Experimental parameters ranges for single-phase flow and heat transfer.
\r\n\t
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He has over 25 years of experience in neuro-oncology and minimally invasive surgery techniques. He is a pioneer in many areas in neurosurgery (treatment of brain tumors, Chiari Malformation, and sacroiliac joint disorders).",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"199099",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Vicente",middleName:null,surname:"Vanaclocha",slug:"vicente-vanaclocha",fullName:"Vicente Vanaclocha",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199099/images/system/199099.jpeg",biography:"Vicente Vanaclocha is Chief of Neurosurgery. Doctor of Medicine from the University of Valencia, he has over 25 years experience in neuro-oncology, minimally invasive and minimally invasive surgery techniques. Specialist in neurosurgery both nationally and internationally (including the General Medical Register of England and stay at the Groote Schuur Hospital in Cape Town, South Africa) has been Chief of Neurosurgery at the University Hospital of Navarra and head of Neurosurgery Service of San Jaime Hospital in Torrevieja. He was also associate professor of neurosurgery at the Faculty of Medicine of the University of Navarra and is a professor of neuroanatomy at the Catholic University of Valencia also serving as an editorial board member of repute.\nCurrently he is Associate Professor at the University of Valencia.",institutionString:"University of Valencia",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"7",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Valencia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"297737",firstName:"Mateo",lastName:"Pulko",middleName:null,title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297737/images/8492_n.png",email:"mateo.p@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"40636",title:"Single and Two-Phase Heat Transfer Enhancement Using Longitudinal Vortex Generator in Narrow Rectangular Channel",doi:"10.5772/53713",slug:"single-and-two-phase-heat-transfer-enhancement-using-longitudinal-vortex-generator-in-narrow-rectang",body:'In the past several decades, heat transfer enhancement techniques have rapidly developed and have been widely employed in many industrial fields. Up to now, these techniques have entered a stage of the so-called third generation, in which the use of longitudinal vortex generator is one of representative methods. When fluid flows over a barrier, different kinds of vortices will come into being. Among these vortices, longitudinal vortex (LV) has a swirling axis parallel to the main flow direction and moves downstream swirly around this axis and exhibits strong three-dimensional characteristics. Such a barrier is technically defined as longitudinal vortex generator (LVG). From the heat transfer perspective, the three-dimensional swirling movement of LV is useful for heat transfer enhancement (Sohankar, A. & Davidson, L. 2001), and can be employed in many industrial fields such as high temperature vane cooling, convective heat transfer in narrow channels, fin tube heat transfer enhancement, and etc. Therefore, the heat transfer enhancement of LV has been paid close attention and a large number of relevant references can be found, especially in the gas heat transfer cases (Schubauer, G.B. & Spangenberg, 1960; Johnson T.R. & Joubert P.N., 1969).
However, very few researchers chose water as working medium in their studies on heat transfer enhancement by LV in narrow rectangular channels (Chen, Q.Y., et al., 2006; Islam, M.S., et al., 1998; Sohankar, A. & Davidson, L., 2001; Wang, Q.W., et al., 2007). In fact, water is the most important working fluid and widely used in power industry field. For example in some plate-fin water-water heat exchangers, water flows through a series of narrow rectangular channels to release or absorb heat from the other side. If LVG is chosen to increase the heat transfer capability and enhance superficial heat transfer efficiency for such type of heat exchanger, the single and two-phase heat transfer coefficient must be available during design process. In the case of the rod-type fuel assembly used in a pressurized-water nuclear reactor, the vanes on spacers play a role similar to LVG, which reconstructs the velocity and temperature fields and enhances the heat transfer. In this case, the improvement of Critical Heat Flux (CHF) of fuel assembly must also be taken into account (Crecy F., 1994).
For the above mentioned reasons and experiences, the single and two-phase flow and heat transfer and CHF in a narrow rectangular channel with LVG have been studied in this chapter.
In this study, the LVG was composed of four pairs of rectangular ribs. To optimize the LVG’s configuration, the dimensions of a single rib and the whole layout of all ribs were elaborately designed with the help of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulation. In the simulation, the computation domain was a narrow rectangular channel which had an aspect ratio of 13 (the channel width to narrow gap ratio), a narrow gap of 3.0mm, and a length to hydraulic diameter ratio of 80.0. And, four pairs of ribs were periodically installed on the unilateral wall in the narrow rectangular channel. In our previous work (Wang L. & Wang Q.W., 2005), each single rectangular rib (with a 50°attack angle, 1.2mm in height, 2.0mm in width, 10.0mm in length, 10.0mm in transverse distance, 100.0mm in axial distanc) had the same original parameters.
CFX5-Build was used as a geometry and mesh generation pre-processor module. Fig.1 shows the computation domain including adjacent two pairs of LVGs and the mesh that were constructed for the simulation using CFX-5 computer code. Mesh generation was based on multi-block structured hexahedral grid. Number of the independent elements in the simulated mesh are 232,632. The surface mesh was created using a Delaunay method and the volume mesh was created through advancing front and inflation method. The mesh elements on the wall surfaces were refined to improve the accuracy in these regions.
Mesh distribution in the computation domain.
To overcome the decoupling of pressure and velocity, a single cell, unstaggered, collocated grid was used. The continuity equation was a second order central difference approximation to the first order derivative in velocity, modified by a fourth derivative in pressure which acts to redistribute the influence of the pressure. This overcame the problem of checker board oscillations. Transient term took the second order backward Euler scheme, which is robust, implicit, conservative in time, and does not create a time step limitation. Following the standard finite element approach, shape functions were used to evaluate the derivatives for all the diffusion terms. Pressure gradient term was evaluated using the shape functions. Advection term took high Resolution Scheme which does not violate boundedness principles.
The boundary normal velocity was specified at the inlet. The Reynolds numbers based on the channel hydraulic diameter varied from 3200 to 31400. No slip boundary condition was applied to the wall surfaces. Only the wall, on which the ribs stands, was provided with constant heat flux while the other wall were heat insulated. The heat flux was initialized to the value of 100 kW/m2. The average static pressure was specified at the outlet. De-ioned water was chosen as working fluid.
The Shear Stress Transport (SST) model was used for turbulence modeling. Scalable Wall-Functions were used for near wall treatment. In the calculations, the coupled solver was used to solve the governing equations. During the simulation process, only a single parameter varied while the other parameters kept constant. In each case, friction factor and Nusselt number were calculated as below and they were used for evaluating flow drag and convective heat transfer in the channel.
The weighted factor for every parameter could be calculated as bellow:
where Δx represents every normalized parameter as β/180°, X/L, h/H, b/(B/2), s/B and a/(B/2).
The computation result at Reynolds number of 30000 and Prandtl number of 3.7 was shown in Fig.2, but it was difficult to directly determine which parameter has the most marked effect on Nusselt numbers and friction factors. Therefore, it should need a compromise between flow drag and convective heat transfer to optimize the LVG’s configuration. The orthogonal method for multi-parameters optimization was proposed by Taguchi and was used for the current case. By choosing dimensionless JF number proposed by Yun (Yun J. Y., & Lee K. S., 2000) as target function, the general performance evaluation criteria of heat transfer enhancement with LVG could be expressed as:
where
By calculation and comparison based on Eq. (5), the final optimized LVG’s configuration was obtained as shown in Fig.3. Each single rib had an uniform dimension of 14.0mm×2.2mm×1.8mm, each pair of ribs had an uniform attack angle of 44° and an uniform transverse distance of 4mm, and the total four pairs of ribs had an uniform axial distances of 100.0mm.
Weighted Nusselt number and friction factor of different parameters.
Schematic of the final LVG configuration.
The experiments were conducted at the flow and heat transfer experimental platform in CNNC Key Laboratory on Nuclear Reactor Thermal Hydraulics Technology, Nuclear Power Institute of China. The experimental apparatus mainly consisted of experimental loop, test section, instruments, power supplier, and data acquisition system. Each part was described in details as following.
Experimental loop
It was shown in Fig.4 that the experimental loop contains pumps, pre-heater, pressurizer, flow-meters, test section, mixer, heat exchanger and some valves. Among these parts, the piston pump supplied the loop with de-ioned water from the water tank, the pressurizer kept system pressure steady, the circulating pump drived de-ioned water flow in the loop, the mixer mixed hot water from the outlet of the test section with cold water from the cyclic pump, the flow-meters were used for measuring flow rates in the cyclic pump and test channel, and the heat exchanger cooled water from the outlet of the mixer.
Flow chart of the experimental Loop.
Test section
The test section was designed for the two different kinds of experiments, viz., flow and heat transfer experiment and visualization experiment, and mainly consisted of two holders, quartz glass and heating plate. Both the holders and the heating plate were made of 0Cr18Ni10Ti stainless steel, and the other accessories material was chosen dependent on their functions. The total four pairs of rectangular ribs as LVG were machined on the heating plate surface according to the final LVG configuration shown in Fig.3. The whole structure of the test section was shown in Fig.5.
Schematic of the test Section.
There was a narrow rectangular groove with the dimension of 600mm×40mm×3mm on a piece of quartz glass. The heating plate was 610mm×50mm×3mm in dimension. So the close combination between the narrow rectangular groove and the heating plate could form a narrow channel with the cross section of 40mm×3mm in dimension, and the effective heating length was 450mm in dimension as the two ends occupation of the copper plates for power inputs. Thus, the narrow channel had a hydraulic diameter of 5.58mm and a length to diameter ratio of 80.65. The waterproof of the narrow channel was guaranteed by a silicon latex “O” type ring. There was a coolant channel on the surface of the lower holder contacting the outer wall of the heating plate to keep the “O” type ring at an acceptable temperature and prevent from heat concentration on the edges and destruction of heating plate in case of high heat flux. The electrical insulation between the heating plate and the holders was achieved by a piece of isinglass paper with the thickness of 0.3mm. To facilitate recording the outer wall temperature by the use of infrared thermo-imager, a rectangular empty space of 235mm×40mm was machined on the tail half lower holder below the heating plate and located in the region of downstream two pairs of LVG. The cross sectional details of the test section with the empty space were shown in Fig.6.
Schematic of the cross section of the test section with an empty space.
To accurately measure the outer wall temperatures, the total 45 orifices were drilled in 6 rows and in 15 columns respectively in the span-wise and stream-wise directions on the lower holder for the access of 45 thermocouples(24 were located in the region of the empty space) to the outer wall; each orifice was 3mm in diameter, and each span-wise distance was 9mm while each stream-wise distance is 30mm. To measure the pressure drop across the test section, a hole with 13mm in diameter was drilled near the first end copper plate on the lower holder for the access of the first pressure tap to the channel, there was no need to drill another hole downstream 424mm because the second pressure tap crossed the empty space and could be directly connected with the hole on the heating plate.
After the thermocouples being fixed, the two bakelite plates were used for holding the thermocouples, and many layers of asbestos piece as heat insulation stuff filled the empty space between the two bakelite plates. This measure could prevent from heat loss brought by the empty space. Before conducting the flow and heat transfer experiment, the test section was wrapped with a thick layer of asbestos piece for further heat insulation. It was noticed that the empty space on the lower holder need to be exposed to atmosphere so that the camera could easily receive the infrared thermo-images in the visualization experiments.
Instruments, power supplier, and data acquisition system
The pressures at the inlet and outlet of the test channel were measured using SMART3000 type pressure transducer. The pressure drop across the test channel was measured using SMART3000 type differential pressure transducers. The pressure transducer and the differential pressure transducers were respectively connected to the fittings attached to the hole with 13mm in diameter on the lower holder and to the other one downstream 424mm on the heating plate. The accuracy in the measurement of the inlet and outlet pressures was about ±3kPa. The accuracy in the measurement of the pressure drop across the test channel was about ±30Pa. The pressure at the inlet of coolant channel was measured using a manometer with an accuracy of ±10kPa.
The flow rates of the test fluid and coolant were respectively measured using a Venturi-tube type flow-meter which coupled with a SMART3000 type differential pressure transducer with an accuracy of ±30Pa. The Venturi-tubes were calibrated prior to their installation, and had a calibration of accuracy of ±2%.
The temperatures at the inlet and outlet of the test channel and the coolant channel and the outer wall temperature on the heating plate were measured using sheathed N-type thermocouples with 1mm in diameter. All thermocouples were calibrated prior to their installation. All thermocouples used in the experiments had a calibration accuracy of ±0.3℃.
The pre-heater had a power capacity of 100kW and was able to achieve the appropriate temperature at the inlet of the test channel. The heating plate was directly heated using a DC power supply with a power capacity of 200kW.
All the above mentioned parameters were recorded by a data acquisition system (AT-96) connected to a computer.
During the experiments, the parameters varied as shown in Table.1. Firstly, the single-phase flow and heat transfer with and without LVG in the channel were discussed to quantitatively learn heat transfer enhancement accompanied by flow drag increase by LV, then the visual velocity and temperature distributions in the two cases were shown to qualitatively explain heat transfer enhancement mechanism related to LV.
Case | With LVG | Without LVG |
Thermal boundary | Uniform heat flux on the heating plate | |
System pressure | 0.25-0.72MPa | 0.25-0.72MPa |
Mass flow flux | 47.5-592.6kg/(m2 s) | 49.1-669.7kg/(m2 s) |
Inlet temperature | 22.4-88.0℃ | 23.1-76.4℃ |
Heat flux | 0-201.5kW/m2 | 0-191.4kW/m2 |
Reynolds numbers | 310-9909 | 311-9247 |
Prandtl numbers | 4.12-5.27 | 4.44-5.79 |
Experimental parameters ranges for single-phase flow and heat transfer.
It was shown in Fig.7 that the variation of friction factor as a function of Reynolds number in the smooth channel. The laminar-to-turbulent transition occurred at Reynolds number being around 1900. The best fits for data respectively in laminar and turbulent regime as below:
Variation of friction factors with Reynolds numbers in the smooth channel.
It was noticed that, because the channel flow was hydro-dynamically developing, the laminar friction factors were much higher than the corresponding analytical solutions proposed by Kays and Clark (Kays, W.M. & Clark. S.H., 1953), and the turbulent ones were a little higher than the values calculated by Blasius correlation.
In the channel with LVG, the laminar-to-turbulent transition occured at Reynolds number being around 1650, which was shown in Fig.8. The best fits for data respectively in laminar and turbulent regime as below:
In comparison with the smooth channel case, the laminar-to-turbulent transition occurred earlier, and the flow drag became higher in the channel with LVG.
Variation of friction factors with Reynolds numbers in the channel with LVG.
It was shown in Fig.9 that the variation of mean Nusselt number as a function of Reynolds number in the smooth channel. The best fits for data respectively in laminar and turbulent regime as below:
It was also noticed that, because the channel heat transfer was thermally developing and the fluid property varied, the laminar Nusselt numbers weren’t constant and were much higher than the corresponding analytical solutions proposed by Shah and London (Shah, R.K. & A.L., 1978), and the turbulent ones were a little higher than the values calculated by Dittus-Boelter correlation.
It was shown in Fig.10 that the variation of mean Nusselt number as a function of Reynolds number in the channel with LVG. The best fits for data respectively in laminar and turbulent regime as below:
In comparison with the smooth channel case, the heat transfer was enhanced obviously in the channel with LVG.
Variation of mean Nusselt numbers with Reynolds numbers in the smooth channel.
Variation of mean Nusselt numbers with Reynolds numbers in the channel with LVG.
Under the conditions of this project, the channel flow and heat transfer in the two cases (with LV and without LV) were thermally and hydro-dynamically developing owing to entry length effects. With the above discussed, the further interesting results could be introduced.
In the laminar regime with Reynolds numbers lower than 1650, the comparative differences of friction factor and mean Nusselt number between the two different cases were calculated as:
Also, the integral index for evaluating heat transfer enhancement by LV was given as:
The above three values indicated that LV could enhance laminar heat transfer up to 100.9% while flow drag increased 11.4% in the test channel, and heat transfer enhancement was 1.8 times against flow drag increase. In a word, the degree of heat transfer enhancement was superior to that of flow drag increase in laminar regime.
In the turbulent regime with Reynolds numbers higher than 1900, the calculated values were as below:
Therefore, LV could enhance turbulent heat transfer over 87.1% while flow drag increased 100.3% in the test channel, and the heat transfer enhancement to the flow drag increase ratio was a power law function of Reynolds numbers, and the performance of heat transfer enhancement would become better with increase Reynolds numbers in turbulent regime.
To learn LV’s behavior related to flow drag increase, a Phase Doppler Particle Analyzer (PDPA) was employed to measure velocity distribution in the two different channels. Each measuring plane was perpendicular to the channel axial direction; the measuring coordinates and data acquisition dots were shown in Fig.11.
Schematic of measuring coordinates and data acquisition dots using PDPA
The first measuring plane was located at Z=65mm in the axial direction and was 15mm far from the front corners on the first pair of ribs. The data measured in the two different cases were shown in Fig.12. It was seen that LVG caused the normal velocity distribution distort (still symmetrical) at different locations. This phenomenon indicated that the LVG could produce LV and reconstruct velocity field in the channel. In Fig.12(a), a stagnation domain formed immediately behind the ribs, the bulk velocity decreased, and the boundary layer became thicker; when moving downstream, LV was stronger because of upstream superimposition. In Fig.12(b) and\n\t\t\t\t\tFig.12(c), the wall effect became weaker, the bulk velocity increased, the boundary layer became thinner, and the bulk velocity in the channel with LVG was bigger than that in the smooth channel. During moving downstream, LV swirled from channel center to both sides in an involute path, thus exhibited strong three-dimensional characteristics. In comparison with the case of smooth channel, the form drag was the reason for flow drag increase in the channel with LVG.
To learn LV’s behavior related to heat transfer enhancement, a thermal infrared imager was employed to measure outer wall temperature distribution in the two different channels. The measuring region was on the heating plate where the tail two pairs of ribs were against the empty space.
The comparison of measuring images from the two different cases was shown in Fig.13. In the smooth channel, the outer wall temperature distribution was homogeneous, which was coincidence with the thermal characteristics under constant heat flux wall boundary. In the channel with LVG, the symmetrical lower temperature region formed immediately behind the ribs, and periodically appeared and disappeared in the axial direction. This phenomenon indicated that LV could reconstruct temperature field and improve local heat transfer capability periodically in the channel.
The more accurate result was shown in Fig.14. It could be found that the mean outer wall temperature in the channel with LVG was lower than that in the smooth channel by 18.1%. Therefore, LV could obviously enhance heat transfer in the channel.
Comparison of velocity distribution in the two cases.(pin=0.465Mpa, uin=0.493m/s, and Tin=23.3℃)
Outer wall temperature fields in the two cases in turbulent flow
Quantitative comparison of wall temperature between the two cases.(pin=0.461MPa, G=435.9kg/(m2 s), Tl,m=34.1℃,and q=240.9kW/m2)
During the experiments, the parameters varied as shown in Table.2. Firstly, bubble behaviors with and without LVG in the channel were observed to learn the two-phase heat transfer enhancement accompanied by flow drag increase, then two-phase flow and heat transfer in the two cases was discussed.
Case | With LVG | Without LVG |
Thermal boundary | Uniform heat flux on the heating plate | |
System pressure | 0.44-0.81MPa | 0.45-0.82MPa |
Mass flow flux | 65.9-415.9kg/(m2 s) | 50.7-330.4kg/(m2 s) |
Inlet temperature | 93.6-120.8℃ | 93.2-128.1℃ |
Heat flux | 8.7-885.9kW/m2 | 7.0-834.6kW/m2 |
Reynolds numbers | 1353-7364 | 1596-6758 |
Prandtl numbers | 1.23-1.57 | 1.25-1.73 |
Experimental parameters ranges for two-phase flow and heat transfer.
In order to learn LV behavior related to two-phase flow drag increase, a high-speed camera was employed to record bubble behaviors in the two different cases, and the measuring region contained all the four pairs of ribs. It was shown in Fig.15 that the bubble evolve between z=45mm and z=75mm near the first pair of ribs, where Onset of Nucleate Boiling (ONB) began to appear. Obviously, the number of bubbles attached on the wall was small, and bubbles mainly distributed in both sides and the central region of the channel; this phenomenon could be ascribed to the bubble production being small and LV stir. The arrowed line denoted the dominant region by LV. In this region, bubbles couldn’t congregate on the wall, but moved downstream with bulk fluid, thus the heat transfer capability between the cold and hot fluid was improved.
Bubbles distribution near the first pair of ribs in the channel with LVG.(pin=0.507MPa, G=413.6kg/(m2•s), ΔTsub=44.6℃,and q=296.7kW/m2)
It was illustrated respectively in Fig.16 and Fig.17 that the bubbles evolve with heat flux increase in the two different cases. In the smooth channel, a huge number of coalescent bubbles moved downstream without transverse stir. In the channel with LVG, the number of bubbles obviously decreased a lot, the bubble transverse stir was stronger, the bubble growth was inhibited, and bubbles weren’t easy to coalesce, thus more heat on the heated surface was transferred. As being bounded in narrow gap, distorted bubbles almost occupied the whole space in the transverse direction; the big bubbles directly pushed superheated liquid layer depart from the wall surface; the small ones were baffled by these slow rising big bubbles and moved around; a single bubble couldn’t exist; a large number of bubbles coalesced and improved vapor quality. All of this facilitated the two-phase mixture to speed up. Therefore, the bubble departure diameter became smaller while the bubble growth frequency became higher, and the bubble stir was strengthened, which was one of the important factors for boiling heat transfer enhancement.
Two-phase friction pressure drop was an important hydrodynamic parameter to measure flow drag increase in channel flow. In this study, the two-phase friction pressure drop in the channels was most dependent on the exit quality in all related parameters. The best fits for two-phase friction pressure drops in the two different channels were listed as the following correlations:
where x denoted the channel exit quality and varied between 0.179 and 0.6. The predicted results by the two equations deviated to the corresponding experimental data by ±30%, which was shown in Fig.18.
It was calculated using Eq.(20) and Eq.(21) that the two-phase friction pressure drop ratio between the two cases was 1.04-1.506, or the value in the channel with LVG.
Bubbles evolution with heat flux increase in the smooth channel.(pin=0.620MPa, G=270.7kg/(m2•s), and ΔTsub=57.9℃)
Bubbles evolution with heat flux increase in the channel with LVG.(pin=0.654MPa, G=278.9kg/(m2•s), and ΔTsub=58.2℃)
Friction pressure drop comparison between prediction and experiment in the two cases.
In this study, the two-phase boiling heat transfer behavior was discussed. The heat transfer coefficients were correlated with Reynolds number, Boiling number, thermal conductivity and hydraulic diameter by taking the form proposed by Gungor and Winterton(Gungor K.E., Winterton R.H.S., 1987), which was adaptable to narrow rectangular channel with a big aspect ratio. The best fits for heat transfer coefficient in the two different channels were listed as below:
where the Reynolds number varied between 1596 and 6758, and the Boiling number varied between 2.15×10-4 and 2.137×10-3.
The prediction by the two equations deviated to the corresponding experimental data by ±30%, which was shown in Fig.19.
It was calculated using Eq.(22) and Eq.(23) that the two-phase boiling heat transfer coefficient ratio between the two cases was 1.011-1.258, or the value in the channel with LVG was 1.1%-25.8% higher than that in the smooth channel.
In this section, CHF with and without LVG in the test channel was intentionally studied. Firstly, the observation of bubble and liquid film behaviours was conducted when CHF occurred in the two different channels; then the quantitative CHF in the two cases was discussed especially in the parameter dependence and experimental correlations; finally the analytical models for CHF in the two cases were proposed and validated. The varied parameters during the experiment were listed in Table.3.
Boiling heat transfer coefficient comparison between prediction and experiment in the two cases.
Case | With LVG | Without LVG |
Thermal boundary | Uniform heat flux on the heating plate | |
System pressure | 0.43-0.85MPa | 0.44-0.82MPa |
Mass flow flux | 40.2-690.1kg/(m2s) | 40.2-745.7kg/(m2s) |
Subcooling | 46.8-104.2℃ | 51.7-100.2℃ |
Quality | 0.203-1.000 | 0.183-0.997 |
CHF | 0.299-2.316MW/m2 | 0.294-2.263MW/m2 |
Experimental parameters ranges for CHF experiments
In order to learn LV’s behaviour during CHF occurrence, the high-speed camera was employed to record bubble behaviours in the two different cases, and the measuring region contained all the four pairs of ribs.
By comparison between Fig.20 and Fig.21, it was found that ONB in the channel with LVG appeared later than that in the smooth channel when CHF occurred. The main reason for this phenomenon was that the bubbles growth was inhibited by LV, and the number of bubbles decreased with the generation of LV, and the bubbles were very difficult to coalesce under LV dominance. Simultaneously, the disturbance of liquid film on the wall in the channel with LVG was much stronger than that in the smooth channel. As a result, CHF was greatly improved with the help of LV.
In more details, it was found in Fig.22 that the void fraction increased in the axial direction, and the transverse distribution of vapour-phase varied under LV dominance. The channel flow and heat transfer would greatly change with such heterogeneousness. First of all, the disturbance of bubbles, energy transfer and momentum transfer in the channel were all strengthened by LV. Secondly, the bubbles growth and coalescence were inhibited by LV, also the bubbles collision frequency was low. Thirdly, the enhanced bubbles disturbance facilitated to destroy thermal boundary layer. Finally, the bubbles would be brought from the side wall to the central region by LV. All these factors would help improve heat transfer and CHF in the channel.
On the one hand, it was shown in Fig.20 that CHF in the smooth channel occurred at the moment of 0.380s, prior to which, the wall surface had been covered with a layer of stable liquid film. When CHF occurred, the liquid film began to lose stability owing to the rapid pressure drop variation with heat flux, though the heating power had been cut down by 50%. On the other hand, Fig.21 showed that CHF in the channel with LVG occurred at the moment of 0.400s, prior to which, the liquid film had been disturbed by LV. This phenomenon was beneficial to accelerate the liquid film evaporation, thus more energy was transferred, and CHF was improved.
It was also seen in Fig.22 that liquid film evolved near the fourth pair of ribs during CHF occurrence, the vapour-phase occupied the channel central region while the liquid-phase concentrated on the side wall, and thus a typical annular flow pattern came into being. Under LV dominance, the liquid film distribution became heterogeneous on the wall surface, and the wall temperatures fluctuated periodically, while annular flow and slug flow alternately appeared in the channel. Such a reverse flow pattern transition visually indicated CHF enhancement in the channel with LVG.
Bubble evolution during CHF occurrence in the smooth channel. (pin=0.713MPa, G=217.1kg/(m2•s), ΔTsub=52.1℃,and qc=1.287MW/m2)
Bubble evolution during CHF occurrence in the channel with LVG. (pin=0.763MPa, G=198.9kg/(m2•s), ΔTsub=61.4℃, and qc=1.327MW/m2)
Liquid film evolution during CHF occurrence near the fourth pair of ribs in the channel with LVG. (pin=0.663MPa, G=188.2kg/(m2•s), ΔTsub=53.1℃, and qc=1.238MW/m2)
By reduction on experimental data, it could be found in Fig.23 that the CHF value varied with different parameters in the two different channels. In these two cases, the CHF value monotonously decreased with exit quality increase, and monotonously increased with mass flow flux and pressure drop increase, but had no obvious variation with system pressure and inlet subcooling. It seemed that the difference between the two cases was difficult to find, therefore, the more detailed discussion needed to be conducted.
Taking the above mentioned parameter dependence into consideration, the best fits for CHF in the two cases were obtained as below:
The prediction by the two equations deviated to the corresponding experimental data by ±10%, which was shown in Fig.24.
It was calculated using Eq. (24) and Eq. (25) that the CHF value in the channel with LVG was 24.3% higher than that in the smooth channel within the present experimental parameter range.
Also, the best fits for pressure drop in the two cases were obtained as below:
CHF variation with several thermal-hydraulic parameters in the two channels
Comparison between the experimental data with the predicted values of CHF in the two channels.
Comparison between the experimental data with the predicted value of pressure drops in the two channels.
The prediction by the two equations deviated to the corresponding experimental data by ±15%, which was shown in Fig.25.
It was calculated using Eq. (26) and Eq. (27) that the pressure drop value in the channel with LVG was 62.9% higher than that in the smooth channel within the present experimental parameter range.
Obviously, the CHF increase must be at the cost of pressure loss in the channel with LVG, which well followed the second thermodynamic law.
CHF is a vital parameter for Nuclear Reactor Design and operation. Up to now, a large number of experimental investigations have been conducted for different channel type, and a large amount of experimental data and correlations have been obtained. However, the applicability of these data based correlations is strictly limited by experimental parameters. Analytical model for CHF is encouraged due to its advantages on physical mechanism and applicability.
The annular flow liquid film dry-out mechanism for CHF (Joel, 1992) has been known very well. Fig.26 exhibited the CHF occurrence process related to this mechanism. Owing to the simultaneous effects from the droplet deposition, droplet entrainment, and liquid film evaporation, the liquid film on the wall surface become more and more thin and even disappear, CHF will occur at some point. On the basis of this mechanism, the multi-fluid model for CHF had been proposed, but the modelling was complicated as too many field equations need to be solved. In addition, several constitutive correlations were not accurate enough because the studies on two-phase interface transfer had been still premature. On the contrary, Celata and Zummo’s analytical model incorporated the appropriate droplet deposition and entrainment, and was able to predict the CHF in annular flow with a comparative high accuracy, therefore the analytical model for CHF in this project will refer to this model.
Schematic of liquid film dry-out mechanism of annular flow in narrow rectangular channel.( md, mew, meb, and q/hlg were droplet deposition rate, vapour stream shear caused droplet entrainment rate, broken bubble-caused droplet entrainment rate and liquid film evaporation rate, respectively.)
Despite that the flow patterns and CHF analytical model for narrow rectangular channel had been difficult to find in open literature, several researchers (Jackey, et al., 1958; Kafengauz and Bocharov, 1959) suggested that the correlations for CHF in conventional pipe could be used for the case in narrow rectangular channel if the equivalent characteristics scale was same, which was shown in Fig.27.
Mishima and Ishii’s (1984) criterion was employed to predict the onset of annular flow in the present cases:
Eq.(28) was tenable in the range as following: pressure between 0.1Mpa and 20.0 MPa, mass flow flux between 8 kg/(m2 s) and 15,000 kg/(m2 s), channel equivalent diameter between 0.001m and 0.025 m, channel length to equivalent diameters ratio between 1 and 400, inlet subcooling between 10℃ and 255℃, and exit quality between 0.1 and 1.
If annular flow appeared in the channel, the onset location (zon) could be obtained, and the mass flow rate of liquid film was calculated by Eq. (36) integral between the onset location and the channel outlet.
The droplet deposition rate was calculated using Kaotaoka and Ishii’s (1983) correlation.
where Rel was the liquid-phase Reynolds number; E was the droplet entrainment fraction in the channel cross section, and was calculated as below:
where the superficial liquid film velocity was calculated as below:
Owing to the mass flow rate Wlf was an unknown quantity in Eq. (32), an iteration method was used to calculate E.
Critical heat flux trend of different type of channels with identical equivalent diameter
(1) Broken bubble caused droplet entrainment
In this case, Ueda et al. (1981) correlation was used to calculate the droplet entrainment rate.
Where liquid film thickness δ was calculated by iteration from Eq. (34) to Eq. (37).
(2) Vapour stream shear caused droplet entrainment
In this case, Kaotaoka’s (1983) correlation was used to calculate the droplet entrainment rate.
where
where
The iteration process for CHF calculation was depicted as: Eq. (28) is used to estimate whether annular flow appear or not. If the supposed CHF was lower than the actual value, annular flow will not appear; contrarily, this flow pattern will appear. After the onset location (zon) of annular flow being obtained, the parameters md, mew, meb, and Wlf were calculated at each time step from zon to the channel outlet; if the supposed heat flux was lower than CHF, the mass flow rate of liquid film was over zero at the outlet; contrarily, this mass flow rate became zero before the outlet; the iteration finished until the supposed heat flux was equal to CHF.
Based on the analytical model, a computer code had been developed in FORTRAN language. The total fifty-seven groups of experimental CHF data in the smooth channel were used to validate the model. The validated result was shown in Fig.28. It was seen that 93% of prediction data fell within ±30% of discrepancy band. In general, the model had a good accuracy, and it could be used to predict CHF in the smooth channel.
The prior study (Wang L. & Wang Q.W., 2005) showed that the attack angle (β), longitudinal distance (X) and height (h) were the main parameters related to enhance heat transfer in the channel, so these three parameters were incorporated in the model.
Following the ribbed wall function methods proposed by Hanjalic and Launder (Hanjalic K. & Launder B.E., 1972), Donne and Meyer’s wall (Donne M.D. & Meyer L., 1977), friction velocity in the channel with LVG could be modified as:
where U\'F was modified friction velocity, and κ Karman constant, and R had an expression as:
where,
Dimensionless temperature was modified as:
where
where
Comparison between calculation and experiment of CHF in the smooth channel.
The modified model was used to predict CHF in the channel with LVG, and the results were shown in Fig.29. It was seen that 93.7% of prediction data fell within ±30% of discrepancy band, the mean deviation was 3.6%, and the mean square root deviation of was 15.7%. In general, the modified model had a good accuracy, and it could be used to predict CHF in the channel with LVG.
Comparison between calculation and experiment of CHF in the channel with LVG
In this chapter, aiming at thermal-hydraulical behavior in the smooth narrow rectangular channel and the LVGs machinednarrow rectangular channel, the systematical researches on the single-phase and two-phase Flow and heat transfer characteristics and their CHF behavior were carried out. The CFD method was used to optimize the configuration of the LVG machined narrow rectangular channel and to learn the Vortex behavior in LVGs channel and its effect on the flow and heat transfer characteristics with low pressure water being as working fluid in this project. In the single-phase flow state, the heat transfer capability in the LVG machined channel obviously increased with the friction pressure drop increase, but the effect of heat transfer enhancement is prominent. In the two-phase flow state, the boiling heat transfer coefficient increased also with the two-phase pressure drop increase. In the case of CHF, the CHF value in LVG machined channel was apparently improved with a quick two-phase pressure drop increase. But in the industrial application, the two-phase friction pressure drop in a equipment was not the majority of the whole system resistance, thus this heat transfer enhancement technology would have a bright future for industrial application. In this chapter, from the visualization experiments, the heat transfer enhancement mechanism of LV in the narrow rectangular channel was observed and analyzed and an analytical model for CHF in the narrow rectangular channel was represented and validated against the experimental data, the results could be used for similar researches.
This project is supported by the National Natural Science Fund (NO.50576089) in 2005, the Fund of Key Laboratory of Bubble Physics and Natural Circulation (NO.9140C7101030602) in 2006 and the National Natural Science Fund (NO.51176176) in 2012.
At the beginning of this century, the topic of global climate change became of particular relevance for the regions of the Arctic and the North. This problem is actual in modern conditions. The Arctic climate changes faster than any other part of the world; this is the only highly integrated system in this belt; changes in the Arctic will have a big impact on other parts of the world. The Arctic will become an increasing center of world attention. Over the past few decades, the average annual temperature due to an increase in the average winter temperature in the Arctic has grown two times faster than elsewhere, causing the melting of sea ice and permafrost and a reduction in the snow period. The consequences of global warming in the Arctic are already obvious and numerous. Modern climate changes significantly affect coastal communities, species diversity of animals and plants, human health and welfare, as well as the economy and infrastructure of the Arctic regions. Global warming is the process of gradual growth of the average annual temperature of the surface layer of the Earth’s atmosphere and the World Ocean, due to all sorts of reasons (increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases in the Earth’s atmosphere, changes in solar or volcanic activity, etc.). Global warming will change the habitats of many species of terrestrial and marine flora and fauna. The most large-scale changes will be felt by the indigenous peoples of the North, whose life is inseparably linked with the natural environment. As the permafrost is thawing, the threat of destruction of buildings, roads, pipelines, airports, and other infrastructure increases, which in a number of cases will lead to significant economic losses, deterioration in the quality of drinking water supply, social tension, forced migration, and, as a result, an increase in the number of infectious and noninfectious diseases, including mental disorders and psychosomatic and addiction diseases. Indigenous peoples of the North are the most vulnerable category of the population to the climate negative impact in the Arctic. Limiting the possibility of using bioresources as a result of hunting and reindeer herding, fishing, and gathering, as well as reducing the safety of movement when the parameters of ice and weather conditions change significantly, increases the risks to health and life and, possibly, in the future, threatens the very existence of some nationalities and cultures.
\nGradually, in countries the understanding comes that the nature is the original environment of human life, but not capital, which should be used in economic circulation. Preservation of this environment is becoming one of the main tasks of state policy based on the principles of energy efficiency and resource saving. For example, in the Russian Federation, such basic documents as the Strategy of Ecological Safety of Russia [1], the state program on energy efficiency and development of energy [2], etc. were adopted. However, despite the billions of dollars invested by developed countries in greening the economy, the development of innovative technologies, and the reduction of greenhouse gases, there are still no visible effects on a global scale, and in fact the world is facing a degradation of the natural environment. As Nobel laureate academician Vladimir Kotlyakov notes, our planet is experiencing an era of global warming. The increase in global air temperature in the last century was slightly more than 0.7°C. However, over the past 30 years, this growth has increased, which is especially reflected over the continental regions of Eurasia and North America and most of all in the Arctic [3]. The current model of the functioning of the world economy allows us to make disappointing forecasts: the growing population of the Earth will be able to supply the products of consumption only with the increase of production, the improvement of technologies, and, unfortunately, the destruction of the biosphere.
\nFigure 1 demonstrates the anomalies of temperature values in the Northern Hemisphere, including the Arctic. This gives grounds to predict the increasing influence of negative factors on the ecosystem of this region, as well as on the life of the indigenous population. Certainly, climate change is a particularly important issue in the context of the development of the Arctic and the indigenous communities that inhabit it. Indigenous peoples also have their own observations related to climate change, since no one can see better what is happening now in the North, and there are significant shifts in their strategies for adapting to these changes. Traditional knowledge is a valuable resource that can and should be used in various fields of exploration and development of the Arctic. Unfortunately the representation of indigenous peoples in international governance structures does not guarantee that traditional knowledge is entirely engaged in evidence-based policy making and that traditional knowledge is not always valued as an equal source of knowledge by some relevant scientific bodies [4]. Hundreds of years of tribal communities’ observations over the changes in the Arctic, the formation of ideas about the laws of nature, beliefs in the “living land of ancestors” give today the opportunity to transform traditional knowledge into the daily practice of government, business, and scientists in the extreme North and integrate it with modern technologies. According to the Paris Climate Change Agreement, indigenous peoples and local communities are recognized as the important actors in building a world that is resilient in the face of climate impacts [5].
\nMap of monthly values and anomalies of meteorological values in the northern hemisphere for June 2018 (source: https://meteoinfo.ru/anomalii-tabl3).
We can rightly call the Arctic zone a “locomotive” of the modernization of the Russian economy [6]. In this vein, state policy is being drawn up, investments are attracted, and projects are being implemented to extract natural resources (gas, oil, gold, rare earth metals, etc.). Almost every one of these projects implemented in the northern regions of the country, one way or another, affects the territories of traditional nature use—the habitat of indigenous peoples of the North. Therefore, the issue of research and assessment of changes in these territories under the impact of climate change and industrial development is very relevant, since it has a multifactorial specificity, centered on the unique culture of the northern people, its traditions, and its customs. In Russia, indigenous peoples of the North, as a rule, live in the rural areas of the Arctic zone, which population, according to the Federal State Statistics Service, declines annually. Therefore, it is important to study the changes in these territories and develop policies aimed at preserving not only local communities as a carrier of culture and traditions of northern peoples but also traditional economic activities (reindeer herding, fishing, hunting, etc.), since the reindeer herding is the basis of the traditional culture of the North (Figure 2).
\nThe numbers of the permanent population of the land territories of the Arctic zone of the Russian Federation as of January 1, 2018 (number of people) [7].
The future of the Arctic territories is connected, on the one hand, with the expansion of the zone of industrial development and the extraction in deposits and on the other hand the increasing pressure on the unique ecosystem of the Arctic, the changes in the territories of traditional nature use, the transformation of indigenous population’s way of life, and tribal communities under the influence, including climate change. In Table 1 the main indicators describing the territories of traditional residence and traditional economic activity of the indigenous peoples of Russia are presented. This type of territory is located in 21 regions of the Russian Federation with reindeer pastures, hunting grounds and rich fishing opportunities, and gathering of wild plants on a total area of 994.2 million hectares, including lands used directly as reindeer pastures—407.0 million hectares [8].
\nClimate change leads to the transformation of the traditional way of life and also forces regional and local governments to seek new approaches to managing these changes, allowing them to adapt and adequately respond to emerging challenges. Prospects for the revitalization of the industrial development of the North in the future involve the withdrawal of an increasing number of lands of traditional nature use for inclusion in economic circulation. Undoubtedly, industrial development of indigenous peoples’ habitats at the present time determines the prospects for their further socioeconomic and ethno-cultural development. Considering the strategic nature of the state interests in the Arctic region and the attention paid to the development of deposits in Siberia and the Far East, it is necessary to devote harmonization of interests of industrial development of these territories and preservation of the habitat of indigenous communities, creation of mechanisms for interaction of task forces on optimization of economic, and social and environmental interests of all stakeholders in the territories of traditional nature use [10].
\nThe impact of climate change on indigenous peoples is diverse. This is especially reflected in health and the traditional way of life. Health as a factor in the well-being of indigenous peoples worsens, which shows itself in a high level of mortality with relatively high birth rates, problems with alcoholism, and diseases of the digestive system due to poor-quality drinking water. Significant climate change resulting in the increase of natural disasters, abnormal winter and summer temperatures, floods, mudflows, and landslides increases the number of deaths from unnatural causes, injuries, and subsequent health problems. Climatic changes are also the cause of more serious phenomena, as the deterioration of the parasitic and epidemiological situation. Degradation of permafrost in areas where this type of soil has been preserved for centuries, and on the basis of which the habitat of indigenous peoples and their feeding systems has been formed, leads to catastrophic consequences. Moreover, changes in the permafrost sometimes have unexplained causes, which raise an active discussion in the scientific community. So, in 2014 in Yamal, a giant dip of a soil of unknown origin was discovered. A huge funnel was noticed by helicopter pilots who serve the oil and gas fields on the Yamal Peninsula. The fault is located next to the Bovanenkovo gas field (Yamal LNG), one of the largest in Yamal—the place of one of the most innovative projects of modern Russia for liquefied gas production jointly implemented with Italy, France, Japan, and China (Figure 3).
\nYamal hole in 30 km from the Bovanenkovo gas field. (source: https://www.moya-planeta.ru/news/view/uchenye_vpervye_issledovali_dno_yamalskoj_voronki_8251/).
Later Russian scientists from Yamal managed to descend for the first time to the bottom of this dip—to a depth of 200 m. The hole has a cone-shaped view with dimensions of 60 and 40 m. They took more than a dozen samples for chemical analyses, including ice and soil. It turned out that the Yamal “black hole” from the inside is covered with a layer of ice of unknown composition, which has yet to be investigated in the laboratory. Analyses of air inside the funnel revealed the absence of harmful impurities and dangerous gases—on the basis of this fact, scientists concluded that in a mysterious earthly failure, a new life could arise in time. The scientists noted that they failed to solve the main riddle—how the process of a mysterious holes’ formation was going on in the Yamal land. The most authoritative experts consider these holes to be the result of the process of degassing the permafrost due to global warming [11]. Currently, the problem of tundra transformation under the climate change factors is becoming a significant threat to the traditional forms of economic activity, especially reindeer herding. The formation of thermokarst lakes, the degradation of biota, and the waterlogging of significant areas of the tundra during the summer period are risk factors and cause deer to change routes, and in the spring and autumn, a phenomenon such as ice, which is ruinous for reindeer herding, began to increase. Due to the steady increase in the amount of precipitation in recent years, a deeper snow cover is formed, creating difficulties for animals to hoof the reindeer moss. At the same time, the late arrival of colds led to difficulties in the transition of reindeers to winter pastures (Figure 4).
\nThermokarst lake in tundra with landscape degradation near Vorkuta, Komi Republic, Russia (photo: V. Gassiy).
In the northern regions of Russia in recent years, there have been no isolated cases in which thousands of reindeers perished from hunger. The increase in the mean annual temperature is detrimental to the regions of permafrost, where the centers of anthrax are revealed during thawing. In the summer of 2016 on the territory of Yamal, an outbreak of anthrax was caused by an abnormal heat. The most dangerous infection was safely suspended in the permafrost for 75 years. The most objective cause of the outbreak was called climate warming. Abnormal heat in the tundra to +35°C kept for more than a month. Comprehensive measures were taken to protect Yamal reindeer herders from dangerous diseases. All the livestock of the deer are vaccinated; the animals are fitted with chips. Vaccination is conducted among the tundra population and specialists from the risk group: in 2017, about 8.2 thousand people were vaccinated in the region, and the entire number of reindeer and more than 730 thousand animals were vaccinated against anthrax. Forty-two thousand representatives of the indigenous peoples of the North—14,000 of them live in a traditional nomadic way of life—and the largest reindeer herd in the world live in the territory of Yamal, so the ecological component plays an important role in preserving the traditional economic activities of indigenous peoples [12]. One of the main threats is the change in the water regime of rivers. Most of the modern settlements in the North are located on the banks of rivers. In recent years, spring floods have sharply increased, floods have become more frequent, and the processes of erosion of shores have accelerated, which bring great disasters to the population. For example, in the regions of northern Yakutia, the banks of the rivers Lena, Yana, and Anabar collapse under the influence of high temperatures and melting of permafrost, which leads to shallowing of rivers, a change in the relief of the bottom. As a consequence of these processes, boats of local fishermen cannot sail along the riverbed; the fish does not go far downstream; thus indigenous peoples are deprived of the type of product that forms the basis of their food ration. Reduction of fishing takes place together with a decrease in the level of production of hunting objects (wild reindeer changes migration routes; the number of fur-bearing animals decreases; because of warming, the meat of a wild animal is often affected by a viral infection or parasites), i.e., we are talking about the problem of access to traditional types of resources.
\nAccess to resources is closely linked to security, which is provided by traditional knowledge, accumulated for millennia. But the transformations that are taking place change the reality; the representatives of indigenous peoples are increasing in situations where their practice, experience, and knowledge cannot help them. This leads to an increase in the number of accidents, especially those associated with late freeze-up, ice, and early floods. One of the consequences is the restriction of access to traditional food. In addition to the above factors, one of the reasons is the deterioration of storage conditions. In recent years, the quality of food has sharply deteriorated. So, in the Bulunsky District of Yakutia, local residents often face the problem of phimosis (cysticercosis) caught from the Lena River. It should be noted that a similar problem is a characteristic of other regions of the Arctic where indigenous peoples eat fresh or slightly salted fish [13]. In 2016, Federal Service for Veterinary and Phytosanitary Surveillance in the Komi Republic during federal monitoring sampled liver and kidney samples of slaughtered animals belonging to the reindeer herding enterprises of Intinsky and Usinsky districts. Sixty-four samples were examined, of which 52 results were found with excess of mercury—the maximum permissible level was exceeded by 0.9 mg/kg—and 43 results with excess of cadmium, the maximum permissible norm is exceeded by 8.3 mg/kg [14]. In addition, in the liver samples, an excess of the normative indices of dioxins was detected—the maximum permissible rate was exceeded by 8.3 times. However, meat and other offal (with the exception of kidneys and liver) do not contain dangerous chemical pollutants and do not pose a danger to citizens. Accumulation of toxicants in the liver and kidneys of animals is due to the physiological properties of these organs, which are biological filters of organisms. Dioxins are formed in a number of industrial and natural processes, for example, in the production of chlorine and pesticides, burning fuel and debris, and forest fires. Cadmium and mercury pollute the environment both for natural and as a result of industrial activities. In particular, heavy metals pollute the environment during the smelting of nonferrous metals and other processes in the mining industry. It is believed that the northern communities of plants and animals tend to accumulate persistent contaminants, as they have a number of properties necessary for this, including the characteristics of the climate (preventing the destruction of substances) and food chains that are distinguished by a small variety of plant and animal species. According to the world scientific data, some traditional food of the inhabitants of the northern regions of the planet (Alaska, Greenland, Scandinavian Peninsula, Far North of Russia) have a high content of harmful chemicals. Such types of food include meat and fat of marine mammals, reindeer offal, and others [15]. In this way, there are more and more people who are forced to refuse from the consumption of raw fish, which often turns out to be infected with phimosis and other diseases. As a result, the probability of losing certain cultural traditions is growing, since food is an integral part of the traditional way of life and culture.
\nIt is also necessary to say about the impact of climate change on the health of indigenous peoples. In recent years there has been an increase in mortality in the Arctic. Almost every year there are floods, with every third year—with disastrous consequences and deaths. The number of hits to hospitals increased due to sunstroke, dehydration, pressure drop, etc. Surface water pollution increased, both from floods and melting of permafrost. This leads to an increase in intestinal diseases, especially in the period of floods. Also, in Arctic regions, there is increasing cases of oncological diseases [16]. Some experts attribute this to a more intensive chlorination due to the deterioration of water quality. The prolonged exposure to increased concentrations of chlorine and its constituents, according to doctors, increases the risk of cancer. Warming has widened the areas of spread of diseases, the carriers of which are insects or mites that spread to all new territories. One of the main risk groups for climate change is the children. In northern regions, up to 70% of children have deviations in health status. The incidence of children in the northern regions is significantly higher than the national average. Over the past 10 years, they tend to grow. Children of the North and children of other regions are in unequal starting conditions of life. Under the influence of unfavorable climatic factors and polluted environment, the age development of the immune system falls behind in children of the North for 2–5 years. Thus, for indigenous peoples of the Arctic, the warming of the climate and the associated lengthening of the season, during which the sea is not covered by ice, a decrease in the surface and thickness of sea ice, changes in the migration routes of wild reindeer and their food base, and a drop in the number of marine animals may lead to a reduction in traditional craft. This, in turn, will lead to a violation of traditional food. The indigenous inhabitants of Alaska and Greenland, Chukotka, and Yamal are already recording the negative effects of climate warming, which appeared in a decrease in thickness and an earlier opening of sea ice. These circumstances make it more difficult to hunt and lead to an increase in the number of injuries, which is already the cause of a significant number of deaths among indigenous peoples of the North [17].
\nFigure 5 shows the riverbed of the Anabar River near the village of Saskylakh in the northwestern part of Yakutia. Fishermen are forced to manually drag the boat a few kilometers downstream to reach the fairway (Figure 6).
\nShallowing of the Anabar River in Yakutia (photo: V. Gassiy).
Collapse of the riverbank of Yana due to permafrost melting, Yakutia (photo: V. Gassiy).
In 2017, an expedition aimed to the research on socioeconomic and environmental problems of the Arctic indigenous communities was organized by the financial aid of the Russian Fund for Basic Research (RFBR) to the Anabar National (Dolgan-Evenk) ulus (district) and Ust-Yanskiy region in Yakutia. These areas belonged to the compact residents of the indigenous peoples of the North. The study allowed to determine the attitude of the local population to traditional activities and to identify the socioeconomic problems of the territories and environmental threats to indigenous communities in the context of climate change. In the structure of the respondents in the Anabar area, representatives of indigenous peoples were Evenks 43 people (33%) and Dolgans 71 people (55%) (Figure 7) (Table 2).
\nRatio of men and women in the total number of respondents.
Education organizations, units | \n1735 | \n
Number of medical treatment and prophylactic organizations, units | \n2045 | \n
Number of cultural and leisure type organizations, units | \n834 | \n
Libraries and museums, units | \n542 | \n
Number of sports facilities, units | \n10,161 | \n
Hospitality facilities and accommodation | \n1123 | \n
Shops and supermarket, units | \n28,364 | \n
Restaurants and cafes | \n3773 | \n
Settlements with post office, units | \n1735 | \n
Commissioning of residential buildings, square meters | \n1,496,550 | \n
Number of people living in dilapidated houses | \n192,411 | \n
Extension of a street water supply network, meters | \n7,566,841.0 | \n
Including in need of replacement, meters | \n2,411,098.0 | \n
Number of enterprises for utilization and neutralization of domestic and industrial waste, units | \n151 | \n
Indicators of the social development level of territories of traditional nature use in Siberia and the Far East of the Russian Federation in 2017 [9].
Indigenous community | \nRespondents | \nShare of respondents from the total number, % | \n
---|---|---|
Yuryung-Khaya | \n29 | \n22 | \n
Saskylakh | \n101 | \n78 | \n
Total | \n130 | \n1000 | \n
Distribution of respondents who participated in the survey, by settlements in the district.
It is worth noting that this ratio between men and women, when the number of women prevails, is typical for indigenous communities, since it is associated with the high mortality of men engaged in traditional crafts: hunting, fishing, and reindeer herding. In addition, we can add problems of alcoholism reducing life expectancy, as well as chronic diseases caused by the harsh climate. As a result of the survey, residents of indigenous communities noted the following socioeconomic problems in their places of residence:
High prices for food products, 22.5%
The lack of jobs, 20.2%
Low level of income, 19.7%
Old state of housing and communal services, 19.1%
Poor transport accessibility, 9.0%
Low level of medical services, 6.5%
Low level of equipping educational institutions, 3.1%
As can be seen from the survey results presented, the majority of the respondents connect the socioeconomic problems of the territory with the lack of a stable income, the need for employment, and the underdeveloped infrastructure. In this regard, the implementation of investment projects for the industrial development of territories can create additional jobs for the local population. It should be noted that in the experience of some Russian regions, there are examples of the implementation of a targeted policy for the local labor market development. For example, for several years in the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), JSC Almazy Anabara (Alrosa group) has been implementing the educational program, which provides training for the company’s interests and the residents of indigenous communities, where an investment project on the extraction of minerals starts. The survey made it possible to determine the list of sociocultural problems that concern the local population:
Increase in morbidity and mortality of the population, 20.7%
Loss of communication between people and their culture, traditions, 18.3%
Alcoholism, 18.3%
The lack of organized forms of leisure, 14.1%
Problems of selling traditional craft products, 12.3%
Outflow of youth, 12.0%
Crime rate, 4.5%
It should be noted that the majority of respondents attributed an increase in morbidity and mortality of the population with active industrial development of territories of traditional nature use. However, these are often only subjective assessments, since the problem of early diagnosis of diseases in the Arctic regions of Russia is particularly acute, and not only instruments and specialists are available in the district centers that could conduct regular medical checkups of the population but even a morgue, i.e., in rural settlements there is no way to establish reliably the cause of death. In most cases, early and sudden deaths, the local population refers to oncological diseases as the consequences of the activity of an industrial enterprise in the territory of their living. In the course of a poll among the inhabitants of indigenous communities, it was found that a high mortality rate is also associated with the problem of alcoholism and crimes committed under the influence of alcohol. The traditional types of economic activity associated with hunting and fishing also endanger life: water safety rules are not followed as well as dealing with weapons.
\nAmong environmental problems, the majority of respondents noted the decline in traditional craft facilities, which is directly attributed to climate change (e.g., the wild reindeer changes its migration routes under the influence of this factor and, as in the case of the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia), goes to the Krasnoyarsk Territory). According to observations of indigenous peoples, winters become warmer, which is expressed in heavy snowfalls and increased winter temperatures. This leads to river spill in spring, flooding of villages, and loss of the fishing opportunity in the traditional way, as the fish goes deeper. Flood threatens another serious problem for traditional craft—broken trees, which the river carries, can break the seines, which means that an indigenous individual and his family can be deprived of food. Many of the representatives of indigenous communities also note the man-made factor—pollution of rivers due to the implementation of industrial projects, shipping, etc.
\nThe Ust-Yanskiy region, the second researched area, has specificity concluded in a huge accumulated damage due to a previous gold extractive mine Kular and closed settlements (Vlasovo, Severniy) caused by mass outflow migration since 1998 when this mine was closed. The barbaric way of extracting gold from only the large and medium fractions, the pursuit of the indicators, led to the fact that there is still enough gold in the recycled dumps that can be produced. Since 2017, the license for processing and restoring Kular mine has been transferred to Arctic Capital LLC, which has undertaken the task of eliminating the accumulated environmental damage, recultivation of soil, employment of the local population among indigenous peoples in the newly discovered deposit, and procurement of traditional products (venison, fish, etc.). The concept of social responsibility of business comes to the Russian part of the Arctic, and it becomes one of the few ways to preserve indigenous community and people on the place of their original habitat (Figure 8).
\nAccumulated environmental damage in Vlasovo, Ust-Yanskiy region, Yakutia (photo: V. Gassiy).
The specificity of the researched territory is its inaccessibility, which has a negative impact on the development of traditional spheres of economic activity. Producing objects of traditional nature use (fish, berries, furs) involves not only consumption for personal purposes but also the need to transport them to the market in larger settlements. The lack of roads and the high cost of transportation by air or auto trucks make economic activity (trade) by-products of traditional nature use almost impossible. In the Ust-Yanskiy area, the main source of income is the extraction of the mammoth tusk, which brings a significant income to the tribal communities and individual entrepreneurs. However, this type of activity requires special training (traditional knowledge, physical form, etc.) and technical equipment (pumps, boats, etc.). Although there are widespread cases of attempts by local residents to obtain tusks and without the necessary equipment, which leads to lethal incidents. On average, according to local residents, the “washing” season is about 100 days, for which one well-trained person can collect from 500 to 800 kg of tusks. In monetary terms, such a “crop” can fluctuate from 10 to 15 million rubles or 160,000–230,000 US$. Moreover, a hot summer with anomalous temperatures is considered by local hunters for tusks as a blessing, since actively melting permafrost itself gives away the hidden remains of ancient animals hidden for thousands of years. It should be noted that in the villages where the main activity is the extraction of the mammoth tusk, one can see expensive modern machinery that local authorities do not always have (Figure 9).
\nType of transport vehicle in a Kazachye indigenous community, Ust-Yanskiy region (photo: V. Gassiy).
The purchased transport equipment allows local residents to develop trade between settlements within the region. Given their remoteness from each other, and the impossibility of year-round traffic, this is an important factor in actually helping people survive in such a harsh terrain. This fact makes indigenous peoples to adapt to the climate change in tundra in a unique way. For example, it is often possible to meet indigenous peoples who are using a winter mode of transport during the summer period, since flooded areas of the tundra do not allow movement on motorized wheeled vehicles, Figure 10.
\nSnowmobile in summer tundra on the way to Khayyr (even community), Ust-Yanskiy region, Yakutia (photo: V. Gassiy).
Figure 10 shows a group of Evens moving on a snowmobile to their native village. In their opinion, in recent years the climate in the tundra has changed considerably: “Winters have become warmer, and summer is unstable: there can be both hot days and cold months when berries do not have time to ripen” (reindeer herder Nikolai, 43); “The deer goes North and does not come here because of the midges, which is very much due to the heat” (hunter Michael, 52) (Figure 11).
\nExample of private household in Kazachye (even community), Ust-Yanskiy region, Yakutia (photo: V. Gassiy).
As a survey of the indigenous community showed, the traditional economy for the majority of local population ceases to be the basic criteria for determining the ethnic characteristics of the people. The high level of unemployment among indigenous peoples of the North, including the Evenks, Evens, and Dolgans, is complicated by the peculiarities of the sectoral structure of employment and the qualification and educational level of the economically active population. The succession of generations in the traditional sectors of the North is gradually disappearing. Young people, being witnesses to the everyday, problematic life of the older generation, are of the opinion that work in reindeer husbandry, hunting, and fishing is not prestigious and does not bring sufficient income to create the corresponding financial situation of the family. The studied living conditions of indigenous communities on the territories of traditional nature use testify to the low level of social, communal, transport infrastructure development, which affects the behavior of the younger generation, their desire to go to the city or find work in extractive companies. “The benefits of civilization” in the form of the Internet, social web sources, and public amenities, along with climate changes, form challenges to the traditional way of life, undermining the age-old foundations of tribal communities. The domestic problems of indigenous peoples are one of the main reasons for the reluctance to remain on their land, to lead a traditional way of life, especially nomadic. Often villages in the territories of traditional residence are not provided with drinking water, and the only sources are river, rain water, or snow (Figure 12).
\nRainwater harvesting for personal consumption, Khayyr (even community), Ust-Yanskiy region, Yakutia (photo: V. Gassiy).
Thus, climate change in the Arctic for indigenous communities is not a prospect of the future, but a real threat to the traditional way of life, food security, and their habitat. We believe that ensuring the social status, decent level, and quality of life of the indigenous communities depends on the ways of preserving and developing the traditional economy on a new material, technical, and technological basis. Market relations in reindeer husbandry and hunting are constrained by the peculiarities of the nomadic way of life and the mentality of indigenous peoples. The theory and practice of managing changes in the territories of the traditional nature use of the Arctic require a critical rethinking of established views. In the coming years, new management approaches will be needed to quickly respond to changes in the Arctic territories, as climate change and global warming lead to the biggest social problem—changing the traditional way of life of indigenous peoples. On the other hand, industrial development expands the area of its presence in the Arctic, which creates not only challenges for the indigenous population but also the opportunities to preserve their culture, traditions, and crafts. In this regard, it is necessary to introduce into the practice of public administration the decision-making model for choosing investment projects based on the priorities of local development, the interests not only of the state and business but also of the indigenous communities [18]. Therefore, in order to solve the problem of survival and adaptation of Arctic indigenous communities in the context of climate change, a proactive reaction of science and practice is needed, based on complex sociological, ethno-cultural, ecological-economic, and statistical studies of traditional nature-use territories.
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