Models for the spatial correlation structure of a spatial process.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"9482",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Essential Oils - Bioactive Compounds, New Perspectives and Applications",title:"Essential Oils",subtitle:"Bioactive Compounds, New Perspectives and Applications",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Essential oils have been used for centuries by communities all over the world in various areas and for various purposes. These include uses in medicine, flavoring, perfumery, cosmetics, insecticides, fungicides, and bactericides, among others. They are natural and biodegradable substances, generally nontoxic or with low toxicity to humans and other animals. Therefore, constant research in these areas represents an alternative for new and more efficient drugs with less side effects as well as obtaining new products and supplies. This book provides a comprehensive overview of the diverse applications of essential oils in a variety of human activities with a focus on the most important evidence-based developments in the various fields of knowledge.",isbn:"978-1-83962-698-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-697-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-699-9",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.87266",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"essential-oils-bioactive-compounds-new-perspectives-and-applications",numberOfPages:222,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"16d29ce9f4f9ea78b5d3789c8fd79b0c",bookSignature:"Mozaniel Santana de Oliveira, Wanessa Almeida da Costa and Sebastião Gomes Silva",publishedDate:"September 9th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9482.jpg",numberOfDownloads:8510,numberOfWosCitations:29,numberOfCrossrefCitations:24,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:2,numberOfDimensionsCitations:49,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:3,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:102,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 15th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 5th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 4th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 24th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 23rd 2020",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"195290",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mozaniel",middleName:null,surname:"Santana De Oliveira",slug:"mozaniel-santana-de-oliveira",fullName:"Mozaniel Santana De Oliveira",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195290/images/system/195290.png",biography:"Mozaniel Santana de Oliveira graduated in Chemistry from the Federal University of Pará, Brazil. He obtained both a master’s and Ph.D. in Food Science and Technology from the same university. He has 12 years of professional experience. From 2010 to 2014, he worked on the chemistry of natural products at the Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuária (Embrapa), and from 2014 to 2018, he worked in the Postgraduate Program in Food Science and Technology at the Federal University of Pará, specifically with essential oils. Since 2020, he has been a researcher for the Institutional Training Program - PCI, at the institution Museu Paraense Emilio Goeldi, linked to the Ministério da Ciência, Tecnologia e Inovações of Brazil (MCTI), with studies focused on extraction, characterization chemistry, and applications of essential oils in several industrial segments, among them the food industry. Specifically, Dr. Oliveira has experience in engineering, food science and technology, pharmacology and drug discovery, medicinal chemistry, ethnopharmacology and ethnobotany, phytochemistry, methods of extraction of bioactive compounds, biotechnology of natural products, and allelopathy to find new natural herbicides to control invasive plants. He also has experience in the area of essential oil extraction using supercritical technology and conventional methods. Since 2020, he has supervised and co-supervised master’s and Ph.D. students in several graduate programs. Dr. Oliveira serves as a reviewer for thirty-one international scientific journals and is the academic editor of the journals Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, Journal of Food Quality, Molecules, and Open Chemistry.",institutionString:"Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"287338",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastião",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Silva",slug:"sebastiao-silva",fullName:"Sebastião Silva",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/287338/images/10100_n.png",biography:"Dr. Sebastião Gomes Silva holds a Master’s degree in Organic\nChemistry from the Federal University of Pará and PhD in Organic Chemistry, also from the Federal University of Pará, Brazil.\nHe is currently a Class II professor of the state education network\nof the Pará state, Brazil, and External Collaborating Professor of\nthe Rural Education Course at the Abaetetuba Campus-UFPA.\nHe works in the Chemistry area, with emphasis on Chemistry of\nNatural Products, mainly in the following themes: extraction of essential oils with\nsupercritical fluids, hydrodistillation, simultaneous distillation and extraction,\nanalysis by gas chromatography/mass spectrometer, and search for of essential oil\napplications in industries.",institutionString:"Federal University of Pará",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Federal University of Para",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"195289",title:"MSc.",name:"Wanessa",middleName:null,surname:"Almeida Da Costa",slug:"wanessa-almeida-da-costa",fullName:"Wanessa Almeida Da Costa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195289/images/10099_n.png",biography:"Dr. Wanessa Almeida da Costa has a PhD in Natural Resources\nEngineering from the Federal University of Pará (UFPA), Brazil.\nShe also holds a MEng in Chemical Engineering also from the\nFederal University of Pará, Brazil. Currently, Dr. Wanessa Costa\nis part of the technical and administrative staff at UFPA, working as a laboratory technician (Chemical Area) at the Faculty of\nChemical Engineering. She has experience in Process Simulation,\nChemistry, and Food Science and Technology, working mainly in the areas of supercritical extraction; extraction of bioactive compounds of plant origin; applications\nin allelopathy, and transesterification processes in supercritical medium.",institutionString:"Federal University of Pará",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Federal University of Para",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"371",title:"Phytochemistry",slug:"agricultural-and-biological-sciences-plant-biology-phytochemistry"}],chapters:[{id:"71354",title:"Algae Essential Oils: Chemistry, Ecology, and Biological Activities",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91672",slug:"algae-essential-oils-chemistry-ecology-and-biological-activities",totalDownloads:843,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter focuses on the essential oils and volatile fractions of seaweed. It includes an introduction to the essentials and volatile fractions and the main chemical classes found. This part is completed by a presentation of the fundamental aspects of biodiversity and the chemodiversity of the marine environment followed by the taxonomy and systematics of marine macroalgae. The heart of this chapter concerns the chemistry of volatile products extracted from marine algae. It reports the specificities of the marine natural products chemistry in comparison to that of terrestrial organisms. The description of volatile compounds in seaweed is divided into two parts, the first reports the common compounds identified in main volatile fractions and the second cover the specific volatile components. These include C11 hydrocarbons, sulfur compounds, and halogenated hydrocarbons. These latter are playing a very important role in communication and chemical defense. The last part includes aspects of chemical ecology and biological activities of volatile products.",signatures:"Mohamed El Hattab",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71354",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71354",authors:[{id:"314411",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed",surname:"El Hattab",slug:"mohamed-el-hattab",fullName:"Mohamed El Hattab"}],corrections:null},{id:"71959",title:"Essential Oils",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92216",slug:"essential-oils",totalDownloads:725,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Modern science has tended to use several natural substances that have little or no side effects in daily use or to treat many diseases. Among these materials are essential oils that represent one of the secondary metabolic products of many plants such as Terpenes and Terpenoids, Alkaloids, and the Phenolic compounds, which are extracted by special methods from different parts of the plants. Several applications were using the essential oils such as in the nutrition, cosmetic manufacture, and alternatives to synthetic medication that uses to treatment several infections and diseases as disinfection, as an anti-inflammatory, mouthwashes, as well as in cleaning and calm mood and pesticides. This review describes essential oils, methods of their extraction, and ways of utilization and their application.",signatures:"Lubna Abdul Muttalib Al-Shalah, Nada Khazal Kadhim Hindi and Israa Harjan Mohsen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71959",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71959",authors:[{id:"307845",title:"Dr.",name:"Nada",surname:"Khazal Kadhim Hindi",slug:"nada-khazal-kadhim-hindi",fullName:"Nada Khazal Kadhim Hindi"}],corrections:null},{id:"71260",title:"Safety Profile of Essential Oils",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91363",slug:"safety-profile-of-essential-oils",totalDownloads:859,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Essential oils are complex mixtures of terpenes and phenylpropanoid compounds, present in multiple species of aromatic plants. They are extensively used in food and cosmetic industries in order to give flavor to food and drinks or as natural fragrances. Moreover, several compounds present in essential oils are important for the pharmaceutical industry due to their antioxidant, antimicrobial, anxiolytic or spasmolytic effects. Although many essential oils are generally recognized as safe, a series of adverse reactions have been reported after their use either by internal or external routes. The aim of this chapter is to increase the awareness of healthcare professionals concerning possible safety issues of essential oils. Common adverse effects of essential oils like sensitization and dermatitis but also more severe phenomena like neurotoxicity will be presented in detail, concerning their epidemiology, mechanism and clinical significance. A thorough understanding of the safety profile of essential oils is necessary for healthcare and food industry professionals in order to maximize their beneficial effects while minimizing the risk for the users.",signatures:"Oliviu Vostinaru, Simona Codruta Heghes and Lorena Filip",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71260",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71260",authors:[{id:"198574",title:"Dr.",name:"Oliviu",surname:"Vostinaru",slug:"oliviu-vostinaru",fullName:"Oliviu Vostinaru"},{id:"317806",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona Codruta",surname:"Heghes",slug:"simona-codruta-heghes",fullName:"Simona Codruta Heghes"},{id:"317807",title:"Dr.",name:"Lorena",surname:"Filip",slug:"lorena-filip",fullName:"Lorena Filip"}],corrections:null},{id:"72202",title:"Essential Oils’ Potential in Breast Cancer Treatment: An Overview",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91781",slug:"essential-oils-potential-in-breast-cancer-treatment-an-overview",totalDownloads:942,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Essential oils are widely used in the pharmaceutical industry for their antimicrobial, antiviral, antifungal, antiparasitic, and insecticidal properties. Their anticancer activity has been increasingly explored as the natural constituents of essential oils play an important role in cancer prevention and treatment. The chemical composition of essential oils includes monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, oxygenated monoterpenes, phenolic sesquiterpenes, and others. Several mechanisms of action such as antioxidant, antimutagenic, antiproliferative, enhancement of immune functions, modulation of multidrug resistance, and synergistic mechanism of volatile constituents are responsible for their chemotherapeutic properties. This review focuses on the activity of essential oils and their chemical composition in regard to breast cancer.",signatures:"Isadora de Fátima Braga Magalhães, Carla Junqueira Moraga Tellis, Kátia da Silva Calabrese, Ana Lucia Abreu-Silva and Fernando Almeida-Souza",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72202",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72202",authors:[{id:"223173",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Lucia",surname:"Abreu-Silva",slug:"ana-lucia-abreu-silva",fullName:"Ana Lucia Abreu-Silva"},{id:"287290",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",surname:"Almeida-Souza",slug:"fernando-almeida-souza",fullName:"Fernando Almeida-Souza"},{id:"318732",title:"MSc.",name:"Isadora",surname:"De Fátima Braga Magalhães",slug:"isadora-de-fatima-braga-magalhaes",fullName:"Isadora De Fátima Braga Magalhães"},{id:"318733",title:"Dr.",name:"Carla Junqueira",surname:"Moraga Tellis",slug:"carla-junqueira-moraga-tellis",fullName:"Carla Junqueira Moraga Tellis"},{id:"318734",title:"Dr.",name:"Kátia",surname:"Da Silva Calabrese",slug:"katia-da-silva-calabrese",fullName:"Kátia Da Silva Calabrese"}],corrections:null},{id:"72167",title:"Terpenoids as Important Bioactive Constituents of Essential Oils",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91426",slug:"terpenoids-as-important-bioactive-constituents-of-essential-oils",totalDownloads:1342,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:15,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Plant and plant-derived natural products have a long and significant history in traditional medicine all over the world. Many studies in the recent past years focused on the benefic properties of essential oils (EOs) and their major components, terpenes and terpenoids (that are mostly monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes), and their biological properties. This chapter focuses on terpenoids as important bioactive constituents of EOs. It describes their uses, importance, extraction processes, and classification. The chapter provides an in-depth overview of the latest findings/research about terpenoids in EOs. It contains a well-prepared background, introduction, classification, chemical tests, bioactivities, as well as the characterization of terpenoids. It also discusses the bioactivities of EOs and that of terpenoids, with regard to their synergetic and/or their antagonistic effects.",signatures:"Fongang Fotsing Yannick Stephane and Bankeu Kezetas Jean Jules",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72167",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72167",authors:[{id:"224515",title:"Dr.",name:"Fongang Fotsing",surname:"Yannick Stéphane",slug:"fongang-fotsing-yannick-stephane",fullName:"Fongang Fotsing Yannick Stéphane"},{id:"227816",title:"Dr.",name:"Bankeu Kezetas",surname:"Jean Jules",slug:"bankeu-kezetas-jean-jules",fullName:"Bankeu Kezetas Jean Jules"}],corrections:null},{id:"72122",title:"Aromatherapy as Complementary Medicine",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92021",slug:"aromatherapy-as-complementary-medicine",totalDownloads:738,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Aromatherapy is the practice of using the natural oils extracted from bark, flowers, stems, roots, leaves, or other parts of a plant to enhance psychological and physical well-being. It is a type of complementary medicine that uses volatile oils and other aromatic compounds with the aim of changing a person’s mind and mood. Volatile oils are hydrophobic in nature. Essential oils are extracted by different methods as steam distillation. Some evidence exists that volatile oils may have therapeutic potential. Volatile oils are often absorbed through the skin, where they travel through the bloodstream and might promote whole-body healing. Essential oils are showing a spread of applications, including pain treatments, enhancement of mood, and increased cognitive function. Essential oils are available in a large number, each with its own healing properties.",signatures:"Amira Ahmed Kamal El-din El-Anssary",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72122",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72122",authors:[{id:"221140",title:"Dr.",name:"Amira",surname:"El-Anssary",slug:"amira-el-anssary",fullName:"Amira El-Anssary"}],corrections:null},{id:"71872",title:"Volatile Compounds, Chemical Composition and Biological Activities of Apis mellifera Bee Propolis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92130",slug:"volatile-compounds-chemical-composition-and-biological-activities-of-em-apis-mellifera-em-bee-propol",totalDownloads:547,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Propolis is a wax-like resin collected by bees from tree shoots and/or other botanical sources that is used as glue to seal cracks or open spaces in the hive. Its color varies from green to brown and reddish, depending on its botanical origin. Among the substances that can be found in propolis, low molecular weight compounds, such as monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes are the most common. Several biological activities are attributed to these classes of substances, such as antifungal, antibacterial, and others. The objective of this work was to evaluate the chemical composition of volatile compounds present in propolis samples and to analyze their correlation with biological activities.",signatures:"Jorddy Neves Cruz, Adriane Gomes da Silva, Wanessa Almeida da Costa, Ely Simone Cajueiro Gurgel, Willison Eduardo Oliveira Campos, Renan Campos e Silva, Marcos Ene Chaves Oliveira, Antônio Pedro da Silva Souza Filho, Daniel Santiago Pereira, Sebastião Gomes Silva, Eloisa Helena de Aguiar Andrade and Mozaniel Santana de Oliveira",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71872",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71872",authors:[{id:"195290",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mozaniel",surname:"Santana De Oliveira",slug:"mozaniel-santana-de-oliveira",fullName:"Mozaniel Santana De Oliveira"},{id:"195289",title:"MSc.",name:"Wanessa",surname:"Almeida Da Costa",slug:"wanessa-almeida-da-costa",fullName:"Wanessa Almeida Da Costa"},{id:"241345",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio Pedro Da Silva",surname:"Souza Filho",slug:"antonio-pedro-da-silva-souza-filho",fullName:"Antonio Pedro Da Silva Souza Filho"},{id:"270636",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Jorddy Neves",surname:"Cruz",slug:"jorddy-neves-cruz",fullName:"Jorddy Neves Cruz"},{id:"282410",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastião",surname:"Silva",slug:"sebastiao-silva",fullName:"Sebastião Silva"},{id:"282414",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel Santiago",surname:"Pereira",slug:"daniel-santiago-pereira",fullName:"Daniel Santiago Pereira"},{id:"314348",title:"Dr.",name:"Adriane",surname:"Gomes Da Silva",slug:"adriane-gomes-da-silva",fullName:"Adriane Gomes Da Silva"},{id:"314367",title:"Dr.",name:"Willison",surname:"Eduardo Oliveira Campos",slug:"willison-eduardo-oliveira-campos",fullName:"Willison Eduardo Oliveira Campos"},{id:"314368",title:"Dr.",name:"Ely",surname:"Simone Cajueiro Gurgel",slug:"ely-simone-cajueiro-gurgel",fullName:"Ely Simone Cajueiro Gurgel"},{id:"314369",title:"Dr.",name:"Eloisa",surname:"Helena De Aguiar Andrade",slug:"eloisa-helena-de-aguiar-andrade",fullName:"Eloisa Helena De Aguiar Andrade"},{id:"314370",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcos",surname:"Ene Chaves Oliveira",slug:"marcos-ene-chaves-oliveira",fullName:"Marcos Ene Chaves Oliveira"}],corrections:null},{id:"72345",title:"Chemical Composition and Antibacterial Activity of the Essential Oil of Mesosphaerum suaveolens (Lamiaceae)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92704",slug:"chemical-composition-and-antibacterial-activity-of-the-essential-oil-of-em-mesosphaerum-suaveolens-e",totalDownloads:478,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Mesosphaerum suaveolens (Lamiaceae) is a medicinal plant commonly used in Brazil for the treatment of diseases related to the digestive tract and respiratory diseases, so we hypothesized that the essential oil of this species may have antibacterial activity. Thus, we aimed to evaluate the in vitro antibacterial and modulatory activity of the essential oil of M. suaveolens as well as to characterize its chemical composition. The identification of the constituents was performed by gas chromatography-flame ionization detector (GC-FID) and the antibacterial and modulating activity by the plate microdilution method. We found the oil had sesquiterpene β-caryophyllene as the major component. This compound may account for the antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus strains, since the essential oil had a MIC of 64 μg/mL for the standard strain and 256 μg/mL for the multiresistant strain, demonstrated that the oil does not exhibit drug modulating activity. Thus, M. suaveolens oil has bioactive compounds which can be used in the preparation of drugs.",signatures:"José Weverton Almeida Bezerra, Felicidade Caroline Rodrigues, Ma Aparecida Barbosa Ferreira Gonçalo, Marcos Aurélio Figuereido dos Santos, Gledson Ferreira Macedo, Janete de Souza Bezerra, Priscilla Augusta de Sousa Fernandes, Emanoel Messias Pereira Fernando, Carlos Henrique Silva de Oliveira, Viviane Bezerra da Silva, Isabella Hevily Silva Torquato, Niwiarakelly da Silva Monte, Luciano Temoteo dos Santos and Henrique Douglas Melo Coutinho",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72345",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72345",authors:[{id:"314028",title:"Prof.",name:"José Weverton Almeida",surname:"Bezerra",slug:"jose-weverton-almeida-bezerra",fullName:"José Weverton Almeida Bezerra"},{id:"314029",title:"Prof.",name:"Felicidade Caroline",surname:"Rodrigues",slug:"felicidade-caroline-rodrigues",fullName:"Felicidade Caroline Rodrigues"},{id:"314033",title:"Prof.",name:"Janete De Souza",surname:"Bezerra",slug:"janete-de-souza-bezerra",fullName:"Janete De Souza Bezerra"},{id:"320914",title:"Prof.",name:"Ma Aparecida Barbosa Ferreira",surname:"Gonçalo",slug:"ma-aparecida-barbosa-ferreira-goncalo",fullName:"Ma Aparecida Barbosa Ferreira Gonçalo"},{id:"320915",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcos Aurélio Figuereido Dos",surname:"Santos",slug:"marcos-aurelio-figuereido-dos-santos",fullName:"Marcos Aurélio Figuereido Dos Santos"},{id:"320916",title:"Prof.",name:"Gledson Ferreira",surname:"Macedo",slug:"gledson-ferreira-macedo",fullName:"Gledson Ferreira Macedo"},{id:"320917",title:"Prof.",name:"Priscilla Augusta De Sousa",surname:"Fernandes",slug:"priscilla-augusta-de-sousa-fernandes",fullName:"Priscilla Augusta De Sousa Fernandes"},{id:"320918",title:"Prof.",name:"Emanoel Messias Pereira",surname:"Fernando",slug:"emanoel-messias-pereira-fernando",fullName:"Emanoel Messias Pereira Fernando"},{id:"320919",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos Henrique Silva De",surname:"Oliveira",slug:"carlos-henrique-silva-de-oliveira",fullName:"Carlos Henrique Silva De Oliveira"},{id:"320920",title:"Prof.",name:"Viviane Bezerra Da",surname:"Silva",slug:"viviane-bezerra-da-silva",fullName:"Viviane Bezerra Da Silva"},{id:"320921",title:"Prof.",name:"Isabella Hevily Silva",surname:"Torquato",slug:"isabella-hevily-silva-torquato",fullName:"Isabella Hevily Silva Torquato"},{id:"320922",title:"Prof.",name:"Niwiarakelly Da Silva",surname:"Monte",slug:"niwiarakelly-da-silva-monte",fullName:"Niwiarakelly Da Silva Monte"},{id:"320923",title:"Prof.",name:"Luciano Temoteo Dos",surname:"Santos",slug:"luciano-temoteo-dos-santos",fullName:"Luciano Temoteo Dos Santos"},{id:"320924",title:"Dr.",name:"Henrique Douglas Melo",surname:"Coutinho",slug:"henrique-douglas-melo-coutinho",fullName:"Henrique Douglas Melo Coutinho"}],corrections:null},{id:"72267",title:"Essential Oil as Antimicrobial Agents: Efficacy, Stability, and Safety Issues for Food Application",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92305",slug:"essential-oil-as-antimicrobial-agents-efficacy-stability-and-safety-issues-for-food-application",totalDownloads:1278,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:17,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The use of natural antimicrobial compounds in food has gained much attention by the consumers and the food industry. This is primarily due to two major factors. First, the misuse and mishandling of antibiotics has resulted in the dramatic rise of a group of microorganisms including foodborne pathogens that are not only antibiotic resistant but also more tolerant to several food processing and preservation methods. In addition, increasing consumers’ awareness of the potential negative impact of synthetic preservatives on health versus the benefits of natural additives has generated interest among researchers in the development and use of natural products in foods. Essential oils are volatile, natural, complex compounds characterized by a strong odor and are formed by aromatic plants as secondary metabolites. The bioactivity properties of essential oils are generally determined by the major compounds present in them. They have been widely used for bactericidal, virucidal, fungicidal, antiparasitical, insecticidal, medicinal, and antioxidant applications. The biological activity of the oils can be compared with the activity of synthetically produced pharmacological preparations. Thus, essential oils are promising natural extracts that need further evaluation for possible application as supplement, preservatives, or antioxidants in food or pharmaceutical industries.",signatures:"Hamdy A. Shaaban",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72267",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72267",authors:[{id:"314303",title:"Prof.",name:"Hamdy A.",surname:"Shaaban",slug:"hamdy-a.-shaaban",fullName:"Hamdy A. Shaaban"}],corrections:null},{id:"72424",title:"Roles of Terpenoids in Essential Oils and Its Potential as Natural Weed Killers: Recent Developments",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91322",slug:"roles-of-terpenoids-in-essential-oils-and-its-potential-as-natural-weed-killers-recent-developments",totalDownloads:760,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Weed control through the use of conventional chemical compounds presented by synthetic herbicides is a widely used and successful method to control weed by reducing the negative impact of weed and increase agricultural production gradually. However, although the losses in agricultural production arising from weed competition are decreased through the use of synthetic herbicides, the negative impacts of these compounds on the environment and human health have raised awareness and created grave concern of a number of parties to safeguard the environment and humans. The adverse effect of synthetic herbicides can still occur even if such herbicides are applied at the recommended rates. Control weed naturally presented by allelochemical compounds provides an attractive, alternative and safe way to control weed synthetic herbicides. Previous works indicated that terpenoids as the most important group of allelochemicals have shown to exhibit a good phytotoxic effect against a wide range of weed species by suppressing germination and reducing growth. This review was a highlight to detect the desirable phytotoxic effects of some terpenoid compounds as a major content in essential oils on various weed species and the possible uses as natural weed killers.",signatures:"Ahmed Abdulwahid Ali Almarie",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72424",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72424",authors:[{id:"314236",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",surname:"Almarie",slug:"ahmed-almarie",fullName:"Ahmed Almarie"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3244",title:"Soybean",subtitle:"Bio-Active Compounds",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b21aa6107fce439bd06d53fbe0bc3c9e",slug:"soybean-bio-active-compounds",bookSignature:"Hany A. 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Kumavath and Pratap Deverapalli",dateSubmitted:"October 10th 2012",dateReviewed:"March 18th 2013",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"October 2nd 2013",book:{id:"3547",title:"Applied Bioremediation",subtitle:"Active and Passive Approaches",fullTitle:"Applied Bioremediation - Active and Passive Approaches",slug:"applied-bioremediation-active-and-passive-approaches",publishedDate:"October 2nd 2013",bookSignature:"Yogesh B. 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Kumavath and Pratap Deverapalli",dateSubmitted:"October 10th 2012",dateReviewed:"March 18th 2013",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"October 2nd 2013",book:{id:"3547",title:"Applied Bioremediation",subtitle:"Active and Passive Approaches",fullTitle:"Applied Bioremediation - Active and Passive Approaches",slug:"applied-bioremediation-active-and-passive-approaches",publishedDate:"October 2nd 2013",bookSignature:"Yogesh B. 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Microfluidics and Nanofluidics deal with transport phenomena, i.e., mass, momentum, and heat transfer, in the micrometer or nanometer range, and conventional fluid dynamics cannot be directly used in this area. The possible challenge in fluid properties must be considered. Thus, in the last two decades, the fundamental theories, as well as their application, have been rapidly in Microfluidics and Nanofluidics. Therefore, this book aims to host original research or review works addressing the fundamentals and applications of any functional flow in Microfluidics and Nanofluidics. The potential topics include all aspects of microfluidics, nanofluidics, and lab-on-a-chip science and technology, it might be (but are not limited to) fundamental principles of micro-and nanoscale phenomena like flow, mass transport and reactions, theoretical models, and numerical simulation with experimental and/or analytical proof, micromixer device, and particle manipulation. Experimental and numerical studies are welcome.
\r\n\t
A pathogen is defined as an infectious biological agent, which can be a virus, bacterium, fungus, or other microorganism being the first link in the chain of infections and diseases. We are all exposed to pathogens in our everyday life, but normally they cause no harm as the body’s immune system eliminates them. In order to survive and multiply, pathogens must be able to colonize the host, replicate, and spread to a new host.
\nPathogens can be divided into human, animal, and environmental pathogens [1, 2]. The two major subdivisions of environmental pathogens are foodborne and waterborne pathogens [3]. The key difference between environmental pathogens and human along with animal pathogens is their ability to survive and thrive outside the host [3].
\nEnvironmental pathogens are defined as microorganisms that normally spend a substantial part of their lifecycle outside hosts. They are born in the water, soil, air, food, and other elements of our surroundings, and influence individual organism [3]. Foodborne diseases are caused by the consumption of food or water contaminated with pathogens or their toxins. The common foodborne pathogens, which are responsible for most of the foodborne disease outbreaks, are
The increasing demand for street food and for minimally processed ready-to-eat products has increased concerns about food safety [2]. We should carefully control the production processes in the food and agricultural sectors to assure high standards for food quality and safety. Most waterborne pathogens (
Treating infections with broad-spectrum antibiotics in cases where timely treatment is unavoidable, but the causative agent has not yet properly identified is a common practice. This can cause major damage to the normal microbiota of host organism and pose a global threat of spreading drug-resistant bacteria [4]. Decades of research into antibiotic development has produced highly effective and safe antibiotics, giving excellent tools for prevention and focused fight with bacterial infections [4]. However, release of each new drug has been inevitably followed by a rapid propagation of resistant pathogens. This issue has become a serious threat, causing annually at least 23,000 deaths in the United States [4] and about 25,000 deaths in the European Union [5].
\nIn US, it is suggested that around 80% of the nation’s annual antimicrobial consumption is used in food animals for medical procedures, disease prevention, and growth promotion [6]. So, the misuse of antibiotics due to insufficient identification of infection-causing pathogens in veterinary has even a bigger impact on the spread of drug-resistant bacteria.
\nThe availability of modern detection methods plays a key role in the speed and quality of monitoring, surveillance, and quantitative microbial risk assessment, and has a major influence on implementing the best practices to prevent threats [1].
\nHow to detect small numbers of pathogens in large numbers of harmless microflora in a large and complex sample matrix? How to make sure that the strains recovered are indeed pathogenic?
\nThe gold standards for pathogen detection are culture-based methods [7, 8]. The culture-based methods or count methods of culturing and colony—detecting of microorganisms—are based on the integration of the sample into a nutrient medium in which the microorganisms can multiply, thus providing visual confirmation of their growth [9]. Although these methods are simple, easily adaptable, and generally inexpensive, they are laborious, limited by low sensitivity (false negative results), and require relatively long time to perform as they depend on the ability of the microorganisms to grow in different culture media [9]. It commonly takes 2–3 days to get initial results, and up to 1 week to get final information about the specific pathogen causing the infection or disease with culture method [9].
\nIn recent decades, many new methods have emerged for the rapid diagnostics of bacterial infections. Microbiological analysis are based on the detection of microorganisms by visual, immunological, or genetic means, either before (enumerative methods) or after enrichment of samples [9].
\nThe most widespread methods for pathogen detection are polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). PCR method is very specific and can be used to identify microorganisms that cannot be readily cultured. However, the PCR method which requires amplification, isolation, and quantification of DNA is a complex technique to use and requires costly instruments and trained personnel [10]. In comparison with PCR analysis, ELISA is less complicated and less expensive, but real-time detection is not possible due to the need of incubation of samples for 2–3 h [10]. Therefore, neither PCR nor ELISA techniques meet the criteria of carrying out on-site rapid analysis of pathogens, therefore alternative methods are in urgent need. The main advantages of rapid detection techniques are the possibility of earlier interference and faster focused action to potential problems, but also improved throughput of analysis.
\nNovel technologies for the detection of pathogens are of critical importance, and extensive research and development activities are going on with the aim to reduce assay time and reduce the amount of manual labor by automating methods whenever possible [8, 9]. The sensitivity of assessment is another major parameter in cases when potential risk of infections is caused by low number or a single pathogen.
\nModern biotechnologies are important in many fields: agriculture, medicine, environmental monitoring, and in food industry as they are improving the ability to detect pathogens quickly and effectively. Nevertheless, the development of new methods has many challenges. These methods should be capable of concentrating pathogens and removing matrix-associated inhibitors, should be simple, rapid, and inexpensive; they should be able to eliminate or reduce the need for culture enrichments and minimize the chance for false-positive results [8].
\nIn recent years, there has been a constant growth in the field of pathogen biosensing due to modern developments of novel electronic devices. Biosensor-based technologies commonly rely on the specific recognition of antigen epitopes of pathogen targets by a recognition agent-like antibodies or aptamers. These immunosensing technologies offer prospective features like real-time, on-site, simultaneous multiplex detection of different pathogenic agents integrating the selectivity of biomolecules and the processing power of modern nanoelectronics [11]. One must also remember that even having established a rapid and reliable method for the detection of pathogens, we should remember that detection technology is not the only aspect to consider and we still have to follow strict sampling procedures to avoid contamination. Otherwise, the results can be meaningless or even worse—misleading.
\nThe term spatial statistics is used to describe a wide range of statistical models and methods for the analysis of geo-referenced data [1]. Its rapid use has been increasing in various fields of science, such as biology, image processing, environmental and earth sciences, ecology, epidemiology, agronomy, forestry, among others [2]. In epidemiology, spatial statistics are used to study the occurrence of health-disease events or deaths in a region of interest. It is now known that several public health problems tend to exhibit spatial dependence (spatial autocorrelation, spatial variability), and that sometimes these problems are related to climatic factors that are generally of a spatially continuous nature or with factors specific to the study region. The use of classical statistical techniques to model spatial data generally leads to an overestimation of model parameters [1]; and although they may eventually help, these models, lacking adequate structure, will not be able to model the spatial variability of the data; valuable information that will be sent to model error and cannot be used to explain the nature of the phenomenon under study.
Recent studies have shown that spatial models can help identify spatial patterns in infectious and non-infectious diseases. These models also help determine the factors that favor them, such as sociodemographic, environmental, etc.; as well as generate maps to visualize the distribution of morbidity or mortality of infectious and non-infectious diseases, and identify critical points in the spatial distribution [3, 4].
Generalized linear spatial models (GLSM), which are a particular class of multilevel or hierarchical models, have been used for the study of certain diseases (infectious and non-infectious). The estimation of GLSM parameters can be done under the frequentist or Bayesian approach [1], some examples are given below. A spatial Poisson regression model, where parameter estimation was performed under the frequentist approach, was used to study esophageal cancer incidence rates [5] and the sociodemographic risk factors for diabetes [6]. Under the Bayesian approach, these models have been used to study the relationship between Visceral Leishmaniasis incidence rates and climatological variables [7], as well as to identify risk factors associated with nontuberculous mycobacterial infections [8]. Spatial Binomial regression models, under the Bayesian approach, have been used to describe patterns of occurrence of dengue and chikungunya [9], and filariasis [10]. Under the classical approach, spatial binomial regression models have been used to investigate environmental and sociodemographic factors associated with leptoserosis disease [11]; are also used to study risk factors associated with HIV infection among drug users [12].
On the other hand, survival analysis under the spatial approach has also received great attention in recent years, because geographic location can play a relevant role in predicting disease survival [13]. Fragility models (spatial survival models) can be an option to analyze the heterogeneity of the data when it cannot be explained by the covariates in a classical survival model. In spatial survival models, in addition to covariates, a random effect known as
Extreme events in public health (for example, the saturation of hospitals) are generally analyzed through measures of central tendency or time series, however, these approaches are not the most appropriate to understand extreme events (unusual events); that when they occur they strongly impact the health care network, thus often collapsing the system [19]. The extreme value theory (EVT) aims to study the probability of occurrence of extreme events (values) of a phenomenon of interest over time, generally these values only occur when they exceed a threshold. Although the applications of EVT in public health are scarce, if they exist at all; an application was presented when predicting extreme events of annual seasonal influenza mortality and the number of emergency department visits in a network of hospitals [20], another application was presented when modeling elevated cholesterol levels using the spikes-over-threshold model [21]. In both cases, the parameters were estimated under the frequentist approach. Given the advantages they have with the application of a spatial model, it would be convenient to study the extreme events of the health sector in space, for which there is already a methodology known as spatial modeling of extreme values [22].
The objective of this work is to provide a general review of the theoretical framework of spatial statistical models developed in the area of geostatistics, which have been used in the area of epidemiology to analyze, model and predict the phenomena of interest. Some of the packages that exist in the statistical software R [23] to carry out said spatial analyzes are also mentioned.
A stochastic process
A process
What is known as a stationary Gaussian process is defined below.
and its correlation function depends only on the distance, i.e.
where
That is, the mean and variance of
Given
where the
In this way, the correlation structure of a stationary Gaussian process can be studied through the
Family | Correlation function |
---|---|
Exponential | |
Gaussian | |
Spherical | |
Circular | |
Cubic | |
Wave | |
Matérn | |
Powered exponential | |
Cauchy | |
Stable | |
Bessel |
Models for the spatial correlation structure of a spatial process.
Generally from process
The Gaussian geostatistical model, in the absence of independent variables, is given by
where
Thus for a realization of a stationary Gaussian spatial process,
where
Conditional on
The joint distribution of
where
where
Note that the covariance of the
When
with
where
The
The function
On the other hand, with the function
Generalized linear models (GLM) [36, 37] are very useful when the response variable does not follow a normal distribution. The assumptions of GLMs are
1.
The
The linear predictor is given by
The
An important extension of this basic class of models is the generalized linear mixed model (GLMM) [38], in which
Conditionally an
Then
Taking Diggle and Tawn as a precedent (1998) [39]; Jing and De Oliveira in
where
Since
The two most widely used GLSM for spatial count data are the Poisson and Binomial spatial models [39, 41].
The
In the package
The
Generally, survival analysis models are specified through their hazard function,
where
Another key idea in survival analysis is frailty, this corresponds to the random effects term used; time-to-event data will be group into strata, such as clinical sites, geographic regions, etc. This gives rise to mixed models, which include a random effect (the frailty) that correspond to a stratum’s overall health status [30]. To illustrate, let
where
But it can also be assumed that
This way, suppose subjects are observed at
PH frailty models are the extensions of the population hazards model which is best known as the Cox model [44] a widely pursued model in survival analysis. PH frailty models extends the Cox model such that the hazard of an individual depends in addition on an unobserved random variable
The corresponding survival function and the density are given by
where
Accelerated failure time frailty model extends the AFT model such that the hazard of an individual depends in addition on an unobserved random variable
The survival function and density are given by
where
Finally, proportional odds frailty model is given by
The survival function and density are given by
where
In the frailty models, it is possible to deal with left, right and interval censoring of the data. Among the packages that exist in the R statistical software to perform spatial survival analysis is the
Also in R, there is the
According to Coles (2001) [50], given
when
defined on
Davison et al. in
where
Then conditional on the values of the tree Gaussian process at the sites
z independently for each location
Davison
The
To implement hierarchical Bayesian models, the function
Another package in the literature to model spatial extremes is
The main characteristic of spatial data is that observations close in space tend to be correlated, and in spatial modeling this correlation is used to understand the behavior of the phenomenon under study in a region of interest.
Omitting the spatial dependence of the data can generate a bias of the information and, consequently, lead to an incorrect inference. Therefore, adequately describing the spatial pattern of an event can provide sufficient elements to elaborate possible hypotheses of its cause. As we have seen, the spatial variability of georeferenced data can be studied with the spatial models developed in geostatistics. The usefulness of these models has been demonstrated in several applications related to the identification of social structures, disease patterns, occupational patterns, as well as in the identification of populations (or subgroups) that are at greater or lesser risk of an event. As we have seen, in statistics, all correctly processed information helps in correct decision making. In this sense, this paper aims to introduce the reader to the use of spatial models in geostatistics.
If the response or variable of interest is the cases (counts) of sick people in a given region, or the new cases of a disease in a given period of time (incidence), then Poisson GLSMs can be useful to know the spread of the disease in the population of interest, predict new cases, and identify the variables that influence the occurrence of the disease. On the other hand, when the response variable is a binary or ratio variable, such as mortality rates or infection rates, then binomial GLSMs can be helpful. These models have been used to study the prevalence of dengue and to identify the variables associated with the event.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
AFT | Accelerated failure time |
EVT | Extreme value theory. |
GEV | generalized extreme value. |
GLSM | Generalized Linear Spatial Models. |
GLM | Generalized linear models. |
GLMM | generalized linear mixed model |
GLGM | generalized linear geostatistical model |
iid | Independent identical distribution |
NM | Normal multivariate. |
PH | Proportional hazards. |
PO | Proportional odds. |
Our journals are currently in their launching issue. They will be applied to all relevant indexes as soon as they are eligible. These include (but are not limited to): Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed, MEDLINE, Database of Open Access Journals (DOAJ), Google Scholar and Inspec.
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