Experimental conditions from Ref. [22].
\r\n\tIC offer services both at the macro-scale (country) and at the micro-scale (cities). The stability and the protection of these networks on both scales are a significant task, entrusted to the Operators who operate CI in a concession mandate. Due to the high level of interdependency of CI, which exchange services to each other for their functioning, their management and protection cannot be carried out by a "linearized" strategy (each infrastructure managed and protected independently on the others) due to the presence of tight links which connect each other. CI protection through provision of "smart" properties such as resilience, has become a complex task which must be tackled not only by deploying advanced technological means but also by triggering new management strategies, enabling holistic and global management policies.
\r\n\r\n\tThe book aims at providing an overview of the understanding of complex phenomena taking place on interdependent networks and of the advanced technical solutions related to management, risk analysis and resilience enhancement of networks, either from a theoretical and operational (i.e. with solution related to real or realistic cases) points of view. A large emphasis is provided to the capability opened by the use of field and remote sensing tools for monitoring and assessing risks on CI. The use of comprehensive data set, the access to big data is going to open the way to the realization of new tools for supporting the decision making process needed for both daily and emergency management.
",isbn:"978-1-83962-621-0",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-620-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-628-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7cfcd62bae8c99be207e18bb73e2a7b1",bookSignature:"Dr. Vittorio Rosato and Dr. Antonio Di Pietro",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10256.jpg",keywords:"Complex systems, Interdependence, Resilience, Cascading effects, Event prediction, Emergency management, Decision support, AI, Field sensors, Remote sensing, IoT, GIS",numberOfDownloads:525,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 15th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 6th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 4th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 23rd 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 22nd 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"8 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Supervisor and Project Evaluator for EU, for the Italian Ministry of University and Research, and that of Economic Development; Consultant for several Italian Regions and the Italian Ministry of Defense; Coordinator of several National Projects; Co-founder of two SMEs active in software engineering and biotechnology; Author of more than 140 scientific papers in peer reviewed journals and conference proceedings.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"A full researcher at ENEA (Italian Energy, New Technology and Environment Agency) since 2007 and a joined member to the Laboratory for the Analysis and Protection of Critical Infrastructures (APIC) from 2015. Dr. Di Pietro took part in several European and Italian national research projects and acted as an advisor for certain Evaluation Studies commissioned by the EU.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"27002",title:"Dr.",name:"Vittorio",middleName:null,surname:"Rosato",slug:"vittorio-rosato",fullName:"Vittorio Rosato",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27002/images/system/27002.jpg",biography:"Vittorio Rosato received the Laurea degree (M.Sc.) in Physics from the University of Pisa (Italy) and a Ph.D. in Condensed Matter Physics from the University of Nancy (France). He has extensively been working in Computational Physics, particularly in Condensed Matter and Material Science in his positions as Research Assistant at the University College of Wales in Aberystwyth (UK) and at the Centre d'Etudes Nucleaires in Saclay (France). Staff Scientist at ENEA (Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Economic Development) since 1990, he is currently Head of the Laboratory of Analysis and Protection of Critical Infrastructures and Manager of the Italian Node of the European Infrastructure Simulation and Analysis Centre (EISAC.it).\nHis current research activities span from risk analysis to the design of Decision Support Systems for the management of complex technological networks. He acts as Supervisor and Project Evaluator for EU, for the Italian Ministry of University and Research, and that of Economic Development; he is also consultant for several Italian Regions and the Italian Ministry of Defense. He is and has been Coordinator of several National Projects. He is co-founder of two SMEs active in software engineering and biotechnology. He is author of more than 140 scientific papers in peer reviewed journals and conference proceedings.",institutionString:"ENEA (Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Economic Development)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null}],coeditorOne:{id:"284589",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Di Pietro",slug:"antonio-di-pietro",fullName:"Antonio Di Pietro",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bReF6QAK/Profile_Picture_1581328351906",biography:"Antonio Di Pietro received the Laurea degree (M.Sc.) in Informatics Engineering from Sapienza University of Rome (Italy) and a Ph.D. in Methodologies for Emergency Management in Critical Infrastructures from Roma Tre University (Rome).\nHe has been working as a full researcher at ENEA (Italian Energy, New Technology and Environment Agency) since 2007 and in 2015 he joined the Laboratory for the Analysis and Protection of Critical Infrastructures (APIC) in the same institution.\nHis research interests include modelling and simulation of critical infrastructures and the development of Decision Support Systems integrating seismic and meteorological natural threat modeling. He is also an Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV) ENAC-certifed pilot to perform critical operations involving aerial photogrammetry tasks for biological and Infrastructure monitoring applications. He took part in several European and Italian national research projects and acted as an advisor in some Evaluation Studies commissioned by the EU. He has also been advisor of several M.Sc. students and also a teacher in several professional courses on Software Engineering and Databases.",institutionString:"ENEA (Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Economic Development)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"11",title:"Engineering",slug:"engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"74122",title:"Risk Analysis in Early Phase of Complex Infrastructure Projects",slug:"risk-analysis-in-early-phase-of-complex-infrastructure-projects",totalDownloads:87,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"74493",title:"Flood Risk Analysis for Critical Infrastructure Protection: Issues and Opportunities in Less Developed Societies",slug:"flood-risk-analysis-for-critical-infrastructure-protection-issues-and-opportunities-in-less-develope",totalDownloads:50,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"74123",title:"Resilience in Critical Infrastructures: The Role of Modelling and Simulation",slug:"resilience-in-critical-infrastructures-the-role-of-modelling-and-simulation",totalDownloads:78,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"73984",title:"Validation Strategy as a Part of the European Gas Network Protection",slug:"validation-strategy-as-a-part-of-the-european-gas-network-protection",totalDownloads:35,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"74174",title:"Defects Assessment in Subsea Pipelines by Risk Criteria",slug:"defects-assessment-in-subsea-pipelines-by-risk-criteria",totalDownloads:44,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"74240",title:"Analyzing the Cyber Risk in Critical Infrastructures",slug:"analyzing-the-cyber-risk-in-critical-infrastructures",totalDownloads:85,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"74141",title:"Italian Crisis Management in 2020",slug:"italian-crisis-management-in-2020",totalDownloads:49,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"74668",title:"A Strategy to Improve Infrastructure Survivability via Prioritizing Critical Nodes Protection",slug:"a-strategy-to-improve-infrastructure-survivability-via-prioritizing-critical-nodes-protection",totalDownloads:34,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"74143",title:"Resilience of Critical Infrastructures: A Risk Assessment Methodology for Energy Corridors",slug:"resilience-of-critical-infrastructures-a-risk-assessment-methodology-for-energy-corridors",totalDownloads:66,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"205697",firstName:"Kristina",lastName:"Kardum Cvitan",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/205697/images/5186_n.jpg",email:"kristina.k@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3621",title:"Silver Nanoparticles",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"silver-nanoparticles",bookSignature:"David Pozo Perez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3621.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6667",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Pozo",slug:"david-pozo",fullName:"David Pozo"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"65610",title:"Air Cooling in Steam Plant Condenser Using Refrigeration System for Improving Vacuum Pump Performance",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83787",slug:"air-cooling-in-steam-plant-condenser-using-refrigeration-system-for-improving-vacuum-pump-performanc",body:'\nThe primary purpose of the steam condenser in a steam plant is to convert the turbine exhaust steam into water for reuse in the boiler and to create and maintain vacuum at the turbine exhaust. This is achieved by cold water circulation through tube bundles and condensing the steam on their outer surfaces. Referable to the large reduction in the specific volume on changing from steam to condensate, a vacuum is formed within the condenser. Getting to this vacuum continuously as minimum as possible is very important for the steam plant to attain the highest possible power from the turbine. A rise in the condenser pressure can be produced due to the existence of air, ammonia, and other noncondensable gases [1]. This rise in pressure in the condenser results in lowering the useful turbine power and in turn the plant efficiency degenerates [2, 3, 4, 5].
\nThe presence of air lowers the partial pressure of steam and therefore brings down the saturation temperature of steam, which leads to increasing evaporation enthalpy (latent heat), and therefore, more cooling water will be required in the condenser. In addition, this gives rise to increasing condensate subcooling, which is undesirable because it means that the excess heat removed for this purpose serves no useful process and entails providing additional boiler firing [6]. Thus, continuous removal of the air and noncondensable gases from the condenser is very critical for maintaining the plant efficiency possibly high. Beside this task, the air extraction system prevents air blanketing of condenser tubing that could dramatically reduce the heat transfer and stop the condensing process. Also, it reduces the condensate-dissolved oxygen levels that could lead to corrosion of boiler tubing.
\nThe air and noncondensables are extracted from the bottom of the condenser, where the temperature is the lowest, by using vacuum pump. The air and noncondensables sucked by the vacuum pump contain a relatively big amount of noncondensed steam; each kilogram of air can contain more than 2 kg of water vapor [7]. This results in increasing the parasitic work of the pump. In condenser design, it is considered reducing the subcooling of the condensate possibly to the lowest degree to minimize heat removal. For reducing the amount of steam mixed with the air sucked by the air pump, the steam condenser has a portion of tubes near the air pump suction screened off and the condenser tubes in this portion contain the coldest water, and the number of cooling tubes is increased. Hence, the temperature of the air drops below that of the outlet condensate, and more steam associated with the air is condensed so that the mass flow rate of the air and steam mixture drawn by the air pump is reduced and, in turn the power of the dry pump is lowered.
\nThe air extraction system (vacuum pump) can be centrifugal compressor, steam jet ejector air ejector, or water ring pump [8, 9]. A hybrid system of these components is preferred as they offer several advantages toward minimizing venting equipment size and save parasitic consumption [7]. The power required for operating these equipment sorts is dependent on both the rates of air and the noncondensables and noncondensed steam sucked by the vacuum pump. The temperature decrease of the air in the condenser air cooler is limited when the normal cooling water is used. For obtaining considerable drop in air temperature it is proposed in this work to modify the condenser by incorporating a refrigeration system into the condenser. This system is utilized to chill the cooling water, which is used for cooling the air in the condenser rather than the normal cooling water. Of course the use of the refrigerant directly to cool the air exploiting the air cooler as an evaporator for the refrigeration system and circulating the cold liquid refrigerant of this system through the tubes of the air cooler will be more efficient than using the chilled water. However, this configuration calls for redesigning the air cooler to be adapted for receiving and evaporating the refrigerant, which will be expensive for already existing power plants. The latest configuration can be taken into consideration for the design of the new plants.
\nThe concept of using dry ammonia for cooling steam plant condenser is described in Ref. [10]. This concept states that the condenser cooling water is replaced by liquid ammonia, which evaporates as it acquires heat from the condensing steam. The heat of condensation absorbed by the ammonia is rejected in an air cooled condenser of a refrigeration machine into the surrounding atmosphere. This concept was tested and well documented [11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17], with the participation of several major equipment vendors (Baltimore Air Coil, the Trane Company, Curtiss-Wright, CB&I, and Union Carbide). In addition, the concept of using vapor compression refrigeration system (VCRS) combined with steam plant condenser was studied in detail in [14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19]. The results of these studies showed significant rise in net power as well as efficiency of the steam plant. However, for realizing this combined system, a relatively huge VCRS is required, which leads to material increase of the combined system cost. In the current study, a relatively small VCRS is required as it serves to cool only the air contained in the air cooler of steam plant condenser. This leads to lessening the temperature of the air and water vapor mixture in the air cooler, resulting in condensing some of the water vapor. Hence, the mass flow rate of the air and water vapor mixture extracted from the steam condenser is decreased and consequently the power consumed by the vacuum pump lessens. Meanwhile, water vapor leaving the steam condenser and lost to the surroundings is reduced. In general, this contributes to contracting both the power consumed in the auxiliary systems of the steam plant and the steam consumption.
\nThe steam plant condenser is typically a shell and tubes heat exchanger. Figure 1 depicts a section through a steam plant condenser. The steam leaving the plant turbine enters the condenser at its top with temperature T\nci and flows around the outer surface of the cooling tubes in which cooling water is circulated. Heat is transferred from the steam into the cooling water where steam condenses and the condensate is extracted out of the condenser at the bottom with temperature T\nce. A segment of the condenser (called air cooler) is shielded for cooling the air associated with the condensate and leaked from the environment. This segment is possibly located near the inlet of cooling water, and the number of the cooling tubes is increased in it, so that the air associated with some water vapor collected in this section is cooled to a temperature T\nvpi, which is lower than that of the condensate. This will lead to decreasing the mass rate of water vapor, the air pulled by the vacuum pump connected to this segment. As a result, the energy used up by the vacuum pump for extracting the air and its accompanying water vapor to the environment are decreased. In the current study, it is suggested to circulate chilled water within the cooling pipes of the cooling air section, so that the temperature of the air and accompanying steam is further reduced.
\nA schematic section through steam plant condenser.
\nFigure 2 illustrates a configuration for the modified steam plant condenser that enables the use of chilled water to lower the temperature of the air cooler section. The cooling water (a) coming from a water body (river, sea, …) or a cooling tower is fed into the header (e) where it is distributed to the most of the cooling water tubes of the condenser. It helps to cool the steam exhausting out of the plant turbine. This cooling water is called here normal cooling water. While being heated up, it exits the cooling tubes into the header (f). The warmer normal cooling water (b) is extracted from the header (f) and pumped back to the water body or the cooling tower. The chilled water (c) is fed to the header (g) and it flows through the cooling tubes of the air cooling part of the steam condenser. This chilled water acts as a coolant for air along with some water vapor collected in the air cooler. This leads to cooling the mixture of the air and water vapor to a temperature lower than that of the condensate. The temperature of the chilled water is raised as it flows through the cooling tubes due to heat transfer from the mixture of air and steam in the air cooler. As a result, some of the steam contained in the mixture is condensed and flows down the condenser to the hot well. The warm chilled water goes into the header (h), from which it is transmitted backward to a chiller. Finally, the rest of the air and water vapor mixture in the air cooler is sucked by a vacuum pump and expelled into the atmosphere. The vacuum pump is not shown in Figure 2.
\nA configuration of the modified steam plant condenser. a, normal cooling water in; b, normal cooling water out; c, chilled water in; d, chilled water out; e–h, headers.
In the current study, a vapor compression refrigeration system (VCRS) is used to chill the cooling water used for cooling the air cooler of the above described steam condenser. Hence, Figure 3 shows a schematic of the studied combined system. The refrigeration cycle is made up of a two-stage compression system (c) and (d) (these are also designated by I and II, respectively); a refrigerant condenser (e); two throttling valves (f) and (h); a flash tank (g) for intercooling and flash gas removal; a liquid-line/suction-line heat exchanger (LLSL-HE) (b); and an evaporator (a), which acts at the same time as a heat exchanger for chilling the cooling water used in the air cooler. In this system, the low-pressure refrigerant leaving the evaporator (a) is heated in the liquid suction heat exchanger (b) as it absorbs heat from the higher-temperature liquid refrigerant coming from the flash chamber (g). It is drawn by the first-stage compressor (c) where its pressure is raised to the intermediate pressure of the flash chamber. It is sent to the flash chamber (g) in which it is mixed with the refrigerant coming out of the throttle valve (f) and it gets cooled. The refrigerant vapor is separated from the liquid refrigerant and it is drawn by the second-stage compressor (d) and its pressure is elevated to the condenser pressure. The high-pressure refrigerant leaving the compressor (d) flows through the refrigerant condenser (e) where it is condensed and it streams further to the throttle valve (f) where its pressure is reduced to the intermediate pressure of the flash chamber, and it is fed into the flash chamber. The liquid refrigerant leaving the flash chamber is fed to the liquid suction HE (b). Here it is cooled as it gives a portion of its sensible heat to the refrigerant vapor departing the evaporator (a). The cooled liquid refrigerant is reduced in pressure to the evaporator pressure on running through the throttle valve (h). The refrigerant is then run to the evaporator/water chiller to cool down the warm water coming from the air cooler. The low-pressure vapor refrigerant leaving the evaporator/water chiller (a), completes the refrigeration cycle. This refrigeration cycle has been selected among the available refrigeration cycles due to its simplicity and relatively high efficiency.
\nA schematic of the combined proposed steam plant condenser and vapor compression refrigeration system. _____, water; _ _ _, refrigerant; a, refrigerant evaporator/HE; b, liquid suction HE; c, refrigerant compressor I; d, refrigerant compressor II; e, refrigerant condenser; f, throttle valve I; g, flash chamber; h, throttle valve II.
For the following analysis of steam and air flow through the plant condenser, it is assumed that both fluids are ideal gases. Since the steam and air flow inside the condenser are at relatively very low pressure, they can be considered behaving to acceptable accuracy as ideal gases. Referring to Figures 1 and 2, the steam exhausting the plant turbine (it is usually slightly wet) enters the condenser with temperature Tci\n and dryness fraction x\nci. Knowing the temperature Tci\n, both the saturation pressure p\ns,ci (it equals the partial pressure of the steam) and specific volume v\ns,ci of the saturated steam at condenser inlet can be fixed. Given the steam mass flow rate \n
The volume flow rate \n
The partial pressure p\na,ci of the air at entry to the condenser is calculated by:
\nInserting Eqs. (1) and (2) into Eq. (3) and designating the mass ratio \n
The total pressure pc,t\n at condenser entry is equal to the sum of the partial pressure p\na,ci of the air and the saturation pressure p\ns,ci of the steam entering the condenser. It is taken constant throughout the condenser, since the velocity of steam flow is small. Hence, the total absolute pressure p\nc,t inside the condenser is given as:
\nThe condensate temperature T\nce at condenser outlet is usually ΔT\nce lower than the steam temperature T\nci at condenser inlet (i.e., T\nce = T\nci-ΔT\nce). Knowing the temperature T\nce, the saturation pressure p\ns,ce and specific volume v\ns,ce of the steam corresponding to this temperature can be determined. If the condenser is not screened, then the partial pressure p\na,ce of the air leaving the steam condenser with condensate is given as:
\nThe volume flow rate \n
Hence, the mass flow rate \n
Dividing both sides of Eq. (8) by \n
In the case of screening the steam condenser and cooling the air, the temperature T\nvpi of the air and water vapor mixture sucked by the vacuum pump is ΔT\nvpi lower than the condensate temperature T\nce at steam condenser outlet (i.e., T\nvpi = T\nce−ΔT\nvpi). Knowing the temperature T\nvpi, the corresponding saturation pressure p\ns,vpi and specific volume v\ns,vpi can be fixed. The partial pressure p\na,vpi and volume flow rate \n
and
\nRegarding the VCRS, the p-h diagram of its cycle is illustrated in Figure 4. The numerals of Figure 4 correspond to the points 1–10 given in Figure 3. It is to be considered here that the refrigerant condenser is cooled exactly as it is conducted with the steam plant condenser. Consequently, it is assumed here that the refrigerant leaving the refrigerant condenser has a temperature equal to that of the condensate in the steam plant condenser (i.e., T\n5 = T\nce). Considering this fact and knowing the subcooling ΔT\nrc,sub of the refrigerant condenser, the pressure of the refrigerant in the condenser (e) can be fixed. The evaporator temperature T\n9 = T\n10 is defined according to the temperature required by the chilled water at inlet to the air cooler of the steam condenser. T\n9 as well as T\n10 is ΔT\ne less than the temperature T\ncw,aci (i.e., T\n9 = T\n10 = T\ncw,aci − ΔT\ne) of the chilled water entering the steam condenser air cooler. Hence, the pressure of the refrigerant in the evaporator is the saturated one corresponding to the temperature T\n9/T\n10. Knowing the refrigerant pressures in the evaporator (a) and condenser (e), the adiabatic efficiencies η\nrco,I and η\nrco,II and mechanical efficiencies η\nm,rco,I and η\nm,rco,II of the compressor I (c) and II (d), respectively, and the effectiveness ε\nLLSL of the LLSL-HE, the states of the different points of the VCRS cycle can be determined as explained in any refrigeration text book (e.g., [21]).
\n\np-h diagram of the VCRS cycle of the studied refrigeration system.
For obtaining the value of the mass ratio ζ \n
Mass flow and temperature of air, steam, and chilled water through the air-cooling segment.
It is to be noticed here that the sensible heat of the condensed steam in the air cooler was neglected as it is relatively very small, and \n
Solving Eq. (13) to get \n
For determining the mass ratio \n
From which it follows that:
\nMultiplying both sides of Eq. (16) by the mass ratio \n
The mass ratio ζ is obtained from Eq. (14). A heat balance of the flash chamber (Figure 3) yields:
\nIt follows from Eq. (18) that:
\nMultiplying both sides of Eq. (19) by \n
From Eqs. (17) and (20), the mass ratio ξt\n can be found as:
\nThe characteristic parameters describing the performance of the refrigeration cycle are given as:
\nThe hybrid system proposed in the current work can lead to two benefits, the first benefit is a decrease in the mass flow rate of steam lost in venting the air from the SPC, and the second one is a reduction in mass flow rate of air and steam mixture drawn by the vacuum pump and hence the pump power is lowered. However, a new energy consumption comes out, which is the total work (w\nrco,t) of the two compressors employed in the VCRS. To be capable to judge the goodness of the proposed hybrid system, both the energies used for venting the air from SPC and for operating the compressors of the refrigeration system should be determinable. The total work w\nrco,t of the two refrigerant compressors can be determined using Eqs. (24)–(26). As for the work consumed for venting process, there are some vacuum pumps that can be utilized for this function, among which centrifugal compressor is the most effective and efficient instrument for performing this task. It is selected here only for the sake of judgment of the hybrid system goodness. In venting the air and steam mixture out of the steam condenser without air cooling, the specific vacuum pump (compressor) work w\nvp,wac referred to each kilogram of steam flow through the steam turbine can be expressed by aid of any thermodynamics text book (e.g., [20]) as:
\nwhere km\n and Rm\n are the isentropic exponent and gas constant, respectively, of the air steam mixture. They are given by [20]:
\nWhen the steam condenser is fitted with air cooler, the air extracting compressor work w\nvp is given by:
\n\nkm\n and Rm\n are calculated in this case by aid of Eqs. (30) and (31), respectively, by replacing γ by δ.
\nThe total specific work wt\n (w\nrco,t + w\nvp,ac) employed for cooling and driving out steam condenser air is calculated by summing up Eqs. (26) and (32).
\nThe thermodynamic analysis developed in Section 4 for predicting the condensation rate in the steam plant condenser due to air cooling is first validated with the experimental data of reference [22]. In this work, experiments were conducted in a 2-m-long square cross-sectional channel (0.34 m × 0.34 m) to study the heat and mass transfer in the condensation of water vapor from humid air. The air flowing inside the channel was cooled by cold water flowing outside and adjoining only one side (0.34 m × 2 m) of the channel. Experimental data were obtained from five tests at various operating conditions as shown in Table 1. The thermodynamic analysis in Section 4 was slightly modified to be adapted for using the data given in Table 1 for computing the condensation rate. For solving the equations in this analysis and finding out the rate of condensation, the commercial computer package EES [23] was used. The thermal properties of the humid air at different conditions were found using the built-in functions available in the EES package. The condensation rate computed from the present model is displayed in Figure 6, which shows satisfactory agreement with the experimental data of Ref. [22] since the maximal discrepancy does not exceed 10%.
\nTest | \nInlet humid air temperature Tha,in\n (°C) | \nVelocity of humid air vha\n (m/s) | \nInlet relative humidity of humid air φ\n | \nAverage cooling flux qc,av\n (kW/m2) | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | \n82.66 | \n1.46 | \n100 | \n7.3 | \n
2 | \n80.61 | \n2.02 | \n100 | \n9.0 | \n
3 | \n79.13 | \n2.52 | \n97.83 | \n10 | \n
4 | \n78.73 | \n3.01 | \n87.35 | \n11.1 | \n
5 | \n75.02 | \n3.59 | \n96.55 | \n12.5 | \n
Experimental conditions from Ref. [22].
Comparison of the predicted and experimental values of condensation rate for all the tests of Ref. [22].
The thermodynamic analysis developed in Section 4 for performance prediction of the combined system proposed in this work necessitates knowing some basic design and operational data, which is listed in Table 2. It is to be noticed here that the values of isentropic and mechanical efficiencies of the compressors involved in this study have been selected close to the practical values of compressors in use in industry [24]. The results presented hereafter are based on these data. All parameter values given in Table 2 will be kept unchanged except for the case where the effect of a specific parameter is to be examined; it is handled as a variable.
\nParameter | \nValue | \n
---|---|
Mass ratio (β) | \n0.0003 | \n
Compressor isentropic efficiency (η\ni,rco,I, η\ni,rco,II, η\ni,vp) | \n0.85 | \n
Compressor mechanical efficiency (η\nm,rco,I, η\nm,rco,II, η\nm,vp) | \n0.75 | \n
Dryness fraction of steam entering the SPC (x\nci) | \n0.9 | \n
Effectiveness of the liquid suction HE (ε\nLLSL) | \n0.8 | \n
Temperature difference (T\nci − T5\n), °C | \n0 | \n
Temperature difference (T\ncw,ace − T\ncw,aci), °C | \n4 | \n
Temperature difference (T\ncw,aci − T\n10), °C | \n4 | \n
Temperature difference (T\ncw,ace − T\nvpi), °C | \n4 | \n
Temperature difference ΔT\nce, °C | \n3 | \n
Subcooling of the refrigerant condenser (ΔT\nrc,sub), °C | \n3 | \n
Basic design and operational data of the proposed combined steam plant condenser and refrigeration system.
The refrigerant of the refrigeration system is selected to be ammonia. The physical properties of air, water, steam, and ammonia needed for computation are predicted using the built-in functions of the commercial computing package EES [23], which is used for solving the equations of the analysis of Section 4.
\nIn Figure 7, the mass ratio γ is plotted versus the temperature T\nci for values of ΔT\nce of 1, 3, and 5°C. It is seen from Figure 7 that γ runs linearly with very low rate with T\nci. This can be explained as follows: since β is constant, the mass rate of steam condensed because cooling the air depends mainly on ΔT\nce and it is very little dependent on T\nci. Of course the condensed steam rate in the air cooler is a pit higher at higher T\nci. For constant β and T\nci, the amount of steam associated with the condenser air and, in turn, the rate of condensed steam decrease progressively with ΔT\nce. This accounts for the remarkable drop in γ with an increase in ΔT\nce as shown in Figure 7. In contrast, the amount of steam associated with the condenser air and consecutively the rate of condensed steam for constant β and ΔT\nce are almost unvarying with T\nci. This explains the very low rate of increase in γ with rising T\nci.
\nEffect of condensate temperature on the extracted steam mass rate by the vacuum pump without air cooler. ———, ΔT\nce = 1°C; — — —, ΔT\nce = 3°C; ………, ΔT\nce = 5°C.
It is worth noting here that in Figures 8–14, which will be displayed in this section, the small values of temperature difference ΔT\nvpi close to zero represent the case in which there is virtually no air cooler is employed. These values are not practical as the refrigeration system will be useless. Yet these values are included in these images just for illumination. In Figure 8, the mass ratio δ is drawn against the temperature difference ΔT\nvpi for temperature T\nci of 20, 30, and 40°C. It is seen from Figure 8 that δ declines with an increase in ΔT\nvpi where the rate of declination is relatively high at small values of ΔT\nvpi and it decreases progressively with ΔT\nvpi and becomes immaterially small for values of ΔT\nvpi greater than 12°C. This is brought about due to the large drop in steam content in the air and likewise the rate of steam condensed as the temperature T\nvpi falls down. It is also seen from Figure 8 that T\nci has almost negligible effect on δ as the amount of steam mixed with the condenser air and in turn the rate of condensed steam for constant β and ΔT\nvpi are almost invariable with T\nci.
\nDependence of the mass of steam associated with air on the air temperature at vacuum pump entrance. ———,T\nci = 20°C; — — —,T\nci = 30°C; ………,T\nci = 40°C.
Saving percentage in steam mass associated with air when using air cooler. ———,T\nci = 20°C; — — —,T\nci = 30°C; ………T\nci = 40°C.
Relationship between the mass of chilled cooling water required for steam condenser air cooler and the air temperature at vacuum pump entrance. ———,T\nci = 20°C; — — —,T\nci = 30°C; ………,T\nci = 40°C.
Effect of the air temperature at vacuum pump entrance on refrigerant mass rate when using air cooler. ———,T\nci = 20°C; — — —,T\nci = 30°C; ………,T\nci = 40°C.
Effect of the air temperature at vacuum pump entrance on coefficient of performance of the refrigeration system. ———,T\nci = 20°C; — — —,T\nci = 30°C; ………,T\nci = 40°C.
Specific work dependence on the air temperature at vacuum pump entrance. ———, wvp,wac\n; — — —, wvp,ac\n; ………, wrco,t\n; —. —, wt.\n
Saving percent in specific work due to refrigeration cooling of steam condenser air cooler. ———,T\nci = 20°C; — — —,T\nci = 30°C; ………T\nci = 40°C.
\nFigure 9 illustrates the saving percentage (γ − δ) × 100/γ in the steam amounts to be condensed in the air cooler and not sucked by the vacuum pump as steam. It is clear from Figure 9 that this saving has a reversed trend to that of the mass ratio δ, it is equal to zero at ΔT\nvpi = 0, and it increases steeply with ΔT\nvpi. The rate of increase in this saving with ΔT\nvpi falls increasingly with the rise in ΔT\nvpi where it becomes inconsiderably small at ΔT\nvpi of 12°C.
\nIt follows from Figures 8 and 9 that the amount of steam to be condensed in the air cooler is relatively high at small values of ΔT\nvpi and the rate of increase in this amount falls progressively with ΔT\nvpi. Therefore, the amount of the cooling chilled water and in turn the refrigerant needed for chilling the cooling water takes the same trend of the percentage saving (γ − δ) × 100/γ (see Figure 9). Figures 10 and 11 show the mass ratios ζ and ξt\n, respectively, as a function of ΔT\nvpi.
\nIn Figure 12, the coefficient of performance COP of the refrigeration system is plotted versus the temperature difference ΔT\nvpi for T\nci of 20, 30, and 40°C. Figure 12 discloses distinctly that COP decreases sharply with ΔT\nvpi. This is ascribed mainly to the falling value of the evaporator temperature of the refrigeration system and the increasing temperature difference between the refrigerant condenser and the evaporator. The temperature T\nci has almost a negligible effect on COP as the temperature difference between refrigerant condenser and evaporator alters with ΔT\nvpi and not with T\nci.
\nThe specific works wvp,wac, wrco,t, wvp,ac\n as well as wt\n are plotted in the diagrams of Figure 13 versus ΔT\nvpi for temperature T\nci of 20, 30, and 40°C. Although w\nvp,wac is independent of ΔT\nvpi, it is represented on the diagrams of Figure 13 as horizontal lines for the sake of comparison. It can be seen from Figure 13 that w\nvp,wac decreases with an increase in T\nci, which is caused mainly due to the drop in pressure ratio of the vacuum pump. The specific work w\nvp,ac is reduced steeply with ΔT\nvpi until a value of ΔT\nvpi around 12°C; then, the rate of decrease in w\nvp,ac diminishes remarkably. This can be interpreted as follows: on the one hand, at low temperature difference ΔT\nvpi, the amount of steam mixed with air is relatively high as can be seen from Figures 8 and 9, which results in relatively high mass rate of the mixture of air and water vapor flowing through the vacuum pump, and therefore, greater pump work w\nvp,ac is obtained. As ΔT\nvpi is raised, the amount of steam flowing with air dwindles and so the mass flow rate through the pump declines, which gives rise to decreasing the pump work w\nvp,ac. On the other hand, the pressure ratio through the vacuum pump is raised with ΔT\nvpi and hence the work w\nvp,ac is increased. However, the increase in w\nvp,ac is relatively small at low values of ΔT\nvpi compared to the work decrease due to the drop in pump mass flow rate. Therefore, the pump work w\nvp,ac falls off with relatively high rate, as ΔT\nvpi grows. As the mass flow induced by the pump declines and the pressure ratio through the pump grows with increasing ΔT\nvpi, the effect of the former parameter diminishes, while the effect of the latter parameter grows up and the net result is a considerable drop in the rate of decrease in w\nvp,ac. The specific work w\nrco,t rises almost linearly with ΔT\nvpi. This is attributed mainly to the declination of the refrigeration system COP (see Figure 12). The rate of increase in w\nrco,t is almost independent of the temperature T\nci.
\nThe saving percentage (w\nvp,wac − wt\n) × 100/w\nvp,wac in work by using refrigeration system for cooling the air contained in the steam condenser is plotted in Figure 14 versus ΔT\nvpi for T\nci of 20, 30, and 40°C. It is seen from Figures 13 and 14 that the sum of the specific works w\nvp,ac and w\nrco,t (i.e., the total specific work wt\n) has a minimal value (maximum saving in the total work sum wt\n). This minimum value depends on the value of T\nci and it is less than the corresponding w\nvp,wac according to the temperature T\nci by 38.5, 33.9, and 28.9% at ΔT\nvpi of 12, 10, and 8°C for T\nci of 20, 30, and 40°C, respectively. Also, it is seen from Figures 13 and 14 that wt\n is maximally higher than the minimal value corresponding to T\nci by 3% when ΔT\nvpi is 4°C higher than its value at which the minimal total specific work occurs. On the contrary, the saving in the steam lost increases depending on T\nci in the range of 5–7%. Therefore, it is more advantageous to choose values for ΔT\nvpi higher than those at which the minimal total work occurs in the range of 4°C, as it results in fairly less lost steam rate to be drawn by the vacuum pump and inconsiderable increase in the total work. Higher values than 4°C cause inconsiderably small increase in saving the lost steam, but the total work is significantly raised.
\nIt is to be mentioned here that the parameters γ, δ, ζ, ξt\n, w\nvp,wac, w\nvp,ac, w\nrco,t, and wt\n are displayed in Figures 7,8,10,11, and 13 for the value for β of 0.0003. These parameters are directly proportional to the mass ratio β. This is explained as follows: the mass of steam mixed with each kilogram of air and condensed and in turn the amount of cooling normal/chilled water used for cooling a kilogram of air and condensing the steam as well as the amount of refrigerant utilized for chilling the cooling water are dependent only on the initial and final air temperatures of the cooling process. Therefore, the parameters mentioned above are directly proportional to the mass ratio β. On the contrary to that, the saving percentages (γ − δ) × 100/γ and (wt\n − we\n) × 100/we\n in the amount of steam to be condensed and total work, respectively, are independent of β.
\nThe current work is concerned with the use of vapor compression refrigeration system (VCRS) for chilling cooling water used with the air cooler of the steam plant condenser (SPC). A thermodynamic analysis is developed for working out the performance of the hybrid system of VCRS and SPC. The results obtained using this analysis showed that subcooling of the SPC condensate can cause considerable reduction in steam rate associated with the air induced by the vacuum pump. However, this is possibly avoided as it represents heat loss in the condensate heat content, which should be compensated in the plant boiler. In addition, the results of this work led to drawing the following conclusions for condensate subcooling of 3°C, which represents a reasonable and practical subcooling of the condenser condensate.
Temperature reductions of the condenser air of 5, 10, and 15°C below the condensate temperature result in reducing steam rate lost in venting air from the condenser relative to the loss when using no air cooler, by around 69, 85, and 90%, respectively.
The total work saving when using chilled water for cooling the air in the condenser air cooler from that in case of no air cooling is applied, has maximums of 38.5, 33.9, and 28.9% and occurs at temperature decrease below the condensate temperature of 12, 10, and 8°C when the temperature of steam admitted to the condenser is 20, 30, and 40°C, respectively. In these cases, the savings in steam lost in venting process amount to 87.7, 84, and 79.2%, respectively.
Selecting the reduction in condenser air temperature in the range of 4°C higher than that temperature reduction, at which the minimum total work occurs, is very advantageous where the saving in steam lost becomes fairly greater while the saving in total work is slightly lower than the minimum total works; in the range of 5–7 and maximally 3%, respectively.
coefficient of performance of the refrigeration system
\nspecific heat capacity at constant pressure (kJ/kg K)
\nspecific heat capacity of water (kJ/kg K)
\nspecific enthalpy (kJ/kg)
\nisentropic exponent
\nspecific latent heat (kJ/kg)
\nmass flow rate (kg/s)
\npressure (kPa)
\nrelative heat transfer rate (kW/kg)
\ngas constant (kJ/kg K)
\ntemperature (°C)
\nspecific volume (m3/kg)
\nair velocity (m/s)
\nvolume flow rate (m3/s)
\ndryness fraction (−)
\nspecific work (kJ/kg)
\nmass ratio \n
mass ratio \n
mass ratio \n
temperature difference of steam at condenser inlet and exit (K/°C)
\ntemperature difference of chilled water at air cooler inlet and saturated refrigerant in VCRS evaporator (K/°C)
\nsubcooling in the refrigerant condenser
\ntemperature difference of condensate in hot well and air entering the vacuum pump (K/°C)
\nheat exchanger effectiveness (−)
\nmass ratio \n
isentropic efficiency of the compressor (−)
\nmechanical efficiency of the compressor (−)
\nmass ratios\n
relative humidity (−)
\nair
\nwith air cooler
\nair cooler exit for chilled water
\nair cooler inlet for chilled water
\natmospheric
\naverage
\nsteam condenser, cooling
\nsteam condenser outlet
\nsteam condenser inlet
\nchilled water
\nevaporator
\nhumid air
\nisentropic
\ninlet
\nair and steam mixture, mechanical
\nrefrigerant
\nrefrigerant condenser
\nrefrigerant compressor
\nsaturated steam
\nsteam
\nsteam turbine, total pressure, total work
\nvacuum pump
\nvacuum pump inlet
\nwater
\nwithout air cooler
\nstate numbers of the refrigerant of the refrigeration cycle
\nrefrigerant compressor no. I and II, respectively
\nliquid-line/ suction-line heat exchanger
\nsteam plant condenser
\nvapor compression refrigeration system
\nThroughout the world, wood is a universal material used since antiquity in infrastructures and structures. Like other building materials, wood develops pathologies that affect its durability and useful life expectancy. Humidity and temperature variations of indoor and outdoor environments are main factors that affect the biological degradation rate of wood. Wood deteriorates more rapidly in heat and humid than in cold and dry environments. Main organisms that degrade wood are fungi and insects, causing damage ranging from simple discolouration to complete deterioration; the damage can be possibly aesthetic or it can have disastrous consequences, such as the collapse of the structures. To prevent and control damage, it is crucial to evaluate the state of conservation of building elements. It includes the necessary non-destructive evaluation of its mechanical properties and conditions of wood [1]. Wooden structure monitoring is not necessarily expensive and prevents loses.
The early detection of anomalies allows avoiding aggravated damages in the structure that can lead to the inevitable replacement of structural elements. It is, therefore, relevant to prevent harm to people and property. It is essential that inspections of structures be carried out regularly in order to monitor the state of conservation.
The need to solve practical problems without destroying the integrity of the object under inspection has motivated the development of measurement techniques for assessing the physical properties of lumber. The earliest non-destructive assessment is a visual inspection; it is also widely used for wood product classification [2]. In general, the techniques currently used provide information at specific points. The whole is obtained by extrapolation, with a long series of studies. Often, the structure to be examined cannot be reached from the ground. They are time-consuming diagnostic methods that require the presence of teams of technicians. They are usually invasive because they require holes to be made which may also become access routes for pathogens. X-ray methods are also used and are therefore potentially harmful to health. The most frequent method with the best cost/benefit is the percussion of the wood using a blunt object; the analysis is based on the interpretation of the sound produced. The results, however, depend on the operator’s experience and require direct contact with the area to be inspected, so it is necessary to mount scaffolds or staging when the elements under analysis are not reached from the ground. The interpretation of the information can be slow and difficult, depending on the variety and quantity of elements. This kind of inspection makes it difficult to record data to be compared to subsequent evaluations.
Thermography is a generic term for a variety of techniques used to visualise the temperature of object surface. Thermal imaging is the result of a complex interaction between the heating source, the material and its irregularities. In fact, the thermal properties of the materials are conditioned by the degree of their structural integrity; that is, when there are anomalies in the material structure, the heat flux changes. Then, thermography detects these changes. The surface thermal mapping results in the thermogram. The thermogram indicates the location where thermal heterogeneities exist. Therefore, it shows if a structure has damaged or defective parts. The thermogram displays the temperature variations using colour gradient.
Thermography is an in situ technique based on thermal image examination that can be applied to wood structures to find external signs which might indicate possible internal deterioration. This method is non-invasive and totally harmless to people. Being a non-destructive and non-contact technique, it can be a versatile tool, very useful for inspection. A portable infrared camera can be used to evaluate the structure in real time even when the structure cannot be accessed from the ground. Another advantage is that this technique allows the monitoring of disease progression. It makes possible to detect water content, state of deterioration, loss of density and anomalies. The assessment of the wood condition gives the information for maintenance and repairing.
In the science of wood, infrared thermography (IRT) is a relatively recent field of study [3]. The two main procedures are passive and active thermography. It is suitable for wood diagnose because it is a non-destructive and non-contact technique for recording the temperature of object surface, based on emitted radiation. The temperature values are mapped using false colour patterns.
In most of the instruments that use this technology, it is necessary to introduce an emissivity factor to calibrate the temperature measurement. The emissivity together with the reflected temperature allows the acquiring of data to produce the thermographic image [4]. The main issue is the determination of specific wood emissivity values.
Maldague describes two thermographic procedures. In the active thermography, an energy stimulus is artificially produced on the object of study to cause an internal flow of heat on the surface to be inspected [5]. This flow can be triggered by different processes: simple thermal sources like lamps, heaters or flashes, hot air jets, ultrasonic pulses, infrared radiation, microwave, laser and among others. The generated heat flux is disturbed if there are defects or damages on or near the surface of the object of study. It causes discontinuities and thermal contrast. They are detected by analysing the thermograms obtained during the thermographic inspection. In the passive procedure, the thermal contrast is generated by natural sources such as sunlight [5, 6, 7].
The thermographic analysis can be qualitative and quantitative. Qualitative thermography focuses on the study of thermal patterns to reveal the existence and location of anomalies. Quantitative thermography uses temperature measurement as a criterion to determine the severity of an anomaly and to set repair priorities. Applying the qualitative approach, it is possible to determine the existence and location of a problem in the wood. The quantitative approach determines the severity of the problem; it can still help to determine when it should be repaired, by quantifying the temperature [6]. However, an accurate temperature measurement is strongly dependent on the value considered as a reference for the emissivity of the material.
The influence on temperature by the variation of the emissivity value can be observed in Figure 1. This figure shows the temperature reading in the thermographic camera as a function of the emissivity introduced in the equipment. When the calibration value of 0.89 (emissivity of the surface of the wood measured with the black tape method) is entered, the average value of the surface temperature is 43°C. However, if a different emissivity value is entered in the thermographic camera, the value of the temperature reading will deviate significantly from the actual value of the surface temperature. This error is all the greater the error in the emissivity value. For example, if an emissivity of 0.40 is introduced, we obtain a mean temperature value of 61°C, significantly different from the actual value of 43°C.
Surface temperature of the wood sample as a function of the emissivity value.
IRT is a measurement technique based on the detection of radiation in the infrared spectrum. In fact, all bodies above 0 Kelvin (absolute zero) emit this electromagnetic radiation. Electromagnetic radiation detection in the infrared (IR) spectrum is usually done between 2–5.6 μm and 8–14 μm. Both spectral bands are generally used due to their atmospheric malabsorption [5].
There are building materials with high emissivity in both spectral windows, as white marble. But there are other materials, such as wood, which have a wide range of emissivity due to the spectral window used in the observation [4]; therefore, it should be mentioned in each observation. Rice further states that the shorter wavelength spectral window (close to 0.7 μm) is desirable because the effective emissivity is higher and the effect of the surface characteristics is minimised [8]. Dewitt and Nutt (1988) in Rice highlight that the angle of observation in IRT is also determinant [8]. Radiation from a surface occurs in all directions, so the hemispherical term is often added. Mathematically, the solid angle on which the radiation measured is often referred to. However, in real surfaces, the radiation is not uniformly reflected in all directions. Then, the preferred method is to measure the normal or near normal radiation of the object surface. Fronapfel and Stolz conducted studies to determine the emissivity with different angles of observation where the emissivity variation can be observed [9]. This technique for building monitoring is expanded and has been used for more than 25 years in the diagnosis of any kind of buildings: historical, monuments and modern structures. Passive thermography is a qualitative method and is commonly used in the investigation of buildings. The purpose is to detect irregularities and malfunction. However, the lack of specific emissivity values of each material makes accurate temperature measuring impossible. In fact, there is not an infrared camera that reads directly dispensing this factor. All cameras interpret infrared radiation from the surface taking into account emissivity, reflectivity and, occasionally, the transmissivity of IR radiation. The transmissivity is only important for large distances between the camera lens and the object of study [10].
Figure 2 shows examples of the influence of homogeneous heating and adequate focusing in the determination of an accurate emissivity value [7]. Even with the correct emissivity value, incorrect focus or improper brightness and contrast may cause the observed surface temperature readings to be incorrect. For an accurate determination of the surface emissivity, it is necessary that the temperature of the surface is to be between 10 and 20°C above the ambient temperature. It is also important homogeneity in the heating process. Figure 2 shows cases of thermograms where the heating was neither homogeneous, nor a correct adjustment in the focus, which led to the determination of incorrect values of emissivity and surface temperature.
Thermograms that show the heterogeneity of surface heating and inadequate focusing.
Emissivity plays an essential role in thermography. Emissivity is used to characterise the optical properties of materials taking into account the amount of energy emitted compared to an ideal blackbody [10].
The emissivity scale goes from 0 (perfect mirror reflector) to 1 (perfect emitter black body). It depends on temperature, wavelength and surface conditions, such as roughness. Some authors also refer to the temperature reflected as being mainly dependent on the radiation coming from the surrounding environment as another factor that affects the accuracy of the temperature measured with infrared thermography [10, 11]. A surface with a low emissivity value, such as aluminium, steel, etc., acts as a mirror (high reflectance). However, these problems are usually solved using tapes or high emissivity paints [10].
Most of the materials used in buildings have high emissivity, generally above 0.8 [10].
IRT applied in building diagnostics can be used efficiently in the detection of heat loss, quality of thermal insulation in walls and roofs, thermal bridges, airflows and sources of moisture [6, 10, 12]. It also mentioned the capability of identifying structures, holes, cracks, material discrimination, analysing the state of mural paintings and the state of conservation of materials [13].
Avdelidis and Moropoulou determined emissivity values in historic buildings at different temperatures, applying infrared thermography of medium and long wavelength [10].
The literature describes the use of IR thermography for the evaluation of wood structures in historical buildings, such as the San Felipe Neri Oratory (Cadiz) [14] and a mosque in Ankara, Turkey [15].
Rosina and Robison describe that in Italy, IRT was used in different phases of building rehabilitation, from preliminary investigation to the rehabilitation process itself, as a final inspection instrument or as a part of the periodic observation and maintenance plan. This technique allows researchers to gather information about the location, shape, characteristics of the materials, and deterioration state of the elements and constructive systems. Taking into account the particular boundary conditions, the distribution of the surface temperature of the object of study allows the detection of discontinuities and changes in the structures of the buildings [6].
Studies on wood have confirmed the role of certain factors that affect its surface temperatures such as density, nodes, biological deterioration and cracks [16]. As referred above, the emissivity plays a crucial role in the thermography analysis. Lopez et al. determined the emissivity of wood samples using different species that were exposed to different temperature values. They propose an average emissivity value of 0.924 for temperature 22°C and spectral band 7.5–13 μm. They suggested that this value can be used for any type of wood, minimising the possibility of error in the determination of surface temperatures [17].
For an IR thermography test, it is necessary to have a thermal gradient to induce the thermal response of the surfaces. It is considered that 20°C is a satisfactory difference [18], while ASTM E1933-99a refers to a minimum of 10°C [19]. The ASTM E1933-99a standard is an existing normative that establishes procedures for the measurement and determination of emissivity of various materials using IR imaging systems [19].
Despite the theoretical and practical knowledge about this technique in several application areas, it has only recently been used for the diagnosis and evaluation of wood structures.
Thermography is used because the thermal conductivity and the resistivity of the materials are related to the degree of their integrity. That is, the structural anomalies cause a change in heat flow. Thermography indicates if a structure has damaged or defective regions; it shows the location of thermal heterogeneities. The thermograms display the different local temperatures using colour gradients; they are monochromatic scales, such as greyscale used at the beginning or the current polychromatic scales. In the thermograms of Figures 3–5, thermal heterogeneities can be observed denoting material cracks, both in the active and passive modes. Generally, in the passive mode, the cracks are noticed by lower temperatures, whereas in the active mode they are evidenced by higher temperatures [7].
Thermogram of old wooden structure: the crack is visible along the beam (passive method).
Thermogram of a wood sample with visible cracks (active method).
Photograph and thermogram of pine sample (active mode). It shows cracks and knot.
Thus, Figure 3 shows a thermogram obtained in the passive mode. It was taken from a wooden structure of a roof. A crack may be seen running longitudinally through the wooden beam. The crack is visible because thermal heterogeneity is visible in this part, that is, temperature values lower than the overall beam pattern, visible through darker shades. This information is obtained by comparison with the colour/temperature scale that is displayed on the right side of the thermogram.
Figure 4 shows a thermogram of the face of a sample of wood previously heated in an oven (active mode). This figure shows that in the active mode, cracks are evident because they exhibit thermal heterogeneities with temperature values higher than the general pattern of the observed object face. In this case, it is noticed by the lighter colours, unlike what happened in the passive mode of Figure 3.
Figure 5 shows the conventional photograph (visible wavelength) of a wood surface and its thermogram (infrared wavelength) in active thermographic mode. By the active procedure, this type of nodes and the cracks show colour heterogeneity in relation to the general pattern denoting higher temperature. The cracks of Figure 5 although they are barely perceptible in the photograph are well seen in the thermogram.
Thermography also plays an important role in the inspection, assessment and monitoring of living wood structures, we mean trees. There are living wooden structures with relevant historical and cultural importance as the monumental trees and the notable ones. Thus, there are studies carried out about how to inspect, analyse and evaluate them to be safeguarded. Research on living wood structures has already been carried out in Italy. Since the 1980s, Giorgio Catena and Alexandra Catena have validated the usefulness of IR thermography technique [20]. In England, Marcus Bellett-Travers applied the IR thermography to inspect, evaluate and minimise wood structure risk [21].
In Portugal, the TreeM Project aims to disseminate the possible uses of this technique [22, 23].
It is essential to safeguard, for as long as possible, the lives of these incredible living beings. Some trees are catalogued for conservation and protected by law due to their age, shape and size. Periodic inspections are also required in places of high risk of partial or total collapse. This is a mean to prevent losses to individuals and property.
IRT is a method of inspecting structures, whose data (thermograms and radiometric videos) require visual inspection with photographs in the visible range. Visual inspection is critical as certain heterogeneities detected by IRT may be non-significant, resulting only from, for example, dust. It should be noted that many of the present-day thermographic cameras already include a photographic camera in order to carry out the process in the same procedure, thus providing a photograph and a thermogram of the object with the same perspective.
The analysis of the information obtained provides elements for an evaluation of the structure, that is if the structure of wood presents or not anomalies (e.g., due to excess moisture, by the existence of fungi or by wood-decaying insects). This inspection shall be periodically repeated over the life of the structure so that the faults detected in the meantime are corrected in a timely manner. Thus, more radical and costly measures are avoided, extending the useful life of the structure.
The comparison of thermograms obtained over time is possible if a suitable value of emissivity of the surface of the wood studied is used. Some examples of the application of IRT in the detection of biodegradation are given by Grossman [24, 25]. A qualitative inspection requires the entering in the thermographic camera of a high emissivity value, since the wood is a material of low reflexivity and therefore with high emissivity. When inspecting the wood structure, non-conformities can be observed in the thermal pattern; they are identified by differences in the colour pattern in some places in relation to the whole.
In the case of quantitative analysis, it is relevant to know the concrete value of the temperature in order to have an idea of the severity of the damage detected. Therefore, a correct emissivity value is required, which is dependent on the environmental conditions of the place where the observation is being carried out. It is difficult to determine the correct emissivity value for an in situ given surface. This difficulty results from two fundamental aspects: (a) the difficulty in reaching the structure and (b) the difficulty in raising the temperature of the wood of at least 10°C [19] at 20°C [18] above ambient temperature because the higher the temperature differential, the greater the accuracy of the determined emissivity [19]. Thus, it is crucial to have tables of emissivity values for different types of wood to select the value that approximates the most to the real conditions. It would avoid the need of determining this value each time a study is carried out. Kang et al. emphasise the importance of tabulated emissivity values proposing a study with hundred species from Korea and Tropics [26].
The value of the emissivity is also a function of the density of the wood. If we use the same emissivity value, different temperatures will be seen in the wood. The deterioration causes a decrease in density. In the thermogram, this anomaly is detected through thermal heterogeneity indicating the points of deterioration.
Main advantage of IRT is that it indicates locations that require more detailed inspection and, if necessary, the application of other inspection techniques. The IRT does not replace the use of other techniques for evaluating structures, but provides information to apply other techniques only in concrete and localised points, avoiding their application in unnecessary areas. IRT inspections can be performed from the ground observing the structure as a whole. Thermograms and radiometric videos made with latest thermographic cameras produce records that can be compared with records of previous and future inspections.
The objective of the present study was to determine the emissivity values of two different samples of sawn wood with similar textures and colouration of the species Pinus pinaster Aiton (commonly known as brave pine or maritime pine). Although it is of same species, the two samples have different densities, since they come from two different locations with different climates—one from the region of Leiria (coast) and the other from the Serra da Estrela region (inland mountains). It is therefore intended to contribute to the need of tables of emissivity values for different wood species, in environmental conditions close to those in situ observed.
A Velleman DVM401 Digital Multifunction thermohygrometer was used to determine the environmental conditions. The thermographic machine used was the FLIR ThermaCAM B20 with 36 mm lens, field of view (FOV) of 22.6°, whose first three digits of the serial number are 234. The minimum focus distance is 0.3 m. For a length of 0.5 m between the machine lens and the sample surface, it has a 0.2 m horizontal field of view (HFOV), 0.15 m vertical field of view (VFOV) and 0.63 mm instantaneous field of view (IFOV). The thermographic camera works in the spectral band of 7.5–13 μm, with a thermal sensitivity of 0.10°C at 30°C and accuracy of ±2°C and ±2%. The focusing is performed manually. The detector type is an uncooled microbolometer focal plane array (FPA) with a resolution of 320 × 240 pixels. ThermaCAM QuickView 1.3 [27] and ThermaCAM Reporter 7.0 [28] were the software used. The determination of the emissivity was done applying the black tape method; it used black adhesive tape ISO Tape Tesa. A WTC binder oven was used to increase the temperature of the samples. The electronic balance used for weighing the samples has a 5 kg maximum capacity and accuracy of ±1 g. The fixation of the sample and the thermal camera was done using two tripods.
The wood samples were of the species Pinus pinaster Ait, commonly known as maritime pine or brave pine. This species is common in Portuguese territory. The two samples came from different locations, with different climates and consequently different densities. This species of wood was commonly used in Portugal. Currently, it is found in most part of the built heritage. Roofs, floors and walls components were built with the use of brave pine wood. Since the end of the 1990s, glued laminated products were produced in Portugal and with them other species were commercialised such as spruce tree. Pine became rarely used for construction.
The lumber samples are unfinished wood, as is often found in building structures. The dimensions of the samples are: 20 cm long along the fibres, 15 cm in the transverse dimension and 15 cm in thickness. These dimensions were defined to simulate a small section of a current beam and to minimise the effect of the environment on the surface of the object of study. Table 4 shows the sample condition as density and water content. Figure 6 shows the images of the two specimens.
Samples of Pinus pinaster Aiton: from Leiria (coast)—left side and from Serra da Estrela (inland mountains)—right side.
Two studies were carried out, one for each sample. In each study, two trials were performed. A thermal differential of approximately 20°C was adopted, as suggested in the FLIR ThermaCAM B20 manual [18]. The experimental work was carried out in one laboratory of the Polytechnic Institute of Guarda (IPG). The values determined for the emissivity were compared to those found in the literature.
Since it used a thermal imaging camera and software from FLIR manufacturer, the methodology suggested in the Camera manual [18] also mentioned by Spencer et al. [29] and ASTM E1933-99a (Reapproved 2010) was applied [19]. Some adaptations for the determination of the Reflected Apparent Temperature (Reflective Method) and for the determination of the emissivity were introduced.
For each of the two samples, it was observed the face parallel to the wood fibres (20 × 15 cm) with fewer irregularities, avoiding cracks and knots. The determination of the emissivity was carried out according to the methodology of the black insulated electrical tape (i.e. a material with known emissivity value). Strips of black adhesive tape (with an emissivity of 0.970) [18, 27] were placed juxtaposed in the direction perpendicular to the wood fibres so as to fill half the face of the sample, that is, 10 × 15 cm.
The samples were heated at least 20°C above the temperature of the space where the observations were made. Thus, to ensure thermal uniformity, the samples were placed in the oven at 60°C for 24 h. A type K thermocouple made it possible to verify the same temperature in the surface of the two zones, the area of the black ribbon and the area of exposed wood.
In Figure 7, we can observe how the thermograms of the wood samples were made.
Laboratory experiments (general view).
The tests were performed with low light intensity (see Table 1) to avoid reflections. It was found that for a low light intensity, the reflected temperature was near the ambient temperature. The distance between the camera and the sample was 0.5 m. A tripod was used to fix the sample so that it was observed perpendicular to the plane of the surface. The laboratory conditions relevant to the machine calibration were monitored: ambient temperature, relative humidity and light intensity, as shown in Table 1.
Place | Room temperature (°C) | Relative humidity (%) | Reflected temperature (°C) | Light intensity (Lux) |
---|---|---|---|---|
IPG | 21.0 | 45 | 21.5 | 2.85 |
Laboratory conditions.
Measures were taken at a sole point lead to unrepresentative temperature readings and should be avoided. Since wood is a very heterogeneous material, thermographic evaluations should be applied to a relatively large area of the sample.
The thermograms were analysed with the aid of ThermaCAM Reporter 7.0 software [28]. It was determined the emissivity value of the sample exposed surface. The value obtained corresponds to the emissivity of the analysed wood sample at ambient temperature. This procedure was repeated two times for each sample.
Each sample was weighed to determine the water content [Eq. (1)]. Each sample was weighed after the heating process, wet weight (WWet). The determination of the water content of the samples followed NP 614: 1973 [30]. The samples were heated at 100°C for 48 h. Successive weight measurements were performed until the weight remained constant, dry weight (WDry).
The thermogram in Figure 8 is an example of the methodology followed to determine the sample emissivity.
Example of a thermogram obtained from one of the wood samples.
Table 1 shows the environmental conditions of the laboratory while the thermograms were produced.
Tables 2 and 3 show the emissivity and the surface temperatures for each thermogram of both pine samples. The samples are from Leiria (coast) and Serra da Estrela (inland mountains).
Place | Test number | Emissivity (ε) | Sample surface temperature (°C) |
---|---|---|---|
IPG | 1 | 0.855 | 42.0 |
2 | 0.873 | 43.4 | |
Average | 0.864 | 42.7 |
Emissivity values—Leiria Pine sample.
Place | Test number | Emissivity (ε) | Sample surface temperature (°C) |
---|---|---|---|
IPG | 1 | 0.855 | 47.1 |
2 | 0.890 | 43.0 | |
Average | 0.873 | 45.3 |
Emissivity values—Serra da Estrela Pine sample.
Table 4 shows the average emissivity of both samples of wood of the species Pinus pinaster Ait.
Samples | Number of tests | Volume (cm3) | Dry weight (g) | Weight (g) | Water content (%) | Density |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Leiria pine | 2 | 4500 | 2507 | 2810 | 12.1 | 0.624 |
Serra da Estrela pine | 2 | 4500 | 1869 | 2058 | 10.1 | 0.457 |
Samples conditions and emissivity.
The emissivity of each sample results from the average of the two tests performed in each. They are 0.864 for Leiria pine and 0.873 for Serra da Estrela pine. In each case, the emissivity and temperature values were determined by the average area of one square on the software used (100 × 100 pixels). The results are valid for the environmental conditions and the sample conditions described in the previous tables.
It should be highlighted that there is no significant range difference between the two samples: 0.018 for Leiria pine and 0.035 for Serra da Estrela pine. On the other hand, the emissivity values are in accordance with the bibliography consulted, that is, the highest values are around 0.9: 0.855–0.873 for Leiria pine; 0.855–0.890 for Serra da Estrela pine. As reported by Rice [8], manufacturers of IR temperature measuring equipment often recommend values between 0.94 and 0.95 for generic wood and conditions.
The manufacturer FLIR indicates for four samples of pine in the spectral window 8–14 μm values of emissivity, namely between 0.81 and 0.89. The spectral window 2–5 μm indicates values of emissivity between 0.67 and 0.75 [18]. Holst refers 0.85 for the emissivity of wood planed in the spectral window of 8–14 μm [31]. However, it is difficult to compare because emissivity values in the literature refer to test conditions and experiments not fully described. The environmental characteristics to be described are ambient temperature and the relative humidity. The spectral observation window must be referred to. The conditions that refer to the sample itself, such as surface finishing, water content, density and the wood species itself, must also be mentioned.
The wood has values of emissivity, very dependent on the spectral window used.
When referring to emissivity of a natural material, such as wood, it is important to describe the set of factors conditioning the emissivity: the distance between the machine and the sample, observation angle, spectral window for observation, ambient temperature, and other ambient conditions such as relative humidity, light intensity, reflected temperature and sample surface temperature.
The difference between the sample surface temperature and the ambient temperature must be as constant as possible during the determination of the emissivity. According to the ASTM standard [19], the higher the difference the more rigorous will be the emissivity determination. The upper limit is the temperature value at which the physical properties of the object of study deteriorate.
The type of surface finishing, species identification (by scientific name), colour, sample water content and density should also be described. All these factors condition the emissivity measurement. On the other hand, only this way, by referring all the parameters, make it possible to obtain a comparative notion of the emissivity determined under different conditions. Therefore, more correctly will be the choice, for a real situation of surface temperature analysis with IR thermography technique. Even so, variations are expected in the resulting values because of both sets of environmental and sample parameters. In fact, when referring to sample parameters, there is a large variability among wood species, besides that, there is large variability along the tree itself from which the sample is taken (heartwood or sapwood). Even more, variation occurs depending upon the cutting technique (parallel or perpendicular direction to the fibre).
When reviewing the literature, it was not found systematised emissivity values under the same conditions, that is, for example, ambient temperature, spectral window and species under study. The literature on the subject is scarce and generally does not present all the relevant parameters to be taken into account for measurement.
In addition, it is not common the authors to describe the process applied to heat the surface of the sample although this is another factor that conditions the emissivity value [9]. It is relevant because not all types of heating are suitable for this purpose [18].
The aim of this research is to contribute to the obtainment of information relevant to the investigation of wooden building conservation. It was carried out under an experimental approach using pine wood of the Pinus pinaster species.
Emissivity values were obtained from two different samples of the same wood species. Emissivity values were obtained at an ambient temperature of 21.0°C, at a distance of 0.5 m. The sample dimensions of the observed face were 0.20 × 0.15 m to minimise errors from the surroundings. The spectral band used was the one the FLIR B20 thermographic camera provides, that is 7.5–13 μm. The samples did not have any type of finish. Lab conditions intended to reproduce the in situ conditions. The specimens studied, although of the same species, came from different climate zones and had different density values.
The emissivity values obtained are into the emissivity range suggested in the literature. However, it was not found literature that met the same conditions of observation regarding the species, ambient temperature, relative humidity and the spectral band used in this experimental work.
Experiments of this type are relevant since an incorrect emissivity measurement can lead to inaccurate results in the interpretation of the thermograms and hence to false conclusions.
The correct way to obtain temperature values at IR thermography systems is to establish the emissivity of the materials to be tested. Nevertheless, it is often not possible in the course of in situ investigations. In that case, samples of material should then be collected and tested in the laboratory, reproducing carefully the same environmental conditions as those found in situ to avoid distortions that may bias the results.
In the literature, we found few published works on emissivity values for wood materials. Thus, a listing of wood emissivity values at different ambient temperatures for buildings/timber structures is timely and relevant.
This research is framed in the project “TreeM – Advanced Monitoring & Maintenance of Trees” N. ° 023831, 02/SAICT/2016, co-financed by CENTRO 2020 and FCT, Portugal 2020 and structural funds UE-FEDER.
The authors confirm that there are no conflicts of interest.
The authors are grateful for the kindness of Professor Luis Jorge, from the Polytechnic Institute of Castelo Branco, Portugal, for supplying the Pinus pinaster sample from the coastal region of Leiria, Portugal.
In line with the Principles of Transparency and Best Practice in Scholarly Publishing, below is a more detailed description of IntechOpen's Advertising Policy.
",metaTitle:"Advertising Policy",metaDescription:"IntechOpen partners with third-party companies to serve ads and/or collect certain information when you visit our website. These companies may collect non-personally identifiable information (not including your name, address, email address or telephone number) during your visit to IntechOpen's website.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/advertising-policy",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"1. IntechOpen partners with third-party companies to serve ads and/or collect certain information when you visit our website. These companies may collect non-personally identifiable information (not including your name, address, email address or telephone number) during your visit to IntechOpen's website.
\\n\\n2. All advertisements and commercially sponsored publications are independent from editorial decisions and are linked to reader behaviour.
\\n\\n3. IntechOpen does not endorse any product or service marked as an advertisement on IntechOpen website.
\\n\\n4. IntechOpen has blocked all the inappropriate types of advertising.
\\n\\n5. IntechOpen has blocked advertisement of harmful products or services.
\\n\\n6. Advertisements and editorial content are clearly distinguishable.
\\n\\n7. Editorial decisions will not be influenced by current or potential advertisers and will not be influenced by marketing decisions.
\\n\\n8. Advertisers have no control or influence over the results of searches a user may conduct on the website by keyword or search topic.
\\n\\n9. Please send any complaints about advertising to: info@intechopen.com.
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'1. IntechOpen partners with third-party companies to serve ads and/or collect certain information when you visit our website. These companies may collect non-personally identifiable information (not including your name, address, email address or telephone number) during your visit to IntechOpen's website.
\n\n2. All advertisements and commercially sponsored publications are independent from editorial decisions and are linked to reader behaviour.
\n\n3. IntechOpen does not endorse any product or service marked as an advertisement on IntechOpen website.
\n\n4. IntechOpen has blocked all the inappropriate types of advertising.
\n\n5. IntechOpen has blocked advertisement of harmful products or services.
\n\n6. Advertisements and editorial content are clearly distinguishable.
\n\n7. Editorial decisions will not be influenced by current or potential advertisers and will not be influenced by marketing decisions.
\n\n8. Advertisers have no control or influence over the results of searches a user may conduct on the website by keyword or search topic.
\n\n9. Please send any complaints about advertising to: info@intechopen.com.
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5774},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5239},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1721},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10411},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:897},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15810}],offset:12,limit:12,total:118377},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{topicId:"14"},books:[{type:"book",id:"10666",title:"Noble Metals Recent Advanced Studies and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"7322b325b1276e2b4185a7db798d588a",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Mousumi Sen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10666.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"310218",title:"Dr.",name:"Mousumi",surname:"Sen",slug:"mousumi-sen",fullName:"Mousumi Sen"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10668",title:"Sustainable Concrete",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"55856c6a8bc3a5b21dae5a1af09a56b6",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Hosam M. Saleh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10668.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam",surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-saleh",fullName:"Hosam Saleh"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10669",title:"Corrosion",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"4a76d54f8a40fc2e7002a8d13fd617c1",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Fahmina Zafar, Dr. Anujit Ghosal and Dr. Eram Sharmin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10669.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"89672",title:"Dr.",name:"Fahmina",surname:"Zafar",slug:"fahmina-zafar",fullName:"Fahmina Zafar"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10670",title:"Properties and Applications of Alginates",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"062083e53cc5c808af597de6426cea06",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Irem Deniz, Dr. Esra Imamoglu and Dr. Tugba Keskin Gundogdu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10670.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"204855",title:"Dr.",name:"Irem",surname:"Deniz",slug:"irem-deniz",fullName:"Irem Deniz"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10941",title:"Ferrite",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f6a323bfa4565d7c676bc3733b4983b0",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Maaz Khan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10941.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"107765",title:"Dr.",name:"Maaz",surname:"Khan",slug:"maaz-khan",fullName:"Maaz Khan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:18},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:20},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:25},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:1}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30949e78832e1afba5606634b52056ab",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",biography:"Dr. Erin Lim is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and is affiliated as an Associate Professor to Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Selangor, Malaysia. She obtained her Ph.D. from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2010 with a National Science Fellowship awarded from the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia and has been actively involved in research ever since. Her main research interests include analysis of carriage and transmission of multidrug resistant bacteria in non-conventional settings, besides an interest in natural products for antimicrobial testing. She is heavily involved in the elucidation of mechanisms of reversal of resistance in bacteria in addition to investigating the immunological analyses of diseases, development of vaccination and treatment models in animals. She hopes her work will support the discovery of therapeutics in the clinical setting and assist in the combat against the burden of antibiotic resistance.",institutionString:"Abu Dhabi Women’s College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Lai Kok Song is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan in 2012. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Lai worked as a Senior Scientist at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia. His current research areas include antimicrobial resistance and plant-pathogen interaction. His particular interest lies in the study of the antimicrobial mechanism via membrane disruption of essential oils against multi-drug resistance bacteria through various biochemical, molecular and proteomic approaches. Ultimately, he hopes to uncover and determine novel biomarkers related to antibiotic resistance that can be developed into new therapeutic strategies.",institutionString:"Higher Colleges of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10020",title:"Operations Management",subtitle:"Emerging Trend in the Digital Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"526f0dbdc7e4d85b82ce8383ab894b4c",slug:"operations-management-emerging-trend-in-the-digital-era",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Germano Lambert-Torres and Erik Bonaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10020.jpg",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58f740bc17807d5d88d647c525857b11",slug:"creativity-a-force-to-innovation",bookSignature:"Pooja Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9560.jpg",editors:[{id:"316765",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"pooja-jain",fullName:"Pooja Jain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9243",title:"Coastal Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e05e5f631e935eef366980f2e28295d",slug:"coastal-environments",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang and X. San Liang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9243.jpg",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8558",title:"Aerodynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db7263fc198dfb539073ba0260a7f1aa",slug:"aerodynamics",bookSignature:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy and Aly-Mousaad Aly",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8558.jpg",editors:[{id:"35542",title:"Prof.",name:"Mofid",middleName:null,surname:"Gorji-Bandpy",slug:"mofid-gorji-bandpy",fullName:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5249},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30949e78832e1afba5606634b52056ab",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",biography:"Dr. Erin Lim is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and is affiliated as an Associate Professor to Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Selangor, Malaysia. She obtained her Ph.D. from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2010 with a National Science Fellowship awarded from the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia and has been actively involved in research ever since. Her main research interests include analysis of carriage and transmission of multidrug resistant bacteria in non-conventional settings, besides an interest in natural products for antimicrobial testing. She is heavily involved in the elucidation of mechanisms of reversal of resistance in bacteria in addition to investigating the immunological analyses of diseases, development of vaccination and treatment models in animals. She hopes her work will support the discovery of therapeutics in the clinical setting and assist in the combat against the burden of antibiotic resistance.",institutionString:"Abu Dhabi Women’s College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Lai Kok Song is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan in 2012. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Lai worked as a Senior Scientist at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia. His current research areas include antimicrobial resistance and plant-pathogen interaction. His particular interest lies in the study of the antimicrobial mechanism via membrane disruption of essential oils against multi-drug resistance bacteria through various biochemical, molecular and proteomic approaches. Ultimately, he hopes to uncover and determine novel biomarkers related to antibiotic resistance that can be developed into new therapeutic strategies.",institutionString:"Higher Colleges of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10020",title:"Operations Management",subtitle:"Emerging Trend in the Digital Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"526f0dbdc7e4d85b82ce8383ab894b4c",slug:"operations-management-emerging-trend-in-the-digital-era",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Germano Lambert-Torres and Erik Bonaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10020.jpg",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58f740bc17807d5d88d647c525857b11",slug:"creativity-a-force-to-innovation",bookSignature:"Pooja Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9560.jpg",editors:[{id:"316765",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"pooja-jain",fullName:"Pooja Jain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9243",title:"Coastal Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e05e5f631e935eef366980f2e28295d",slug:"coastal-environments",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang and X. San Liang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9243.jpg",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9243",title:"Coastal Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e05e5f631e935eef366980f2e28295d",slug:"coastal-environments",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang and X. San Liang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9243.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10020",title:"Operations Management",subtitle:"Emerging Trend in the Digital Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"526f0dbdc7e4d85b82ce8383ab894b4c",slug:"operations-management-emerging-trend-in-the-digital-era",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Germano Lambert-Torres and Erik Bonaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10020.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30949e78832e1afba5606634b52056ab",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",biography:"Dr. Erin Lim is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and is affiliated as an Associate Professor to Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Selangor, Malaysia. She obtained her Ph.D. from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2010 with a National Science Fellowship awarded from the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia and has been actively involved in research ever since. Her main research interests include analysis of carriage and transmission of multidrug resistant bacteria in non-conventional settings, besides an interest in natural products for antimicrobial testing. She is heavily involved in the elucidation of mechanisms of reversal of resistance in bacteria in addition to investigating the immunological analyses of diseases, development of vaccination and treatment models in animals. She hopes her work will support the discovery of therapeutics in the clinical setting and assist in the combat against the burden of antibiotic resistance.",institutionString:"Abu Dhabi Women’s College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Lai Kok Song is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan in 2012. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Lai worked as a Senior Scientist at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia. His current research areas include antimicrobial resistance and plant-pathogen interaction. His particular interest lies in the study of the antimicrobial mechanism via membrane disruption of essential oils against multi-drug resistance bacteria through various biochemical, molecular and proteomic approaches. Ultimately, he hopes to uncover and determine novel biomarkers related to antibiotic resistance that can be developed into new therapeutic strategies.",institutionString:"Higher Colleges of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58f740bc17807d5d88d647c525857b11",slug:"creativity-a-force-to-innovation",bookSignature:"Pooja Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9560.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"316765",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"pooja-jain",fullName:"Pooja Jain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9669",title:"Recent Advances in Rice Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"12b06cc73e89af1e104399321cc16a75",slug:"recent-advances-in-rice-research",bookSignature:"Mahmood-ur- Rahman Ansari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9669.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"185476",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmood-Ur-",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman Ansari",slug:"mahmood-ur-rahman-ansari",fullName:"Mahmood-Ur- Rahman Ansari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"51",title:"Evolutionary Genetics",slug:"evolutionary-genetics",parent:{title:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",slug:"biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology"},numberOfBooks:3,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:76,numberOfWosCitations:35,numberOfCrossrefCitations:12,numberOfDimensionsCitations:48,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"evolutionary-genetics",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"6880",title:"Recent Advances in Phylogenetics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"02cdc1598f4d44c0e449806b889a639b",slug:"recent-advances-in-phylogenetics",bookSignature:"Zubaida Yousaf",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6880.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"196003",title:"Dr.",name:"Zubaida",middleName:null,surname:"Yousaf",slug:"zubaida-yousaf",fullName:"Zubaida Yousaf"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2535",title:"Mutations in Human Genetic Disease",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5938d5d5d7d7f887753f553b9f4cf1a6",slug:"mutations-in-human-genetic-disease",bookSignature:"David N. Cooper and Jian-Min Chen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2535.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"105889",title:"Prof.",name:"David",middleName:"N.",surname:"Cooper",slug:"david-cooper",fullName:"David Cooper"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1710",title:"Point Mutation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"df76a719f23501956c926d1ed956cd66",slug:"point-mutation",bookSignature:"Colin Logie",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1710.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"212809",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Colin",middleName:null,surname:"Logie",slug:"colin-logie",fullName:"Colin Logie"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:3,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"39803",doi:"10.5772/36432",title:"Missense Mutation in the LDLR Gene: A Wide Spectrum in the Severity of Familial Hypercholesterolemia",slug:"missense-mutation-in-the-ldlr-gene-a-wide-spectrum-in-the-severity-of-familial-hypercholesterolemia",totalDownloads:3956,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:10,book:{slug:"mutations-in-human-genetic-disease",title:"Mutations in Human Genetic Disease",fullTitle:"Mutations in Human Genetic Disease"},signatures:"Mathilde Varret and Jean-Pierre Rabès",authors:[{id:"108320",title:"Dr.",name:"Mathilde",middleName:null,surname:"Varret",slug:"mathilde-varret",fullName:"Mathilde Varret"},{id:"109379",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean-Pierre",middleName:null,surname:"Rabès",slug:"jean-pierre-rabes",fullName:"Jean-Pierre Rabès"}]},{id:"39738",doi:"10.5772/48477",title:"Genetic Causes of Syndromic and Non-Syndromic Congenital Heart Disease",slug:"genetic-causes-of-syndromic-and-non-syndromic-congenital-heart-disease",totalDownloads:3369,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,book:{slug:"mutations-in-human-genetic-disease",title:"Mutations in Human Genetic Disease",fullTitle:"Mutations in Human Genetic Disease"},signatures:"Akl C. Fahed and Georges M. Nemer",authors:[{id:"144668",title:"Dr.",name:"Georges",middleName:null,surname:"Nemer",slug:"georges-nemer",fullName:"Georges Nemer"},{id:"149302",title:"Dr.",name:"Akl",middleName:null,surname:"Fahed",slug:"akl-fahed",fullName:"Akl Fahed"}]},{id:"39735",doi:"10.5772/48701",title:"Activating Mutations and Targeted Therapy in Cancer",slug:"activating-mutations-and-targeted-therapy-in-cancer",totalDownloads:2668,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:6,book:{slug:"mutations-in-human-genetic-disease",title:"Mutations in Human Genetic Disease",fullTitle:"Mutations in Human Genetic Disease"},signatures:"Musaffe Tuna and Christopher I. Amos",authors:[{id:"87964",title:"Prof.",name:"Christopher",middleName:null,surname:"Amos",slug:"christopher-amos",fullName:"Christopher Amos"},{id:"148069",title:"Dr.",name:"Musaffe",middleName:null,surname:"Tuna",slug:"musaffe-tuna",fullName:"Musaffe Tuna"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"39803",title:"Missense Mutation in the LDLR Gene: A Wide Spectrum in the Severity of Familial Hypercholesterolemia",slug:"missense-mutation-in-the-ldlr-gene-a-wide-spectrum-in-the-severity-of-familial-hypercholesterolemia",totalDownloads:3961,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:10,book:{slug:"mutations-in-human-genetic-disease",title:"Mutations in Human Genetic Disease",fullTitle:"Mutations in Human Genetic Disease"},signatures:"Mathilde Varret and Jean-Pierre Rabès",authors:[{id:"108320",title:"Dr.",name:"Mathilde",middleName:null,surname:"Varret",slug:"mathilde-varret",fullName:"Mathilde Varret"},{id:"109379",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean-Pierre",middleName:null,surname:"Rabès",slug:"jean-pierre-rabes",fullName:"Jean-Pierre Rabès"}]},{id:"63795",title:"Phylogenetics",slug:"phylogenetics",totalDownloads:1611,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"recent-advances-in-phylogenetics",title:"Recent Advances in Phylogenetics",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Phylogenetics"},signatures:"Eliane Barbosa Evanovich dos Santos",authors:[{id:"250217",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Eliane",middleName:null,surname:"Evanovich",slug:"eliane-evanovich",fullName:"Eliane Evanovich"}]},{id:"39738",title:"Genetic Causes of Syndromic and Non-Syndromic Congenital Heart Disease",slug:"genetic-causes-of-syndromic-and-non-syndromic-congenital-heart-disease",totalDownloads:3373,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,book:{slug:"mutations-in-human-genetic-disease",title:"Mutations in Human Genetic Disease",fullTitle:"Mutations in Human Genetic Disease"},signatures:"Akl C. Fahed and Georges M. Nemer",authors:[{id:"144668",title:"Dr.",name:"Georges",middleName:null,surname:"Nemer",slug:"georges-nemer",fullName:"Georges Nemer"},{id:"149302",title:"Dr.",name:"Akl",middleName:null,surname:"Fahed",slug:"akl-fahed",fullName:"Akl Fahed"}]},{id:"39742",title:"Genotype-Phenotype Disturbances of Some Biomarkers in Colorectal Cancer",slug:"genotype-phenotype-disturbances-of-some-biomarkers-in-colorectal-cancer",totalDownloads:1840,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"mutations-in-human-genetic-disease",title:"Mutations in Human Genetic Disease",fullTitle:"Mutations in Human Genetic Disease"},signatures:"Mihaela Tica, Valeria Tica, Alexandru Naumescu, Mihaela Uta, Ovidiu Vlaicu and Elena Ionica",authors:[{id:"142954",title:"Dr.",name:"Mihaela",middleName:"Rodica",surname:"Tica",slug:"mihaela-tica",fullName:"Mihaela Tica"},{id:"149536",title:"Dr.",name:"Valeria",middleName:null,surname:"Tica",slug:"valeria-tica",fullName:"Valeria Tica"},{id:"149537",title:"Prof.",name:"Elena",middleName:null,surname:"Ionica",slug:"elena-ionica",fullName:"Elena Ionica"},{id:"154418",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandru",middleName:null,surname:"Naumescu",slug:"alexandru-naumescu",fullName:"Alexandru Naumescu"},{id:"154676",title:"BSc.",name:"Mihaela",middleName:null,surname:"Uta",slug:"mihaela-uta",fullName:"Mihaela Uta"},{id:"154677",title:"BSc.",name:"Ovidiu",middleName:null,surname:"Vlaicu",slug:"ovidiu-vlaicu",fullName:"Ovidiu Vlaicu"}]},{id:"39801",title:"Missense Mutation in AR-CGD",slug:"missense-mutation-in-ar-cgd",totalDownloads:2184,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"mutations-in-human-genetic-disease",title:"Mutations in Human Genetic Disease",fullTitle:"Mutations in Human Genetic Disease"},signatures:"M. Yavuz Köker and Hüseyin Avcilar",authors:[{id:"105763",title:"Prof.",name:"Mustafa",middleName:"Yavuz",surname:"Köker",slug:"mustafa-koker",fullName:"Mustafa Köker"}]},{id:"39736",title:"Clinical and Genetic Heterogeneity of Autism",slug:"clinical-and-genetic-heterogeneity-of-autism",totalDownloads:2342,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"mutations-in-human-genetic-disease",title:"Mutations in Human Genetic Disease",fullTitle:"Mutations in Human Genetic Disease"},signatures:"Yu Wang and Nanbert Zhong",authors:[{id:"148051",title:"Prof.",name:"Nanbert",middleName:null,surname:"Zhong",slug:"nanbert-zhong",fullName:"Nanbert Zhong"}]},{id:"63173",title:"Phylogeny of Three Palmwine Yeasts Genera",slug:"phylogeny-of-three-palmwine-yeasts-genera",totalDownloads:518,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"recent-advances-in-phylogenetics",title:"Recent Advances in Phylogenetics",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Phylogenetics"},signatures:"Ogueri Nwaiwu",authors:[{id:"248550",title:"Dr.",name:"Ogueri",middleName:null,surname:"Nwaiwu",slug:"ogueri-nwaiwu",fullName:"Ogueri Nwaiwu"}]},{id:"40048",title:"Bioinformatics Approaches to the Functional Profiling of Genetic Variants",slug:"bioinformatics-approaches-to-the-functional-pro-ling-of-genetic-variants",totalDownloads:1219,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"mutations-in-human-genetic-disease",title:"Mutations in Human Genetic Disease",fullTitle:"Mutations in Human Genetic Disease"},signatures:"Biao Li, Predrag Radivojac and Sean Mooney",authors:[{id:"149088",title:"PhD.",name:"Biao",middleName:null,surname:"Li",slug:"biao-li",fullName:"Biao Li"},{id:"149089",title:"Dr.",name:"Sean",middleName:null,surname:"Mooney",slug:"sean-mooney",fullName:"Sean Mooney"}]},{id:"39794",title:"Missense Mutations in GDF-5 Signaling: Molecular Mechanisms Behind Skeletal Malformation",slug:"missense-mutations-in-gdf-5-signaling-molecular-mechanisms-behind-skeletal-malformation",totalDownloads:2007,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:6,book:{slug:"mutations-in-human-genetic-disease",title:"Mutations in Human Genetic Disease",fullTitle:"Mutations in Human Genetic Disease"},signatures:"Tina V. Hellmann, Joachim Nickel and Thomas D. Mueller",authors:[{id:"103395",title:"Prof.",name:"Thomas",middleName:null,surname:"Mueller",slug:"thomas-mueller",fullName:"Thomas Mueller"},{id:"109544",title:"MSc.",name:"Tina",middleName:null,surname:"Hellmann",slug:"tina-hellmann",fullName:"Tina Hellmann"},{id:"109545",title:"Dr.",name:"Joachim",middleName:null,surname:"Nickel",slug:"joachim-nickel",fullName:"Joachim Nickel"}]},{id:"39804",title:"Pathophysiological Roles of Mutations in the Electrogenic Na+-HCO - Cotransporter NBCe1",slug:"pathophysiological-roles-of-mutations-in-the-electrogenic-na-hco-cotransporter-nbce1",totalDownloads:1796,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"mutations-in-human-genetic-disease",title:"Mutations in Human Genetic Disease",fullTitle:"Mutations in Human Genetic Disease"},signatures:"George Seki, Shoko Horita, Masashi Suzuki, Osamu Yamazaki and Hideomi Yamada",authors:[{id:"145301",title:"Dr.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Seki",slug:"george-seki",fullName:"George Seki"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"evolutionary-genetics",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/232330/eltayeb-mohamedelhassan",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"232330",slug:"eltayeb-mohamedelhassan"},fullPath:"/profiles/232330/eltayeb-mohamedelhassan",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()