant pathology, genetics, molecular biology, physiology, agronomy, and biological engineering.
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
The author thanks Mary Jia of Arkansas School for Mathematics, Sciences and the Arts, Hot Springs, AR, USA; Heather Box, Alan Sites, Nick Herrings, and Melissa H. Jia and other staff members of the USDA ARS DB NRRC, Stuttgart, AR, USA; and Dr. Yeshi Wamishe and Md Mamunur Rasheed and other staff members of the University of Arkansas Rice Research and Extension Center, Stuttgart, Arkansas, for excellent technical assistance and useful discussions. For critical reviews the author thanks Drs. Jai Rohila and Trevis Huggins of the USDA ARS DB NRRC and Yong-Bao Pan of the USDA ARS, Houma, LA, USA. Mention of a trademark or proprietary product does not constitute a guarantee or warranty of the product by the US Department of Agriculture and does not imply its approval to the exclusion of other products that also can be suitable. The USDA is an equal opportunity provider and employer. All experiments complied with the current laws of the USA, the country in which they were performed.
\n
\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/67223.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/67223.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67223",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67223",totalDownloads:839,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:43,impactScoreQuartile:2,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"November 29th 2018",dateReviewed:"April 17th 2019",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"October 2nd 2019",dateFinished:"May 20th 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/67223",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/67223",book:{id:"8021",slug:"protecting-rice-grains-in-the-post-genomic-era"},signatures:"Yulin Jia",authors:[{id:"168971",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulin",middleName:null,surname:"Jia",fullName:"Yulin Jia",slug:"yulin-jia",email:"yulin.jia@usda.gov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/168971/images/9904_n.jpg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Major challenges and opportunities for rice grains",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'International Rice Research Institute. World Rice Statistics 2013. Los Baños, Philippines: IRRI; 2013. Available from: http://irri.org/ [Accessed: November 27, 2018]\n'},{id:"B2",body:'Padmanabhan SY. The great Bengal famine. Annual Review of Phytopathology. 1973;11:11-26\n'},{id:"B3",body:'Ou SH. Rice Diseases. 2nd ed. Kew, Surrey, England: Commonwealth Mycological Institute; 1985\n'},{id:"B4",body:'Jiang J, Wu F, Liu Y, Deng X. Modeling the impacts of urbanization and industrial transformation on water resources in China: An integrated hydro-economic CGE analysis. Sustainability. 2016;6:7586-7600. DOI: 10.3390/su6117586\n'},{id:"B5",body:'Okamoto K, Sharifi A, Chiba Y. The impact of urbanization on land use and the hanging role of forests in Vientiane. In: Yokoyama S et al., editors. Integrated Studies of Social and Natural Environmental Transition in Laos, Advances in Asian Human-Environmental Research. Japan: Springer; 2014. pp. 29-38. DOI: 10.1007/978-4-431-54956-7_2\n'},{id:"B6",body:'Bren d, Amour C, Reitsma F, Baiocchi G, Barthel S, Guneralp B, Erb K-H, et al. Future urban land expansion and implications for global croplands. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States. 2017;114(34):8939-8944\n'},{id:"B7",body:'Rice is life: Increased, Sustainable Rice Production Key to Global Food Security. Available from: http://www.fao.org/newsroom/EN/focus/2004/36887/index.html [Accessed: November 27, 2018]\n'},{id:"B8",body:'Muthayya S, Sugimoto JD, Montgomery S, Maberly GF. An overview of global rice production, supply, trade and consumption. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 2014;1324:7-14. DOI: 10.1111/nyas.12540\n'},{id:"B9",body:'Normile D. Reinventing rice to feed the world. Science. 2008;321:330-333\n'},{id:"B10",body:'Lai XH, Marchetti MA, Petersen HD. Comparative slow-blasting in rice grown under upland and flooded blast nursery culture. Plant Disease. 1999;83:681-684\n'},{id:"B11",body:'Goff SA, Ricke D, Lan TH, Presting G, Wang R, Dunn M, et al. A draft sequence of the rice genome (Oryza sativa L. ssp. japonica). Science. 2002;296(5565):92-100. DOI: 10.1126/science.1068275.\n'},{id:"B12",body:'Yu J, Hu S, Wang J, Wong GK, Li S, Liu B, et al. A draft sequence of the rice genome (Oryza sativa L. ssp. indica). Science. 2002;296(5565):79-92. DOI: 10.1126/science.1068037\n'},{id:"B13",body:'International Rice Genome Sequencing Project. The map-based sequence of the rice genome. Nature. 2005;436(7052):793-800. DOI: 10.1038/nature03895\n'},{id:"B14",body:'Jung KH, An G, Ronald PC. Towards a better bowl of rice: Assigning function to tens of thousands of rice genes. Nature Reviews. Genetics. 2008;9(2):91-101\n'},{id:"B15",body:'Feltus FA, Wan J, Schulze SR, Estill JC, Jiang N, Paterson AH. An SNP resource for rice genetics and breeding based on subspecies indica and japonica genome alignments. Genome Research. 2004;14(9):1812-1819. DOI: 10.1101/gr.2479404\n'},{id:"B16",body:'Ni J, Pujar A, Youens-Clark K, Yap I, Jaiswal P, Tecle I, et al. Gramene QTL database: Development, content and applications. Database. 2009;2009:bap005\n'},{id:"B17",body:'Jackson SA. Rice: The first crop genome. Rice. 2016;9:14. DOI: 10.1186/s12284-016-0087-4\n'},{id:"B18",body:'Shendure J, Ji H. Next-generation DNA sequencing. Nature Biotechnology. 2008;26(10):1135-1145. DOI: 10.1038/nbt1486\n'},{id:"B19",body:'Garg P, Jaiswal P. Databases and bioinformatics tools for rice research. Current Plant Biology. 2016;7-8:39-52\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Yulin Jia",address:"yulin.jia@ars.usda.gov",affiliation:'
USDA-ARS, Dale Bumpers National Rice Research Center, Stuttgart, AR, USA
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1. Introduction
The legume family (Leguminosae) is the third-largest family of flowering plants, with over 800 genera and 20,000 species, after the Orchidaceae and Asteraceae [1]. It is classified into three sub-families: Papilionoideae, Caesalpinioideae, and Mimosoideae based on morphological characters [1]. The family presents incredibly diverse morphological characters, from giant rain forest trees and woody lianas, to desert shrubs, ephemeral herbs, herbaceous twining climbers, aquatics, and fire-adapted savanna species [1, 2, 3]. Two sub-families, Caesalpinioideae and Mimosoideae, are mostly woody trees and shrubs. Papilionoideae is the largest sub-family consisting of 476 genera and ~ 14,000 species, including most of the economically important legumes [4]. All papilionoids share a common ancestor and bear butterfly-shaped flowers [5, 6]. Within the Papilionoideae, there are four clades, phaseoloids, galegoids, genistoids, and dalbergoids, based on phylogenetic analyses [1, 4]. These clades cover the economically important food and feed legumes. For instance, the phaseoloid clade includes soybean, common bean, cowpea, and pigeon pea; the galegoid clade within the Hologalegina group includes medicago, chickpea, faba bean, lentil, and pea; the genistoid clade includes lupinus, and the dalbergoid clade includes peanut (Figure 1) [7, 8].
Figure 1.
Phylogenetic relationships of sub-families, major clades within the sub-family Papilionoideae, and some economically important species in legumes (modified from references [7, 8]). *refer to model species.
The pea (Pisum sativum L.) was the original model organism used in Mendel’s discovery (1866) of the laws of inheritance, establishing the foundation of modern plant genetics [9, 10]. Although Mendel’s peas were the first “model” plant, legume biology has long lagged behind more successful models from the Brassicaceae family or economically important cereals [10]. Due to legumes differing vastly in genome size, chromosome number, ploidy level, and reproductive biology, two legume species with smaller genome size in the Galegoid clade, Medicago truncatula and Lotus japonicas, were firstly selected as model organisms to demonstrate the referenced genetic system for legumes [11, 12, 13]. As the genome of soybean (Glycine max L.) has been available in 2010 [14], gene discovery in soybean is more efficient and feasible, providing a powerful high-throughput and non-targeted approach to gene expression and an excellent resource for comparative legume genomics. Although soybean has a relatively large genome compared with much smaller genomes of Medicago and Lotus, soybean is the most widely grown and economically important legume. Together with advantageous genome sequences, soybean is also considered as a model organism in legumes [15].
The existence of model organisms is fundamental for advancing genetic and genomic studies in crop species. Comprehensive biology study in the model organisms facilitates the transference of biological knowledge, gene function and expression, genomic information, and advanced tools to crop species. Fatty acids are essential components of cellular membranes, storage lipids, and precursors involved in plant metabolism and development [16]. The abundance of different fatty acids in plants is regulated by diverse fatty acid desaturases (FADs) enzymes [17]. Among FADs, the FAD2 enzyme converts monounsaturated oleic acid to polyunsaturated linoleic acid by adding a second double bond at the Δ12 position in the acyl chain. Manipulation of FAD2 gene expression and enzyme activity in seeds enables the accumulation of oleic acids that benefit industries and consumers. This chapter aims to describe the FAD2 gene family in the model organism soybean. Mutations induced in FAD2 genes and consequences from soybean to crop species, including peanut, are also discussed.
2. FAD gene family in the model organism soybean
Soybean seed oil is composed of approximately 20% of total seed composition, contributing the greatest concentrations of oil when compared to any food legume [18]. However, the concentration of oil is entirely dependent on the growing region, cultivar, and several environmental factors. As seeds develop, lipids, mostly triglycerides, are stored in cell oil bodies surrounding the larger protein bodies [19]. The fatty acid composition of most soybean seeds consists of 11% palmitic acid (16:0), 4% stearic acid (18:0), 25% oleic acid (18:1), 52% linoleic acid (18:2), and 8% linolenic acid (18,3) [20], with 24 other fatty acids in much lower quantities [21]. Synthesis of less common fatty acids occurs with similar structural configurations, which reside in cell membranes and storage lipids that are found in much lower quantities. This composition is mainly due to the physiological processes for seed dormancy and sustaining nutrition for young, recently germinated plants [18].
Fatty acids play an essential role in regulating the tolerance to various environmental stresses by altering the properties of cell membranes [22, 23]. During the desaturation of fatty acid in plant cells, the number and position of the double bonds in a fatty acid chain influence its physical and physiological properties [24, 25], the membranes function, and the proper growth and development [24]. The release of the genomic sequence has allowed the identification of FAD genes firstly in Arabidopsis followed by many crop species, including oilseed crops, such as soybean [26, 27], cotton [28, 29], cacao [30], peanut, and olive [31, 32]. Different fatty acid desaturases (FADs) are involved in the desaturation of fatty acids, including the microsomal Δ12 desaturase (FAD2), the microsomal ω3 desaturase (FAD3), the trans ω3 desaturase (FAD4), the Δ7 desaturase (FAD5), the plastidial Δ12 desaturase (FAD6), the plastidial ω3 desaturase (FAD7), and the plastidial ω3 desaturase (FAD8) [33]. Among these desaturases, FAD2 and FAD6 are ω6 desaturases that convert monounsaturated fatty acid (oleic acid) to polyunsaturated fatty acid (linoleic acid) in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and plastids, respectively. FAD3, FAD7, and FAD8 are ω3 desaturases that synthesize linolenic from linoleic acid in the ER (FAD3) and plastids (FAD7 and FAD8) (Figure 2) [34, 35]. FAD4 and FAD5 specifically produce monounsaturated acid from palmitic acid for phosphatidylglycerol (PG) and monogalactosyldiacylglycerol (MGDG), respectively [36]. The content of oleic and linoleic acids affects the oxidative stability and nutritional value of edible oil [37]. Linoleic acid is a polyunsaturated fatty acid that plays a vital role in human health and nutrition; however, it has the disadvantage of decreasing the stability, flavor, and shelf life of the edible oil [38, 39]. Conversely, the oil higher in oleic acid has advantages of higher oxidative stability and long shelf life [40], increase structural integrity at a higher cooking temperature [41], and nutrition benefits to reduce low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol [42], suppress tumor formation, and protect from inflammatory diseases [43]. Therefore, human consumption of soybean seed oil demands higher oleic acid and lower linoleic acid. Efforts have been made to identify FAD2 genes that significantly affect fatty acid biosynthesis, to understand their inheritance, and to manipulate gene expression to develop oilseed crops with high content of oleic acid [44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49].
Figure 2.
Illustration of a part of the fatty acid biosynthesis pathway.
2.1 FAD2 gene family in soybean
In soybean, the FAD gene has two copies, GmFAD2–1 and GmFAD2–2, each of them has two members (GmFAD2–1A and GmFAD2–1B) and three members (GmFAD2–2A, GmFAD2–2B, and GmFAD2–2C), respectively [47, 50, 51]. Using both soybase and phytozome databases, an additional two novel FAD2–2 members, named GmFAD2–2D and GmFAD2–2E, were identified (Table 1) [52]. Among the identified FAD genes in soybean, the FAD2–1A and FAD2–1B EST analysis suggested that the GmFAD2–1A and GmFAD2–1B are actively expressed in developing seeds and constitute the seed specific paralogs in the soybean genome [53]. GmFAD2–2A possessed a deletion of 100 bp in the coding region and therefore was predicted to be non-functional [50]. GmFAD2–2B and GmFAD2–2C were found to display ubiquitous expression in all the vegetative tissues of the soybean plant, GmFAD2–2D was expressed in the flower, seed, and nodule, while GmFAD2–2E expression was exclusively confined to the pod and seed with a low level of expression.
Because of nutritional and health value, soybean breeders have been paying special attention to screen for the source of high oleic acid in soybean germplasm. Two mid-oleic acid mutant lines carrying a mutant allele GmFAD2–1a were identified from phenotype-based screening [54]. Through Targeting Induced Local Lesions In Genomes (TILLING), another mutant GmFAD2–1b was found. When combining mutant GmFAD2–1a and GmFAD2–1b alleles into one line, oleic acid content was increased to 83%. Similarly, a total of 22 plant introductions (PIs) were screened for high oleic acid content in soybean seeds [50]. Two genotypes, PI 603452 and PI 2833270, were identified with increased oleic acid. Sequence analysis showed mutations occurred in the FAD2–1A gene of PI 603452 and in the FAD2–1B gene of PI 283327, respectively. When PI 603452 was crossed with PI 283327, a soybean line carrying both homozygous FAD2–1A and FAD2–1B mutants was found in the following segregation generations. Fatty acid content analysis showed that oleic acid content increased up to 82–86%, and the level of linoleic and linolenic acids was reduced, while only 20% of oleic acid in wild type soybean lines. Further mutation analysis using (TILLING) by sequencing also demonstrated that mutations within GmFAD2–1A and GmFAD2–1B affect seed oleic acid content in soybean [52]. These two genes have played an important role in converting oleic acid to linoleic acid and directly determining the composition of oleic acid in soybean seeds. FAD2 gene is 1,164 bp long with an open reading frame coding for about 387 amino acids [55]. It contains two exons and a single large intron that is embedded within the 5′-untranslated region (5’ UTR) and has a promoter function to regulate the expression level of FAD2 [56, 57]. In soybean, GmFAD2–1A and GmFAD2–1B share 99% coding sequence identity and are located in paralogous regions of chromosomes 10 and 20, respectively [58].
2.2 Mutations in FAD2 genes
Natural mutations in both GmFAD2–1A and GmFAD2–1B in soybean led to a high level of oleic acid, indicating that mutations in both genes can suppress FAD2 gene expression to loss of enzyme function resulted in accumulation of oleic acid and decrease in linoleic acid content. Consequently, mutations induced in both genes become a critical step to improve seed oil. Various mutagenesis tools are used to target these two genes in the coding region or promoter region. A previous study showed that RNAi silencing reduced GmFAD2 expression and increased oleic acid from 20% to greater than 80% [59]. Transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALENs) technique was used to target and cleave conserved DNA sequences in both genes FAD2–1A and FAD2–1B [60]. In four of 19 transgenic soybean lines expressing the TALENs, FAD2–1A and FAD2–1B mutations were observed in the DNA extracted from leaf tissues, and three of the four lines transmitted heritable FAD2–1 mutations to the next generation. The fatty acid profile of the seed was dramatically changed in plants with homozygous mutations in both FAD2–1A and FAD2–1B, resulting in oleic acid increasing from 20% to 80% and linoleic acid decreased from 50% to under 4% [60]. The chemical mutagen (EMS) was used in the germplasm to generate mutant lines with high oleic acid content [61]. Sequence analysis revealed lines with mutation on the FAD2–1A and FAD2–1B. Further crossing of the single mutant lines released the FAD2–1a and FAD2–1b double mutant with high oleic acid content. Biological mutagens have also been used to induce mutations in FAD2 gene to develop high oleic acid lines.
In recent years, the RNA-guided CRISPR/Cas9 system has appeared as a promising tool in site-directed mutagenesis. The release of the genomic sequence of soybean and the characterization of the FAD2 allow to precisely induce mutations on the coding sequence of these FAD2 genes. Kim et al. [62] first used CRISPR/Cpf1 system in soybean and successfully induced deletion mutations in FAD2 genes though edited plants were not available (Figure 3). The CRISPR/Cas9 system was also used to target the soybean FAD2 genes. Expression and sequence analysis confirmed the alteration of the target genes was corrected with high oleic acid up to 65.58% while low linoleic acid to 16.08% [48]. CRISPR/Cas9 technology induced homozygous mutations in GmFAD2–1A alone generated high oleic acid without adverse effects on plant development [63]. Two gRNAs simultaneously targeting two sites within the second exons of both GmFAD2–1A and GmFAD2–1B showed dramatic increases in oleic acid content to over 80%, whereas linoleic acid decreased to 1.3–1.7% [56]. Transgene-free high oleic homozygous genotypes could be obtained through segregation generations, in their case, as early as the T1 generation. A gRNA was designed to target the coding region in the first exon of GmFAD2–1A and GmFAD2–2A, resulting in the oleic acid content increased from 17.1% to 73.5%, and the linoleic acid content decreased from 62.9% to 12.2% [49]. The coding region of FAD2 gene contains four transmembrane domains and three histidine boxes (H-box) in soybean (Figure 4) [53]. The histidine residues are essential for the catalytic function of the FAD2 enzyme; substituting histidine with a different amino acid disrupts its desaturase function [64]. High efficiency of mutagenesis using CRISPR-based gene editing provides a promising tool to induce mutations within the sequence of FAD2 genes. With intensive efforts, high oleic acid varieties, Vistiv Gold and Plenish, were developed by Monsanto and DuPont companies, respectively [49].
Figure 3.
Demonstration of deletion mutations identified at the target site (blue) of FAD2 genes using CRISPR/Cpf1 (cited from Kim et al. [62]).
Figure 4.
Alignment of FAD2–1A and FAD2–1B amino acid sequences. The difference in Amino acids between A and B is highlighted in red. There are four transmembrane domains and three H-box in the coding region of FAD2 enzyme in soybean (modified from Tang et al. [53]).
In addition to alter the coding region, mutations in the promoter and intron can influence FAD2 gene expression. The FAD2 intron has promoter activity because it harbors promoter-like sequence structures, including TATA and CAAT boxes, as well as many potential cis-elements [56]. Bioinformatics analyses of FAD2 intron revealed the CGATT motif and the 5’ UTR Py-rich stretch motif that enhanced gene expression [65]. Mutations in the TATA-box of the promoter reduced the promoter’s function [66]. Therefore, mutations induced in both intron and promoter can manipulate the gene expression of FAD2, though few studies focus on this aspect in soybean.
2.3 FAD2 genes from model organism soybean to crop species peanut
Peanut (A. hypogaea L.) is an economically important oilseed crop like soybean but belongs to a different clade from soybean. Comparison of FAD2 genes in peanut and soybean, peanut has an open reading frame without intron but one intron in soybean. Compared to soybean, peanut seed has a higher content of oleic acid (36–67%) and a lower level of linoleic acid (15–43%) [67]. The first natural mutant peanut genotype with 80% of oleic acid content and 2% of linoleic acid in seeds was reported in 1987 [68]. Research studies have demonstrated that the natural mutant genotype with high oleic acid was associated with mutations in the FAD2 genes. Two homeologous AhFAD2A and AhFAD2B genes are responsible for converting oleic acid to linoleic acid, located on the chromosomes 9 and 19 of the A and B genomes in the allotetraploidy peanut, respectively [69, 70]. The coding region of both genes has a length of 1,140 base pairs (bp) with 99% sequence homology and only 11 bp differences. The comparison between the high oleic acid line (F435) and the low oleic acid line (Tampson 90) revealed the presence of two mutations on the coding sequence of AhFAD2. The first mutation was a substitution of base guanine (G) to the base adenine (A) at the 448 bp position from the start codon in AhFAD2A, resulting in a missense amino acid from aspartic acid to asparagine. The second mutation was an insertion of the purine base adenine (A) at 441–442 bp position in AhFAD2B, leading to the shift in the amino acid reading frame, consequently generating premature stop codon [70]. Both spontaneous mutations that occurred on AhFAD2A and AhFAD2B alleles led to 80% of oleic acid and 2% linoleic acid [71]. After screening the Chinese mini core collection, 53.1% of genotypes carrying natural mutation G448A in the AhFAD2A gene and 46.9% with no mutations were observed [72]. Interestingly, 82.8% of this mutation existed in A. hypogaea subsp. hypogaea while 15.4% was observed in A. hypogaea subsp. fastigiat. In addition, no mutations were detected in the AhFAD2B gene alone in any lines of the collection. Over 4000 peanut genotypes were screened, and two natural mutant lines PI 342664 and PI 342666 with high oleic acid, were identified [73]. In these two natural mutant lines, sequencing results of the coding region showed the same substitution of G448A in AhFAD2A, but a different substitution of C301G in AhFAD2B, resulting in an amino acid substitution of H101D. These reports demonstrated that mutations occurred in the coding region in either one or both of AhFAD2A and AhFAD2B genes alter enzymatic activity that leads to the higher oleate trait in mutant genotypes [73]. In addition to the natural FAD2 mutations in peanut, various chemical and physical mutagens, for example, X rays, EMS, gamma rays, and sodium azide, were used to generate mutations in FAD2 genes to increase oleic acid content in seeds. However, these methods generated many other mutations in the genome other than in the target gene [74, 75, 76, 77]. Yuan et al. [78] was the first use of CRISPR/Cas9 technology in peanut to induce mutations in FAD2 genes. The result showed that the same mutations of AhFAD2 genes that occurred in nature could be induced by gene editing. We have increased oleic acid content with different levels using a CRISPR-based gene editing approach targeting several locations in the coding region and cis-regulatory RY element (CATGCATG) and 2S seed protein motif (CAAACAC) in the promoter region of peanut. Inducement of mutations in both coding and promoter regions using the CRISPR-based gene editing technology is ongoing in our peanut research. Hopefully, through gene editing, genotypes with high oleic acid content in soybean and peanut will be developed to complement the conventional breeding method.
3. Future perspectives and challenges in the mutagenesis of FAD2 genes
As a model organism and economically important species in legumes, soybean has been intensively investigated in genetics and genomics for its genetic improvement. Precision gene editing systems have been used to change the profile of the soybean seed fatty acid panel. The TALEN technology has been used to target the FAD2 genes, and induced mutations materialize by a significant increase of the oleic fatty acid content. CRISPR-based gene editing system has advantages of ease use, accuracy, high efficiency, and success in a wide range of crop species to induce mutations in FAD2 genes. Transgene-free genotypes can be obtained through recombination of edited plants in the following segregation generations. However, the application of CRISPR-based gene editing is a challenge in polyploidy species due to multiple copies of target genes. Different mutant allele combinations would also change the content of oleic acid. Moreover, a complete loss of FAD2 function could result in important development defects due to the lack of polyunsaturated fatty acids that play a crucial role in maintaining the fluidity of the cell membrane in a cold temperature environment. The better strategy to accumulate oleic acid in seed only may implement gene editing to target cis-regulatory elements that implicate seed-specific gene expression in the promoter and avoid knocking down FAD2 expression in the entire plant.
Genetic transformation methods were developed using particle bombardment meristem cells and shoot tips and somatic embryogenesis in soybean. The establishment of these technologies has permitted the generation of soybean lines to improve its oil quality. However, legume species are generally difficult to transform and regenerate. The tissue culture procedure is time-consuming, genotype dependent, and recalcitrant to regenerate adventitious shoots from explants, particularly in soybean and peanut. Methodology to avoid tissue culture should be developed, such as floral dipping for Agrobacterium mediate delivery.
4. Conclusions
Fatty acids are essential components of cellular membranes and storage lipids that are regulated in part through the action of fatty acid desaturases (FADs) and related enzymes. FAD2 gene encoding fatty acid desaturase 2 enzyme is responsible for converting oleic acid to linoleic acid in the developing seeds and directly affects seed oil quality in oilseed crops. Intensive genetic and genomic studies of FAD2 genes in soybean as a model organism provide valuable information on understanding FAD2 gene family members to other oilseed crops. Due to high oleic acid’s nutritional and health value, efforts have been focused on generating mutations in the FAD2 gene, which could lead to high oleic acid content. Mutations that occurred in both FAD2–1A and FAD2–1B genes in soybean can result in the highest oleic acid content. Among the tools used for mutagenesis, CRISPR/Cas9 technology is a promising approach to target multiple genes simultaneously and precisely to efficiently induce mutations.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the financial support from USDA/NIFA (2018-67014-27572).
\n',keywords:"legume, desaturase, genome editing, fatty acid, mutation, protein",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/78282.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/78282.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78282",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78282",totalDownloads:130,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:1,dateSubmitted:"July 25th 2021",dateReviewed:"July 31st 2021",datePrePublished:"September 27th 2021",datePublished:"June 23rd 2022",dateFinished:"August 26th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Plants have numerous fatty acid desaturase (FAD) enzymes regulating the unsaturation of fatty acids, which are encoded by a FAD gene family. The FAD2 genes belong to such family and play a vital role in converting monounsaturated oleic acid to polyunsaturated linoleic acid. Oleic acid has the health benefits for humans, such as reduction in cholesterol level, antioxidation property, and industrial benefits like longer shelf life. The development of genotypes with high oleic acid content in seeds has become one of the primary goals in breeding oilseed plants. The identification and characterization of the FAD2 genes in plants have been an important step to better manipulate gene expression to improve the seed oil quality. The induction of mutations in FAD2 genes to reduce FAD2 enzyme activity has been an integral approach to generate genotypes with high oleic acid. This chapter will describe the FAD2 gene family in the model organism soybean and the correction of mutations in FAD2 genes with the increase of oleic acid content. Leveraging advanced research of FAD2 gene family in soybean promotes the study of FAD2 genes in other legume species, including peanut. The future perspectives and challenges associated with mutations in FAD2 genes will be discussed.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/78282",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/78282",signatures:"Sy M. Traore and Guohao He",book:{id:"10774",type:"book",title:"Model Organisms in Plant Genetics",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Model Organisms in Plant Genetics",slug:"model-organisms-in-plant-genetics",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",bookSignature:"Ibrokhim Y. Abdurakhmonov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10774.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83969-750-0",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-749-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-751-7",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"213344",title:"Prof.",name:"Ibrokhim Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Abdurakhmonov",slug:"ibrokhim-y.-abdurakhmonov",fullName:"Ibrokhim Y. Abdurakhmonov"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"420094",title:"Prof.",name:"Guohao",middleName:null,surname:"He",fullName:"Guohao He",slug:"guohao-he",email:"ghe@tuskegee.edu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"428855",title:"Dr.",name:"Sy M.",middleName:null,surname:"Traore",fullName:"Sy M. Traore",slug:"sy-m.-traore",email:"dummy+428855@intechopen.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. FAD gene family in the model organism soybean",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 FAD2 gene family in soybean",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Mutations in FAD2 genes",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 FAD2 genes from model organism soybean to crop species peanut",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"3. Future perspectives and challenges in the mutagenesis of FAD2 genes",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"4. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Lewis G, Schrire B, Mackinder B, Lock M (eds). Legumes of the world. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, UK. 2005'},{id:"B2",body:'Doyle JJ, Luckow MA. The rest of the iceberg. Legume diversity and evolution in a phylogenetic context. Plant Physiol. 2003;131:900-910'},{id:"B3",body:'Bruneau A, Doyle JJ, Herendeen P, et al. Legume phylogeny and classification in the 21st century: Progress, prospects and lessons for other species–rich clades. 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The Open Access model is applied to all of our publications and is designed to eliminate subscriptions and pay-per-view fees. This approach ensures free, immediate access to full text versions of your research.
As a gold Open Access publisher, an Open Access Publishing Fee is payable on acceptance following peer review of the manuscript. In return, we provide high quality publishing services and exclusive benefits for all contributors. IntechOpen is the trusted publishing partner of over 140,000 international scientists and researchers.
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Open Access Funding
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For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
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Added Value of Publishing with IntechOpen
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Indexing and listing across major repositories, see details ...
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Dissemination and Promotion
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Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
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The Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) is payable only after your book chapter, monograph or journal article is accepted for publication.
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OAPF Publishing Options
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1,400 GBP Chapter - Edited Volume
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During the launching phase journals do not charge an APC, rather they will be funded by IntechOpen.
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*These prices do not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT as long as provision of the VAT registration number is made during the application process. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
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Services included are:
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An online manuscript tracking system to facilitate your work
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Personal contact and support throughout the publishing process from your dedicated Author Service Manager
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Assurance that your manuscript meets the highest publishing standards
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English language copyediting and proofreading, including the correction of grammatical, spelling, and other common errors
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XML Typesetting and pagination - web (PDF, HTML) and print files preparation
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Discoverability - electronic citation and linking via DOI
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Permanent and unrestricted online access to your work
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What isn't covered by the Open Access Publishing Fee?
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If your manuscript:
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Exceeds the number of pages defined by the publishing guidelines, an additional fee per page may be required
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If a manuscript requires Heavy Editing or Language Polishing, this will incur additional fees.
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Your Author Service Manager will inform you of any items not covered by the OAPF and provide exact information regarding those additional costs before proceeding.
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Open Access Funding
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To explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication, go to our Open Access Funding page. IntechOpen offers expert assistance to all of its Authors. We can support you in approaching funding bodies and institutions in relation to publishing fees by providing information about compliance with the Open Access policies of your funder or institution. We can also assist with communicating the benefits of Open Access in order to support and strengthen your funding request and provide personal guidance through your application process. You can contact us at funders@intechopen.com for further details or assistance.
\n\n
For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
\n\n
Added Value of Publishing with IntechOpen
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Choosing to publish with IntechOpen ensures the following benefits:
\n\n
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Indexing and listing across major repositories, see details ...
\n\t
Long-term archiving
\n\t
Visibility on the world's strongest OA platform
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Live Performance Metrics to track readership and the impact of your chapter
\n\t
Dissemination and Promotion
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Benefits of Publishing with IntechOpen
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Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
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+5,700 OA books published
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Most competitive prices in the market
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Fully compliant with OA funding requirements
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Optimized processes that assure your research is made available to the scientific community without delay
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Personal support during every step of the publication process
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+184,650 citations in Web of Science databases
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Currently strongest OA platform with over 175 million downloads
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She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Univeristy of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"332914",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saad",middleName:null,surname:"Shaikh",slug:"muhammad-saad-shaikh",fullName:"Muhammad Saad Shaikh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jinnah Sindh Medical University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"315775",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"feng-luo",fullName:"Feng Luo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"423519",title:"Dr.",name:"Sizakele",middleName:null,surname:"Ngwenya",slug:"sizakele-ngwenya",fullName:"Sizakele Ngwenya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419270",title:"Dr.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Chianchitlert",slug:"ann-chianchitlert",fullName:"Ann Chianchitlert",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419271",title:"Dr.",name:"Diane",middleName:null,surname:"Selvido",slug:"diane-selvido",fullName:"Diane Selvido",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419272",title:"Dr.",name:"Irin",middleName:null,surname:"Sirisoontorn",slug:"irin-sirisoontorn",fullName:"Irin Sirisoontorn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"355660",title:"Dr.",name:"Anitha",middleName:null,surname:"Mani",slug:"anitha-mani",fullName:"Anitha Mani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"355612",title:"Dr.",name:"Janani",middleName:null,surname:"Karthikeyan",slug:"janani-karthikeyan",fullName:"Janani Karthikeyan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334400",title:"Dr.",name:"Suvetha",middleName:null,surname:"Siva",slug:"suvetha-siva",fullName:"Suvetha Siva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"18",type:"subseries",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11414,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,series:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983"},editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",slug:"arli-aditya-parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",slug:"cesar-lopez-camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",slug:"shymaa-enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:26,paginationItems:[{id:"82112",title:"Comparative Senescence and Lifespan",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105137",signatures:"Hassan M. 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