\r\n\tIn this book, the authors will present the highlights of basic research of biomechanical and biochemical pathways of bone homeostasis and the developing clinical methods for treatment of bone loss, either following trauma or systemic disease.
",isbn:"978-1-83880-330-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-329-2",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a67783226e0c4e1343d82c3a811ba1b3",bookSignature:"Dr. Nahum Rosenberg",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8442.jpg",keywords:"Bone Homeostasis, Osteoblast, Bone Matrix, Inorganic Component, Organic Componet, Bone Resorption, Cellular Mechanotransduction, Hormonal Regulation, Autografts, Allografts, Distraction Osteogenesis",numberOfDownloads:269,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"August 30th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 20th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 19th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 7th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 7th 2020",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"68911",title:"Dr.",name:"Nahum",middleName:null,surname:"Rosenberg",slug:"nahum-rosenberg",fullName:"Nahum Rosenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/68911/images/system/68911.png",biography:"Rosenberg Nahum MD, MOrth (Hons.), FRCS (England) is an orthopedic surgeon holding MD degree from Technion – ITT in 1990. \r\nHe did a residency in Orthopedic Surgery in Rambam Medical Center, Haifa between 1990-97. MOrth, Nuffield Fellow (Orthopedic Surgery) in Oxford University in 1998-9, fellowship in Orthopedic Surgery in University of Nottingham – 2002. \r\nHe is a senior orthopedic surgeon in Rambam Health Care Campus since 2003 and an Assistant Clinical Professor in the Faculty of Medicine, Technion -ITT, Haifa since 2007. \r\nHe is a member of editorial boards in 8 scientific journals. His research interests include the outcome of orthopedic procedures and bone biology.",institutionString:"I.M. 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Chan and Manoj Kumar Tiwari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3794.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"252210",title:"Dr.",name:"Felix",surname:"Chan",slug:"felix-chan",fullName:"Felix Chan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"61368",title:"Difficult Neck in Endovascular Aneurysm Repair (EVAR)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76645",slug:"difficult-neck-in-endovascular-aneurysm-repair-evar-",body:'\n
\n
1. Introduction
\n
The term “aneurysm neck” is used to describe an aortic fragment between the lowest renal artery and the beginning of the aortic sack (Figure 1). That part of the aorta is used as a landing zone for the main bodies of most commercially used stent graft systems. The neck length and diameter as well as its shape are crucial factors leading to successful endograft implantation.
\n
Figure 1.
A definition of aneurysm neck: (a) neck length and (b) neck diameter.
\n
However, during the procedure planning in patients with difficult anatomy, a broader look into the patient’s general condition, the way of accessing the vascular system and potential benefits and risks as a result of endovascular approach, should be taken into consideration.
\n
During qualification process, a careful look into the preoperative CT scans should be done to avoid procedural failures, such as endoleaks, graft migration, or occlusion of the renal and visceral arteries.
\n
From the opposite point of view, a difficult anatomical condition in the aortic neck or no neck at all (when renal arteries originate directly from the aneurysm sac) is one of the main reasons excluding the patient from minimally invasive option.
\n
\n
\n
2. Hostile neck
\n
\n
2.1. Hostile neck definition
\n
The hostile neck definition was first used by Dillavou [6] in 2003 in order to describe a set of anatomical criteria of the proximal landing zone in patients in which an EVAR procedure was considered.
\n
Stather et al. used classification criteria, defining hostile neck anatomy as any of the following: neck length <15 mm, neck diameter >28 mm, and angulation >60 [22]. Jordan et al. in the article in 2015 noted that difficult anatomic criteria in the aortic neck significantly influence adverse event rate [15]. The authors concluded that there is no uniform set of anatomical factors describing the term of difficult neck. Nevertheless, after the data analysis from ANCHOR study, there are two independent risk factors leading to elevated risk of the type Ia endoleak. These factors are neck length and diameter [10]. Other features such as neck angulation (suprarenal and infrarenal), the presence of calcification, or thrombus in the neck lumen resulted in higher rates of complications but without statistical significance [14].
\n
Hostile neck definition however may vary, according to different stent graft models. Neck maximum diameters and minimum lengths as well as possible suprarenal and infrarenal angulations are different in manufacturers’ instructions for use (IFU) for particular stent graft models. For example, a 13-mm-long neck is outside IFU of AFX and Zenith graft but may be resolved on label with Endurant or Ovation model. Table 1 shows the most important IFU parameters of popular stent graft models available on the market.
\n
Table 1.
Aneurysm neck features in the instruction for the use of different stent graft models available on the market: *neck length < 10 mm with angulation < 45°; **neck length > 15 mm with angulation < 75°.
\n
On the base of ENGAGE multicenter registry data [2, 23], in which a big cohort of patients after Endurant implantation was observed, Goncalves et al. tested a set of different factors which could lead to unfavorable procedural outcomes such as type Ia endoleak. Authors identified independent risk factors significantly increasing a rate of major procedural complications. These factors were neck length, female gender, AAA diameter higher than 65 mm, calcifications, and thrombus in the neck lumen. The neck length was identified as a major risk factor, increasing the complication rate ninefold.
\n
In parallel to diameter and neck length, there is also a neck shape as a very important feature which can influence on the procedure outcome.
\n
\n
\n
2.2. Hostile neck types
\n
The ideal “friendly” neck is a regular, smooth cylinder with the proper length and diameter. In real life, about 20–25% of cases do not fulfill these criteria. Besides of variable diameter and length and eventual presence of calcifications or thrombus mentioned before, there are also irregularities in shape. If there is no cylindrical shape in the landing zone, the graft fabric may not adhere enough to the aortic wall effecting in improper sealing and an endoleak occurrence. The most frequent “unfriendly” shape is the conical neck. Conical neck was described as a strongest risk factor of type Ia endoleak by Pitoulias et al. [19] (Figure 2).
\n
Figure 2.
Different shapes of the difficult necks: (a) short, (b) conical, (c) angulated, (d) reverse conical, (e) barrel, and (f) dumbbell or double barrel.
\n
At present, as a quick reminder of the difficult neck features, an acronym SWAC is used. The letters of an acronym are the words describing most popular types of the difficult neck:
S—short
W—wide
A—angulated
C—conical
\n
Of course, SWAC acronym does not cover all features of the difficult neck definition; however, it is very useful to remind a basic identifier of the hostile neck during a procedure planning.
\n
\n
\n
\n
3. Type Ia endoleak as a complication of hostile neck anatomy
\n
One of the most common proximal failure representation in hostile neck cases is an occurrence of type Ia endoleak [3]. The leak channel is formed between a graft fabric and aortic wall at the proximal part of the endoprosthesis (Figures 3 and 4). Type Ia endoleak inevitably causes aneurysm sac growth and finally may be a reason of a rupture. The overall rate of type Ia endoleaks varies between 3.6 and 5.4% [9, 20]; however, some researchers reported up to 12% incidence of proximal endoleaks in groups of patients with difficult anatomy and big aneurysm sac diameter [10]. The data analysis from ANCHOR study revealed 9.2% endoleak incidence in patients with hostile neck [14, 17].
\n
Figure 3.
A schematic view of a type 1a endoleak.
\n
Figure 4.
CT angiography with large type Ia endoleak.
\n
The fenestrated graft implantation (FEVAR) has been considered as a gold standard method in endoleak prevention and treatment in patients presenting short necked (4–10 mm) or juxtarenal aneurysms (<4 mm) for a very long time [25]. A fenestrated stent graft body tailored to individual anatomy of a specific patient makes possible to effectively seal the aneurysm sac after positioning covered stent extensions in the lumen of the renal and visceral branches. However, FEVAR procedure has also its limitations like technical complexity, graft availability, and cost. As technically challenging, FEVAR is available only in high-volume centers, and usually a potential candidate has to wait few weeks for endoprosthesis to be manufactured. A substantial group of patients is excluded from that treatment option due to comorbidities, the FEVAR average time, as well radiation dose, and contrast media volumes are higher than during the complex EVAR procedures described below.
\n
During the development of EVAR procedure, a wide range of techniques have been designed either to prevent the procedure failure or to seal the endoleak which occurs during the follow-up period. The most popular methods of sealing the acute or chronic endoleaks are to add additional aortic segments and reshape the landing zone area by the balloon inflation, thus remodeling the landing zone (Figure 5).
\n
Figure 5.
Low-pressure balloon remodeling of the neck with an endoleak.
\n
In a substantial number of cases that simple solution is effective, the neck is reshaped and effective seal is achieved. If that technique is not sufficient, other sealing methods can be used, such as endostapling, chimney technique, or transcatheter embolization.
\n
\n
3.1. Endostapling
\n
In 2001 the first stapling system was described by Trout and Tanner [4]. A laser beam was used to form a hole in the endograft fabric, in which an endostaple was inserted. Unfortunately, there is no report about in vivo use in humans or animal models.
\n
Currently, used helical EndoAnchor device was developed by Aptus Endosystems in 2002 and first used in human in 2005. Currently, these devices are available on the market as Heli-FX made by Medtronic (Santa Rosa, USA). The helical endostaples are delivered through a shapeable 16 F sheath and electrically powered screwing system which allows to input the EndoAnchors through the graft fabric on the right angle. Each EndoAnchor is 4 mm long, and the system is designed do “pin” the graft fabric to the aortic wall [4, 26].
\n
In 2012 an ANCHOR registry was established to collect the data of the long-term efficacy and outcome in patients requiring a Heli-FX use. The results are promising so far, especially in cases of acute and late endoleak sealing. The device is also useful in prophylactic use in difficult anatomy, when a type Ia endoleak occurrence probability is high.
\n
In 2017 a CE mark was granted for Endurant II graft model to be used together with Heli-FX in short aortic necks (4–10 mm).
\n
\n
\n
3.2. Transcatheter embolization of type 1 endoleaks
\n
A different approach in endoleak sealing is transcatheter embolization by the use of coils or liquid medium such as glue. During the procedure one can successfully combine both of these methods which are highly effective in sealing. The limitations are however the size of the endoleak channel and a fact that method cannot be used as a prevention of the endoleak occurrence. The method is efficient in small and medium volume flow endoleaks. In case of high-volume lesion, even the big amounts of the glue and coils do not stop the leakage, but there is a possibility to merge embolization procedure with endostapling with a good effect (Figure 6).
\n
Figure 6.
Sealed type Ia endoleak after additional aortic cuff implantation followed by endostapling (Heli-FX EndoAnchor).
\n
Currently, there are two commercially available glue brands on the market: Onyx and Squid. Both Squid and Onyx are based on ethylene vinyl alcohol (EVOH) copolymer dissolved in dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), with the additive of micronized tantalum for radiopacity. There are differences of tantalum amount between both compounds that affects viscosity and density of the medium. Onyx is delivered in two viscosity types (Onyx 18 and Onyx 34), while Squid comes in two different viscosity types (Squid 18 and Squid 12) mixed with two opacity possibilities (normal and low density with 30% reduced Ta) that finally gives four different drug types.
\n
Both agents were initially developed for the treatment of saccular aneurysms that are not surgically removable, especially in the cerebral circulation and to embolic therapy of arteriovenous fistulas and malformations (Figure 7).
\n
Figure 7.
Endoleak embolization by squid delivered directly to the leak site: (a) preoperative CT angiography, (b) final angiography directly after procedure, and (c) control CT angiography. (Courtesy of B. Żabicki, MD, PhD).
\n
\n
\n
3.3. Chimney technique
\n
Another widely used option in type I endoleak prevention and treatment is a chimney technique by the use of standard endograft which extends over the renal or visceral arteries which are previously secured by the insertion of covered or uncovered stents forming the conduits providing the blood supply for abdominal organs. The first application of renal artery stenting in order to restore the flow after its unintended covering by the graft fabric was reported in 1999 and as elective use in 2001 [1]. The first use as a method in landing zone extension was made by Greenberg in 2003 [12]. Since then, the chimney technique has become a well-established option, which allows physicians to treat AAA with challenging neck anatomy using endografts and off-the-shelf stents [5]. It allows to extend a sealing zone to the desired length, and its simplicity in comparison with FEVAR makes it a favored technique in the case of urgent procedures when time is limited and complex FEVAR systems are not readily available.
\n
Currently, in most cases, covered balloon-expandable stents (BES) are in use during the chimney formation. However, bare metallic devices are still in use in some centers, and some reports showed their non-inferiority during the follow-up especially when EVAS is applied and the endobag fabric covers the bare metallic stents and prevents a gutter formation. Ducasse et al. presented a series of 22 patients treated with Nellix graft with an open chimney technique, with promising results after 18 months of follow-up with one endoleak which was resolved spontaneously [8]. Another report of Garriboli and Jannello described two cases of open chimney grafting with a good result after 18 months of follow-up showing no endoleaks [11].
\n
As of the writing of this paper, the chimney technique has CE mark approval in one covered device (Medtronic Endurant II) with the use of the covered stents limited with no more two chimneys in renal arteries. Other manufacturers do not recommend the chimney technique inside the limits of instruction for use (Figure 8).
\n
Figure 8.
Chimney technique in EVAS procedure: (a) single chimney and (b) double chimney.
\n
\n
\n
3.4. Other methods of a type Ia endoleak prevention
\n
\n
3.4.1. Kilt technique
\n
In 2009 Minion et al. [16] proposed a predeployment of a covered cuff into a challenging neck using the Gore Excluder AAA Endoprosthesis which was described as a kilt technique. In 2011 Jimenez and Quinones-Baldrich [13] reported a successful kilt implantation in four hostile neck patients with good long-term results in three of them and one reintervention with Palmaz stent implantation in order to seal type I endoleak.
\n
The method was called a kilt technique according to its similarity to the traditional Scottish male dress (kilt). In a case report, Park and Kim [18] described a successful predeployed thoracic stent graft as a kilt prior to bifurcated graft implantation.
\n
The author’s experience with the kilt technique was described in the report in 2016 on a series of 11 patients with difficult neck anatomy not suitable for standard EVAR approach. An aortic extension cuff was predeployed below the renal arteries. The element was initially oversized in order to straighten the neck in case of angulation higher than 60° and to secure smooth landing zone in case of other irregularities like conical or barrel-shaped neck [24].
\n
By using two oversized elements one in another, we also achieve higher radial force, being a derivative of radial forces of the cuff and main body. Higher radial force and better adherence of the kilt fabric to the aortic wall and the main body fabric to the inner surface of the cuff are probably responsible for good sealing and fixation. The preliminary results showed the efficacy of the method in cases of difficult anatomy. Kilt implantation is also a readily available procedure that can be completed using off-the-shelf endovascular equipment without additional procedures such as visceral catheterization or stenting (Figure 9).
\n
Figure 9.
A concept of the kilt technique.
\n
\n
\n
3.4.2. Funnel technique
\n
In report published by Valdivia [21], a very interesting concept of “intentionally migrated endograft body” followed by endostapled cuff was presented with a good effect. The authors intentionally positioned the main endograft body lower than expected in IFU and then, after fixing it by Heli-FX system, implanted the second cuff also endostapled with Heli-FX that effected in smooth landing zone in difficult anatomical conditions.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
4. APPROACH concept as a possible future strategy in procedure planning in case of hostile neck anatomy
\n
As mentioned previously in introduction, difficult anatomy of the aortic neck is only a part of a wider range of the topic which is a successful treatment of a patient with complex pararenal aneurysm. In order to achieve treatment success after EVAR in such patients, during the procedure planning, a physician should not only focus on possible technical pitfalls in the landing zone area but also take an overall look at the patient as well as technical solutions available in particular center and finally the financial aspects.
\n
For this purpose, an APPROACH concept was proposed by Donas and Torsello [7] which is an acronym of the first letters of the following:
A—Aortic pathology
P—Patient profile
P—Proven literature evidence
R—Renovisceral anatomy
O—Operator preference/skills
A—Access
C—Costs
H—Hostile neck (discussed above)
\n
\n
4.1. Aortic pathology
\n
Depending on the aortic pathology we consider to treat by the use of endograft, the approach to it may vary. For example, in a case of 55 mm juxtarenal aneurysm embracing an SMA, the procedure planning will be completely different than in a case of the same size PAU located just below the left renal artery orifice. In case of PAU, the risk of rupture is much higher, and the equipment used to the procedure will be quite different. That is why a careful study of the aortic anatomy is important during the qualification process.
\n
\n
\n
4.2. Patient profile
\n
Overall patient condition and as age or life expectancy strongly influence a decision-making process during preoperative arrangements.
\n
\n
4.2.1. Cardiac status
\n
Poor cardiac status usually makes an open surgery impossible and significantly elevates a perioperative risk of FEVAR. In most of these patients, the EVAR approach, very often with additions as chimneys, EndoAnchors, or kilts, is the only treatment option in contrast to conservative therapy. Of course, careful cardiac status checkup is needed prior to the final decision, however, in comparison with open repair or FEVAR that is a least invasive option from the cardiac point of view.
\n
\n
\n
4.2.2. Renal function
\n
A substantial number of patients with juxtarenal aortic pathology suffer from chronic renal failure as well. Therefore, a risk of contrast-induced renal failure increases significantly if renal function parameters are disturbed. During endograft implantation with additional endovascular procedures (chimneys, endostapling, etc.) or during the fenestrated endograft implantation, the volume of contrast media is usually higher than during the standard EVAR, and renal function plays an important role in future outcome and therapeutic success.
\n
The use of carbon dioxide as a contrast medium is possible only to the level of diaphragm and not available in every center due to technical reasons.
\n
\n
\n
4.2.3. Life expectancy
\n
This is an important factor during the patient stratification to the different types of treatment. If we consider a long-term therapeutic effect in case of short-neck aneurysm in 65-year-old male without cardiac comorbidities, then open repair would be a first choice. On the other hand, the same morphology of aneurysmatic aorta in 93-year-old woman with positive history of myocardial infarction and EF 25% would result in endovascular solution as a first choice.
\n
\n
\n
\n
4.3. Proven literature evidence
\n
In spite of a limited number of evidence-based reports concerning the sufficient groups of patients with complex pararenal aneurysms, a lot of case reports in which surgeons describe different ways of solving the complicated neck problem, usually pushing the envelope far beyond the IFU limits. Unfortunately, a small series of patients and different endograft systems used make a statistical analysis difficult or impossible.
\n
However, ANCHOR and ENGAGE [14, 17, 23] studies described before provided a reliable information about durability and efficacy of the two main methods used in approaching difficult neck. These studies are still limited by the use of single-manufacturer endograft model.
\n
One method successfully proven to be effective in the case of chEVAR may not work with chEVAS, and the successful use of endostaples with polyester endograft may not be effective in PTFE models and impossible in EVAS.
\n
As the APPROACH concept, the authors noted that there is a need for well-designed national or international registries where the APPROACH parameters, including local resources, infrastructure logistics, costs, availability of devices, and surgical expertise, would be considered [7].
\n
\n
\n
4.4. Renovisceral anatomy
\n
The distance between aortic sac and the lowest renal artery is not only a parameter one has to consider in planning advanced procedures in hostile neck aneurysm. The distances between all visceral arteries and their layout on the aortic perimeter play an important role as well. In chimney graft implantation, usually that is a crucial factor necessary to implant a proper number of stents in order to achieve an effective sealing zone. In case where renal arteries and SMA originate at one level, usually three stents instead of two are needed. That fact can make the procedure more complicated and prolonged.
\n
In case of aortic angulation at this level, the situation can be complicated by the technical issues such as extremely difficult access to the target vessel in which the chimney stent is targeted.
\n
Other difficulties may arise from vessel diameters either natural or resulting from arteriosclerotic lesions in the lumen of renal or visceral arteries which also can make chimney implantation hard and laborious.
\n
One has to remember also about the presence of additional renal arteries and carefully consider our options to avoid type II endoleak or renal ischemia. We have to decide if eq. embolization prior to endografting is necessary and doing it if there are collaterals feeding that part of the renal tissue able to maintain the blood supply after closing it orifice.
\n
\n
\n
4.5. Operator preferences
\n
Every operator has his/her own preferences in difficult neck anatomy cases, which may significantly change an approach to the procedure. The more experienced team in endostapling will use that method in cases of “difficult neck” moving the boundaries more further than the inexperienced one. On the other hand in high-volume center experienced in FEVAR that will be a preferred method of hostile neck treatment with acceptable mortality and complication rates.
\n
\n
\n
4.6. Access
\n
Difficult access may complicate almost every seemingly easy procedure. There are numerous examples of poor access conditions which excluded patients from treatment or ended up with surgical conversion. Two important factors influence on the procedure outcome: access vessel diameters and the presence of angulations in the vessel course.
\n
When discussing a vessel diameter, we have to remember about the patient’s past endovascular history.
\n
During the chimney procedures, an aortic arch and supra-aortic vessel anatomy should be considered very carefully, because the most difficult part of the procedure is performed via that access point. Arteriosclerotic lesions in the orifices of vessels arising from the aortic arch may be a source of a cerebral embolization. Asymptomatic stenosis or occlusion of the left subclavian may exclude the patient from chimney procedure when more than one chimney formation is necessary.
\n
\n
\n
4.7. Cost
\n
The overall cost of the patient treatment and its further reimbursement is regional and country specific and also is an important factor limiting the treatment options. In some EU countries, the hospital is paid by the insurance company for every segment of EVAR (body, extensions) system separately, while in others the reimbursement rate is fixed no matter how many segments are used. In hostile neck patients, the overall treatment cost is significantly higher than in standard EVAR that favors the insurance systems where every piece of inventory is reimbursed. That fact may be an issue for hospitals being paid flat rate, where in such cases an extra permission from the financial board of the hospital or from the insurance company is needed that is time-consuming.
\n
\n
\n
\n
5. Summary
\n
Hostile neck in complex pararenal abdominal aortic aneurysm is not only a problem of difficult anatomy. As described above, many factors exist, sometimes not medical, which can influence on patient eligibility to the endovascular therapy, on the final decision about specific procedure, and on the positive outcome of the treatment process in the long term. During the procedure planning, a medical team shall carefully analyze all factors described in APPROACH strategy and then choose a best treatment for a particular patient to achieve a therapeutic goal.
\n
\n
Conflict of interest
The author declares no conflict of interest.
\n
Thanks
\n
The author would like to thank M. Żabicki, MD, PhD, and R. Maciąg MD, PhD, for pictures with embolization cases.
\n
\n',keywords:"difficult neck, hostile neck, type 1 endoleak, abdominal aortic aneurysm, EVAR",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/61368.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/61368.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61368",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61368",totalDownloads:235,totalViews:218,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"November 9th 2017",dateReviewed:"March 20th 2018",datePrePublished:"November 5th 2018",datePublished:"May 29th 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Endovascular approach in abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) treatment (EVAR) became the treatment of choice for most patients suffering from that disease. However, a successful endovascular therapy of the AAA depends on some key anatomical and morphological factors highly influencing the procedure outcome. Among them, the most important feature is the anatomical situation in the aneurysm neck. The definitions of the terms “hostile neck” and “difficult neck” are explained in order to present unfavorable conditions in the landing zone of most commercially available stent graft models. In this chapter, a description of various criteria of the difficult neck and their basic features and shapes as well was presented. Also, the most popular methods of solving that clinical problem were outlined. At the end, an overall (APPROACH) strategy in the treatment of a hostile neck patient is described.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/61368",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/61368",book:{slug:"abdominal-aortic-aneurysm-from-basic-research-to-clinical-practice"},signatures:"Krzysztof Szaniewski",authors:[{id:"233455",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Krzysztof",middleName:null,surname:"Szaniewski",fullName:"Krzysztof Szaniewski",slug:"krzysztof-szaniewski",email:"kszaniewski@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Hostile neck",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Hostile neck definition",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Hostile neck types",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"3. Type Ia endoleak as a complication of hostile neck anatomy",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.1. Endostapling",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.2. Transcatheter embolization of type 1 endoleaks",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.3. Chimney technique",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.4. Other methods of a type Ia endoleak prevention",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"3.4.1. Kilt technique",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"3.4.2. Funnel technique",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12",title:"4. APPROACH concept as a possible future strategy in procedure planning in case of hostile neck anatomy",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"4.1. Aortic pathology",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"4.2. Patient profile",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"4.2.1. Cardiac status",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"4.2.2. Renal function",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15_3",title:"4.2.3. Life expectancy",level:"3"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"4.3. Proven literature evidence",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"4.4. Renovisceral anatomy",level:"2"},{id:"sec_19_2",title:"4.5. Operator preferences",level:"2"},{id:"sec_20_2",title:"4.6. Access",level:"2"},{id:"sec_21_2",title:"4.7. Cost",level:"2"},{id:"sec_23",title:"5. Summary",level:"1"},{id:"sec_27",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"},{id:"sec_24",title:"Thanks",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Bin Jabr A. Clinical aspects on chimney stent graft technique in endovascular repair of the aorta. Malmö: Vascular Center, Skåne University Hospital, Lund University; 2015\n'},{id:"B2",body:'Broos PPHL, Stokmans RA, van Sterkenburg SMM, Torsello G, Vermassen F, Cuypers PWM, et al. Performance of the endurant stent graft in challenging anatomy. Journal of Vascular Surgery 2015;62(2):312-318\n'},{id:"B3",body:'Cronenwett JL, Johnston KW, Rutherford RB, editors. Rutherford’s Vascular Surgery. 6 ed. ff Philadelphia: Elsevier, Saunders; 2005\n'},{id:"B4",body:'Deaton DH. Future technologies to address the failed endoprosthesis. Seminars in Vascular Surgery. 2009;22(2):111-118\n'},{id:"B5",body:'Dias NV, Bin Jabr A, Sveinsson M, Björses K, Malina M, Kristmundsson T. Impact of renal chimney grafts on anatomical suitability for endovascular repair in ruptured abdominal aortic aneurysm. Journal of Endovascular Therapy. 2015;22(1):105-109\n'},{id:"B6",body:'Dillavou ED, Muluk SC, Rhee RY, Tzeng E, Woody JD, Gupta N, et al. Does hostile neck anatomy preclude successful endovascular aortic aneurysm repair? Journal of Vascular Surgery. 2003;38(4):657-663\n'},{id:"B7",body:'Donas KP, Torsello GF, Torsello GB. Factors influencing decision making in the treatment of complex Pararenal aortic pathologies: The APPROACH concept. 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Uncovered chimney stent graft for renal arteries with the Nellix endovascular aneurysm sealing technique. Vascular and Endovascular Surgery. 2018;52(2):148-153\n'},{id:"B12",body:'Greenberg RK, Clair D, Srivastava S, Bhandari G, Turc A, Hampton J, et al. Should patients with challenging anatomy be offered endovascular aneurysm repair? Journal of Vascular Surgery. 2003;38(5):990-996\n'},{id:"B13",body:'Jimenez JC, Quinones-Baldrich WJ. Technical modifications for endovascular infrarenal AAA repair for the angulated and dumbbell-shaped neck: The precuff Kilt technique. Annals of Vascular Surgery. 2011;25(3):423-430\n'},{id:"B14",body:'Jordan WD, Mehta M, Varnagy D, Moore WM, Arko FR, Joye J, et al. Results of the ANCHOR prospective, multicenter registry of EndoAnchors for type Ia endoleaks and endograft migration in patients with challenging anatomy. Journal of Vascular Surgery. 2014;60(4):885-892.e2\n'},{id:"B15",body:'Jordan WD, Ouriel K, Mehta M, Varnagy D, Moore WM, Arko FR, et al. Outcome-based anatomic criteria for defining the hostile aortic neck. Journal of Vascular Surgery. 2015;61(6):1383-1390.e1\n'},{id:"B16",body:'Minion D. Neck, seal, and fixation: Understanding the differences in these essential components of endovascular AAA repair. Endovascular Today. 2009;(Suppl):3-7\n'},{id:"B17",body:'Muhs BE, Jordan W, Ouriel K, Rajaee S, de Vries J-P. Matched cohort comparison of endovascular abdominal aortic aneurysm repair with and without EndoAnchors. Journal of Vascular Surgery. 2017;13. (In Press)\n'},{id:"B18",body:'Park K-H, Kim U. Stent graft using kilt technique for an abdominal aortic aneurysm with a severely angulated neck. Heart, Lung & Circulation. 2016;25(3):e48-e52\n'},{id:"B19",body:'Pitoulias GA, Valdivia AR, Hahtapornsawan S, Torsello G, Pitoulias AG, Austermann M, et al. Conical neck is strongly associated with proximal failure in standard endovascular aneurysm repair. Journal of Vascular Surgery. 2017;66(6):1686-1695\n'},{id:"B20",body:'Quinn AA, Mehta M, Teymouri MJ, Keenan ME, Paty PSK, Zhou Y, et al. The incidence and fate of endoleaks vary between ruptured and elective endovascular abdominal aortic aneurysm repair. Journal of Vascular Surgery. 2017;65(6):1617-1624\n'},{id:"B21",body:'Reyes Valdivia A, Duque Santos A, Ocaña Guaita J, Gandarias Zúñiga C. The cuff plus anchoring funnel technique for endovascular aortic repair (CAF-EVAR) for large Infrarenal necks. CardioVascular and Interventional Radiology. 2018;41(2):330-335\n'},{id:"B22",body:'Stather PW, Wild JB, Sayers RD, Bown MJ, Choke E. Endovascular aortic aneurysm repair in patients with hostile neck anatomy. Journal of Endovascular Therapy. 2013;20(5):623-637\n'},{id:"B23",body:'Stokmans RA, Teijink JW, Forbes TL, Böckler D, Peeters PJ, Riambau V, et al. Early results from the ENGAGE registry: Real-world performance of the endurant stent graft for endovascular AAA repair in 1262 patients. European Journal of Vascular and Endovascular Surgery. 2012;44(4):369-375\n'},{id:"B24",body:'Szaniewski K, Biernacka M, Walas RL, Zembala M. Predeployed aortic extension cuff (kilt) in EVAR with hostile neck anatomy using endurant II system: Preliminary results. Polish Journal of Cardio-Thoracic Surgery. 2016;4:334-9.25\n'},{id:"B25",body:'Verhoeven ELG, Vourliotakis G, Bos WTGJ, Tielliu IFJ, Zeebregts CJ, Prins TR, et al. Fenestrated stent grafting for short-necked and Juxtarenal abdominal aortic aneurysm: An 8-year single-Centre experience. European Journal of Vascular and Endovascular Surgery. 2010;39(5):529-536\n'},{id:"B26",body:'Vries JPPM, Jordan WD. Verbesserte Fixierung von abdominalen und thorakalen Endografts unter Verwendung von EndoAnchors zur Vermeidung von Abdichtungsproblemen. Gefässchirurgie. 2014;19(3):212-219\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Krzysztof Szaniewski",address:"kszaniewski@gmail.com",affiliation:'
Department of Vascular Surgery, St. Barbara Hospital, Trauma Center, Sosnowiec, Poland
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1. Introduction
Soils represent a complex environment, spatially and temporally dynamic in their structure as in their composition [1]. They provide essential services to humanity such as water storage and filtration, agriculture support, storage carbon to regulate the climate, and physical support of buildings. So, soil knowledge, in particular their clay mineral composition and their mapping, is necessary for the decision-making on the management of many human activities. The study of clay minerals is most of the time motivated by the assessment of the risk associated to shrinkage-swelling phenomenon that affects building; sometimes, they are also taken into consideration in flooding/infiltrating effects and in the evaluation of the vehicles’ mobility. It is important to specify that the term “clay” may correspond to two distinct definitions in geology. From a physical point of view, clay minerals correspond to a texture class, e.g., a classification defined by the size of minerals in soils. In that classification, gravels are defined as elements larger than 2 mm, sands have a grain size of between 2 mm and 50 μm, silts have grain size between 50 and 2 μm, and clays have grain size lower than 2 μm.
From a mineralogical point of view, montmorillonite (i.e., the smectite group), illite, kaolinite, and interstratified minerals are the most common clay species that are commonly involved in swelling and shrinking processes. In the following, clays refer to this last mineralogical definition.
The shrinkage-swelling effect of soils is a phenomenon causing numerous damages on houses when built on soils containing smectite minerals. Indeed, these so-called swelling clays are sensitive to soil moisture content, since they shrink during periods of drought and swell after rain. The presence of water variations causes changes in volumes producing cracks in the soil structures and therefore vertical differential movements at the surface. In France, these damages reach 38% of natural disaster compensation costs after the floods. For the period 1990–2014, this overall cost represents a little more than 9 billion euros or 370 million euros per year [2]. In Great Britain, the association of insurers British estimated the cost of shrinkage-swelling to more than 400 million pounds each year [3]. In the USA, the economic cost of these claims is $15 billion annually [4]. As far as we know, population increase as well as projections of climate change should increase this risk at temperate latitudes, which in the future will affect areas previously untouched by drought. Identification of soils impacted by this phenomenon is currently based on specific mineral identifications, e.g., using X-ray diffraction (XRD) techniques, carried out on soil samples and difficult to implement at large scale. At the same time, some hazard maps (1:50000) were produced from geological data to identify clayed formations [5]. Unfortunately, these maps cannot consider local spatial heterogeneities, from one to hundreds of meters. In addition, mapping clay texture is not sufficient to evaluate the swelling capacity of clayed soils. To solve this issue, in situ and/or proximal sensors can be used.
Several authors have successfully quantified mineral clays in soils [6, 7, 8] by field spectroscopy and laboratory spectral measurements. In these studies, measurements were generally carried out on dry soils for avoiding spectral perturbations due to moisture, and under ideal conditions of illumination, away from real cases contexts found in the field. Airborne hyperspectral imagery has also been successfully used to detect clays [9, 10, 11], despite low spatial resolution offered by sensors and low signal-to-noise ratio in the spectral range affected by clays (1000–2500 nm). Recent advances in UAV-type platforms for hyperspectral imaging are expected to remove some of these limitations by a better spatial resolution of acquired images, moving from meters for airborne to centimeters for UAV [12, 13]. These advances must offer more pixels of pure soils and thus improve the quantification of clay minerals. Indeed, quantifying clay species from spectral data needs taking into account mixing spectral signatures of minerals, simply because they are mixed in the soil. Some studies hypothesize a linear mixture of soil mineral spectra (or “patchwork”). That means each component will have its spectral signature mixed in proportion to its abundance in the soil [6, 7, 8], which is an approximation because the diffusion of light induces nonlinearities on the spectral behavior of the reflectance present in an intimate mixture [14]. The impact of this phenomenon needs to be clearly assessed in order to correctly quantify clay species.
In the following, we propose a review on these different issues and describe the different approaches able to quantify clay species from hyperspectral data. This overview is based on different pieces of works realized in lab but also on the field, with different instrumental devices and several processing techniques.
2. Spectrometry experiments and data processing
The principle of spectrometry is based on the measurement of the interaction between an electromagnetic radiation and a given material at different frequencies. Applied to mineral characterization, this technique gives crystallo-chemical information on the material from its interaction with the incident radiation. Depending on the selected frequency of the radiation (ultraviolet, visible, infrared, etc.), the interaction produces various types of energy. This response is represented as a spectrum that is an intrinsic characteristic of the material [15]. The infrared radiation (IR) is an electromagnetic radiation, corresponding to the spectrum between 12,800 and 10 cm−1 (0.78–1000 μm). Figure 1 shows the infrared electromagnetic spectrum that can be decomposed in three parts: the near, the middle, and the far IR. For mineral characterization, the domains of interest are the near-infrared (NIR) and the shortwave infrared (SWIR), which extend, respectively, from 0.75 to 1 μm and from 1 to 2.5 μm.
Figure 1.
Infrared domains expressed in terms of wavelengths.
When an IR radiation interacts with a molecule, it can absorb partially and selectively this radiation, leading to modifications of the vibrational and rotational energy of the molecule. These energy losses lead to the presence of absorption bands at specific wavelengths corresponding to the frequencies at which the molecule is excited. The absorbed energy is therefore characteristic of each of the chemical bonds of the molecule. In the case of clay minerals, absorption bands are mostly visible in the SWIR domain. The complexity of working with absorption bands comes from the presence of water that also produces numerous absorption phenomena masking large parts of the spectrum (Figure 2). To predict soil properties related to the presence of clay minerals, intensive research has been carried out in reflectance spectroscopy in the visible near-infrared (VNIR; 300–1100 nm) and SWIR wavelength domains [16].
Figure 2.
Atmosphere and water absorption bands affecting the irradiated spectrum.
Interpreting correctly the spectrums resulting from interactions between SWIR irradiations and clayed soils is thus no straightforward, due to the noise coming from atmosphere, the presence of water molecules and the complexity of soils mineralogical composition.
Various approaches can be used to predict the clay mineralogical compositions of soils from measured spectra when the sample number is sufficiently high, e.g., multivariable regression analysis (MRA) or partial least square regression (PLSR). For example, [17] have successfully estimated the smectite content of soils in the Colorado Front range by using a PLSR analysis of second derivative reflectance spectra measured in the field. MRA was also successfully used to quantify clay content in soil, independently of the nature of clay minerals [18, 19]. However, such approaches required a large number of observation samples to carry out the analysis but also to validate the regression accuracy. They are also site dependent, meaning that the calibration-validation processes need to be performed specifically for the studied sites. To tackle this issue with minimal uncertainties, we propose to start with simple experimental setups by analyzing in the laboratory the spectral responses of pure clays and mixtures of two or three species of clays.
2.1 Making and testing a spectral database from synthetic mixtures and a spectrometer
The objective of this first approach consists in preparing simple mixtures composed by pure clay minerals. They were prepared by [20] using the most common clays: montmorillonite, illite, and kaolinite, each of them provided by material sellers. The particle sizes of the minerals were measured with a VASCO-2 laser grain size analyzer and estimated to be about ~450 nm for the illite and the kaolinite and about ~475 nm for the smectite. The pure clay minerals were mixed using an agate mortar to produce mixed powders. A total of 27 binary mixtures of 10/90, 20/80, 30/70, 40/60, 50/50, 60/40, 70/30, 80/20, and 90/10 mass-percent ratios of kaolinite/illite, illite/montmorillonite, and montmorillonite/kaolinite were produced, as well as 19 ternary mixtures of kaolinite/illite/montmorillonite [20] (Figure 3).
Figure 3.
Ternary diagram of kaolinite-illite-montmorillonite synthetic mixtures, modified from [20].
All samples were dried and brought to humidity conditions of the laboratory. The reflectance spectra were measured in the laboratory using an ASD FieldSpec Pro. This spectrometer is portable and able to probe from 350 to 2500 nm in the electromagnetic spectrum. Its spectral resolution ranges from 10 nm with a 2 nm sampling interval in the SWIR. The mixtures were placed into Petri boxes, in contact with the probing system. A standard white Spectralon (Labsphere) was used to calibrate the reflectance reference. To increase the signal-to-noise ratio, the resulting spectrum was computed as the average of 10 spectral measurements [6].
As soon as the spectra are available for all the mixtures, a comparative analysis is used to relate a set of parametric observables derived from the spectrum morphology and the mineralogical composition of mixtures. Before this step, and in order to remove the large wavelength effects from each spectrum, a continuum-removal is applied as shown in Figure 4 [14]. This processing leads to normalize the reflectance spectra and highlights absorption bands. The principle consists in connecting local maxima of the spectrum to obtain a good fit across the 350–2500 nm spectral domain [19]. After this processing, the continuum-removed spectrum has values ranging between 0 and 1 [18]. After this step, various geometrical parameters can be measured on the spectral curve as suggested by [21]. Indeed, this approach has the advantage to manipulate a few set of value to characterize a specific absorption band rather that considering overall values of the curve. The considered geometrical parameters are the following:
The wavelength position corresponding to the minimum reflectance of the absorption band. In Figure 4, it corresponds to values around 1400 nm (P1400), 1900 nm (P1900), and 2200 nm (P2200).
The depth, which is the length of the absorbing pattern along the reflectance axis. In Figure 4, the depth is estimated around 1400 nm (D1400), 1900 nm (D1900), and 2200 nm (D2200).
The asymmetry of absorption band, calculated from the ratio between the right width and the left width measured at the half depth of the absorption band. In Figure 4, the asymmetry is about 1400 nm (A1400), 1900 nm (A1900), and 2200 nm (A2200).
The width of the absorption band, measured at half depth. In Figure 4, the width is estimated to be around 1400 nm (W1400), 1900 nm (W1900), and 2200 nm (W2200).
Figure 4.
Continuum-removal applied to a mixture spectrum of 30% montmorillonite and 70% illite. (a) spectrum before Continuum-removal, (b) Geometrical parameters used to characterize the absorption bands: location of the minimum (black circles), depth (blue line), left width at half depth (green line), and right width at half depth (red line).
As already mentioned by [21] or [22], the geometry of absorption bands around 1900 or 2200 nm is directly linked to the clay mineralogical composition. In particular, these studies show that the depth parameter can be efficiently used to assess the clay composition. If we plot the distribution of mixtures along 3 axes representing the depth parameter for 1400, 1900, and 2200 nm positions, we can identify regions where kaolinite, illite, and montmorillonite are particularly predominant, forming 3 corners of a triangular 3D shape. Elsewhere, kaolinite, illite, and montmorillonite contents in the mixtures decrease from their corner toward the opposite sides of the triangular shape [6] (Figure 5).
Figure 5.
3D-diagram showing the distribution of the synthetic mixtures according to the depth parameter. From [6].
Even if these results are promising, they are not enough accurate to be exploited in real conditions. In particular, the development of a methodology able to statistically invert the abundance of clay species composing the mixtures from the absorption band parameters still needs to be tested. Such a study was carried out by [23], working with a higher complexity in preprocessing spectral data and trying to identify a robust unmixing method to estimate the clay abundances in the mixtures.
2.2 Processing laboratory hyperspectral images of synthetic mixtures, unmixing issues
To have a statistical assessment of the spectral response measured on the mixtures, the spectrometer was replaced by a hyperspectral optical sensor. This device is similar to that used by [24], with two cameras, located 1 m from the sample, and a lamp for each camera inclined to 35°. The reflected signal is recorded by two hyperspectral cameras (HySpex—Norsk Elektro Optikk—VNIR-1600 and SWIR-320 m-e). Only SWIR camera data is used, with 256 spectral bands and a spectral resolution of 6 nm in the range 1000–2500 nm. The camera has a measuring field of 240 mm (FOV 13.5°) and a spatial resolution of 0.75 mm. Between measurements, a white reference Spectralon R® is used to overcome any possible drift of instruments. Raw images highlight a nonuniformity of the illumination due to side effects. Experimental variograms realized on each band of reflectance images allowed to analyze this effect and to propose a masking protocol to remove pixels too far from the homogeneous behavior observed at the center of images. The following methodological chain is based on (i) spectral preprocessing to transform reflectance spectra in a standardized form and (ii) linear and nonlinear unmixing algorithms to derive mineral abundance for each mixture (Figure 6). Preprocessing techniques were selected from the literature and concern:
Standard normal variate (SNV) consists in applying a translation and a homothety of the spectrum using its mean and standard deviation [25].
Continuum-removal (CR) deletes the continuum to normalize the reflectance spectrum [26].
Continuous wavelet transform (CWT) splits the signal into a wavelet sum of Gaussian function (e.g., “Mexican Hat”). The signal is broken down into 10 scales, the first one (corresponding to the noise) and scales higher than 5 (global variations of the spectrum-continuum) are suppressed [27].
Hapke’s model [28] estimates the single diffusion albedo considering that the medium is an isotropic mixture with the same particle size for all components.
First derivative (1St SGD) calculated according to [29].
Transformation into pseudo-absorbance (Log (1/R)) based on the correlation between the bands of spectral absorption and concentration of compounds [25].
Figure 6.
Mean spectra of hyperspectral images after continuum-removal correction for different montmorillonite/kaolinite abundances.
Once spectra are preprocessed, several unmixing techniques can be tested to determine abundances. Before, it is necessary to compare observed spectrum to reference spectrum, i.e., spectrum of pure minerals (end-members) present in the mixture. On the one hand, if all the minerals present are known, one can use spectral libraries existing in the literature. Otherwise, algorithms able to determine in the observed data those which represent the most pure end-members can be used such as SISAL [30] or minimum volume [31]. Four linear and nonlinear unmixing algorithms were used to estimate abundances in clay minerals from mixtures described in the previous chapter (Figure 7):
FCLS is the most popular linear unmixing method and has nonnegativity constraints (abundances must be equal or higher than 0), and the sum of abundances of each end-member must equal to one [32].
MESMA, similar to FCLS, takes into account the intra-class variability of each mixing pole.
The GBM method [33] can take into account nonlinear effects by the way of an additional parameter.
The multilinear model (MLM) method [34] uses a parameter to manage nonlinearity; for zero, the model becomes linear.
Figure 7.
Variability of abundances predictions decreases with MESMA and FCLS, where I stands for illite, K for kaolinite, and M for montmorillonite.
The results show that the unmixing method performance depends on the mineralogy of the mixture, the difficulty arising when clay species have very similar spectrum in the considered wavelengths. We can also note that the linear and nonlinear methods have similar performances on these mixtures, the recommended method being in fact the simplest to use, i.e., FCLS. Finally, the benefit brought by spectral preprocessing is very important. CWT and first SGD give one of the best performances on unmixing quality by decreasing the intra-sample variability [35].
2.3 From lab measurements to field observations
A good example of validation and comparison between lab models and field observations is given by [36]. The sampling area is located close to Orleans city (France) along the Loire River. The fluvial deposits are mainly composed of sandy materials contained in a clay matrix, containing also pebbles and boulders. In this study, 332 samples of soil were collected, spread over the various geological formations where swelling risk is present. As in [6], spectrum where decomposed in geometrical parameters, more suitable for quantitative analyses. As shown in Figure 8a, the ratios of the depth parameters for different absorption bands (D1400 over D2200 vs. D1900 over D2200) demonstrate that the montmorillonite and illite end-members appear in the scattered plot. This approach could be used to roughly evaluate the content of these clay species in the soil samples.
Figure 8.
(a) Scattered plot of studied samples represented according to two ratios of depth parameters; (b) correlation between montmorillonite content measured from XRD and estimated from spectroscopy [36].
To evaluate the uncertainties related to this approach, 31 samples of the dataset were analyzed using X-ray diffraction, and comparison were carried out between montmorillonite content measured from XRD and montmorillonite content estimated from spectroscopy. Although the distribution of points presents a certain dispersion, the correlation ratio, close to 0.84, confirms the potential of using geometrical characteristics of spectra to assess the abundance of clay species.
3. Conclusion
The geotechnical issues raised by swelling clays need to be addressed to evaluate the vulnerability of buildings and houses lying on clayed soils geological environment. To reduce costs of analyses, classically consisting in lab measurements (e.g., XRD), methodologies based on spectroscopy can be used. This chapter shows last advances in evaluating clay species abundances, in particular for montmorillonite, from spectroscopy or hyperspectral approaches in the SWIR domain.
A first step was the development of metrics to discriminate clay minerals from their spectral response. For this purpose, mixtures were realized from pure clay minerals, and their spectra were systematically analyzed using geometrical parameter such as the depth of the different absorbing band patterns. From this database, we showed that a discrimination was possible, at least to have a qualitative estimation of the swelling capacities of concerned soils. This result was validated from the field by comparing the abundances estimated coming from spectroscopy and from XRD techniques. Another approach based on hyperspectral image processing was presented. Different preprocessing algorithms and unmixing techniques were applied to the mixture dataset for performance evaluation. The results are also very conclusive since RMS values between estimated and observed abundances are satisfactory.
This overview gives important perspective in the domain. If spectroscopy can evaluate clay mineral abundances in soils and in particular those who have swelling capacities, the possibility to use remote hyperspectral camera for this purpose could be considered. The next perspective are thus to test this probing technique to field data in real condition. The heterogeneous solar lightning; the presence of vegetation, calcite, or quartz pebbles; and possibility of moisture variations in soils are, for instance, the next issues to work on. Due to recent developments in UAV, new possibilities could be found for carrying hyperspectral cameras in SWIR domain and reaching information with higher signal-to-noise ratio and better resolution. These advances should open new perspectives for accurate and less expensive productions of clay maps.
Acknowledgment
Authors would like to thank BRGM and ONERA for funding these studies. We also thank the different students (C. Truche, G. Duffrechou, and E. Ducasse) who take in charge a large part of experiments, analyses, and processing, as well as the technicians involved in the lab tasks.
\n',keywords:"clays, hyperspectral, spectroscopy, processing, unmixing",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/66995.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/66995.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66995",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66995",totalDownloads:139,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"January 17th 2019",dateReviewed:"April 1st 2019",datePrePublished:"May 6th 2019",datePublished:"November 27th 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Mapping subsurface clay minerals is an important issue because they have particular behaviors in terms of mechanics and hydrology that directly affects assets laid at the surface such as buildings, houses, etc. They have a direct impact in ground stability due to their swelling capacities, constraining infiltration processes during flooding, especially when moisture is important. So detecting and characterizing clay mineral in soils serve urban planning issues and improve the risk reduction by predicting impacts of subsidence on houses and infrastructures. High-resolution clay maps are thus needed with accurate indications on mineral species and abundances. Clay minerals, known as phyllosilicates, are divided in three main species: smectite, illite, and kaolinite. The smectite group highly contributes to the swelling behavior of soils, and because geotechnical soil analyses are expensive and time-consuming, it is urgent to develop new approaches for mapping clays’ spatial distribution by using new technologies, e.g., ground spectrometer or remote hyperspectral cameras [0.4–2.5 μm]. These technics constitute efficient alternatives to conventional methods. We present in this chapter some recent results we got for characterizing clay species and their abundances from spectrometry, used either from a ground spectrometer or from hyperspectral cameras.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/66995",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/66995",signatures:"Gilles Grandjean, Xavier Briottet, Karine Adeline, Anne Bourguignon and Audrey Hohmann",book:{id:"7304",title:"Geospatial Analyses of Earth Observation (EO) data",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Geospatial Analyses of Earth Observation (EO) data",slug:"geospatial-analyses-of-earth-observation-eo-data",publishedDate:"November 27th 2019",bookSignature:"Antonio Pepe and Qing Zhao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7304.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"99269",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Pepe",slug:"antonio-pepe",fullName:"Antonio Pepe"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"292084",title:"Dr.",name:"Gilles",middleName:null,surname:"Grandjean",fullName:"Gilles Grandjean",slug:"gilles-grandjean",email:"g.grandjean@brgm.fr",position:null,institution:null},{id:"298653",title:"Dr.",name:"Xavier",middleName:null,surname:"Briotet",fullName:"Xavier Briotet",slug:"xavier-briotet",email:"xavier.briottet@onera.fr",position:null,institution:null},{id:"298654",title:"Dr.",name:"Karine",middleName:null,surname:"Adeline",fullName:"Karine Adeline",slug:"karine-adeline",email:"karine.adeline@onera.fr",position:null,institution:null},{id:"298655",title:"Dr.",name:"Anne",middleName:null,surname:"Bourguignon",fullName:"Anne Bourguignon",slug:"anne-bourguignon",email:"a.bourguignon@brgm.fr",position:null,institution:null},{id:"298656",title:"MSc.",name:"Audrey",middleName:null,surname:"Hohmann",fullName:"Audrey Hohmann",slug:"audrey-hohmann",email:"a.hohmann@brgm.fr",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Spectrometry experiments and data processing",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Making and testing a spectral database from synthetic mixtures and a spectrometer",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Processing laboratory hyperspectral images of synthetic mixtures, unmixing issues",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 From lab measurements to field observations",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"3. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"Acknowledgment",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Carmon N, Ben-Dor E. An advanced analytical approach for spectral-based modelling of soil properties. International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering. 2017;7(3):90-97'},{id:"B2",body:'Corti T, Muccione V, Köllner-Heck P, Bresch D, Seneviratne SI. Simulating past droughts and associated building damages in France. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences. 2009;13:1739-1747'},{id:"B3",body:'Crilly MS, Driscoll RMC. The behaviour of lightly loaded piles in swelling ground and implications for their design. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers: Geotechnical Engineering. 2000;143(1):3-16'},{id:"B4",body:'Nelson J, Miller DJ. Expansive Soils: Problems and Practice in Foundation and Pavement Engineering. Professional Series. NewYork: Wiley; 1992. ISBN 9780471181149'},{id:"B5",body:'Bouchut J, Giot D. Cartographie de l’aléa retrait-gonflement des argiles dans le département du Loiret. Rapport technique RP-53316-FR, BRGM. 2004. Available from: http://infoterre.brgm.fr/rapports/RP-53316-FR.pdf'},{id:"B6",body:'Dufréchou V, Grandjean G, Bourguignon A. Geometrical analysis of laboratory soil spectra in the short-wave infrared domain: Clay composition and estimation of the swelling potential. Geoderma. 2015;243-244(2015):92-107'},{id:"B7",body:'Mulder VL, Plötze M, de Bruin S, Schaepman ME, Mavris C, Kokaly RF, et al. Quantifying mineral abundances of complex mixtures by coupling spectral deconvolution of SWIR spectra (2.1-2.4 mm) and regression tree analysis. Geoderma. 2013;207-208:279-290'},{id:"B8",body:'Viscarra Rossel RA, McGlynn RN, McBratney AB. Determining the composition of mineral-organic mixes using UV-vis-NIR diffuse reflectance spectroscopy. Geoderma. 2006;137(1-2):70-82'},{id:"B9",body:'Bedini E, van der Meer F, van Ruitenbeek F. Use of HyMap imaging spectrometer data to map mineralogy in the Rodalquilar caldera, Southeast Spain. International Journal of Remote Sensing. 2009;30(2):327-348'},{id:"B10",body:'Chabrillat S, Goetz AFH, Krosley L, Wolsen H. Use of hyperspectral images in the identification and mapping of expansive clay soils and the role of spatial resolution. Remote Sensing of Environment. 2002;82(2-3):431-445'},{id:"B11",body:'Kruze FA, Boardman JW, Huntington JF. Comparison of airborne hyperspectral data and eo-1 hyperion for mineral mapping. 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Québec: Mineralogical Association of Canada; 2004'},{id:"B16",body:'Bourguignon A, Delpont G, Chevrel S, Chabrillat S. Detection and mapping of shrink–swell clays in SW France, using ASTER imagery. Geological Society, London, Special Publications. 2007;283:117-124'},{id:"B17",body:'Goetz AFH, Chabrillat S, Lu Z. Field reflectance spectrometry for detection of swelling clays at construction sites. Field Analytical Chemistry and Technology. 2001;5(3):143-155'},{id:"B18",body:'Gomez C, Lagacherie P, Coulouma G. Continuum removal versus PLSR method for clay and calcium carbonate content estimation from laboratory and airborne hyperspectral measurements. Geoderma. 2008;148:141-148'},{id:"B19",body:'Viscarra Rossel RA, Cattle SR, Ortega A, Fouad Y. In situ measurements of soil colour, mineral composition and clay content by Vis–NIR spectroscopy. Geoderma. 2009;150:253-266'},{id:"B20",body:'Truche C. Caractérisation et quantification des minéraux argileux dans les sols expansifs par spectroscopie infrarouge aux échelles du laboratoire et du terrain. Toulouse, France: Laboratoire des Mécanismes et Transfert en Géologie. Université Paul Sabatier — Toulouse III; 2011. p. 229'},{id:"B21",body:'van der Meer F. Analysis of spectral absorption features in hyperspectral imagery. International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation. 2004;5:55-68'},{id:"B22",body:'Kariuki PC, Van DerMeer F, Siderius W. Classification of soils based on engineering indices and spectral data. International Journal of Remote Sensing. 2003;24:2567-2574'},{id:"B23",body:'Ducasse E, Hohmann A, Adeline K, Oltra-Carrio R, Bourguignon A, et al. Clay minerals abundances estimation under hyperspectral laboratory data. In: 10th EARSeL Workshop on Imaging Spectroscopy. Zurich, Switzerland; 2017'},{id:"B24",body:'Adar S, Shkolnisky Y, Ben-Dor E. Change detection of soils under small-scale laboratory conditions using imaging spectroscopy sensors. Geoderma. 2014;216:19-29'},{id:"B25",body:'Esquerre C, Gowen AA, Burger J, Downey G, O’Donnell CP. Suppressing sample morphology effects in near infrared spectral imaging using chemometric data pre-treatments. Chemometrics and Intelligent Laboratory Systems. 2012;117:129-137'},{id:"B26",body:'Clark RN, Roush TL. Reflectance spectroscopy: Quantitative analysis techniques for remote sensing applications. Journal of Geophysical Research—Solid Earth. 1984;89(B7):6329-6340'},{id:"B27",body:'Feng J, Rogge D, Rivard B. Comparison of lithological mapping results from airborne hyperspectral VNIR-SWIR, LWIR and combined data. International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation. 2017;64:340-353'},{id:"B28",body:'Hapke B. Bidirectional reflectance spectroscopy: 1. Theory. Journal of Geophysical Research—Solid Earth. 1981;86(B4):3039-3054'},{id:"B29",body:'Savitzky A, Golay MJE. Smoothing and differentiation of data by simplified least squares procedures. Analytical Chemistry. 1964;36:1627-1639, 1964'},{id:"B30",body:'Bioucas-Dias JM, Plaza A, Dobigeon N, Parente M, Du Q , Gader P, et al. Hyperspectral unmixing overview: Geometrical, statistical, and sparse regression-based approaches. IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Applied Earth Observations and Remote Sensing. 2012;5(2):354-379'},{id:"B31",body:'Craig MD. Minimum-volume transforms for remotely sensed data. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing. 1994;32(3):542-552'},{id:"B32",body:'Heinz DC, Chang CI. Fully constrained least squares linear spectral mixture analysis method for material quantification in hyperspectral imagery. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing. 2001;39(3):529-545'},{id:"B33",body:'Halimi A, Altmann Y, Dobigeon N, Tourneret JY. Nonlinear unmixing of hyperspectral images using a generalized bilinear model. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing. 2011;49(11):4153-4162'},{id:"B34",body:'Heylen R, Scheunders P. A multilinear mixing model for nonlinear spectral unmixing. IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing. 2016;54(1):240-251'},{id:"B35",body:'Ducasse E. Cartographie fine de l’argile minéralogique par démélange d’images hyperspectrales à trés haute résolution spatiale [thesis]. Univ. Toulouse. 2019'},{id:"B36",body:'Dufréchou G, Hohmann A, Bourguignon A, Grandjean G. Targeting and mapping expansive soils (Loiret, France): Geometrical analysis of laboratory soil spectra in the short-wave infrared domain (1100-2500 nm). Bulletin de la Société Géologique de France. 2016;187(3):169-181'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Gilles Grandjean",address:"g.grandjean@brgm.fr",affiliation:'
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