\r\n\tTopics covered include but are not limited to: Hydrologic Cycle (Precipitation, Runoff, Infiltration and their Measurement, Land surface interaction); Hydrologic Analysis (Hydrograph, Wave routing, Hydrologic statistics, Frequency Analysis); Applied Hydrology (Applications in Engineering, Sciences and Agriculture, Design storms, Risk analysis, Case studies); Computational Hydrology (Numerical modeling, Hydrologic modeling and forecasting, Flow visualization, Model validation, Parameter estimation); Interdisciplinary Hydrology (Hydrometeorology, Impact of Climate Change, Precipitation data analysis, Mathematical concepts, Natural hazards); Radar Hydrology (Precipitation estimation techniques, Promise and Challenges in Radar technology, Uncertainty in radar precipitation estimates).
\r\n
\r\n\tThe contents covered in this book will serve as a valuable reference guide to students, researchers, government agencies and practicing engineers who work in hydrology and related areas. We hope that this book will open new directions in basic and applied research in hydrological science.
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1. Introduction
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Diabetes mellitus is a metabolic disease that has a major impact on global public health, affecting more than 425 million people worldwide. The number of affected people tends to increase, mainly due to obesity, a risk factor closely related to type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2D), the most common form of diabetes. Hyperglycemia is the most striking feature of the disease, which is the increase of blood glucose levels above those presented by healthy individuals. This could be the main consequence of poor insulin secretion, lack of insulin sensitivity in target tissues or the combination of both [1, 2].
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The genetic predisposition may be one of the determinants that favor the susceptibility to T2D development. Several variants of genes and even epigenetic modifications in histones and DNA methylation may influence the heritability of T2D [3, 4]. Due to the complexity of the interaction of different factors involved in this disease, genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have been performed in an attempt to identify genetic variants related to the increased risk of T2D.
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In 2007, the first GWAS was performed in France in patients with T2D [5]; At present, at least 75 associated loci have been identified, including the TCF7L2 transcription factor, which is the most common gene found, in addition to PPARG, KCNJ11, FTO, CDKN2A/2B, CDKAL1, IGFBP2 among others [6]. Since then, similar studies showed that the loci presenting greater association with T2D vary as regards the relative risk between different ethnicities [7]. Besides, these variants explain only a low percentage of the disease heritability, most of which are found in intergenic or intronic regions [6]. Furthermore, DNA methylation patterns may contribute to genetic susceptibility to T2D. There is evidence of an increased risk of T2D development associated with distinct methylation patterns in some loci [8], but this approach is still a major challenge for researchers.
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While obesity and overweight have been considered an important cause of T2D, a poor diet and lack of physical activity significantly contribute to an increased risk of insulin resistance and T2D [9].
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One of the greatest concerns regarding the poor glycemic control in patients with T2D is related to the micro and macrovascular complications of diabetes. Since the onset of T2D did not present specific acute symptoms, 50% of adults with T2D do not know that they have the disease [9]. Chronic hyperglycemia induces a series of complications, such as retinopathy, neuropathy and nephropathy. In a long term, the high blood glucose levels may also induce endothelial dysfunction, which contributes to the increased risk for the development of cardiovascular diseases.
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2. Oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction
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Changes in glucose homeostasis represent a critical factor for the development of metabolic diseases. Normally, to maintain optimal levels of blood glucose, the pancreas secretes two hormones. In response to high glucose levels, pancreatic β cells secrete insulin, which promote the uptake of glucose by peripheral tissues, reduce gluconeogenesis and decrease glycogen and triglyceride breakdown. However, when glucose levels are reduced in the blood, α-cells release glucagon, which will reverse the above process.
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Overall, insulin resistance is one of the main causes of disturbances in glucose homeostasis; when insulin receptors do not respond to the amount of insulin produced, the consequence is a deficiency of the body in the glucose uptake and absorption. As a compensatory mechanism, pancreatic β cells increase the release of insulin, but if the glucose levels remain high due to the inability of insulin to achieve body’s demand, it may occur the onset of T2D. Insulin resistance persists in patients since pre-diabetes, a stage in which individuals show glucose levels above the normal values, but not so high for the diagnosis of the disease. It should be mention that at this stage, a healthy nutritional style, physical exercises and weight control may allow the individuals to recover normal glucose levels.
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At a long term, high levels of blood glucose can lead to a number of cellular and molecular changes in the body, especially due to the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) [10]. It is well known that mitochondria are the main source of ROS; these highly dynamic organelles constantly undergo structural changes, responding rapidly to the physiological alterations in the environment. Exposure of cells to hyperglycemic conditions is associated with several mitochondrial alterations. There is evidence that the number and morphology of mitochondria are essential for the maintenance of cellular function. Hyperglycemia in this context is reported as an inducer of glucose metabolism, which can promote several conformational changes in mitochondria, overload of the electron transport chain, leading to the overproduction of ROS, and mitochondrial dysfunction [11, 12, 13, 14].
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It has been reported [15] that patients with pre-diabetes presented an increase in the mitochondrial mass, suggesting that the initial increase in blood glucose levels may induce an adaptative response in order to increase mitochondrial biogenesis to maintain homeostasis. These results are associated with an increase in mitophagy, raising evidence that during pre-diabetes state there may be an elimination of compromised mitochondria in an attempt to reduce mitochondrial oxidative stress [15, 16].
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ROS are normal byproducts of aerobic respiration, consisting of non-radicals, as hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and free radicals, as hydroxyl radical (OH) and superoxide anion (O2−). In normal situations, antioxidant enzymes (glutathione peroxidase, catalase and superoxide dismutase) are able to eliminate ROS and maintain the homeostasis of the organism. However, in a hyperglycemic state, the mitochondria electron transport chain becomes hyperactive, thus inducing an excessive production of ROS that surpasses the antioxidant defense system [17]. The imbalance between the prooxidants and the antioxidant defense system lead to a condition called oxidative stress, where the reactive molecules can cause damage to lipids, proteins and nucleic acids [18].
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Among DNA damage caused by ROS, the major oxidized base modifications generated are 8-oxoguanine (8-oxoG) and 8-oxodesoxyguanosine (8-oxodG), which could occur in both DNA and the nucleotide pool, the latter can be incorporated into the DNA during replication or repair [19, 20]. The repair of 8-oxoG in DNA is performed by the base excision repair mechanism (BER), in which the DNA glycosylase OGG1 recognizes the 8oxoG and together with APE1 enzyme, polymerase complex β and DNA ligase I promote DNA repair [21, 22]; the removal of 8-oxo-dG from the nucleotide pool is performed by the enzyme hMTH1 (human MutT homolog), which hydrolyses 8-oxo-dGTP to transport this molecule to the cytosol, preventing its incorporation into the DNA [23]. For different types of DNA lesions, other DNA repair processes, such as nucleotide excision, homologous recombination, non-homologous end-joining, and mismatch repair may also occur. In diabetes, there is evidence that DNA repair levels and activity of antioxidant enzymes are reduced [24, 25], as well as DNA damage levels and oxidized bases in these patients were found increased [26, 27].
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The oxidative stress promoted by chronic hyperglycemia causes cellular damage mainly in the pancreatic β cells, which present low levels of antioxidant enzymes, and are more susceptible to damages caused by ROS. This stress is also responsible for releasing inflammatory mediators, which in turn culminate in a vicious cycle leading to β-cell dysfunction, insulin resistance and metabolic decline, which are critical for the development of T2D [28].
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In diabetes, high glucose levels may also induce endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. Since the ER is the main responsible for protein maturation and folding, in particular proinsulin, in a hyperglycemic state, this molecule tends to be excessively synthesized and can overload the ER, leading to the accumulation of misfolded proteins, thus generating a stress condition. This stress may lead to the activation of the unfolded protein response pathway, which may restore ER homeostasis or induce cell death. The latter may lead to β-cell dysfunction, and consequently, to the reduction of insulin secretion and chronic hyperglycemia [28, 29, 30, 31].
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Several metabolic pathways are involved in insulin resistance and induction of inflammation and stress, including the JNK (JUN N-terminal kinase) and IKKβ (IκB kinase-β) pathways, both of them can be activated by ER stress [32]. IKKβ is a protein responsible for mediating the activation of NF-κβ (nuclear factor-κB), which in turn stimulates the proinflammatory cytokines, TNF-α (tumor necrosis factor-alpha) and interleukin 1β (IL-1β), that can promote inhibition of the insulin receptor substrate (IRS) protein phosphorylation or reduce their transcriptional expression, compromising the insulin pathway and contributing to insulin resistance [25, 28].
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Obesity is another critical factor that results in oxidative stress and insulin resistance [33], generating a chronic inflammatory condition in adipose tissue, causing the recurrent release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as those previously mentioned, in addition to interleukin 6 (IL-6), which together lead to pancreatic β-cell dysfunction, decreased insulin secretion, and consequently hyperglycemia and thus triggering T2D [28].
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3. Insulin signaling pathway
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The normal signalization of the insulin signaling pathway is vital and its dysregulation is implicated not only in T2D but also in diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases. Changes in this signaling cascade as well as the consequences thereof, makes this pathway an important subject of study, considering its relevance in terms of age-related diseases.
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Normally, the transport of glucose into the cells occurs through different intracellular signaling mechanisms performed in cascade, as shown in Figure 1. Firstly, insulin binds to its receptor, promoting tyrosine phosphorylation of IRS proteins, especially IRS-1 and 2. The tyrosine phosphorylation is critical for the correct activation of the insulin pathway. Phosphorylation at serine or threonine residues is associated with the inhibition or even degradation of IRS proteins promoting downregulation of the pathway. This inhibitory effect over the pathway occurs normally via insulin-induced kinases as a way to keep the correct function of all proteins involved. However, some conditions as hyperglycemia, release of proinflammatory cytokines, oxidative stress (due to mitochondrial dysfunction), in addition to elevated fatty acids and ER stress can induce an increased serine or threonine phosphorylation, promoting the downregulation of insulin signaling and exacerbating the insulin resistance condition [2, 34, 35].
Thus, tyrosine phosphorylation of IRS proteins, further activate PI3K (phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase) protein [36, 37], promoting in particular the translocation of glucose transporter 4 (GLUT4) to the plasma membrane enabling the entrance of glucose into the cell [38]. Among the PI3K-associated downstream proteins, here we focus especially on Akt (alpha serine/threonine-protein kinase) [39, 40]. Once activated, Akt-regulated proteins have a key role in metabolism, glycogen synthesis, autophagy, growth, cell survival, transcription and protein synthesis [41]. Akt has been described as an important downregulator of GSK3α/β proteins. These proteins are strongly associated with the formation of amyloid beta and phosphorylation of tau protein, which are the main proteins involved in Alzheimer’s disease [42, 43]. Another important target of Akt are the FOXO (Forkhead box O) transcription factors, which regulates the expression of different genes related to gluconeogenesis, lipid metabolism, resistance to stress, DNA repair, cell growth, survival, differentiation, among others [41, 44, 45]. The kinase mTOR (mammalian target of rapamycin), responsible for regulating cell growth and metabolism, being a large sensor of nutrients and cellular energy, is also a target of Akt [46, 47, 48] and has a major role in the mechanism of longevity extension [49].
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There is evidence that changes in the expression of growth factors, IRS proteins, IGF-1, AKT, mTOR, FOXO among others that result in downregulation of the insulin signaling pathway through nutritional restriction, for example, are implicated in the resistance to stress, induction of autophagy, extension of longevity and reduction of aging-related diseases in different species, such as worms, flies, rats, mice and some primates [47, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55]. The inhibition of mTOR has been widely discussed as the main protein involved in the longevity extension. Metformin, a drug commonly used to control the glycemic levels in diabetics, is able to inhibit the activity of mTOR, via activation of AMPK, a protein with role in glycolysis, fatty acid oxidation, lipogenesis reduction, gluconeogenesis and protein synthesis [52, 56, 57]. AMPK is also important in mitochondrial biogenesis, since it activates PGC1α [58], which has the ability to stimulate the mitochondrial electron transport chain and suppress ROS levels, being essential in inducing the antioxidant defense system [49, 59].
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4. Impact of nutritional interventions in diabetes care
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Diabetes is a global health problem. Currently, the treatment of this disease has been carried out with medications, such as metformin, aiming to reduce the blood glucose levels, in an attempt to prevent a series of alterations in the cellular metabolism caused by chronic hyperglycemia. However, the success of treatments, in general, is limited, requiring other types of interventions (nutritional and regular physical activity, mainly) related to the patients’ lifestyle. The majority of patients with T2D present age between 40 and 59 years, which is critical for the disease [9] and in this phase, as in the subsequent stages, with the progression of the aging process, the protein homeostasis becomes increasingly compromised, also accompanied by a reduction in the efficiency of the DNA repair system and the antioxidant defense, besides the organism as a whole, consequently leading to the accumulation of cellular damage [51, 58, 60, 61].
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A great number of patients with T2D are overweight or obese. Changes in the lifestyle have been shown essential in controlling the levels of blood glucose. Additionally, it was reported that T2D patients submitted to a 7-day intervention to achieve adequate blood glucose levels led to a significant decrease in DNA damage levels [26]. In particular, some nutritional interventions, as well as caloric (CR) or protein restriction, have been shown to be very effective, not only for reducing blood glucose levels, but also for having very positive benefits in terms of increased life expectancy, as demonstrated in several model organisms [52, 54], in addition to reducing the incidence of aging-related diseases [62, 63, 64].
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A major recruitment study known as CALERIE (Comprehensive Assessment of Long-term Effects of Reducing Intake of Energy) aimed to show the effects of caloric restriction in humans. It has already been shown that in a period of 2 years, the CR is very efficient in improving insulin sensitivity [65], reducing inflammatory markers [66] and reducing oxidative stress [67]. Those features are especially significantly increased in patients with T2D, which would make this approach a valuable intervention for treatment of those patients. In fact, in a study performed in rhesus monkeys, from the 38 control animals, 16 developed high levels of blood glucose, becoming either prediabetic or diabetic. On the other hand, all the animals under caloric restriction did not present any impairment on glucose regulation [64], which may demonstrate the importance of this kind of intervention.
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Although this approach has been widely discussed, the studies are still controversial regarding the best diet composition for diabetic patients. It has been hypothesized that a high intake of proteins could influence the effects of a caloric restriction [68]. In fact, there is a study showing the efficiency of a protein restriction intervention on reducing cancer incidence and extending lifespan regardless the intake of calories [69].
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5. Susceptibility of T2D to Alzheimer’s disease
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Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a progressive, continuous neurodegenerative disorder that affects large areas of the cerebral cortex and hippocampus. These abnormalities are usually detected for the first time in brain tissue involving the frontal and temporal lobes and then slowly advance to other areas of the neocortex at rates that vary considerably between individuals [70]. By 2018, an estimated 50 million people are living with dementia, with AD being the most prevalent form [71]. The main symptoms of AD result from the formation of beta-amyloid (Aβ) plaques and neurofibrillary tangles of the tau protein in the brain, which together lead to neuronal dysfunction and death, causing memory loss episodes which are characteristic of the pathology [70, 72]. It has been reported that similar to the toxicity caused by Aβ aggregates in the brains of patients with AD, amyloid deposits in the pancreas occur in patients with diabetes, which may induce the death of pancreatic insulin-producing β cells [73].
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Recently, several studies have narrowed the relationship between T2D and dementias [74, 75], suggesting that in addition to an increase in the incidence of dementia in T2D patients, a more rapid cognitive decline may also occur, including a higher conversion rate of individuals who have mild cognitive impairment in patients with dementia [76, 77, 78]. This information has aroused interest in studying a possible association between T2D and dementia.
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Many hypotheses have been raised about the common features that involve the two pathologies and how these can be related to each other. It has been suggested that both diseases may share common signaling pathways, although molecular and cellular mechanisms still need elucidation. There is evidence that insulin resistance in the brain, including insulin pathway dysregulation, inflammatory processes, formation of advanced glycation products, as well as oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction, may be implicated in the pathogenesis of AD and T2D [79].
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Insulin, besides having an essential role as regulator of energy metabolism, also exerts a role in plasticity, survival and neuronal growth, as well as learning and memory processes, contributing to the improvement of cognitive functions; their absence has been associated with cognitive decline in patients with neurological and neurodegenerative diseases, such as AD [80, 81, 82]. In fact, it has been demonstrated that brains of patients with AD present altered insulin signaling [83]. Insulin receptors are found in the central nervous system (CNS) in large number and their impairment (hence the signaling cascade) may culminate in a number of alterations mainly involving PI3K, AKT and mTOR proteins. Abnormal expression of these and other proteins and the deregulation of this pathway may contribute to the formation of Aβ aggregates, neurofibrillary tangles by hyperphosphorylation of the tau protein [84], as well as the impairment of the autophagy process regulated by mTOR [75], whose hyperexpression has been related to T2D [85] and AD [86].
\n
Thus, in the same way as T2D, AD is a disease related to less efficient molecular signaling in response to insulin, inflammation, oxidative stress, formation of advanced glycation end products and increased accumulation of DNA damage [87, 88, 89]. Thus, these characteristics suggest a connection between the two diseases.
\n
The presence of higher levels of inflammation has already been described both in T2D and AD patients. In T2D there is a chronic inflammatory response localized in adipose tissue and characterized by the infiltration of immune system components, mainly macrophages, which release different proinflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α and IL-6 [90, 91]. Such cytokines may lead to insulin resistance by inducing cytokine signaling suppressors (SOCS), which participate in the degradation of IRS-1 and IRS-2 [92, 93]. In addition, these cytokines also activate stress response kinases, such as JNK and NF-κβ, which in turn act on the insulin receptor, inhibiting its tyrosine kinase activity, therefore culminating in insulin resistance [94, 95].
\n
Similar inflammatory processes probably occur in the brain and peripheral tissues. Several studies have established the presence of inflammatory markers in the brains of patients with AD, including high levels of cytokines/chemokines [96]. In addition, inflammatory mediator levels in blood as TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-1b are increased in AD patients [97]. Thus, both in the brain and in peripheral tissues, chronic inflammation becomes harmful, leading to progressive damage to tissues and consequently triggering degenerative diseases.
\n
There is evidence that insulin plays an important role in glucose regulation in the CNS, and its additional effects on neurons include metabolic, neurotrophic, neuromodulatory and neuroendocrine actions [98]. The presence of higher levels of inflammatory mediators in the CNS seems to stimulate the formation of beta-amyloid oligomers and neurofibrillary tangles, which trigger the removal of insulin receptors in neurons, making this condition common in both T2D and AD, triggering progression of both diseases [89, 99] (Figure 2).
\n
Figure 2.
Relationship between increased levels of inflammatory factors and insulin sensitivity in both diseases, T2D and AD. Increased insulin resistance will lead to disease progression and the development of comorbidities in both T2D and AD.
\n
Besides, the lower sensitivity to insulin, in addition to being important for the progression of T2D, also appears to affect the expression and metabolism of Aβ proteins in the CNS, and consequently, an increase in oxidative stress condition [2, 100], which in turn, induces greater accumulation of Aβ oligomers [101] and the release of inflammatory mediators [88], as already mentioned. Thus, it seems that all these processes are related to T2D and AD as a vicious cycle, leading to the development and progression of comorbidities in both diseases, being one of the consequences of hyperglycemia and the accumulation of Aβ oligomers, respectively.
\n
However, both diseases seem to present less efficient DNA repair processes, which generate genomic instability and also cell death; this condition is closely related to the complications reported for patients with T2D, and also AD [24, 102]. According to Xavier et al. [103], hyperglycemic T2D patients presented induction of DNA repair pathways, probably in response to higher levels of oxidative stress, but it remains to be elucidated whether the efficacy of repair pathways are normal in non-hyperglycemic T2D patients. In the case of AD, there is evidence that repair of DNA double strand breaks is less efficient [104], as well as base excision repair pathway [105], which would be detrimental to AD individuals, considering the relevance of DNA repair mechanisms for the DNA damage repair caused by ROS [106], and also by several kinds of endogenous and exogenous agents.
\n
\n
\n
6. Conclusions
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Insulin resistance is one of the main causes of disturbances in glucose homeostasis. In patients with T2D, long term exposure to high levels of blood glucose can lead to a number of cellular and molecular changes in the body. In this context, hyperglycemia can promote several conformational changes in mitochondria, overload of the electron transport chain, leading to the overproduction of ROS, and mitochondrial dysfunction. Furthermore, the imbalance between the prooxidant and the antioxidant defense system lead to a condition of oxidative stress, where the reactive molecules can cause damage to lipids, proteins and nucleic acids. Interestingly, there is evidence that DNA repair levels and activity of antioxidant enzymes are reduced in T2D; in the opposite, DNA damage levels as well as oxidized bases in these patients were found increased. Insulin resistance has been also associated with several metabolic pathways and induction of inflammation and stress, including ER stress. Therefore, the normal signalization of the insulin pathway is vital and its dysregulation is implicated not only in T2D but also in other diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases. In the brain, there is also evidence of insulin resistance and dysregulation of insulin pathway, generating inflammatory processes, as well as oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction, all of them might be implicated in the pathogenesis of T2D and AD, thus linking the two diseases.
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
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Research supported by Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel (CAPES), National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq) and São Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP). We thank CNPq for providing fellowship to J.E.B.F.Lima.
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Conflict of interest
There is no conflict of interests.
\n',keywords:"type 2 diabetes mellitus, insulin resistance, hyperglycemia, oxidative stress, DNA repair, reactive oxygen species (ROS), mitochondrial dysfunction, Alzheimer’s disease",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/66539.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/66539.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66539",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66539",totalDownloads:400,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"October 5th 2018",dateReviewed:"February 25th 2019",datePrePublished:"April 24th 2019",datePublished:null,dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2D) is characterized mainly by insulin resistance and/or deficiency, presenting risk factors related to aging, hypercaloric diet and sedentary lifestyle. Hyperglycemia, a hallmark of T2D, contributes significantly to the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), inducing oxidative stress and various cellular and molecular changes in the body. As a consequence, several signaling pathways may be affected, mainly involving biological processes such as inflammation, DNA damage responses, antioxidant defense and metabolic changes. All these processes are relevant for the understanding of the pathogenesis of T2D, and also for the development of diabetic complications in chronic patients. Recently, common characteristics linking T2D to Alzheimer’s disease (AD) have been reported. The purpose of this chapter is to highlight the main processes associated with the disease, such as insulin signaling pathways, oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, DNA damage and repair and antioxidant defense. In addition, the molecular impact of nutritional interventions in patients with T2D will also be addressed, as will the molecular keystones linking T2D and AD. Recently, there is accumulated evidence indicating that the two diseases may share common signaling pathways that may be relevant to the etiopathogenesis of each of them.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/66539",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/66539",book:{slug:"type-2-diabetes-from-pathophysiology-to-modern-management"},signatures:"Jessica E.B.F. Lima, Danilo J. Xavier and Elza T. Sakamoto-Hojo",authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Insulin signaling pathway",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Impact of nutritional interventions in diabetes care",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Susceptibility of T2D to Alzheimer’s disease",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. 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Seminars in Cell & Developmental Biology. 1999;10(1):19-29\n'},{id:"B95",body:'Kohn LD, Wallace B, Schwartz F, McCall K. Is type 2 diabetes an autoimmune-inflammatory disorder of the innate immune system? Endocrinology. 2005;146(10):4189-4191\n'},{id:"B96",body:'Perry VH, Nicoll JAR, Holmes C. Microglia in neurodegenerative disease. Nature Reviews. Neurology. 2010;6(4):193-201\n'},{id:"B97",body:'Swardfager W, Lanctôt K, Rothenburg L, Wong A, Cappell J, Herrmann N. A meta-analysis of cytokines in Alzheimer’s disease. Biological Psychiatry. 2010;68(10):930-941\n'},{id:"B98",body:'Schulingkamp RJ, Pagano TC, Hung D, Raffa RB. Insulin receptors and insulin action in the brain: Review and clinical implications. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. 2000;24(8):855-872\n'},{id:"B99",body:'Craft S. Insulin resistance and AD—Extending the translational path. Nature Reviews. Neurology. 2012;8(7):360-362\n'},{id:"B100",body:'Li L, Hölscher C. Common pathological processes in Alzheimer disease and type 2 diabetes: A review. Brain Research Reviews. 2007;56(2):384-402\n'},{id:"B101",body:'Praticò D, Clark CM, Liun F, Lee VY-M, Trojanowski JQ. Increase of brain oxidative stress in mild cognitive impairment: A possible predictor of Alzheimer disease. Archives of Neurology. 2002;59(6):972-976\n'},{id:"B102",body:'Migliore L, Fontana I, Trippi F, Colognato R, Coppedè F, Tognoni G, et al. Oxidative DNA damage in peripheral leukocytes of mild cognitive impairment and AD patients. Neurobiology of Aging. 2005;26(5):567-573\n'},{id:"B103",body:'Xavier DJ, Takahashi P, Evangelista AF, Foss-Freitas MC, Foss MC, Donadi EA, et al. Assessment of DNA damage and mRNA/miRNA transcriptional expression profiles in hyperglycemic versus non-hyperglycemic patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Mutation Research-Fundamental and Molecular Mechanisms of Mutagenesis. 2015;776:98-110\n'},{id:"B104",body:'Shackelford DA. DNA end joining activity is reduced in Alzheimer’s disease. Neurobiology of Aging. 2006;27(4):596-605\n'},{id:"B105",body:'Leandro GS, Evangelista AF, Lobo RR, Xavier DJ, Moriguti JC, Sakamoto-Hojo ET. Changes in expression profiles revealed by transcriptomic analysis in peripheral blood mononuclear cells of Alzheimer’s disease patients. Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease. 2018;1:1-13\n'},{id:"B106",body:'Ataian Y, Krebs JE. Five repair pathways in one context: Chromatin modification during DNA repair. Biochemistry and Cell Biology. 2006;84(4):490-494\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Jessica E.B.F. Lima",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Genetics, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo (USP), Brazil
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Danilo J. Xavier",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Genetics, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo (USP), Brazil
'},{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Elza T. Sakamoto-Hojo",address:"etshojo@usp.br",affiliation:'
Department of Genetics, Ribeirão Preto Medical School, University of São Paulo (USP), Brazil
Department of Biology, Faculty of Philosophy, Sciences and Letters at Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo (USP), Brazil
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1. Introduction: conceptualizing health promotion
According to Tannahill [1], health promotion is an umbrella term covering overlapping fields of health education, prevention and attempts to protect public health through social engineering, legislations, fiscal measures and institutional policies which entail the combination of the best in terms of both theory and practice from a wide range of expert groups (educationists, behavioral scientists, medical practitioners) and non-professionals including the communities involved. For him, health promotion stems largely from a new focus for health services that recognize some basic facts: many contemporary health problems are preventable or avoidable through lifestyle change; modern technology is a bundle of mixed blessings bringing both benefits and risks to health; medical technology is at the phase of diminishing returns (losing efficacy and connection to ordinary people); such non-medical factors as better nutrition, improved living conditions and public health measures have contributed to both health and longevity even more than medical measures; that doctors can cause as well as cure disease; and increasing public desire to attain better or improved quality of life and at the same time demystifying and demedicalising the attainment (achievement) of good health [1].
For the World Health Organization (WHO), health promotion is essentially about engendering a context in which the health and well-being of whole populations or groups are owned mainly by the people concerned, i.e., enabling citizens of local communities to achieve political control and determination of their health [2, 3]. Therefore, health promotion goes beyond mere healthcare but puts health on the policymaking agenda in all sectors and at all levels, directing policymakers to be cognisant or conscious of the health consequences of their decisions and accept responsibilities for health.
Health promotion can be seen as the whole process of enabling or empowering people to increase control over and improve their overall health. It focuses on creating awareness of health issues, engendering behaviour modification consistent with prevention and attitudes to ill health and motivating increased usage of available health facilities. In the pursuit of good health (physical, mental and social well-being), individuals and groups through health promotion are enabled to identify and realize aspirations, satisfy needs and change or cope with the environment in manners consistent with complete good health.
Health promotion is expected to contribute to programme impact by enabling prevention of disease, reduction of the risk factors or behaviors associated with given diseases, promoting and fostering lifestyles and conditions that are conducive to good health and enabling increasing use of available health facilities. Therefore, health promotion creates both the awareness and conscientisation that leads to disease prevention, control of health situations and usage of health services and facilities. It implies individual and collective control and participation in health focusing on behavioral change, socio-economic lifestyles and the physical environment.
Without doubt the WHO’s Ottawa Charter definition of health promotion is very comprehensive and encompasses the core values and guiding objectives of health promotions [3]. It summarily sees health promotion as the process of enabling people to increase control over and improve their health. In line with the above definition, Macdonald and Davies [4] contend that it calls attention to the critical role of the concepts of process and control as the real essence of health promotion. For them, “the key concepts in this definition are ‘process’ and ‘control’, and therefore effectiveness and quality assurance in health promotion must focus on enablement and empowerment. If the activity under consideration is not enabling and empowering it is not health promotion” [4], p. 6.
As the burgeoning literature on health promotion over the years indicate it is a community-driven (inspired), multifaceted and multidisciplinary area of concern that also involves critical sociopolitical, economic and environmental elements and dynamics (see [4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]).
It is important to also understand that even though one can make a distinction between public health and health promotion, in reality both are interconnected and hardly practically separable. In other words, public health is built on health promotion and health promotion is imperative for public health delivery. As has been argued, public health “is synonymous with health promotion in that it aims to implement co-ordinated community action to produce a healthier society” [11], p. 315.
There is no gainsaying the fact that health promotion nowadays has an overwhelming sociopolitical component that is really definitive. In fact, as has been posited, “health promotion activities are by their nature inherently politically based and driven, thus making it impossible to divorce them from the political arena” [11], p. 314. Health promotion becomes a dynamic area of interface between public policy institutions (the state and its agencies), the public (community/people) and the professionals (ranging from the media professionals, public health advocates, social workers to medical practitioners).
The chapter depended on the desk review of extant literature and documents for its information. The main exclusionary criteria in this regard were materials not related to health promotion and materials published before 1984, which were considered extreme-dated. The inclusive criteria were determined by such concepts as public health, public health in Africa, health promotion, health education and awareness and theories and models in health promotion. Such prominent Internet information sites like the WHO, American Public Health Association (APHA), Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA) and the Universitats Bibliothek Leipzig (UBL) Online Resources were utilized in gathering materials for the chapter.
2. Theories and models of health promotion
There is no gainsaying the fact that effective and result-oriented health promotion practice depends on sound theory [12]. In other words, theory becomes very informative of health promotion practice and activities. In recognition of the above, one would examine briefly the main theories that have implicated health promotion globally. It is important, however, to state here that the choice of a theory or model to guide health promotion should be determined largely by the specific nature of the health issue being addressed, the community or population in view and the sociopolitical context in question. This is because theories and models are simply used in practice in order to plan health programmes, explain and understand health behaviour as well as underpin the identification of appropriate intervention and implement such intervention in ways that are both effective and sustainable.
Despite a plethora of theories and models utilized in health promotion, I will only focus on five of the most popular and commonly used. These are ecological models of health promotion, the Health Belief Model (HBM), Stages of Change Model or the Trans-theoretical Model, Theory of Reasoned Action or Planned Behaviour and the Social Cognitive Theory.
2.1 The ecological models of health promotion
As the name implies, these models focus on the interaction of people with their physical and sociocultural environments. The approach thus recognizes that there are multiple levels of influence on health and health behaviour especially the health seeking behaviour and choices that people make. The ecological models are anchored on five overriding influences which determine and guide health behaviour and response to health issues [13, 14, 15, 16]. These influences are intrapersonal or individual factors (these impact on individual behaviour, e.g., beliefs, knowledge, attitude, etc.); interpersonal factors (these are produced through living with and interacting with other people, e.g., family, friends and social groups/networks; these other people can function as both the source of solidarity and support as well as sources of barriers and constraints to health-promoting behaviour of the individual, e.g., dwelling among chronic smokers or having intense interaction with them may expose one to the dangers of either smoking or the influence of second-hand smoke); community factors (these make reference to social norms that are shared by groups or communities, and such norms whether formal or informal can influence health behaviour and health seeking behaviour of the individual and group members, e.g., relationship between institutions, groups and organizations); institutional factors (policies, rules, regulations and institutional structures that may constrain or even promote healthy behaviour in a given society, e.g., the workplace and voluntary organizations to which the individual belongs are prime examples); public policy factors (policies at different level of governance that regulate, structure or support actions and practices targeted at health outcomes like disease prevention policies and structures enabling early detection, control or response and management of health crisis in the society; these stem from the position of the government and are critical in achieving the goals of public health delivery) (Figure 1).
Figure 1.
Ecological models of health promotion (simplified).
As the above pyramid, suggests the individual, interpersonal and community factors are at the base. These factors therefore exert more influence and pressure over the individual’s health behaviour than the institutional and public policy factors as these are more important. In other words, the institutional and public policy factors are literally far from the individual and do not exert as much pressure on his behaviour as those factors that are very close to him both spatially and otherwise. In an age of increasing pessimism in government, people are much driven by interpersonal and community factors than what comes from a typical further off entity.
Given the above, it is obvious that the ecological approach is very pertinent in the understanding of the range of factors that influence people’s health. Its main strength is that it can provide what is called a complete perspective on factors that affect health behaviour and response to health issues especially the role of social and cultural factors or normative patterns on health in the society. It is perhaps very well suited to health intervention and practice in developing societies with an overbearing influence of sociocultural factors on behaviour, attitudes and practice of the people.
2.2 The health belief model (HBM)
This is a theoretical model that has been found useful in guiding both health promotion and strategies for disease prevention. As the name suggests, it focuses on individual beliefs about specific health conditions which predict or direct individual health behaviour [17, 18]. The specific components of this belief that influence health behaviour include perceived susceptibility to the disease; perceived severity of the disease in question; perceived benefits of action (positive benefits of such action) as well as cues to action (awareness of factors that engender action); self-efficacy (belief that action would lead to success); and perceived barriers or obstacles to action (especially if such obstacles are seen as daunting or insurmountable or otherwise).
In the utilization of the HBM in health promotion, there are five main action-related segments that would help in identifying key decision-making points and thus facilitate the utilization of knowledge in guiding health intervention. These are: collection of information (through needs assessments; rapid rural appraisal, etc. in order to determine those at risk of the disease or affliction and specify which population or component of the population to be targeted in the intervention); conveying in unambiguous and clear terms the likely consequences of the health issue in question and its associated risk behaviors in order to facilitate a clear apprehension of its severity; communication (getting information to the target population on the recommended steps to take and the perceived or likely benefits of the recommended action); provision of needed assistance (help the people in both the identification of and reduction of barriers or constraints to action); and demonstration (actions and activities that enable skill development and support aimed at enhancing self-efficacy and increased chances of successful behaviour modification targeted at the health issue in question) (Figure 2).
Figure 2.
Health belief model (HBM).
In Africa, the HBM has been very useful in understanding people’s response and behaviour to HIV/AIDS and other chronic diseases. Being a society very flushed with beliefs, the degree of responsiveness to a health situation is often the direct product of a set of beliefs held by the individual and/or by his immediate community.
2.3 Stages of change model (aka trans-theoretical model)
This model is focused on examining and explaining the individual’s readiness to change his behaviour and sees such change as occurring or happening in successive stages. It therefore adopts a quasi-evolutionary framing of behaviour change in which behaviour change, sustenance and termination are encompassed in six stages. These stages are pre-contemplation (existence of no intention to take any action by the individual); contemplation (thinking about taking action and ruminating on plans to do this soon); preparation (signifies intention to take action and includes the possibility that some steps or preliminary steps to action have been taken already); action (discernible change in behaviour for a brief period of time); maintenance (sustenance of the action taken; behaviour change that is maintained in the long run or long-term behaviour change); and termination (the expressed and discernible desire never to return to prior negative behaviour by the individual concerned).
The above stages are very important in planning behaviour change or modification and recognize that behaviour change is both gradual and takes time. What is needed from the health promoter is that at each of these stages specific interventions or programmes are devised to help the individual progress to the next stage. Also, the recognition that the model may in reality be cyclical rather than lineal, i.e., individuals may progress to the next stage or even regress to previous or lower stages, is important in planning health promotion interventions utilizing this model. It also calls attention to understanding that there are individual differences in the adoption of change, i.e., some people may be swift in behaviour modification, while others may take longer time; but each needs support in order to pull through.
2.4 Theory of reasoned action (theory of planned action)
The main contention of this theory is that an individual’s health behaviour is usually determined by his intention to exhibit or display a given behaviour. Therefore, the intention to exhibit a given behaviour (or behaviour intention) is predicated upon or predicted by two main factors, viz. personal attitude to the behaviour in question and subjective or personal norms (an individual’s social and environmental context and the perception the individual has over that behaviour) related to that behaviour.
The basic assumption here is that both positive attitudes and positive subjective norms will generate greater perceived control of behaviour and increase the chances of intentions towards changes in behaviour. The theory generally provides information that can be used in predicting people’s health behaviour and thus in planning and driving through health interventions. It anchors in recognizing the predictors of behaviour-oriented action and the need for supportive social and environmental contexts that facilitate and sustain desirable health behaviour.
2.5 The social cognitive theory (SCT)
This theory combines both the cognition of the individual and the social context of the individual in offering explanation and understanding of health behaviour and response. It seeks to describe the influence of the experience of the individual, his perception of the actions of other people near him and the factors in the person’s immediate environment on health behaviour of the individual. It moves from this general perspective to provide opportunities for social support (defined as conducive to healthy behaviour) and reinforcements that generate behaviour change or modification. In this sense, the SCT depends on the idea of reciprocal determinism which denotes the continuing or uninterrupted interaction among the person’s characteristics, his behaviour and the social context or environment in which the behaviour takes place.
However, the best way to appreciate the SCT is to examine the main components the theory isolates as related to behaviour change at the individual level. These are self-efficacy (belief in one’s ability to control and execute behaviour within a given context); behaviour capability (thorough comprehension of behaviour and the ability to exhibit or perform it); expectations (outcomes or outputs of the behaviour change in question); expectancies (the assignation of value to the above outcome of behaviour and which is important in sustaining the behaviour); self- control (the regulation and monitoring of behaviour of the individual); observational learning (the act of watching others performing the desired behaviour and the outcomes therein as well as modeling that behaviour in question); and reinforcements (incentives and rewards seen as eliciting, encouraging and sustaining behaviour change in the individual) [19].
The three components as the above diagram shows reinforce each other and in the process condition and determine behaviour of the individual even in the context of health as well as choices made therein (Figure 3). The SCT is very pertinent in contexts where desirable health outcomes can be achieved by behaviour modification or change. For instance, certain chronic diseases or health conditions can be tackled through healthy lifestyles and dieting that reduce risk factors and chances of individuals succumbing to such conditions. Therefore, the theory can help frame intervention programmes in this area that focus on changing people’s behaviour and in the process achieve desirable health outcomes.
Figure 3.
Illustration of the social cognitive theory (SCT).
Theories and perspectives or models as already indicated are critical in providing explanations of a problem or issue (broadening our understanding and perspective as it were) and also very important in the effort to tackle a given problem or issue in the society especially by way of developing and implementing programmes and interventions. Perhaps, the above underscores why some scholars [20, 21, 22] would highlight the difference between the so-called theories of the problem and theories of action, meaning that while the former aids our apprehension of a given issue or social reality, the latter is important in terms of taking actions or evolving activities to tackle the issue in question.
3. Health promotion as sociopolitical engagement
Health promotion generally implicates a huge element of politics and power dynamics in the sense that only political will and cognition can build discernible changes in health. Lobbying and advocacy are critical tools of health promotion and function within the political arena. The sociopolitical contexts and influences are especially recognizable in the public health sector in the developing world where political will and doggedness are often necessary to drive through even the most salutary change or innovation in the health sector. Also, political forces are equally dominant in the provision of crucial health infrastructure and facilities as well as the reasonable funding demanded by any effective public health system. As Harrison opines health promotion “requires concerted, sophisticated and integrated political action to bring about change and requires professionals concerned with public health to engage with the politics of systems and organizations” [5], 165.
Therefore, health promotion seeks to empower and transform communities by getting them involved in activities that influence public health especially through agenda setting, lobbying and advocacy, consciousness raising and social education [11, 22]. All these are accomplished on terms that are either defined or strictly affected by the socio-economic realities of the people themselves. By its emphasis on the community, health promotion has a heavy sociological frame that prioritizes the values of society as well as mobilization and solidarity in the quest for good and sustainable health. It thus makes assumption that individual members of the society would give equal weight to their own health and the health of their neighbors. In other words, it is often anchored on the uncanny assumption that the health of the individual member of a given society is intertwined with the health of the community as a collective. This means the reference point of health promotion is that one’s health is as good as the health of the members of the community or society as a whole, i.e., common health destiny. Therefore, such things as community empowerment, community competence and overwhelming sense of community are all apprehended as contributing to the health of the communities [23].
4. Approaches to health promotion
Traditionally there are five approaches utilized in health promotion. These are medical (the focus here is to make people free from medically defined diseases and afflictions; it is mainly anchored on prevention strategies and the role of the medical practitioner or expert in ensuring that the patients comply with recommendations); behavioural change (behaviour modification approach that recognizes that people’s behaviour and lifestyles can be changed in order to enable them attain good health, i.e., facilitate adoption of healthy lifestyle); educational (provision of information and knowledge that enable understanding of health issues and build awareness for informed decision-making and choice among people); client-centred (in this situation health practitioners work with clients in order to identify what they know about a given disease and take appropriate action; emphasis on perceiving the client as equal and building the clients self-empowerment that enable them make good choices and control their health outcomes); and societal change (the focus here is on the society or community rather than the individual and seeks to change or modify both the physical and social environments in order to make them consistent with or conducive to good health).
The conventional health promotion methods (modes of operationalizing health promotion and achieving its goals) include health education (the conscious and systematic effort at providing education or knowledge to people on particular and general aspects of health; it is about enabling people through proper and right knowledge on what to do and how to do it; it is empowering and improving people’s capacity to act with regard to their health issues and conditions), information, communication (the above three are often captured in the popular acronym IEC), social mobilization, mediation, community theater and advocacy and lobbying. However, while these methods are okay in differing contexts, a decision on the specific medium to use should be guided by both environment (community conditions) and the nature of the health issue involved. The use of more than one method in any given case is highly recommended especially in Africa where there are broad inequalities in access to social goods and the media. The increasing use of social media especially among young Africans calls attention to their deployment equally in core health promotion. Social media platforms like WhatsApp and blogs can be very potent in this regard.
5. Health promotion research in Africa
There is an undeniable need to give high priority to health promotion research in Africa. Such research should aim at enabling a realistic and focused achievement of the goals of health promotion. Broadly, health promotion aims inter alia at:
The prevention of communicable and non-communicable diseases
The reduction of risk factors associated with diseases
The fostering of lifestyles and conditions in the general population that are consistent with overall well-being or good health
The effective/maximal utilization of existing health services and stimulating demand for others where/when necessary
According to the WHO [24] Health Promotion Strategy for the African Region, the contributions of health promotion to the achievement of health objectives include increasing individual knowledge and skills especially through IEC; strengthening community action through the use of social mobilization; enabling the emergence of environments supportive and protective of health by making optimal use of mediation and negotiation; enabling the development of public policies, legislation and fiscal controls which enhance and support health and overall development using advocacy and lobbying; and making prevention and consumer needs the core focus of health services delivery. All these can be positively influenced by research and studies which evaluate the effectiveness of what has been done as well as explore new strategies suitable to the socio-environmental context in question.
However, while research is very critical to achieving the goals of health promotion, it should be concise and focus essentially on the priority health programmes which have been identified by the WHO for the continent. Some of such programmes include the Global Fund for Malaria, HIV/AIDS and Tuberculosis, Immunization, Mental Health, the Tobacco Free Initiative and Reproductive Health as well as the fight against recurrent scourge of Ebola, etc. Such research should focus on identifying effective health promotion approaches and communication media to embody and convey the outcomes to communities through community participation; the extent or effectiveness of these means and seeking to still improve overall programme effectiveness and sustainability. Therefore, health promotion research should focus on ascertaining goals/outcomes of health promotion (to guide policy), provide reliable conditions associated with these outcomes or goals, precisely define the changes intended and delineate reliable mechanisms and indicators of M and E of health promotion strategies in specific country/community contexts.
The importance of research is essentially derived from the fact that it calls attention to the need for verification and evidence-based activities in health promotion. These are without doubt the ways of knowing if real empowerment and enabling has been achieved in the process. Thus,
Health promotion is about enabling people to improve their health; and secondly, evidence relevant to health promotion should bear directly on factors that support or prevent enablement and empowerment (determinants of health) activities that support enablement and empowerment (health promotion) and assessing whether these activities have been successful (evaluation of health promotion). [25], p. 357
The above clearly suggest that health promotion should be anchored on evidence or should rest on experience and reality regarding what works or what is possible and effective in any context. In this manner, “evidence-based health promotion involves explicit application of quality research evidence when making decisions” [26], p. 126. Research is even more foundational in health promotion since health promotion efforts need to be anchored on agreed definitions and values of health promotion. As Seedhouse contends the failure to be explicit about definitions and values generates conceptual confusion in research as well as sloppy practice [27].
The evaluation of health promotion which should be a core research activity may be based on the three main forms of evidence/knowledge associated with health promotion [28]: instrumental (controlling social and physical environments), interactive (understanding of diseases/health issues; lived experiences; solidarity) and critical (reflection and action; raising consciousness regarding causes and means of overcoming them). These three evidences are anchored on the given scientific/philosophical traditions, viz. instrumental (positivism, quantitative, experimental, scientific knowledge), interactive (constructivist, naturalistic, ethnographic/qualitative knowledge) and critical (materialist, structural and feminist theory).
There is also an overwhelming need for health promotion research to be aware of the difference between health promotion outcomes and health outcomes. Health outcomes crudely imply the consequences or benefits of healthcare delivery (e.g., reduction of mortality rate) related to a disease (which may be the case in spite of an increment in number of those affected by the disease). But health promotion outcomes signify the form of control and attitudinal re-orientation groups and individuals adopt in facing a given disease which may impact on the number of people affected by the disease and improve attitudes and behaviour towards those affected by the disease. Health promotion outcomes can be seen directly through community members’ perception and interpretations of a given health issue which makes the achievement of control possible.
Health promotion research should utilize both quantitative and qualitative methods. In addition to complementing quantitative methods in health promotion research, qualitative research enables the researcher reach the heart of issues in engagement with community members. In Africa, where a good percentage of the population are still domiciled in the rural areas, qualitative approach offers the possibility of profound insights into the why and how of health behaviors which may not be possible or easily achieved with the quantitative or traditional biomedical approaches. As a result, “the increasing popularity of qualitative methods is as a result of perceived failure of traditional methods to provide insights into the determinants – both structural and personal – of whether people pursue or do not pursue health-promoting actions” [25], p. 359.
6. Challenges to health promotion in Africa
It is important to recognize that in spite of apparent good intentions, health promotion can actually generate negative or counterproductive effects when not well managed. Thus, “negative outcomes occur where professionally paternalistic and disempowering health policy decisions force health-related outcomes that are irrelevant to sustained community development and are not based on or resourced according to the social reality of the community” [11], p. 315. The above sentiments caution one against embarking on health promotion activities and initiatives that are not anchored on the health realities of the community concerned. Often, overzealous health professionals unintentionally betray the health priorities of communities by assuming knowledge of all there is to know about the health situations and needs of the people.
Perhaps a critical shortfall of some health promotion activities and processes is the adoption of what can be termed the pathogenic paradigm which over-relies on risk instead of emphasizing protective mechanisms. This essentially entails a focus on the failure of communities and individuals to avoid disease or their apparent susceptibility to diseases instead of seeking to unleash their potential and capacity to engender and sustain good health and development. It is an approach that relies too much on health practitioners and experts and hardly gives voice to the people and their own knowledge cum realities.
Generally health promotion in Africa suffers from some of the debilitating challenges which confront the practice of health promotion broadly in many countries in the continent. These challenges, among others, include:
Poor definition and rudimentary elaboration of expected health outcomes
Ambiguous elaboration of factors and conditions to be targeted in health promotions
Ambiguity of health promotion policies and guidelines
Lack of capacity (or inadequate capacity) to develop, implement and evaluate health promotion programmes
A general context of inadequate investment in health promotion
Underdeveloped sectoral collaboration
Low political will and commitment to health promotion programmes as well as institutional corruption and resource mismanagement
The above challenges have implications for research in health promotions in the continent. There is no gainsaying the need for health promotion to be evidence based because essentially it is the only way to make it responsive to the health needs and interests of the people.
7. Resituating and reinforcing health promotion in Africa
Health promotion combines varied but complementary indicators like legislation, health finance including fiscal measures and taxation, gender inclusiveness, mapping of priorities and organizational change. In spite of their differences, these issues are in reality intertwined or systematically connected in the sense that, for the public health system to function well and optimally, there should be a synergy between these indicators. Briefly:
7.1 Legislation
This revolves around having the political will to make and drive through policies and laws that improve and sustain healthcare delivery. It also involves public health sector governance and leadership which aim at ensuring that only competent and qualified people lead the sector and that activities are governed by a democratic and free process which place emphasis on human rights, dignity and self-worth of all stakeholders.
7.2 Finance
Without doubt efficient health promotion and by implication the entire health delivery system cannot function without finance. In fact, the extent and impact of health promotion depend to a significant extent on the availability of funds. The problem of finance is especially critical in developing nations in Africa where political corruption and competing needs whittle down whatever gets to health from the yearly appropriation of government. However, there is a need to understand that a lot needs to be done in terms of the fiscal policies in these nations in order to achieve the desire for good health and improved life expectancy. In other words, the process of fiscal policymaking and budgetary allocation should prioritize health promotion and health delivery in these countries.
7.3 Organizational change
There is no gainsaying the fact that the health system as a whole is dynamic especially so in Africa where apart from battling known ailments new ones (or novel presentation of the old ailments) spring up now and then. The above entails that the health system calls for dynamic organizational setting that is robust enough to deal with changes while making improvements in the system. There is apparently no denying the fact that health promotion as a critical component of health delivery would benefit from organizational change. This is particularly so in the face of the reality that health promotion in most of the continent is still below the expectation. This is not to deny that health promotion has worked well in specific instances like the HIV/AID scourge and maternal health. However, such grab and slash system which focuses on only one of such delimited issues in the system cannot be seen as either robust or effective in the long run.
7.4 Gender inclusiveness
There is an obvious need to ‘en-gender’ health promotion as a very critical issue in Africa. This would entail ensuring that those involved in health promotion ensure that in all key phases of health promotion (planning, implementation and evaluation) women and men should be equal partners and collaborators. Gender, in this case, while calling attention to the needs of women, should also ensure that the men are not left behind even in approaching health issues traditionally seen as the concerns of women. Typical example here is in the area of family planning or reproductive health which demands the active collaboration or participation of both men and women to achieve desired results.
7.5 Mapping of priorities
For the WHO [24], the priority interventions in Africa in respect of health promotions include capacity building, development of plans, incorporation of health promotion components in non-health sectors and strengthening of priority programmes using health promotion interventions. These essentially mean pursuing health promotion through capacity building, action planning, advocacy and multisectoral orientation. They are also in tune with relating to the determinants of health promotion in the continent. These include socio-economic conditions and physical (environment), biological, and behavioral lifestyles which impact on health in Africa. Countries can be encouraged to map out their priorities taking into consideration such factors as disease and financial burdens, threats, intervention tools and agencies, acuity, management capabilities, persistent challenges, etc.
8. Conclusion and recommendations
Generally, there is a need for stepping up health promotion research in Africa in the areas of family and reproductive health targeting such issues as VVF, antenatal care, diabetes, cardiovascular issues, new disease forms/resurgence of old diseases (including Ebola), etc. especially in terms of communicating with those who are marginal to the formal sector of the society or who are less privileged by virtue of education, economic opportunities or physical/mental challenges, etc. in both urban and rural contexts. Health promotion can profit from an acute awareness of the fact that what works in one socio-geographical setting may not work in another since no two societies are exactly the same. This would entail designing programmes that even where the general principles or goals remain the same embody recognition of the socio-geographical peculiarities of the society/community concerned.
Given the usual paucity of funds in the continent, it makes sense that to minimize cost and save time, there should be incorporation of both needs assessment and evaluation into ongoing health promotion activities. This approach offers a smart way of pursuing health promotion goals without elaborate budget.
In spite of country differences and specific structural challenges, there is a need to build a culture of sharing and documenting outcomes and evidences of health promotion between different countries and organizations. This is a step towards achieving the desirable goal of multinational coordination especially for infectious diseases and epidemics. Equally, African nations need to invest more in capacity building for media and theater practitioners in both private and public sectors on health promotion. There is no gainsaying the media’s crucial role in health information dissemination. Actually, health promotion is largely media driven and should be programmed as such.
In addition to media practitioners, there should be health programme or intervention specific to health promotion capacity building for different cadres of public sector workers. Such capacity building or training should be anchored on acute awareness of current research trends and best practices globally. There should also be increased attention to the need for specific health promotion for under-represented health issues and priority to non-communicable diseases should be targeted. It should also improve capacity on how to incorporate methods of targeting members of the society marginal or vulnerable within each country context.
\n',keywords:"health promotion, public health, challenges, Africa, health education, theories",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/71667.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/71667.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71667",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71667",totalDownloads:382,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"July 5th 2019",dateReviewed:"February 21st 2020",datePrePublished:"April 5th 2020",datePublished:"September 9th 2020",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"The chapter examines the place and role of health promotion in the drive for sustainable and effective public health delivery in Africa. It conceptualizes health promotion from a multifaceted and multi-professional perspective hinged on the empowerment of communities and individuals to play active roles and adopt behaviour consistent with the goals of good health. The paper drawing on documentary data sees health promotion as critical to the achievement of health goals in the continent and equally reflects on the theories of health promotion, strategies for health promotion and challenges to health promotion in Africa. It argues that health promotion in the continent can be strengthened through such measures as appropriate legislations, robust funding, gender inclusiveness, stepping up research, regular needs assessment and evaluation, setting needs-driven priorities and building capacity of health promotion to target vulnerable and marginal members of the society, among others.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/71667",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/71667",signatures:"Edlyne Eze Anugwom",book:{id:"9138",title:"Public Health in Developing Countries",subtitle:"Challenges and Opportunities",fullTitle:"Public Health in Developing Countries - Challenges and Opportunities",slug:"public-health-in-developing-countries-challenges-and-opportunities",publishedDate:"September 9th 2020",bookSignature:"Edlyne Eze Anugwom and Niyi Awofeso",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9138.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"293469",title:null,name:"Edlyne Eze",middleName:null,surname:"Anugwom",slug:"edlyne-eze-anugwom",fullName:"Edlyne Eze Anugwom"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"293469",title:null,name:"Edlyne Eze",middleName:null,surname:"Anugwom",fullName:"Edlyne Eze Anugwom",slug:"edlyne-eze-anugwom",email:"akommiri@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Nigeria, Nsukka",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Nigeria"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction: conceptualizing health promotion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Theories and models of health promotion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 The ecological models of health promotion",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 The health belief model (HBM)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Stages of change model (aka trans-theoretical model)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.4 Theory of reasoned action (theory of planned action)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.5 The social cognitive theory (SCT)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"3. Health promotion as sociopolitical engagement",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"4. Approaches to health promotion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"5. Health promotion research in Africa",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"6. Challenges to health promotion in Africa",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"7. Resituating and reinforcing health promotion in Africa",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"7.1 Legislation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"7.2 Finance",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"7.3 Organizational change",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"7.4 Gender inclusiveness",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"7.5 Mapping of priorities",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18",title:"8. Conclusion and recommendations",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Tannahill A. Health promotion – Caring concern. Journal of Medical Ethics. 1984;10:196-198'},{id:"B2",body:'World Health Organization. Health Promotion: A Discussion Document on Concepts and Principles. Geneva: WHO; 1984'},{id:"B3",body:'World Health Organization. The Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion. Geneva: WHO; 1986'},{id:"B4",body:'Macdonald G, Davies J. Reflection and vision: Proving and improving the promotion of health. In: Macdonald G, Davies J, editors. Quality, Evidence and Effectiveness in Health Promotion: Striving for Certainties. London: Routledge; 1998. pp. 5-18'},{id:"B5",body:'Harrison D. Health promotion and politics. In: Bunton R, Macdonald G, editors. Health Promotion: Disciplines, Diversity and Developments. 2nd ed. London: Routledge; 2002. pp. 158-177'},{id:"B6",body:'Tones K. Why theorise? Ideology in health promotion. Health Education Journal. 1990;49(1):2-6'},{id:"B7",body:'Jones L. The politics of health promotion. In: Jones L, Sidell M, editors. The Challenge of Promoting Health: Exploration and Action. London: Macmillan; 1997. pp. 131-157'},{id:"B8",body:'MacDonald TH. Rethinking Health Promotion: A Global Approach. London: Routledge; 1998'},{id:"B9",body:'Victor C. Inequalities in health and health promotion. In: Pike S, Forster D, editors. Health Promotion for all. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone; 1995. pp. 157-170'},{id:"B10",body:'Webster C, French J. The circle of conflict: The history of the public health and health promotion movements. In: Adams L, Amos M, Munro J, editors. Promoting Health: Politics and Practice. London: Sage; 2002. pp. 5-12'},{id:"B11",body:'Whitehead D. Health promotion and health education: Advancing the concepts. Journal of Advanced Nursing. 2004;47(3):311-320'},{id:"B12",body:'Caplan R, Holland R. Rethinking health education theory. Health Education Journal. 1990;49(1):10-12'},{id:"B13",body:'McLeroy KR, Bibeau D, Steckler A, Glanz K. An ecological perspective on health promotion programmes. Health Education Quarterly. 1988;15:351-375'},{id:"B14",body:'Sallis JF, Owen N. Ecological Models. In: Glanz K, Rimer BK, Lewis FM, editors. Health Behaviour and Health Education: Theory, Research and Practice. 2nd ed. San Francisco: John Wiley; 1997. pp. 403-424'},{id:"B15",body:'Stokols D. Establishing and maintaining healthy environments: Towards a social ecology of health promotion. The American Psychologist. 1992;47(1):6-22'},{id:"B16",body:'Hancock T. Health, human development and the community ecosystem: Three ecological models. Health Promotion International. 1993;8(1):41-47'},{id:"B17",body:'Janz N, Champion VL, Strecher VJ. The health belief model. In: Glanz K, Rimer BK, Lewis FM, editors. Health Behaviour and Health Education: Theory, Research and Practice. 3rd ed. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass; 2002. pp. 45-66'},{id:"B18",body:'Strecher VJ, Rosenstock IM. The health belief model. In: Glanz K, Rimer BK, Lewis FM, editors. Health Behaviour and Health Education: Theory, Research and Practice. 2nd ed. San Francisco: John Wiley; 1997. pp. 41-59'},{id:"B19",body:'Bartholomew LK, Parcel GS, Kok G, Gottlieb NH. Intervention Mapping: Designing Theory and Evidence-Based Health Promotion Programs. Mayfield: Mountain View, CA; 2001'},{id:"B20",body:'Parker EA, Israel BA, Brakefield-Caldwell W, Keeler GJ, Lewis TC, Ramirez E, et al. Community action against asthma: Explaining the partnership process of a community – based participatory research project. Journal of General Internal Medicine. 2003;18(7):558-567'},{id:"B21",body:'Parker E. Application of health promotion theories and models for environmental health. Health Education and Behaviour. 2004;31(4):491-509. DOI: 10.1177/1090198104265601'},{id:"B22",body:'Whitehead D. Incorporating socio-political health promotion activities in clinical practice. Journal of Clinical Nursing. 2003;12:668-677'},{id:"B23",body:'Edmondson R. Social capital: A strategy for enhancing health? Social Science & Medicine. 2003;57:1723-1733'},{id:"B24",body:'World Health Organization. Health Promotion: A Strategy for the African Region. Geneva: WHO; 2001'},{id:"B25",body:'Raphael D. The question of evidence in health promotion. Health Promotion International. 2000;15(4):356-367'},{id:"B26",body:'Wiggers J, Sanson-Fisher R. Evidence-based health promotion. In: Scott D, Weston R, editors. Evaluating Health Promotion. Cheltenham, UK: Stanley Thornes; 1998. pp. 31-49'},{id:"B27",body:'Seedhouse D. Health Promotion: Philosophy, Prejudice and Practice. New York: John Wiley; 1997'},{id:"B28",body:'Park P. What is participatory research? A theoretical and methodological perspective. In: Park P, Brydon-Miller M, Hall B, Jackson T, editors. Voices of Change: Participatory Research in the United States and Canada. West Port CT: Bergin and Garvey; 1993. pp. 1-20'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Edlyne Eze Anugwom",address:"akommiri@gmail.com",affiliation:'
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The company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.
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We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
\\n\\n
In the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\\n\\n
The IntechOpen timeline
\\n\\n
2004
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Intech Open is founded in Vienna, Austria, by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students, and their first Open Access journals and books are published.
\\n\\t
Alex and Vedran launch the first Open Access, peer-reviewed robotics journal and IntechOpen’s flagship publication, the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\\n
\\n\\n
2005
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes its first Open Access book: Cutting Edge Robotics.
\\n
\\n\\n
2006
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes a special issue of IJARS, featuring contributions from NASA scientists regarding the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
\\n
\\n\\n
2008
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: 200,000 downloads reached
\\n
\\n\\n
2009
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: the first 100 Open Access STM books are published
\\n
\\n\\n
2010
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: one million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen expands its book publishing into a new field: medicine.
\\n
\\n\\n
2011
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: More than five million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen publishes 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Harold W. Kroto’s “Strategies to Successfully Cross-Link Carbon Nanotubes”. Find it here.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen and TBI collaborate on a project to explore the changing needs of researchers and the evolving ways that they discover, publish and exchange information. The result is the survey “Author Attitudes Towards Open Access Publishing: A Market Research Program”.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen hosts SHOW - Share Open Access Worldwide; a series of lectures, debates, round-tables and events to bring people together in discussion of open source principles, intellectual property, content licensing innovations, remixed and shared culture and free knowledge.
\\n
\\n\\n
2012
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: 10 million downloads reached
\\n\\t
IntechOpen holds Interact2012, a free series of workshops held by figureheads of the scientific community including Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro, director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, who took the audience through some of the most impressive human-robot interactions observed in his lab.
\\n
\\n\\n
2013
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
\\n
\\n\\n
2014
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
\\n\\t
IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
\\n
\\n\\n
2015
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
\\n\\t
40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
\\n\\t
Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
\\n
\\n\\n
2016
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\\n
\\n\\n
2017
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
\\n\\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
\n\n
In the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\n\n
The IntechOpen timeline
\n\n
2004
\n\n
\n\t
Intech Open is founded in Vienna, Austria, by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students, and their first Open Access journals and books are published.
\n\t
Alex and Vedran launch the first Open Access, peer-reviewed robotics journal and IntechOpen’s flagship publication, the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
\n
\n\n
2005
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes its first Open Access book: Cutting Edge Robotics.
\n
\n\n
2006
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes a special issue of IJARS, featuring contributions from NASA scientists regarding the Mars Exploration Rover missions.
\n
\n\n
2008
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: 200,000 downloads reached
\n
\n\n
2009
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: the first 100 Open Access STM books are published
\n
\n\n
2010
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: one million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen expands its book publishing into a new field: medicine.
\n
\n\n
2011
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: More than five million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen publishes 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry winner Harold W. Kroto’s “Strategies to Successfully Cross-Link Carbon Nanotubes”. Find it here.
\n\t
IntechOpen and TBI collaborate on a project to explore the changing needs of researchers and the evolving ways that they discover, publish and exchange information. The result is the survey “Author Attitudes Towards Open Access Publishing: A Market Research Program”.
\n\t
IntechOpen hosts SHOW - Share Open Access Worldwide; a series of lectures, debates, round-tables and events to bring people together in discussion of open source principles, intellectual property, content licensing innovations, remixed and shared culture and free knowledge.
\n
\n\n
2012
\n\n
\n\t
Publishing milestone: 10 million downloads reached
\n\t
IntechOpen holds Interact2012, a free series of workshops held by figureheads of the scientific community including Professor Hiroshi Ishiguro, director of the Intelligent Robotics Laboratory, who took the audience through some of the most impressive human-robot interactions observed in his lab.
\n
\n\n
2013
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen joins the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) as part of a commitment to guaranteeing the highest standards of publishing.
\n
\n\n
2014
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen turns 10, with more than 30 million downloads to date.
\n\t
IntechOpen appoints its first Regional Representatives - members of the team situated around the world dedicated to increasing the visibility of our authors’ published work within their local scientific communities.
\n
\n\n
2015
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: More than 70 million downloads reached, more than doubling since the previous year.
\n\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 2,500th book and 40,000th Open Access chapter, reaching 20,000 citations in Thomson Reuters ISI Web of Science.
\n\t
40 IntechOpen authors are included in the top one per cent of the world’s most-cited researchers.
\n\t
Thomson Reuters’ ISI Web of Science Book Citation Index begins indexing IntechOpen’s books in its database.
\n
\n\n
2016
\n\n
\n\t
IntechOpen is identified as a world leader in Simba Information’s Open Access Book Publishing 2016-2020 report and forecast. IntechOpen came in as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n
\n\n
2017
\n\n
\n\t
Downloads milestone: IntechOpen reaches more than 100 million downloads
\n\t
Publishing milestone: IntechOpen publishes its 3,000th Open Access book, making it the largest Open Access book collection in the world
\n
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