\r\n\t1) Modeling in engineering - with more details on models and less (but some) on computer simulations; \r\n\t2) Computer simulations in engineering - with more details on computer simulations and less on models; \r\n\t3) Large scale simulations - parallel computing including vectorizations; \r\n\t4) Engineering computational mathematics - with the explanation of basic or advanced numerical methods.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe main aim of contributions is a clear description of studied models together with details of computational techniques. \r\n\t \r\n\tAuthors are advised to use either engineering of mathematical language in their formulations. High-quality pictures, graphs, and tables are expected as outputs of simulation algorithms.
",isbn:"978-1-83968-250-6",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-249-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-251-3",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"4b0bacd0e1184b17d25ee58e03fadb6a",bookSignature:"Associate Prof. Jan Valdman and Dr. Leszek Marcinkowski",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9923.jpg",keywords:"partial differential equations, ordinary differential equations, discrete models, probability models, computational algorithms, benchmarks, parallelization, vectorization, supercomputing, libraries, numerical methods explained, discretizations",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 19th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 10th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 8th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 28th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 27th 2020",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"6 days",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"177759",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Jan",middleName:null,surname:"Valdman",slug:"jan-valdman",fullName:"Jan Valdman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/177759/images/system/177759.jpg",biography:"Dr. Valdman is an Associate Professor of applied mathematics at the University of South Bohemia in Ceske Budejovice and a researcher at the Institute of Information Theory and Automation (UTIA) in Prague, both Czech Republic. He has an MSc degree in Numerical analysis and Supercomputing (Utrecht, the Netherlands, 1997 ) and in Mathematical modeling (Pilsen, Czech Republic, 1997). He holds a Ph.D. in Applied mathematics 2002 (Kiel, Germany, 2002) and in Habilitation Applied mathematics (Ostrava, Czech Republic, 2011). Dr. Valdman's scientific interests are computational nonlinear mechanics of solids, a posteriori error analysis of convex problems, Matlab vectorizations.",institutionString:"University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Czech Republic"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"311809",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",middleName:null,surname:"Marcinkowski",slug:"leszek-marcinkowski",fullName:"Leszek Marcinkowski",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/no_image.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marcinkowski is an Associate Professor at the Faculty of Mathematics, University of Warsaw. He has an MSc degree in Applied Mathematics from the University of Warsaw (1994), a Ph.D. in Mathematics from the University of Warsaw, (2000) and in Habilitation Mathematics from the University of Warsaw (2010). His scientific interests are Domain Decomposition Methods, Parallel Preconditioners, Discontinuous Galerkin Discretization Methods, Image Processing Algorithms.",institutionString:"University of Warsaw",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Warsaw",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"9",title:"Computer and Information Science",slug:"computer-and-information-science"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"247041",firstName:"Dolores",lastName:"Kuzelj",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/247041/images/7108_n.jpg",email:"dolores@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6577",title:"Optimization Algorithms",subtitle:"Examples",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d38cfd898b85237638ab1cdeba85a8c5",slug:"optimization-algorithms-examples",bookSignature:"Jan Valdman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6577.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"177759",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Jan",surname:"Valdman",slug:"jan-valdman",fullName:"Jan Valdman"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5141",title:"Applications from Engineering with MATLAB Concepts",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bdc44a3ab8aa8a9b5d9a2b62b6e09c67",slug:"applications-from-engineering-with-matlab-concepts",bookSignature:"Jan Valdman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5141.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"177759",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Jan",surname:"Valdman",slug:"jan-valdman",fullName:"Jan Valdman"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3794",title:"Swarm Intelligence",subtitle:"Focus on Ant and Particle Swarm Optimization",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5332a71035a274ecbf1c308df633a8ed",slug:"swarm_intelligence_focus_on_ant_and_particle_swarm_optimization",bookSignature:"Felix T.S. Chan and Manoj Kumar Tiwari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3794.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"252210",title:"Dr.",name:"Felix",surname:"Chan",slug:"felix-chan",fullName:"Felix Chan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"6578",title:"Vision-Based Hierarchical Fuzzy Controller and Real Time Results for a Wheeled Autonomous Robot",doi:"10.5772/6959",slug:"vision-based-hierarchical-fuzzy-controller-and-real-time-results-for-a-wheeled-autonomous-robot",body:'\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
1. Introduction
\n\t\t\t
One of the most important problems in robotics is motion planning problem, which its basic controversy is to plan a collision-free path between initial and target configurations for a robot. In the framework of motion planning for nonholonomic systems, the wheeled robots have attracted a significant amount of interest. The path planner of a wheeled autonomous robot has to meet nonholonomic constraints and then the movement direction must always be tangent to its trajectory (Paromtichk et. al., 1998; Latombe, 1991, Murray & Sastry, 1993; Lamiraux & Laumond, 2001; Scheuer & Fraichard, 1996). If no obstacles exist on path of the robot, then the robot task is finding the shortest path connecting two given initial and final configurations. The shortest paths for a car like vehicle consist of a finite sequence of two elementary components: arcs of circle (with minimum turning radii) and straight line segments. In any case, the problem is that the curvature is discontinuous between two elementary components, so that these shortest paths cannot be followed precisely without stopping at each discontinuity point to reorient the front wheels. To avoid these stops, several authors have proposed continuous-curvature path planners using differential geometric methods. These planners generate clothoids, cubic spirals, β-splines, quintic polynomials, etc., which are then followed by using a path-tracking technique based on, for example, pure-pursuit or predictive control methods (Lamiraux & Laumond, 2001; Scheuer & Fraichard, 1996). Stabilization issues of path-tracking methods for car-like vehicles using the Lyapunov method have been reported in (Walsh et. al., 1994; Tayebi & Rachid, 1996). One of the key technologies of future automobiles is the parking assist or automatic parking control. Control problems of a car-like vehicle are not easy because of the nonholonomic velocity constraints. The truck backer-upper control is a typical nonlinear control problem that cannot be solved by the conventional control techniques.
\n\t\t\t
The goal of controller is to back up a truck to a loading dock from any initial position as quickly and precisely as possible. Backing a truck to the loading dock or parking spot is a difficult task even for a skilled truck driver. The research in parking problem is derived from the study of general motion planning for autonomous robots. In the past few decades, many algorithms have been developed for robot parking planning (Jiang & Seneviratne, 1999; Gomez-Bravo et. al., 2001; Cuesta et. al., 2004; Reeds & Shepp, 1990). The attempts to solve the truck backer-upper problem, rooted in computational intelligence, can be divided into two groups. The first group of methods seeks the solution through self tuning using neural networks, genetic algorithms or a combination of both. The second group of solutions, based on fuzzy logic, regards the controller as an emulator of human operator. The problem has become an acknowledged benchmark in non-linear control and as an example of a self-learning system in neural networks was proposed by Nguyen and Widrow in 1990 (Nguyen & Widrow, 1989). Careful experiments of their approach showed that the computational effort is very high (Kong & Kosko, 1990). Thousands (about 20000) of back-up cycles are needed before the network learns. Moreover the backpropagation algorithm does not converge for some sets of training samples. Numerous other techniques have been used, including genetic programming (Koza, 1992) Neuro-genetic controller (Schoenauer, & Ronald, 1994) and simplified neural network solution through problem decomposition (Jenkins & Yuhas, 1993). Very interesting contribution is (Tanaka et. al, 1998), where up to ten trailers can be controlled representing those as Takagi-Sugeno models and applying linear matrix inequalities method. A simplified version of the control problem has been extensively investigated in the field of fuzzy control (Ramamoorthy & Huang, 1991; Wang & Mendel, 1992; Ismail & Abu-Khousa, 1996; Kim, 1998; Dumitrache & Buiu, 1999). Also parking problem has been investigated by many researchers in the field of computational intelligence (for example; chang in (Chang et. al, 1995), Schoenauer in (Schoenauer & Ronald, 1994), Wang in (Wang & Mendel, 1992) and Li in (Li & Li, 2007)).
\n\t\t\t
Fuzzy controllers, formulated on the basis of human understanding of the process or identified from measured control actions, can be regarded as emulators of human operators. Fuzzy logic control has more advantages because it can compensate the bad influence by nonlinearity and uncertainties based on advanced human expertise experience, also because it has strong robustness independent of a mathematical model. The other advantages of Fuzzy controllers are that their design is simple, fast, inexpensive, and easily maintained because the rules can be linguistically interpreted by the human experts. Riid & Rustern (Riid & Rustern, 2001) presented a fuzzy supervisory control system over the PID controller to reduce the complexity of the control problem and enhance the control performance. Riid & Rustern in (Riid & Rustern, 2002) demonstrate that problem decomposition leads to more effective knowledge acquisition and improved control performance in fuzzy control. The methodology allows solving complex control problems (truck backer-upper) without loss of functionality that is very difficult with all-in-one approaches and saves design expenses. Li & Chang in (Li & Chang, 2003) addressed the parking problem of a mobile robot by tracking feasible reference trajectories via a fuzzy sliding-mode control. Chen and Zhang in (Chen & Zhang, 1997) have reported a fuzzy controller to park a truck with suboptimal distance trajectories. They chose arcs of circle of minimum turning radii connected with parabolic curves as the optimal trajectories, but the desired parabolic curve to follow has to be given to the controller. More recently Li & Li in (Li & Li, 2007) have presented the fuzzy control system based on a hybrid clustering method and neural network. Sugeno & Murakami (Sugeno & Murakami, 1985) propose an experimental study on parking problem using model car, which is equipped with on-board microprocessor and two supersonic sensors for the measurements of the relative distance and direction. They derive fuzzy control rules by utilizing Sugeno-type fuzzy implications to model the parking experience of a skilled driver. Sugeno et al. (Sugeno et al, 1989) adopt the similar hardware arrangement as that in (Sugeno & Murakami, 1985) to execute the garage parking by employing fourteen fuzzy oral instructions such as “go straight”, “slow down”, “enter garage” and “speed up”. Yasunobu & Murai (Yasunobu & Murai, 1994) exploit the state evaluation fuzzy control and the predictive fuzzy control to achieve the drive knowledge. Only the computer simulations are given to show the effectiveness of the proposed parking control. A skilled-based visual parking control using neural networks and fuzzy is discussed in (Daxwanger & Schmidt, 1995), where two control architectures, the direct neural control and the fuzzy hybrid control, are used to generate the automatic parking commands. The environment information is measured by a video sensor. The control architectures are validated by experiments with an autonomous mobile robot. Tayebi & Rachid (Tayebi & Rachid, 1996) deal with the parking problem of wheeled robot by using time-varying state feedback control law via the Lyapunov direct method. The control law is robust to ensure a global boundedness of the system states under measurement perturbations. The development of a near-optimal fuzzy controller for manoeuvring a car in a parking lot is described in (Leu & Kim, 1998). A cell mapping based method is proposed to systematically group near-optimal trajectories for all possible initial states in the parking lot.
\n\t\t\t
The rules and membership functions of the fuzzy controller are generated using the statistical properties of the individual trajectory groups. An et al. (An et al., 1999) develop an online path-planning algorithm that guides an autonomous mobile robot to a goal with avoiding obstacles in an uncertain world. The established autonomous mobile robot cannot move omni-direction and run on two wheels equipped with a CCD camera. The path-planning algorithm is constructed by three modes: straight mode, spin mode, and avoidance mode. The simulation program and experimental results are developed to check this algorithm by using the garage parking motion. Shirazi & Yih (Shirazi & Yih, 1989) propose an expert’s knowledge including symbolic form and nonsymbolic form, where the former can be obtained from expert directly and the latter can be obtained only through an evolutionary process. The evolutionary process consists of three stages: novice, competency, and expert. The developed intelligent control system performs parallel parking to show validity and ability. The fuzzy traveling control of an autonomous mobile robot with six supersonic sensors has been provided in (Ohkita et al, 1993), where the flush problem is considered. The well-known fuzzy theory (Laumond et al, 1994) is now in widespread use such as system identification, function approximation, image compression, prediction, classification, and control. The general characteristic of the fuzzy control is that the IF-THEN fuzzy rules are on the basis of the conventional control strategy and the expert knowledge. It is shown in (Shahmaleki & Mahzoon, 2008; Shahmaleki et al, 2008) that hierarchical control system significantly improves control performance and reduces the design load compared to all-in-one approaches investigated by other researchers. Here, we recommend three approaches to solve parking problem. Finally we select and extend the hierarchical fuzzy control approach to the full truck backer-upper problem.
\n\t\t\t
The path planners described in this research combine two fuzzy modules that provide desired angle value for front wheel so as to generate short paths with continuous curvatures. Approximated trajectories are composed of circular arcs of minimum turning radii and straight line segments. This chapter is structured as follows. Section 2 illustrates the parking problem addressed and its geometric and kinematical constraints. In Sections 3, Fuzzy control is described. In section 4 three control approaches described to solve parking problem. This section shows comparison between recommended approaches and the hierarchical structure of the fuzzy system is selected. Computer simulation results are given to show the validity of the proposed fuzzy logic control algorithms. We have proposed a vision based approach in section 5 for estimating the robot position and direction. Some measures of the car-like robot is extracted from images that are captured using a ceiling mounted camera. These measurements together with the kinematic equations of the robot are used for estimating its position and direction using an extended Kalman filter. The control system has been made and tested on a mobile robot containing kinematics constraints. In Section 6, several experimental results of diagonal parking maneuvers are included to illustrate the efficiency and robustness of the designed controller. Finally, conclusions are given in Section 7.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
2. The truck backing up problem
\n\t\t\t
The problem addressed in this research is the diagonal parking of a truck in a constrained domain. The initial state of the truck position is represented by three state variables x, y and φ in Fig. 1. The truck kinematics model is based on the following system of equations (Li & Li, 2007):
where (x,y) are the coordinates of the vehicle rear axle midpoint, φ is the truck orientation with respect to the horizontal line, b is the length of the truck and the control variable is the steering angle θ, that is the angle of the front wheel with respect to the truck. The truck only moves backward with fixed speed.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
Figure 1.
Diagram of truck and loading dock
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
3. Fuzzy logic
\n\t\t\t
A typical fuzzy control system consists of four components and the descriptions are stated as follows:
\n\t\t\t
Fuzzification Interface: The fuzzification interface performs a conversion from a crisp point into a fuzzy set. The shapes of the membership functions of the linguistic sets are determined according to the expert experience.
Knowledge Base: The knowledge base commonly consists two sections: a database and a rule-base. The database contains the membership functions of the fuzzy sets used in the fuzzy rules and the rule-base contains a number of fuzzy IF-THEN rules. The typical form of fuzzy rules can be expressed as IF precondition, THEN consequence. The canonical fuzzy IF-THEN rules are usually made from the following conditions: (a) Obtaining by the expert knowledge and/or operators experiences. (b) According to the control behavior of the users. (c) According to the characteristic of the plant. (d) Obtaining by self-learning.
Inference Engine: The inference engine that performs the fuzzy reasoning upon the fuzzy control rules is the main component of the fuzzy controller. There are varieties of compositional methods in fuzzy inference, such as max-min compositional operation and max-product compositional operation etc.
Defuzzification Interface: The defuzzification interface converts the fuzzy output of the rule-base into a non-fuzzy value. The center of area (COA) is the often used method in defuzzification. Suppose B is a discrete set as \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tB\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t{\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ty\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ty\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t,...,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ty\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tn\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t}\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t then COA method can be described as:
In this section we illustrate a brief comparison between Classic control and Fuzzy control. Classic control is based on a detailed I/O function OUTPUT= F (INPUT) which maps each high-resolution quantization interval of the input domain into a high-resolution quantization interval of the output domain. Finding a mathematical expression for this detailed mapping relationship F may be difficult, if not impossible, in many applications (Fig 2(a)). But, Fuzzy control is based on an I/O function that maps each very low-resolution quantization interval of the input domain into a very low-low resolution quantization interval of the output domain. As there are only 7 or 9 fuzzy quantization intervals covering the input and output domains the mapping relationship can be very easily expressed using the “if-then” formalism. (In many applications, this leads to a simpler solution in less design time.) The overlapping of these fuzzy domains and their linear membership functions will eventually allow achieving a rather high-resolution I/O function between crisp input and output variables (Fig 2(b)).
The truck and the loading zone are shown in Fig. 4. The truck has two front steering wheels and two rear driven wheels that cannot move sideways. The coordinate pair (x,y) specifies the rear center position of the truck in the plane. The angle φ increases from -90 toward 270 in a clockwise direction and the steering angle θ is taken as positive if the steering wheel is turned to the right and negative, otherwise. The loading zone is the plane x:[-25,25], y:[0,25]. The goal of this research is to design a Fuzzy Logic Controller (FLC) able to back up the truck into a docking situation from any initial position that has enough clearance from the docking station. The controller should produce the appropriate steering angle θ = [-40 , 40 ] at every stage to make the truck back up to a configuration with x=0, y=0, φ=90 (that is the desired parking space) from any initial position (x, y and φ) and to stop there. Thus controller is a function of state variables:
The y coordinate is not used because the straight segments of approximated trajectories are always horizontal. Also typically it is assumed that enough clearance between the truck and the loading dock exists so that the truck y-position coordinate can be ignored, simplifying the controller function to:
Hence only x-position and truck orientation angle φ are inputs of the fuzzy controller and the steering angle θ is the output.
\n\t\t\t
As shown in Fig. 4, the suboptimal goal is that the backward driving involves short trajectories made up of arcs of circle of minimum turning radii and straight line segments, which meet the kinematic constraints in (1).
\n\t\t\t
Figure 4.
Ideal trajectories
\n\t\t\t
Analyzing the shortest paths geometrically, a mathematical expression for the steering angle θ which produces curvature of these short paths can be found:
R being the minimum turning radius corresponding to the maximum curvature (γ) which has a constant value (γ =1/R).
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
4.1. Integrated approach
\n\t\t\t\t
Structure of this approach consists of a single module with two inputs (x and φ) and one output (θ) (Fig. 5). It contains five linguistic labels to cover the input variable x and seven labels for the vehicle angle φ (Fig. 6).
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 5.
Structure of fuzzy controller
\n\t\t\t\t
One triangular and four trapezoidal membership functions (LE, LC, CE, RC, RI) are selected to cover the x variable. Also five triangular and two trapezoidal membership functions (LB, LU, LV, VE, RB, RU, RV) are selected to cover the φ variable.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 6.
Mebership functions for x and φ variables (Integrated approach)
\n\t\t\t\t
The rules are shown in Table 1. Also the “center of gravity” method is used as defuzzification method. The rule base implements a zero-order Takagi–Sugeno inference method.
\n\t\t\t\t
Table 1.
The learned rules for the x and φ variables
\n\t\t\t\t
The consequents of the rules are the following: ZE=0 , NL=-40 , NM=-30 , NS=-20 , PL=40 , PM=30 , PS=20 .
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
4.2. Combined approach
\n\t\t\t\t
As shown in Fig. 7, structure of the controller consists of a fuzzy module and three blocks (Dis, Controller1 and Controller2).
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 7.
Structure of the control system
\n\t\t\t\t
In fact, if we try to find a mathematical expression for the steering angle θ which produces curvature of these short paths, we can recommend equations (7),(8). The angle of wheels (θ1, θ2) is computed in Controller1 and Controller2 based on the equation (7), (8).
Two S-shaped and Z-shaped membership functions (far, near) are selected to cover the distance universe of discourse (Fig. 8). The consequent of the rules (out1, out2) are singletons. The rules are the following:
\n\t\t\t\t
If distance = near → θ = out1
If distance = far → θ = out2
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Figure 8.
Membership functions for distance variables Fig. 9 shows three examples of the generated paths by combined approach.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
4.3. Integrated approach
\n\t\t\t\t
In this section the hierarchical structure is introduced.The scheme is basically made up of two rule bases (Fig. 10).
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 9.
Simulated results of the parking maneuvers corresponding to the initial configurations (a) x=-15, y=18, φ =180. (b) x=20, y=9, φ =228
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 10.
Structure of hierarchical approach
\n\t\t\t\t
The first one (“estimating”) provides approximately the value of the angle α depending on the input variables x. The second one (“smoothing”) provides the desired value for steering angle (θ) depending on the value of difference φ-α. Two triangular and two trapezoidal membership functions (LB, LS, RS and RB) are selected to cover the x universe of discourse and four rules are included in the rule base “estimating”. The consequents of the rules (mf1, mf2, mf3, and mf4) are singletons. Also the “center of gravity” method is used for defuzzification.
\n\t\t\t\t
The rule bases (estimating and smoothing) implements a zero-order Takagi–Sugeno inference method.
\n\t\t\t\t
The rules are:
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1. if ( x = LB )
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
→ α= mf1
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2. if ( x = LS )
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
→ α= mf2
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
3. if ( x = RS )
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
→ α= mf3
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
4. if ( x = RB )
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
→ α= mf4,
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Table 2.
\n\t\t\t\t
The rule base “smoothing” also contains two triangular and two trapezoidal membership functions and four rules. The rules are:
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
1. if ( diff = MZ )
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
→ θ= nf1
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
2. if ( diff = NZ )
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
→ θ= nf2
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
3. if ( diff = PZ )
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
→ θ= nf3
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
4. if ( diff = RZ )
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
→ θ= nf4,
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Table 3.
\n\t\t\t\t
where MZ, NZ, PZ and RZ are fuzzy sets represented by triangular and trapezoidal membership functions (they cause the smooth switching in the steering angle θ when φ is around α). nf1, nf2, nf3, nf4 are singleton values associated with the angle front wheels. The membership functions for the variables x and diff are shown in Fig. 11.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 11.
Membership functions for x and diff variables
\n\t\t\t\t
The “estimating” module for the hierarchical approach provides a fuzzy approximation for the angle α. The advantage of using this module instead of giving α analytically is that the required computational cost is reduced. Using normalized triangular and trapezoidal membership functions for the antecedents of the rules and a zero-order Takagi–Sugeno inference engine makes this approximation piecewise linear, which means that only several additions and products need to be implemented. The computational cost of additions and products is less than that of a nonlinear function such as Arcos (.) in (6).
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\tFig. 12 shows the variations of θ versus x and φ corresponding to (5) and (6). These equations are associated with an on–off control because the θ value presents abrupt changes, and would require stopping the robot to perform this switching.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 12.
Steering angle θ versus x and φ for short paths. The dark color presents the θ=-40 and the light one presents θ=40
\n\t\t\t\t
Three fuzzy modules (integrated, combined and hierarchical) described previously are zero-order Takagi–Sugeno systems whose input membership functions always overlap each other. Hence, the subgoal of providing continuous-curvature and short paths is achieved.
\n\t\t\t\t
Comparing the three approaches for designing the controller the hierarchical one is more efficient since it generates paths but with small number of rules. Besides it provides the higher smoothness near the target configuration (x=0). As a result, the hierarchical module was selected as the control system.
\n\t\t\t\t
Simulated results using the present hierarchical scheme for the different initial positions are shown in Fig. 13. In this figure, t indicates the parking duration. It can be seen how the generated paths (Fig. 13) are very close to the ideal paths (Fig. 4) made up of circular arcs and straight lines.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 13.
Results of the parking maneuver corresponding to the initial configurations (a) x=-20, y=18.4, φ=120 , t=78 steps, (b) x=17.5, y=8, φ=252 , t=72 steps
\n\t\t\t\t
Further, according to the robot kinematics equations, the work of Li and Li (Li & Li, 2007) has been used for comparison. Fig.14 shows simulated results of Li and Li (Li & Li, 2007) for the same initial conditions of Fig.13.
\n\t\t\t\t
Figure 14.
Results of the parking maneuver corresponding to the initial configurations (a) x=-20, y=18.4, φ=120 , t=93 steps, (b) x=17.5, y=8, φ=252 , t=86 steps, (Li & Li, 2007)
\n\t\t\t\t
An advantage of this approach is that the rules are linguistically interpretable and the controller generates paths with 8 rules compared with 35 used by (Riid & Rustern, 2002). Besides it provides the higher smoothness near the target configuration (x=0). Also, parking durations are shorter than those obtained by (Li & Li, 2007) under the same initial conditions. In this work, trajectories are composed of circular arcs and straight segments but in other methods, trajectories are composed of circular arcs.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
5. Real time experimental studies
\n\t\t\t
As shown in Fig. 15(a), the designed mobile robot has a 30cm×20cm×10cm, aluminium body with four 7cm diameter tires. It contains an AVR-ATMGEA64 micro controller, running at 16 MHz clock. The robot is equipped with three 0.9 degree stepper motors, two for the back wheels and one guides the steering through a gear box. The control of the mobile robot motion is performed on two levels, as demonstrated in Fig. 15(b). This two-layer architecture is very common in practice because most mobile robots and manipulators usually do not allow the user to impose accelerations or torques at the inputs. It can also be viewed as a simplification to the problem as well as a more modular design approach. The high level control (Hierarchical Fuzzy Controller) determines the steering angle θ of the robot considering the position (x,y) and angle (φ) of the robot which is received from the vision system. While the low level controller receives the output of high level control and determines steering angle of the front wheel and the speed of two rear wheels differentially.
\n\t\t\t
Figure 15.
a) Designed mobile robot. (b) The control architecture of the mobile robot
\n\t\t\t
The structure of real control system is shown in Fig. 16.
\n\t\t\t
Figure 16.
The structure of real control system
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
5.1. Vision subsystem
\n\t\t\t\t
For the backer-upper system to work in a real environment it is necessary to obtain the car position and orientation parameters. For this task different sensing and measuring instruments have been used in the literature. Some authors (Demilri & Turksen, 2000) have used sonar to identify the location of the mobile robots in a global map. This is achieved by using fuzzy sets to model the sonar data and by using the fuzzy triangulation to identify the robots position and orientation. Other authors have used analogue features of RFID tags system (Miah & Gueaieb, 2007) to locate the car-like mobile robot. Vision based position estimation has been also used for this task. In (Chen & Feng, 2009) a hardware implemented vision based method is used to estimate the robot position and direction. They use a camera mounted on the mobile robot and estimate the car-like robot position and direction using profiles of wavelet coefficients of the captured images and using of a self organizing map neural network. Each neuron categorizes measurements of a location and direction bin. This method is limited in that it works based on recognizing the part of parking that is in the view field of robot’s camera. This parking view classification based approach, requires new training if the parking space is changed. Also it has not the potential for localizing free parking lots and other robots or obstacles which may be required in real applications.
\n\t\t\t\t
A ceiling mounted camera can provide a holistic view to the location. Using a CCD camera as measuring device to capture images from parking area, and using image processing and tracking algorithms, we can estimate position and direction of the object of interest. This approach can be used in multi-agent environments to localize other objects and obstacles and even free parking lot positions. Here we assume just one robot and no obstacles. Also, we assume that the camera has been installed on the ceiling in the center of parking zone and at a proper height such that we can ignore perspective effects at corners of the captured images. Thus a linear calibration can be used for conversion between the (i, j) pixel indices in the image and the (x, y) coordinates of the parking zone. This assumption can introduce some approximation errors. As will be described here, using a prior knowledge of the car kinematic in an extended Kalman filtering framework can correct these measurement errors. With this configuration and assumptions a simple non realistic solution for position and direction estimation can be used as follows. Set two different color marks on top of the car in middle front and rear wheels position. Then from the captured image extract the two colored marks and find their center. Assume (xr, yr) and (xf, yf) be coordinates of middle rear and front points then (x, y) input variables of the fuzzy controller can be estimated from (x\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t, y\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t) after some calibration. The direction φ of the car-like robot relative to x-axis can also be determined using:
Note that the tan\n\t\t\t\t\t-1(.) function used here should consider signs of yf-yr and xf-xr terms so that it can calculate the direction in the range [0,2π] or equivalently [-π, π]. Such a function in most programming environments is commonly named atan2(.,.) which perceives yf -yr and xf - xr separately and calculates the true direction accordingly.
\n\t\t\t\t
This is a simple solution for non-realistic experimental conditions. However it is necessary to consider more realistic applications of the backer-upper system. So we should eliminate strong non-realistic constraints like hand marking the car with two different color marks.
\n\t\t\t\t
Here we propose a method based on Hough transform for extracting measurements to estimate car position and orientation parameters. Using Hough transform we can just extract the orientation from the border lines of the car, but the controller subsystem needs the direction φ in range [−π, π] to calculate correct steering angle. To find the true direction we use a simple pattern classification based method to discriminate between front and rear sides of the car-like robot from its pixel gray values. This classifier trains the robots image and is independent of the parking background. Also it can be trained to work for different moving objects.
\n\t\t\t\t
We can use extracted measurements of each frame to directly estimate (x, y, φ) state variables. But since extracted measurements are not accurate enough, we use these measurement parameters together with kinematic equations (1) of the plant as a state transition model in an extended Kalman filter to estimate the state variables (x, y, φ) of the robot more accurately.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
5.2. Car position extraction using Hough transform
\n\t\t\t\t
Hough transform (HT) first proposed by Hough (Hough, 1962) and improved by Duda & Hart (Duda & Hart, 1972) is a feature extraction method which is widely used in computer vision and image processing. It converts edge map of an image into a parametric space of a given geometric shape. Edge map can be extracted using edge extraction methods which filter the image to extract high frequency parts (edges) and then apply a threshold to get a binary matrix. HT tries to find noisy and imperfect examples for a given shape class within an image. There exists HTs for lines, circles and ellipses.
\n\t\t\t\t
For example classic Hough transform, finds lines in a given image. A line can be parameterized in the Cartesian coordinate by slope (m) and interception (b) parameters (Hough, 1962). Each point (x, y) of the line can be constrained by the equation y = mx + b. However this representation is not well-formed for computational reasons. The slope of near vertical lines, go to infinity hence it is not a good representation for all possible lines. The classic Hough transform proposed by Duda and Haart (Duda & Hart, 1972) uses a polar representation in which lines are shown by two parameters r and θ in the polar coordinate. Parameter r is length of the vector started from origin and perpendicularly connected to the line (distance of line to the origin) and θ is the angle between that vector and x axis.
\n\t\t\t\t
Classic Hough transform calculates a 2D parameter map matrix for quantized values of (r,θ) parameters. An algorithm determines lines with (r,θ) values that pass through each edge point of the image and increases votes of those (r,θ) bins in the matrix. For each edge point this accumulation is carried out. Finally the peaks in the parameter map show the most perfect lines that exist in the image. The following equation relates the (x,y) Cartesian coordinate of line points with the r,θ polar line parameters, as previously defined.
For any edge point (x\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t,y\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t), equation (11) provides a sinusoidal curve in terms of r and θ parameters. Points on this curve determine all lines (r\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tj\n\t\t\t\t\t,θ\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tj\n\t\t\t\t\t) that pass through the edge point (x\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t,y\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t). For each edge point votes of all cells of the parameter matrix that fall on the corresponding sinusoidal curve are increased.
\n\t\t\t\t
The external boundary of the car-like robot is approximated by a rectangle. To extract four lines of this rectangle in each input image frame, first calculate the edge map of the image using an edge extraction algorithm. Then apply Hough transform and extract dominant peaks of the parameter map. Then among these peaks we search to select four lines that satisfy the constraints of being edges of a rectangle corresponding to car-like robot size. Four selected lines should approximately form a a×b rectangle where a and b are width and length of the car-like robot.
\n\t\t\t\t
Let the four selected lines have parameters (r\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t,θ\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t), i = 1,2,3,4. In order to extract the rectangle formed by these four lines, four intersection points (x\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tj\n\t\t\t\t\t,y\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tj\n\t\t\t\t\t), j = 1,2,3,4 of perpendicular pairs should be calculated. Solving for the linear system in equation (12), intersection point (x\n\t\t\t\t\t0,y\n\t\t\t\t\t0) of two sample lines (r\n\t\t\t\t\t1,θ\n\t\t\t\t\t1) and (r\n\t\t\t\t\t2,θ\n\t\t\t\t\t2) can be determined.
A problem with HT is that it is computationally expensive. However its complexity can be reduced since position and orientation of the robot is approximately known in the tracking procedure. Thus HT just should be calculated for a part of the image and a range of (r,θ) around current point. Also the level of quantization of (r,θ) can be set as large as possible to reduce the time complexity. Relative coarse bin sizes for (r,θ) also help to cope with little curvatures in the border lines of the car-like robot. This is at the expense of reducing the estimated position and direction resolution. The relative degraded resolution of (r,θ) due to coarse bin sizes can be restored by the correction and denoising property of Kalman filter. Note that the computation complexity of Kalman filter is very low relative to HT, since the former manipulates very low dimensional extracted measurements while the latter manipulates high dimensional image data.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
5.3. Determining car direction using classification
\n\t\t\t\t
Using equation (13), four corners of the approximately rectangular car border can be estimated. Now it is necessary to specify which pair of these four points belongs to the rear and which pair belongs to the front side of the car. We can not extract any information from Hough transform about the rear-front points assignment. But this assignment is required to determine middle rear wheels points (x\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t,y\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t) and also the signed direction φ of the car.
\n\t\t\t\t
To solve this problem we adopt a classification-based approach. For each frame, using the four estimated corner points of the car, a rectangular area of n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\ta\n\t\t\t\t\t × n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tb\n\t\t\t\t\t pixels of the car-like object is extracted. Then extracted pixels are stacked in a predefined order to get a n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\ta\n\t\t\t\t\t × n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tb\n\t\t\t\t\t feature vector. A classifier that is trained using training data, is used to determine the direction using these feature vectors. However, due to large number of features, it is necessary to apply a feature reduction transformation like principle component analysis (PCA) or linear discriminant analysis (LDA) before the classification (Duda et al, 2000). These linear feature transforms reduce the size of feature vectors by selecting most informative or discriminative linear combinations of all features. Feature reduction, reduces the classifier complexity hence the amount of labeled data that is required for training the classifier. Different feature reduction and classifier structures can be adopted for this binary classification task. Here we apply PCA for feature reduction and a linear support vector machine for classification task. Supprot Vector Machine (SVM) proposed by Vapnik (Vapnik, 1995) is a large margin classifier based on the concept of structural risk minimization. SVM provides good generalization capability. Its training, using large number of data, is time consuming to some extent, but for classification it is as fast as a simple linear transform. Here we use SVM because we want to create a classifier with good generalization and accuracy, using small number of training data.
\n\t\t\t\t
LDA is a supervised feature transform and provides more discriminative features relative to PCA hence it is commonly preferred to PCA. But the simple LDA reduces the number of features to at most C −1 features where C is number of classes. Since our task is a binary classification, hence using LDA we just would get one feature that is not enough for accurate direction classification. Thus we use PCA to have enough features after feature reduction. To create our binary direction sign classifier, first we train the PCA transform. To calculate principle components, mean and covariance of feature vectors are estimated then eigen value decomposition is applied on the covariance matrix. Finally N eigen vectors with greater corresponding eigen values, are selected to form the transformation matrix W. This linear transformation reduces dimension of feature vectors from n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\ta\n\t\t\t\t\t × n\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tb\n\t\t\t\t\t to N elements. Here in experiments N = 10 eigen values provides good results.
\n\t\t\t\t
To train a binary SVM, reduced feature vectors with their corresponding labels are first normalized along each feature by subtracting the mean and dividing by the standard deviation of that feature. About 100 training images are sufficient. These examples should be captured in different points and directions in the view field of the camera. The car pixels extracted from each training image, can be resorted in two feature vectors one from front to rear which takes the label -1 and one from rear to front which takes the label +1. In the training examples position of the car and its pixel values are extracted automatically using Hough transform method described in previous section. But the rear-front labeling should be assigned by a human operator. This binary classification approach provides accuracy higher than 97% which is completely reliable. Because the car motion is continuous, we can correct possible wrong classified frames using previous frames history.
\n\t\t\t\t
Using this classification method the front-rear assignment of the four corner points of the car is determined. Now Corner points are sorted in the following defined order to form an 8 dimensional measurement vector \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tY\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tI\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t[\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tx\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ty\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tx\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ty\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tx\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tf\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ty\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tf\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tx\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tf\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ty\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tf\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t. The r\n\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t,r\n\t\t\t\t\t2\n\t\t\t\t\t,f\n\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t,f\n\t\t\t\t\t2 subscripts denote in order, the rear-left, rear-right, front-left and the front-right corners of the car.
\n\t\t\t\t
From the four ordered corner points in the measurement vector Y\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tI\n\t\t\t\t\t, we can also directly calculate an estimate of the car position state vector to form another measurement vector Y\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tD\n\t\t\t\t\t = [x\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t, y\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t, φ\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\trf\n\t\t\t\t\t]\n\t\t\t\t\t\tT\n\t\t\t\t\t where (x\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t, y\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t) is the middle rear point coordinate and φ\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\trf\n\t\t\t\t\t is the signed direction of rear to front vector of the car-like robot relative to the x-axis. The superscripts D and I in these two measurement vectors show that they are directly or indirectly related to the state variables of the car-like robot that is required in the fuzzy controller. The measurement vector Y\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tD\n\t\t\t\t\t can be determined from measurement vector Y\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tI\n\t\t\t\t\t using equation (14).
In the next section we will illustrate a method for more accurate estimation of state parameters by filtering these inaccurate measurements in an extended Kalman filtering framework.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
5.4. Tracking the car state parameters with extended Kalman filter
\n\t\t\t\t
Here we illustrate the simple and extended Kalman filters and their terminology and then describe our problem formulation in terms of an extended Kalman filtering framework.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
5.4.1. Kalman filter
\n\t\t\t\t\t
The Kalman filter (Kalman, 1960) is an efficient Bayesian optimal recursive linear filter that estimates the state of a time discrete linear dynamic system from a sequence of measurements which are perturbed by Gaussian noise. It is mostly used for tracking objects in computer vision and for identification and regulation of linear dynamic systems in control theory. Kalman filter considers a linear relation between measurements Y and state variables X of the system that is commonly named as the observation model of the system. Another linear relation is considered for state transition, between state variables in time step t, X\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tt\n\t\t\t\t\t\t and in time step t-1, X\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tt −1 and the control inputs u\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tt\n\t\t\t\t\t\t of the system. These linear models are formulated as follows:
In equation (15), F\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tt\n\t\t\t\t\t\t is the dynamic model, B\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tt\n\t\t\t\t\t\t is the control model, w\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tt\n\t\t\t\t\t\t is the stochastic process noise model, H\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tt\n\t\t\t\t\t\t is the observation model, ν\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tt\n\t\t\t\t\t\t is the stochastic observation noise model and u\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tt\n\t\t\t\t\t\t is the control input of the system. Kalman filter considers the estimated state\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tX\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tas a random vector with Gaussian distribution and a covariance matrix P. In following equations the notation \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tX\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ti\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t|\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tj\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tis used for the estimated state vector in time step i by using measurement vectors up to time step j.
\n\t\t\t\t\t
The prediction estimates of state are given in equation (16), where \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tX\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t^\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tt\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t|\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tt\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t−\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t is the predicted state and \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tt\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t|\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tt\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t−\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t is the predicted state covariance matrix. Note that in the prediction step just the dynamic model of the system is used to predict what would be the next state of the system. The prediction result is a random vector so it has its covariance matrix with itself.
In each time step before the current measurement is prepared we can estimate the predicted state then we use the acquired measurements from the sensors to update our predicted belief according to the error. The updated estimates using the measurements are given in equation (17). In this equation, Z\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tt\n\t\t\t\t\t\t is the innovation or prediction error, S\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tt\n\t\t\t\t\t\t is the innovation covariance, K\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tt\n\t\t\t\t\t\t is the optimal Kalman gain,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tX\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t^\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tt\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t|\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tt\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t is the updated estimate of system state and \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tt\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t|\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tt\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tis the updated or posterior covariance of the state estimation in time step t. The Kalman gain balances the amount of contribution of dynamic model and the measurement to the state estimation, according to their accuracy and confidence.
In order to use Kalman filter in a recursive estimation task we should specify dynamic and observation models F\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tt\n\t\t\t\t\t\t, H\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tt\n\t\t\t\t\t\t and some times the control model B\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tt\n\t\t\t\t\t\t. Also we should set initial state\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tX\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t^\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t|\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tand its covariance\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t|\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t and prior process noise and measurement noise covariance matrices Q\n\t\t\t\t\t\t0, R\n\t\t\t\t\t\t0.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
5.4.2. Extended Kalman filter
\n\t\t\t\t\t
Kalman filter proposed in (Kalman, 1960) has been derived for linear state transition and observation models. These linear functions can be time variant that result in different F\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tt\n\t\t\t\t\t\t and H\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tt\n\t\t\t\t\t\t matrices in different time steps t. In extended Kalman filter (Bar-Shalom & Fortmann, 1988), the dynamic and observation models are not required to be linear necessarily. The models just should be differentiable functions.
Again w\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tt\n\t\t\t\t\t\t and ν\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tt\n\t\t\t\t\t\t are process and measurement noises which are Gaussian distributions with zero mean and Q, R covariance matrices.
\n\t\t\t\t\t
In extended Kalman filter functions f (.) and h (.) can be used to perform prediction step for state vector \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tX\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t^\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tt\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t|\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tt\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t−\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tbut for prediction of covariance matrix \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tt\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t|\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tt\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t−\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tand also in the update step for updating state and covariance matrix we can not use this non-linear functions. However, we can use a linear approximation of these non linear functions using the first partial derivatives around the predicted point\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tX\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t^\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tt\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t|\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tt\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t−\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t. So for each time step t, Jacobian matrices of functions f (.) and h (.), should be calculated and used as linear approximations for dynamic and observation models in that time step.
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
5.5. Applying extended Kalman filter for car position estimation
\n\t\t\t\t
Now we illustrate the dynamic and observation models to be used in the extended Kalman filtering framework. The dynamic model should predict the state vector X\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tt\n\t\t\t\t\t = [x\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tt\n\t\t\t\t\t, y\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tt\n\t\t\t\t\t, φ\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tt\n\t\t\t\t\t]\n\t\t\t\t\t\tT\n\t\t\t\t\t from existing state vector X\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tt−1 = [x\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tt−1, y\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tt−1,φ\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tt−1]\n\t\t\t\t\t\tT\n\t\t\t\t\t and the control input to the car-like robot which is the steering angle θ\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tt−1. This is just the kinematic equations of the car-like robot that is given in equation (1). This equation considers unit transition velocity between time steps. This should be replaced with a translation velocity parameter V that is unknown. It can be embedded as an extra state variable to X to form the new state vector X\n\t\t\t\t\t\tν\n\t\t\t\t\t =[X;V] or may be left as a constant. The state transition function for the new state vector used here is given in equation (19).
The observation model should calculate measurements from current state vector. As we have considered two measurements\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tY\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tI\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t[\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tx\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ty\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tx\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ty\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tx\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tf\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ty\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tf\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tx\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tf\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\ty\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tf\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t,\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t]\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t and Y\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tD\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t= [x\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t, y\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tr\n\t\t\t\t\t, φ]\n\t\t\t\t\t\tT\n\t\t\t\t\t, we would have two observation models correspondingly. First observation model is a nonlinear function \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tY\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tI\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\th\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tI\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tX\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tt\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tV\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t since its calculation of it requires some cos(φ) and sin(φ) terms. The second observation model is an identity function\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tY\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tt\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\th\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t(\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tX\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tt\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tV\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t)\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t=\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tX\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tt\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t that is H\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tt\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t= I\n\t\t\t\t\t3×4. To prevent complexity we used the direct measurement vector hence identity observation model. Now the extended Kalman filter can be set up. Initial state vector can be determined from \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tY\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tthat is extracted from first frame the velocity can be set to 1 for initial step. Update steps of the filtering will correct the speed. The Initial state covariance matrix and process and measurement noise covariance matrices are initialized with diagonal matrices that contain estimations of variance of corresponding variables.
\n\t\t\t\t
For each input frame first the predicted state is calculated using prediction equations and state transition function (19), then HT is computed around current position and direction and best border rectangle is determined from extracted lines, then signed direction is determined using the classification. Then measurement \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tY\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tt\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tis calculated. Finally we use this measurement vector to update the state according to extended Kalman filter update equations. Then x\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tt\n\t\t\t\t\t, y\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tt\n\t\t\t\t\t, φ\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\tt\n\t\t\t\t\t values of the updated state parameters are passed to the high level fuzzy control to calculate the steering angle θ which is passed to the robot and also is used in the state transition equation (19) in the next step.
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
6. Results
\n\t\t\t
In order to test the designed controller, the truck is backed to the loading dock from two different initial positions (Fig. 17). Hierarchical control system is very suitable for the implementation of the multi-level control principle and bringing it back together into one functional block. Experimental and simulation results using the present hierarchical scheme for different initial positions are shown in Fig. 17. In this figures, t indicates the parking duration. It can be seen how the generated paths (Fig. 17) are very close to the ideal paths (Fig. 4) made up of circular arcs and straight lines.
\n\t\t\t
Figure 17.
Experimental and simulation results of the parking maneuver corresponding to the initial configurations (a) x=-20, y=18.4, φ =60, t=78 steps, (b) X=17.5, y=4, φ =162, t=69 steps
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tFig.18 illustrates how the steering angle “given by the hierarchical fuzzy controller” in short paths of Fig.17 is continuous, so the robot can move continuously without stopping.
\n\t\t\t
The difference between generated paths (Fig. 17) is attributed to error of the vision subsystem, in estimating x,y,φ position variables. This error is propagated to the output of the controller and finally to the position of robot in the real environment.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
Figure 18.
a) Experimental and simulation steering angle transitions for the paths in Fig. 17(a), (b) Experimental and simulation steering angle transitions for the paths in Fig. 17(b)\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
7. Conclusion
\n\t\t\t
A fuzzy control system has been described to solve the truck backer-upper problem which is a typical problem in motion planning of nonholonomic systems. As hierarchy is an indispensable part of human reasoning, its reflection in the control structure can be expected to improve the performance of the overall control system. The main benefit from problem decomposition is that it allows dealing with problems serially rather than in parallel. This is especially important in fuzzy logic where large number of system variables leads to exponential explosion of rules (curse of dimensionality) that makes controller design extremely difficult or even impossible. The “divide and rule” principle implemented through hierarchical control system makes it possible to deal with complex problems without loss of functionality. It has also been shown that problem decomposition is vital for successful implementation of linguistic analysis and synthesis techniques in fuzzy modelling and controlling because a hierarchy of fuzzy logic controllers simulates an existing hierarchy in the human decision process and keeps the linguistic analysis less complicated so that it is manageable. In this work the proposed controller has a hierarchical structure composed of two modules which adjust the proper steering angle of front wheels similar to what a professional driver does. The computational cost is also less because we don’t have to work with nonlinear function such as “Arccos (.)”. Compared with traditional controller, this fuzzy controller demonstrates advantages on the control performance, robustness, smoothness, rapid design, convenience and feasibility. Trajectories are composed of circular arcs and straight segments and as a result the hierarchical approach produces shorter trajectories in comparison with other methods. The control system has been simulated with a model of a mobile robot containing kinematics constraints. The experimental results obtained confirm that the designed control system meets its specifications: the robot is stopped at the parking target with the adequate orientation and short paths with continuous-curvature are generated during backward maneuver. The vision system utilizes measurements extracted from a ceiling mounted camera and estimates the mobile robot position using an extended Kalman filtering scheme. This results in correction and denoising of the measured position by exploiting the kinematic equations of the robot’s motion.
\n\t\t
\n\t\n',keywords:",",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/6578.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/6578.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/6578",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/6578",totalDownloads:2639,totalViews:189,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:null,dateReviewed:null,datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"January 1st 2010",readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/6578",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/6578",book:{slug:"motion-control"},signatures:"Pourya Shahmaleki, Mojtaba Mahzoon, Alireza Kazemi and Mohammad Basiri",authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction ",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. The truck backing up problem",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Fuzzy logic",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Designing fuzzy control system",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"4.1. Integrated approach",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"4.2. Combined approach",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"4.3. Integrated approach ",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"5. Real time experimental studies",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"5.1. Vision subsystem",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"5.2. Car position extraction using Hough transform",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"5.3. Determining car direction using classification",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"5.4. Tracking the car state parameters with extended Kalman filter",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"5.4.1. Kalman filter",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"5.4.2. Extended Kalman filter",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"5.5. Applying extended Kalman filter for car position estimation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16",title:"6. Results",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17",title:"7. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tParomtichk\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tI.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLaugier\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGusev\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS. V.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSekhavat\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1998 Motion control for parking an autonomous vehicle, Proc. Int. Conf. Control Automation, Robotics and Vision, 1\n\t\t\t\t\t136\n\t\t\t\t\t140\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B2",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLatombe\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. C.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1991\n\t\t\t\t\tRobot motion planning, Norwell, MA: Kluwer Murray, R. M. & Sastry, S. S. (1993). Nonholonomic motion planning: Steering using sinusoids, IEEE Trans. Automat. Contr., 38\n\t\t\t\t\t700\n\t\t\t\t\t715\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B3",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLamiraux\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tF.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLaumond\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. P.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2001\n\t\t\t\t\tSmooth motion planning for car-like vehicles, IEEE Trans. Robot. Automat.,\n\t\t\t\t\t17\n\t\t\t\t\t498\n\t\t\t\t\t502\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B4",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tScheuer\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tFraichard\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1996\n\t\t\t\t\tPlanning continuous-curvature paths for car-like robots, Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. Intelligent Robots and Systems, 3 Osaka, Japan, 1304\n\t\t\t\t\t1311\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B5",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWalsh\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTylbury\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSastry\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMurray\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLaumond\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. P.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1994\n\t\t\t\t\tStabilization of trajectories for systems with nonholonomic constraints, IEEE Trans. Automat. Contr., 39\n\t\t\t\t\t216\n\t\t\t\t\t222\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B6",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTayebi\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRachid\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1996\n\t\t\t\t\tA time-varying-based robust control for the parking problem of a wheeled mobile robot, Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. Robotics and Automation, 3099\n\t\t\t\t\t3104\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B7",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJiang\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tK.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSeneviratne\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL. D.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1999\n\t\t\t\t\tA sensor guided autonomous parking System for nonholonomic mobile robots, Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. Robotics and Automation, 311\n\t\t\t\t\t316\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B8",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGomez-Bravo\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tF.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCuesta\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tF.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tOllero\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2001\n\t\t\t\t\tParallel and diagonal parking in nonholonomic autonomous vehicles, Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence, New York: Pergamon, 14\n\t\t\t\t\t419\n\t\t\t\t\t434\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B9",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCuesta\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tF.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBravo\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tF. G.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tOllero\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2004\n\t\t\t\t\tParking maneuvers of industrial-like electrical vehicles with and without trailer, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., 51\n\t\t\t\t\t257\n\t\t\t\t\t269\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B10",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tReeds\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. A.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tShepp\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR. A.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1990 Optimal path for a car that goes both forward and backward, Pacific J. Math., 145\n\t\t\t\t\t2\n\t\t\t\t\t367\n\t\t\t\t\t393 .\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B11",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tNguyen\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWidrow\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tB.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1989 The truck backer-upper: An example of self learning in neural network, Proc. of the International Joint Conference on Neural Networks, Washington DC, 357\n\t\t\t\t\t363\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B12",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKong\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKosko\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tB.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1990 Comparison of fuzzy and neural truck backer-upper control systems, Proc. IJCNN, 3\n\t\t\t\t\t349\n\t\t\t\t\t358\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B13",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKoza\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. R.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1992 A genetic approach to the truck backer upper problem and the inter-twined spirals problem, Proc. Int. Joint Conf. Neural Networks, Piscataway, NJ, 4\n\t\t\t\t\t310\n\t\t\t\t\t318\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B14",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSchoenauer\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRonald\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tE.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1994 Neuro-genetic truck backer-upper controller, Proc. First Int. Conf. Evolutionary Comp., 720\n\t\t\t\t\t723 . Orlando, FL, USA\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B15",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJenkins\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR. E.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYuhas\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tB. P.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1993\n\t\t\t\t\tA Simplified Neural Network Solution Through Problem Decomposition: The Case of the Truck Backer-Upper, IEEE Trans. Neural Networks, 4\n\t\t\t\t\t4\n\t\t\t\t\t718\n\t\t\t\t\t720\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B16",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTanaka\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tK.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKosaki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWang\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH. O.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1998\n\t\t\t\t\tBacking Control Problem of a Mobile Robot with Multiple Trailers: Fuzzy Modelling and LMI-Based Design, IEEE Trans. Syst., Man, Cybern., Part C, 28\n\t\t\t\t\t3\n\t\t\t\t\t329\n\t\t\t\t\t337\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B17",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRamamoorthy\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP. A.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHuang\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1991 Fuzzy expert systems vs. neural networks- truck backer-upper control revisited, Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. Systems Engineering, 221\n\t\t\t\t\t224\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B18",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWang\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL. X.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMendel\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. M.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1992\n\t\t\t\t\tGenerating fuzzy rules by learning from examples. IEEE Trans. Systems, Man, and Cybernetics, 22\n\t\t\t\t\t6\n\t\t\t\t\t1414\n\t\t\t\t\t1427\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B19",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tIsmail\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAbu-Khousa\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tE. A. G.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1996 A Comparative Study of Fuzzy Logic and Neural Network Control of the Truck Backer-Upper System, Proc. IEEE Int. Symp. Intelligent Control, 520\n\t\t\t\t\t523\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B20",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKim\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1998\n\t\t\t\t\tImproving the fuzzy system performance by fuzzy system ensemble, Fuzzy Sets and Systems, 98\n\t\t\t\t\t43\n\t\t\t\t\t56\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B21",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDumitrache\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tI.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBuiu\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tC.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1999\n\t\t\t\t\tGenetic learning of fuzzy controllers, Mathematics and Computers in Simulation, 49\n\t\t\t\t\t13\n\t\t\t\t\t26\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B22",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tChang\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. S.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLin\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. H.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tChiueh\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT. D.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1995 Neural networks for truck backer upper control system, Proc. International IEEE/IAS Conference on Industrial Automation and Control, Taipei, 328\n\t\t\t\t\t334 .\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B23",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSchoenauer\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRonald\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tE.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1994 Neuro-genetic truck backer-upper controller, Proc. of the First IEEE Conference on Evolutionary Computation, Part 2(of 2), Orlando, 720\n\t\t\t\t\t723\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B24",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tWang\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tL. X.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMendel\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1992 Fuzzy basis function, universal approximation, and orthogonal least-squares learning, IEEE Trans. Neural Networks, 3 (5), 807-814\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B25",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLi\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tY.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLi\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tY.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2007\n\t\t\t\t\tNeural-fuzzy control of truck backer-upper system using a clustering method, NeuroComputing, 70\n\t\t\t\t\t680\n\t\t\t\t\t688\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B26",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRiid\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRustern\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tE.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2001 Fuzzy logic in control: truck backer-upper problem revisited, The 10th IEEE International Conference on Fuzzy Systems, Melbourne, 513\n\t\t\t\t\t516 .\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B27",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRiid\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRustern\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tE.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2002 Fuzzy hierarchical control of truck and trailer, The 8th Biennal Baltic Electronic Conference, dcc,ttu,ee, Tallinn, 343\n\t\t\t\t\t375\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B28",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLi\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH. S.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tChang\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS. J.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2003\n\t\t\t\t\tAutonomous fuzzy parking control of a car-like mobile robot, IEEE Trans. Syst., Man,Cybern., A, 3\n\t\t\t\t\t451\n\t\t\t\t\t465\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B29",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tChen\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tZhang\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1997\n\t\t\t\t\tBack-driving a truck with suboptimal distance trajectories: A fuzzy logic control approach, IEEE Trans. Fuzzy Syst., 5\n\t\t\t\t\t369\n\t\t\t\t\t380\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B30",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tShahmaleki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMahzoon\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2008 Designing a Hierarchical Fuzzy Controller for Backing-up a Four Wheel Autonomous Robot, American Control Conference, Seattle, 10.1109/ACC.2008.4587269\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B31",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tShahmaleki\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMahzoon\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRanjbar\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tB.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2008 Real time experimental study of truck backer upper problem with fuzzy controller, World Automation Congress, WAC 2008, Page(s):1\n\t\t\t\t\t7\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B32",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSugeno\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMurakami\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tK.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1985 An experimental study on fuzzy parking control using a model car, Industrial Applications of Fuzzy Control, M. Sugeno, Ed. North-Holland, The Netherlands, 105\n\t\t\t\t\t124\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B33",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSugeno\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMurofushi\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMori\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTatematsu\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTanaka\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1989 Fuzzy algorithmic control of a model car by oral instructions, Fuzzy Sets Syst., 32\n\t\t\t\t\t207\n\t\t\t\t\t219\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B34",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYasunobu\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMurai\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tY.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1994 Parking control based on predictive fuzzy control, Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. Fuzzy Systems, 2\n\t\t\t\t\t1338\n\t\t\t\t\t1341\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B35",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDaxwanger\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tW. A.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSchmidt\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tG. K.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1995 Skill-based visual parking control using neural and fuzzy networks, Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. System, Man, Cybernetics, 2\n\t\t\t\t\t1659\n\t\t\t\t\t1664\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B36",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTayebi\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tRachid\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tA.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1996\n\t\t\t\t\tA time-varying-based robust control for the parking problem of a wheeled mobile robot, Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. Robotics and Automation, 3099\n\t\t\t\t\t3104\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B37",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLeu\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM. C.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKim\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT. Q.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1998 Cell mapping based fuzzy control of car parking, Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. Robotics Automation, 2494\n\t\t\t\t\t2499\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B38",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tAn\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYoshino\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKashimoto\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tOkubo\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tSakai\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tY.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHamamoto\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1999 Improvement of convergence to goal for wheeled mobile robot using parking motion, Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. Intelligent Robots Systems, 1693\n\t\t\t\t\t1698\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B39",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tShirazi\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tB.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYih\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1989 Learning to control: a heterogeneous approach, Proc. IEEE Int. Symp. Intelligent Control, 320\n\t\t\t\t\t325 O\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B40",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\thkita\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMitita\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMiura\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKuono\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1993 Traveling experiment of an autonomous mobile robot for a flush parking, Proc. 2nd IEEE Conf. Fuzzy System, 2 Francisco, CA, 327\n\t\t\t\t\t332\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B41",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tLaumond\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJ. P.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tJacobs\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP. E.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTaix\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tM.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMurray\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR. M.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1994 A motion planner for nonholonomic mobile robots, IEEE Trans. Robot. Automat., 10\n\t\t\t\t\t577\n\t\t\t\t\t593\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B42",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDemilri\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tK.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTurksen\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tI. B.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2000 Sonar based mobile robot localization by using fuzzy triangulation, Robotics and Autonomous Systems, 33\n\t\t\t\t\t109\n\t\t\t\t\t123\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B43",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tMiah\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tS.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tGueaieb\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tW.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2007 Intelligent Parallel Parking of a Car-like Mobile Robot Using RFID Technology, Robotics and Sensor Environments, IEEE International Workshop On, 1\n\t\t\t\t\t6\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B44",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tChen\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tCh. Y.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tFeng\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tH. M.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2009 Hybrid intelligent vision-based car-like vehicle backing systems design, Expert Systems with Applications, 36\n\t\t\t\t\t4\n\t\t\t\t\t7500\n\t\t\t\t\t7509\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B45",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHough\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1962 Methods and means for recognizing complex patterns, U.S. Patent 3069654\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B46",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDuda\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHart\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1972 Use of the Hough Transformation to Detect Lines and Curves in Pictures, Comm. ACM, 15\n\t\t\t\t\t11\n\t\t\t\t\t15\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B47",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tDuda\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tHart\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tP.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tStork\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tD.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t2000\n\t\t\t\t\tPattern Classification (2nd ed.), Wiley Interscience\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B48",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tVapnik\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tV. N.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1995\n\t\t\t\t\tThe Nature of Statistical Learning Theory, Springer-Verlag, New York\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B49",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tKalman\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tR.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1960 A new approach to linear filtering and prediction problems, Transactions of ASME- Journal of Basic Engineering, 82, 32\n\t\t\t\t\t45\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B50",body:'\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tBar-Shalom\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tY.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tFortmann\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tT. E.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t1988\n\t\t\t\t\tTracking and data association, San Diego, California: Academic Press, Inc.\n\t\t\t'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Pourya Shahmaleki",address:null,affiliation:'
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"3701",title:"Motion Control",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Motion Control",slug:"motion-control",publishedDate:"January 1st 2010",bookSignature:"Federico Casolo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3701.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY-NC-SA 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"3413",title:"dr.eng.",name:"Federico",middleName:null,surname:"Casolo",slug:"federico-casolo",fullName:"Federico Casolo"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"6576",title:"Dynamics and Control of Multibody Systems",slug:"dynamics-and-control-of-multibody-systems",totalDownloads:3458,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Marek Vondrak, Leonid Sigal and Odest Chadwicke Jenkins",authors:[null]},{id:"6577",title:"Intelligent Control",slug:"intelligent-control",totalDownloads:1215,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Maouche Amin Riad",authors:[null]},{id:"6578",title:"Vision-Based Hierarchical Fuzzy Controller and Real Time Results for a Wheeled Autonomous Robot",slug:"vision-based-hierarchical-fuzzy-controller-and-real-time-results-for-a-wheeled-autonomous-robot",totalDownloads:2639,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Pourya Shahmaleki, Mojtaba Mahzoon, Alireza Kazemi and Mohammad Basiri",authors:[null]},{id:"6579",title:"Smooth Path Generation for Wheeled Mobile Robots Using η3-Splines",slug:"smooth-path-generation-for-wheeled-mobile-robots-using-eta3-splines",totalDownloads:3346,totalCrossrefCites:5,signatures:"Aurelio Piazzi, Corrado Guarino Lo Bianco and Massimo Romano",authors:[null]},{id:"6580",title:"Motion Synthesis and Coordinated Control in the Multi-Axle-Driving-Vehicle",slug:"motion-synthesis-and-coordinated-control-in-the-multi-axle-driving-vehicle",totalDownloads:4744,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Yunhua Li and Liman Yang",authors:[null]},{id:"6581",title:"A Novel Traction Control for Electric Vehicle without Chassis Velocity",slug:"a-novel-traction-control-for-electric-vehicle-without-chassis-velocity",totalDownloads:2819,totalCrossrefCites:6,signatures:"Dejun Yin and Yoichi Hori",authors:[null]},{id:"6582",title:"Formal Verification of Hybrid Automotive Systems",slug:"formal-verification-of-hybrid-automotive-systems",totalDownloads:2026,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Jairam Sukumar, Subir K Roy, Kusum Lata and Navakanta Bhat",authors:[null]},{id:"6583",title:"Rolling Stability Control of In-wheel Motor Electric Vehicle Based on Disturbance Observer",slug:"rolling-stability-control-of-in-wheel-motor-electric-vehicle-based-on-disturbance-observer",totalDownloads:3682,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Kiyotaka Kawashima, Toshiyuki Uchida and Yoichi Hori",authors:[null]},{id:"6584",title:"Terrestrial and Underwater Locomotion Control for a Biomimetic Amphibious Robot Capable of Multimode Motion",slug:"terrestrial-and-underwater-locomotion-control-for-a-biomimetic-amphibious-robot-capable-of-multimode",totalDownloads:2320,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Junzhi Yu, Qinghai Yang, Rui Ding and Min Tan",authors:[null]},{id:"6585",title:"Autonomous Underwater Vehicle Motion Control during Investigation of Bottom Objects and Hard-to-Reach Areas",slug:"autonomous-underwater-vehicle-motion-control-during-investigation-of-bottom-objects-and-hard-to-reac",totalDownloads:2302,totalCrossrefCites:2,signatures:"Alexander Inzartsev, Lev Kiselyov, Andrey Medvedev and Alexander Pavin",authors:[null]},{id:"6586",title:"Integrated Positioning System of Autonomous Underwater Robot and Its Application in High Latitudes of Arctic Zone",slug:"integrated-positioning-system-of-autonomous-underwater-robot-and-its-application-in-high-latitudes-o",totalDownloads:3167,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Alexander Inzartsev, Alexander Kamorniy, Lev Kiselyov, Yury Matviyenko, Nicolay Rylov, Roman Rylov and Yury Vaulin",authors:[null]},{id:"6587",title:"Intelligent Flight Control of an Autonomous Quadrotor",slug:"intelligent-flight-control-of-an-autonomous-quadrotor",totalDownloads:12991,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Syed Ali Raza and Wail Gueaieb",authors:[null]},{id:"6588",title:"Microgravity Experiment for Attitude Control of A Tethered Body by Arm Link Motion",slug:"microgravity-experiment-for-attitude-control-of-a-tethered-body-by-arm-link-motion",totalDownloads:1597,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Masahiro Nohmi",authors:[null]},{id:"6589",title:"Distributed Control of Multi-Robot Deployment Motion",slug:"distributed-control-of-multi-robot-deployment-motion",totalDownloads:1835,totalCrossrefCites:3,signatures:"Yu Zhou",authors:[null]},{id:"6590",title:"Controlling a Finger-Arm Robot to Emulate the Motion of the Human Upper Limb by Regulating Finger Manipulability",slug:"controlling-a-finger-arm-robot-to-emulate-the-motion-of-the-human-upper-limb-by-regulating-finger-ma",totalDownloads:1949,totalCrossrefCites:5,signatures:"Jian Huang, Masayuki Hara, and Tetsuro Yabuta",authors:[null]},{id:"6591",title:"Elbow Prosthesis for Partial or Total Upper Limb Replacements",slug:"elbow-prosthesis-for-partial-or-total-upper-limb-replacements",totalDownloads:1970,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Federico Casolo",authors:[null]},{id:"6592",title:"Fuzzy Control Strategy for Cooperative Non-holonomic Motion of Cybercars with Passengers Vibration Analysis",slug:"fuzzy-control-strategy-for-cooperative-non-holonomic-motion-of-cybercars-with-passengers-vibration-a",totalDownloads:1202,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Francesco Maria Raimondi and Maurizio Melluso",authors:[null]},{id:"6593",title:"Characteristics of Mechanical Noise during Motion Control Applications",slug:"characteristics-of-mechanical-noise-during-motion-control-applications",totalDownloads:2512,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Mehmet Emin Yüksekkaya",authors:[null]},{id:"6594",title:"Hybrid Magnetic Suspension Actuator for Precision Motion Control",slug:"hybrid-magnetic-suspension-actuator-for-precision-motion-control",totalDownloads:2284,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Dengfeng Li and Hector Gutierrez",authors:[null]},{id:"6595",title:"Three Degrees-of-Freedom Hybrid Stage With Dual Actuators and Its Precision Motion Control",slug:"three-degrees-of-freedom-hybrid-stage-with-dual-actuators-and-its-precision-motion-control",totalDownloads:1557,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Yonmook Park",authors:[null]},{id:"6596",title:"FPGA-Realization of a Motion Control IC for X-Y Table",slug:"fpga-realization-of-a-motion-control-ic-for-x-y-table",totalDownloads:3168,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Ying-Shieh Kung and Ting-Yu Tai",authors:[null]},{id:"6597",title:"A Long-Stroke Planar Actuator with Multiple Degrees of Freedom by Minimum Number of Polyphase Currents",slug:"a-long-stroke-planar-actuator-with-multiple-degrees-of-freedom-by-minimum-number-of-polyphase-curren",totalDownloads:2120,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Yasuhito Ueda and Hiroyuki Ohsaki",authors:[null]},{id:"6598",title:"Sensorless V/f Control of Permanent Magnet Synchronous Motors",slug:"sensorless-v-f-control-of-permanent-magnet-synchronous-motors",totalDownloads:5169,totalCrossrefCites:2,signatures:"Daniel Montesinos-Miracle, P. D. Chandana Perera, Samuel Galceran-Arellano and Frede Blaabjerg",authors:[null]},{id:"6599",title:"Fuzzy Sliding Mode Control of a Ball Screw Driven Stage",slug:"fuzzy-sliding-mode-control-of-a-ball-screw-driven-stage",totalDownloads:1977,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Mohammad Shams and Masoud Safdari",authors:[null]},{id:"6600",title:"Dynamic Modeling and Performance Trade-offs in Flexure-based Positioning and Alignment Systems",slug:"dynamic-modeling-and-performance-trade-offs-in-flexure-based-positioning-and-alignment-systems",totalDownloads:2243,totalCrossrefCites:3,signatures:"Vijay Shilpiekandula and Kamal Youcef-Toumi",authors:[null]},{id:"6601",title:"Development of a LCD Photomask Based Desktop Manufacturing System",slug:"development-of-a-lcd-photomask-based-desktop-manufacturing-system",totalDownloads:4104,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Ren C. Luo and Jyh-Hwa Tzou",authors:[null]},{id:"6602",title:"Positioning Systems for Bed Profiling in Hydraulics Physical Models",slug:"positioning-systems-for-bed-profiling-in-hydraulics-physical-models",totalDownloads:2638,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"João Palma, Paulo Morais, Luís Guilherme and Elsa Alves",authors:[null]},{id:"6603",title:"Switching Control of Image Based Visual Servoing in an Eye-in-Hand System Using Laser Pointer",slug:"switching-control-of-image-based-visual-servoing-in-an-eye-in-hand-system-using-laser-pointer",totalDownloads:1743,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Wen-Fang Xie, Zheng Li, Claude Perron and Xiao-Wei Tu",authors:[null]},{id:"6604",title:"The Analysis and Optimization in Virtual Environment of the Mechatronic Tracking Systems Used for Improving the Photovoltaic Conversion",slug:"the-analysis-and-optimization-in-virtual-environment-of-the-mechatronic-tracking-systems-used-for-im",totalDownloads:3087,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Cătălin Alexandru and Claudiu Pozna",authors:[null]}]},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"8425",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",signatures:"Bishnu Pal",authors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",middleName:"P",surname:"Pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal"}]},{id:"8426",title:"Application Specific Optical Fibers",slug:"application-specific-optical-fibers",signatures:"Bishnu P. Pal",authors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",middleName:"P",surname:"Pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal"}]},{id:"8427",title:"Nonlinear Properties of Chalcogenide Glass Fibers",slug:"nonlinear-properties-of-chalcogenide-glass-fibers",signatures:"Jas S. Sanghera, L. Brandon Shaw, C. M. Florea, P. Pureza, V. Q. Nguyen, F. Kung, Dan Gibson and I. D. Aggarwal",authors:[{id:"5111",title:"Dr.",name:"Jasbinder",middleName:null,surname:"Sanghera",fullName:"Jasbinder Sanghera",slug:"jasbinder-sanghera"},{id:"133867",title:"Dr.",name:"Brandon",middleName:null,surname:"Shaw",fullName:"Brandon Shaw",slug:"brandon-shaw"},{id:"133868",title:"Dr.",name:"Catalin",middleName:null,surname:"Florea",fullName:"Catalin Florea",slug:"catalin-florea"},{id:"133872",title:"Prof.",name:"Gam",middleName:null,surname:"Nguyen",fullName:"Gam Nguyen",slug:"gam-nguyen"},{id:"133876",title:"Dr.",name:"Ishwar",middleName:null,surname:"Aggarwal",fullName:"Ishwar Aggarwal",slug:"ishwar-aggarwal"}]},{id:"8428",title:"Irradiation Effects in Optical Fibers",slug:"irradiation-effects-in-optical-fibers",signatures:"Sporea Dan, Agnello Simonpietro and Gelardi Franco Mario",authors:[{id:"5392",title:"Dr.",name:"Dan",middleName:null,surname:"Sporea",fullName:"Dan Sporea",slug:"dan-sporea"},{id:"133835",title:"Prof.",name:"Simonpietro",middleName:null,surname:"Agnello",fullName:"Simonpietro Agnello",slug:"simonpietro-agnello"},{id:"133836",title:"Prof.",name:"Franco Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Gelardi",fullName:"Franco Mario Gelardi",slug:"franco-mario-gelardi"}]},{id:"8429",title:"Programmable All-Fiber Optical Pulse Shaping",slug:"programmable-all-fiber-optical-pulse-shaping",signatures:"Antonio Malacarne, Saju Thomas, Francesco Fresi, Luca Potì, Antonella Bogoni and Josè Azaña",authors:[{id:"2707",title:"Dr.",name:"Luca",middleName:null,surname:"Poti",fullName:"Luca Poti",slug:"luca-poti"},{id:"4930",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Malacarne",fullName:"Antonio Malacarne",slug:"antonio-malacarne"},{id:"5391",title:"Dr.",name:"Francesco",middleName:null,surname:"Fresi",fullName:"Francesco Fresi",slug:"francesco-fresi"},{id:"109285",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Bogoni",fullName:"Antonella Bogoni",slug:"antonella-bogoni"},{id:"133856",title:"Prof.",name:"Thomas",middleName:null,surname:"Saju",fullName:"Thomas Saju",slug:"thomas-saju"},{id:"133858",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Azana",fullName:"Jose Azana",slug:"jose-azana"}]},{id:"8430",title:"Physical Nature of “Slow Light” in Stimulated Brillouin Scattering",slug:"physical-nature-of-slow-light-in-stimulated-brillouin-scattering",signatures:"Valeri I. Kovalev, Robert G. Harrison and Nadezhda E. Kotova",authors:[{id:"4873",title:"Dr.",name:"Valeri",middleName:null,surname:"Kovalev",fullName:"Valeri Kovalev",slug:"valeri-kovalev"},{id:"133838",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Harrison",fullName:"Robert Harrison",slug:"robert-harrison"}]},{id:"8431",title:"Bismuth-doped Silica Fiber Amplifier",slug:"bismuth-doped-silica-fiber-amplifier",signatures:"Young-Seok Seo and Yasushi Fujimoto",authors:[{id:"4778",title:"Researcher",name:"Young-Seok",middleName:null,surname:"Seo",fullName:"Young-Seok Seo",slug:"young-seok-seo"},{id:"4885",title:"Dr.",name:"Yasushi",middleName:null,surname:"Fujimoto",fullName:"Yasushi Fujimoto",slug:"yasushi-fujimoto"}]},{id:"8432",title:"Radio-over-Fibre Techniques and Performance",slug:"radio-over-fibre-techniques-and-performance",signatures:"Roberto Llorente and Marta Beltrán",authors:[{id:"4404",title:"Ms.",name:"Marta",middleName:null,surname:"Beltran",fullName:"Marta Beltran",slug:"marta-beltran"},{id:"16540",title:"Dr.",name:"Roberto",middleName:null,surname:"Llorente",fullName:"Roberto Llorente",slug:"roberto-llorente"}]},{id:"8433",title:"Time-Spectral Visualization of Fundamental Ultrafast Nonlinear-Optical Interactions in Photonic Fibers",slug:"time-spectral-visualization-of-fundamental-ultrafast-nonlinear-optical-interactions-in-photonic-fibe",signatures:"Anatoly Efimov",authors:[{id:"4545",title:"Dr.",name:"Anatoly",middleName:null,surname:"Efimov",fullName:"Anatoly Efimov",slug:"anatoly-efimov"}]},{id:"8434",title:"Dispersion Compensation Devices",slug:"dispersion-compensation-devices",signatures:"Lingling Chen, Meng Zhang and Zhigang Zhang",authors:[{id:"4565",title:"Ms.",name:"Lingling",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",fullName:"Lingling Chen",slug:"lingling-chen"},{id:"4773",title:"Professor",name:"Zhigang",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",fullName:"Zhigang Zhang",slug:"zhigang-zhang"}]},{id:"8435",title:"Photonic Crystal Fibre for Dispersion Controll",slug:"photonic-crystal-fibre-for-dispersion-controll",signatures:"Zoltán Várallyay and Kunimasa Saitoh",authors:[{id:"4607",title:"Dr.",name:"Zoltan Krisztian",middleName:null,surname:"Varallyay",fullName:"Zoltan Krisztian Varallyay",slug:"zoltan-krisztian-varallyay"},{id:"133834",title:"Prof.",name:"Kunimasa",middleName:null,surname:"Saitoh",fullName:"Kunimasa Saitoh",slug:"kunimasa-saitoh"}]},{id:"8436",title:"Resonantly Induced Refractive Index Changes in Yb-doped Fibers: the Origin, Properties and Application for All-Fiber Coherent Beam Combining",slug:"resonantly-induced-refractive-index-changes-in-yb-doped-fibers-the-origin-properties-and-application",signatures:"Andrei A. Fotiadi, Oleg L. Antipov and Patrice Mégret",authors:[{id:"4725",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrei",middleName:null,surname:"Fotiadi",fullName:"Andrei Fotiadi",slug:"andrei-fotiadi"},{id:"107849",title:"Prof.",name:"Patrice",middleName:null,surname:"Mégret",fullName:"Patrice Mégret",slug:"patrice-megret"},{id:"133847",title:"Prof.",name:"Oleg",middleName:null,surname:"Antipov",fullName:"Oleg Antipov",slug:"oleg-antipov"}]},{id:"8437",title:"Polarization Coupling of Light and Optoelectronics Devices Based on Periodically Poled Lithium Niobate",slug:"polarization-coupling-of-light-and-optoelectronics-devices-based-on-periodically-poled-lithium-nioba",signatures:"Xianfeng Chen, Kun Liu, and Jianhong Shi",authors:[{id:"4180",title:"Professor",name:"Xianfeng",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",fullName:"Xianfeng Chen",slug:"xianfeng-chen"},{id:"133851",title:"Prof.",name:"Kun",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",fullName:"Kun Liu",slug:"kun-liu"},{id:"133853",title:"Prof.",name:"Jianhong",middleName:null,surname:"Shi",fullName:"Jianhong Shi",slug:"jianhong-shi"}]},{id:"8438",title:"All-Optical Wavelength-Selective Switch by Intensity Control in Cascaded Interferometers",slug:"all-optical-wavelength-selective-switch-by-intensity-control-in-cascaded-interferometers",signatures:"Hiroki Kishikawa, Nobuo Goto and Kenta Kimiya",authors:[{id:"4400",title:"Professor",name:"Nobuo",middleName:null,surname:"Goto",fullName:"Nobuo Goto",slug:"nobuo-goto"},{id:"133356",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroki",middleName:null,surname:"Kishikawa",fullName:"Hiroki Kishikawa",slug:"hiroki-kishikawa"},{id:"133358",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenta",middleName:null,surname:"Kimiya",fullName:"Kenta Kimiya",slug:"kenta-kimiya"}]},{id:"8439",title:"Nonlinear Optics in Doped Silica Glass Integrated Waveguide Structures",slug:"nonlinear-optics-in-doped-silica-glass-integrated-waveguide-structures",signatures:"David Duchesne, Marcello Ferrera, Luca Razzari, Roberto Morandotti, Brent Little, Sai T. Chu and David J. Moss",authors:[{id:"4405",title:"Dr.",name:"David",middleName:null,surname:"Moss",fullName:"David Moss",slug:"david-moss"},{id:"4783",title:"Dr.",name:"David",middleName:null,surname:"Duchesne",fullName:"David Duchesne",slug:"david-duchesne"},{id:"95840",title:"Dr.",name:"Luca",middleName:null,surname:"Razzari",fullName:"Luca Razzari",slug:"luca-razzari"},{id:"135390",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcello",middleName:null,surname:"Ferrera",fullName:"Marcello Ferrera",slug:"marcello-ferrera"},{id:"135391",title:"Prof.",name:"Roberto",middleName:null,surname:"Morandotti",fullName:"Roberto Morandotti",slug:"roberto-morandotti"},{id:"135392",title:"Prof.",name:"Brent",middleName:null,surname:"Little",fullName:"Brent Little",slug:"brent-little"},{id:"135393",title:"Prof.",name:"Sai",middleName:null,surname:"Chu",fullName:"Sai Chu",slug:"sai-chu"}]},{id:"8440",title:"Advances in Femtosecond Micromachining and Inscription of Micro and Nano Photonic Devices",slug:"advances-in-femtosecond-micromachining-and-inscription-of-micro-and-nano-photonic-devices",signatures:"Graham N. Smith, Kyriacos Kalli and Kate Sugden",authors:[{id:"4668",title:"Dr.",name:"Graham",middleName:"N",surname:"Smith",fullName:"Graham Smith",slug:"graham-smith"},{id:"133360",title:"Prof.",name:"Kyriacos",middleName:null,surname:"Kalli",fullName:"Kyriacos Kalli",slug:"kyriacos-kalli"},{id:"133361",title:"Prof.",name:"Kate",middleName:null,surname:"Sugden",fullName:"Kate Sugden",slug:"kate-sugden"}]},{id:"8441",title:"Magneto-Optical Devices for Optical Integrated Circuits",slug:"magneto-optical-devices-for-optical-integrated-circuits",signatures:"Vadym Zayets and Koji Ando",authors:[{id:"4688",title:"Dr.",name:"Vadym",middleName:null,surname:"Zayets",fullName:"Vadym Zayets",slug:"vadym-zayets"},{id:"133363",title:"Prof.",name:"Koji",middleName:null,surname:"Ando",fullName:"Koji Ando",slug:"koji-ando"}]},{id:"8442",title:"Tunable Hollow Optical Waveguide and Its Applications",slug:"tunable-hollow-optical-waveguide-and-its-applications",signatures:"Mukesh Kumar, Toru Miura, Yasuki Sakurai and Fumio Koyama",authors:[{id:"63461",title:"Dr.",name:"Mukesh",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",fullName:"Mukesh Kumar",slug:"mukesh-kumar"},{id:"133388",title:"Prof.",name:"Toru",middleName:null,surname:"Miura",fullName:"Toru Miura",slug:"toru-miura"},{id:"133402",title:"Prof.",name:"Yasuki",middleName:null,surname:"Sakurai",fullName:"Yasuki Sakurai",slug:"yasuki-sakurai"},{id:"133404",title:"Prof.",name:"Fumio",middleName:null,surname:"Koyama",fullName:"Fumio Koyama",slug:"fumio-koyama"}]},{id:"8443",title:"Regenerated Fibre Bragg Gratings",slug:"regenerated-fibre-bragg-gratings",signatures:"John Canning, Somnath Bandyopadhyay, Palas Biswas, Mattias Aslund, Michael Stevenson and Kevin Cook",authors:[{id:"5461",title:"Professor",name:"John",middleName:null,surname:"Canning",fullName:"John Canning",slug:"john-canning"},{id:"133394",title:"Dr.",name:"Somnath",middleName:null,surname:"Bandyopadhyay",fullName:"Somnath Bandyopadhyay",slug:"somnath-bandyopadhyay"},{id:"133395",title:"Prof.",name:"Palas",middleName:null,surname:"Biswas",fullName:"Palas Biswas",slug:"palas-biswas"},{id:"133396",title:"Prof.",name:"Mattias",middleName:null,surname:"Aslund",fullName:"Mattias Aslund",slug:"mattias-aslund"},{id:"133397",title:"Prof.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Stevenson",fullName:"Michael Stevenson",slug:"michael-stevenson"},{id:"133400",title:"Prof.",name:"Kevin",middleName:null,surname:"Cook",fullName:"Kevin Cook",slug:"kevin-cook"}]},{id:"8444",title:"Optical Deposition of Carbon Nanotubes for Fiber-based Device Fabrication",slug:"optical-deposition-of-carbon-nanotubes-for-fiber-based-device-fabrication",signatures:"Ken Kashiwagi and Shinji Yamashita",authors:[{id:"5133",title:"Dr.",name:"Ken",middleName:null,surname:"Kashiwagi",fullName:"Ken Kashiwagi",slug:"ken-kashiwagi"},{id:"38416",title:"Mr.",name:"Shinji",middleName:null,surname:"Yamashita",fullName:"Shinji Yamashita",slug:"shinji-yamashita"}]},{id:"8445",title:"High Power Tunable Tm3+-fiber Lasers and Its Application in Pumping Cr2+:ZnSe Lasers",slug:"high-power-tunable-tm3-fiber-lasers-and-its-application-in-pumping-cr2-znse-lasers",signatures:"Yulong Tang and Jianqiu Xu",authors:[{id:"5449",title:"Prof.",name:"Jianqiu",middleName:null,surname:"Xu",fullName:"Jianqiu Xu",slug:"jianqiu-xu"},{id:"110808",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulong",middleName:null,surname:"Tang",fullName:"Yulong Tang",slug:"yulong-tang"}]},{id:"8446",title:"2 µm Laser Sources and Their Possible Applications",slug:"2-m-laser-sources-and-their-possible-applications",signatures:"Karsten Scholle, Samir Lamrini, Philipp Koopmann and Peter Fuhrberg",authors:[{id:"4951",title:"Dr.",name:"Karsten",middleName:null,surname:"Scholle",fullName:"Karsten Scholle",slug:"karsten-scholle"},{id:"133366",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"Lamrini",fullName:"Samir Lamrini",slug:"samir-lamrini"},{id:"133370",title:"Prof.",name:"Philipp",middleName:null,surname:"Koopmann",fullName:"Philipp Koopmann",slug:"philipp-koopmann"},{id:"133371",title:"Mr.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Fuhrberg",fullName:"Peter Fuhrberg",slug:"peter-fuhrberg"}]},{id:"8447",title:"Designer Laser Resonators based on Amplifying Photonic Crystals",slug:"designer-laser-resonators-based-on-amplifying-photonic-crystals",signatures:"Alexander Benz, Christoph Deutsch, Gernot Fasching, Karl Unterrainer, Aaron M. Maxwell, Pavel Klang, Werner Schrenk and Gottfried Strasser",authors:[{id:"4537",title:"DI",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Benz",fullName:"Alexander Benz",slug:"alexander-benz"},{id:"135394",title:"Prof.",name:"Christoph",middleName:null,surname:"Deutsch",fullName:"Christoph Deutsch",slug:"christoph-deutsch"},{id:"135395",title:"Prof.",name:"Gernot",middleName:null,surname:"Fasching",fullName:"Gernot Fasching",slug:"gernot-fasching"},{id:"135396",title:"Prof.",name:"Karl",middleName:null,surname:"Unterrainer",fullName:"Karl Unterrainer",slug:"karl-unterrainer"},{id:"135397",title:"Prof.",name:"Aaron",middleName:null,surname:"Maxwell",fullName:"Aaron Maxwell",slug:"aaron-maxwell"},{id:"135398",title:"Prof.",name:"Pavel",middleName:null,surname:"Klang",fullName:"Pavel Klang",slug:"pavel-klang"},{id:"135399",title:"Prof.",name:"Werner",middleName:null,surname:"Schrenk",fullName:"Werner Schrenk",slug:"werner-schrenk"},{id:"135400",title:"Prof.",name:"Gottfried",middleName:null,surname:"Strasser",fullName:"Gottfried Strasser",slug:"gottfried-strasser"}]},{id:"8448",title:"High-Power and High Efficiency Yb:YAG Ceramic Laser at Room Temperature",slug:"high-power-and-high-efficiency-yb-yag-ceramic-laser-at-room-temperature",signatures:"Shinki Nakamura",authors:[{id:"4143",title:"Dr.",name:"Shinki",middleName:null,surname:"Nakamura",fullName:"Shinki Nakamura",slug:"shinki-nakamura"}]},{id:"8449",title:"Polarization Properties of Laser-Diode-Pumped Microchip Nd:YAG Ceramic Lasers",slug:"polarization-properties-of-laser-diode-pumped-microchip-nd-yag-ceramic-lasers",signatures:"Kenju Otsuka",authors:[{id:"4259",title:"Professor",name:"Kenju",middleName:null,surname:"Otsuka",fullName:"Kenju Otsuka",slug:"kenju-otsuka"}]},{id:"8450",title:"Surface-Emitting Circular Bragg Lasers – A Promising Next-Generation On-Chip Light Source for Optical Communications",slug:"surface-emitting-circular-bragg-lasers-a-promising-next-generation-on-chip-light-source-for-optical-",signatures:"Xiankai Sun and Amnon Yariv",authors:[{id:"4201",title:"Prof.",name:"Xiankai",middleName:null,surname:"Sun",fullName:"Xiankai Sun",slug:"xiankai-sun"},{id:"122981",title:"Dr.",name:"Amnon",middleName:null,surname:"Yariv",fullName:"Amnon Yariv",slug:"amnon-yariv"}]},{id:"8451",title:"Novel Enabling Technologies for Convergence of Optical and Wireless Access Networks",slug:"novel-enabling-technologies-for-convergence-of-optical-and-wireless-access-networks",signatures:"Jianjun Yu, Gee-Kung Chang, Zhensheng Jia and Lin Chen",authors:[{id:"8503",title:"Dr.",name:"Jianjun",middleName:null,surname:"Yu",fullName:"Jianjun Yu",slug:"jianjun-yu"},{id:"133376",title:"Prof.",name:"Gee-Kung",middleName:null,surname:"Chang",fullName:"Gee-Kung Chang",slug:"gee-kung-chang"},{id:"133378",title:"Prof.",name:"Zhensheng",middleName:null,surname:"Jia",fullName:"Zhensheng Jia",slug:"zhensheng-jia"},{id:"139599",title:"Prof.",name:"Lin",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",fullName:"Lin Chen",slug:"lin-chen"}]},{id:"8452",title:"Photonic Crystal Multiplexer/Demultiplexer Device for Optical Communications",slug:"photonic-crystal-multiplexer-demultiplexer-device-for-optical-communications",signatures:"Sahbuddin Shaari and Azliza J. M. Adnan",authors:[{id:"19951",title:"Dr.",name:"Sahbudin",middleName:null,surname:"Shaari",fullName:"Sahbudin Shaari",slug:"sahbudin-shaari"}]},{id:"8453",title:"Improvement Scheme for Directly Modulated Fiber Optical CATV System Performances",slug:"improvement-scheme-for-directly-modulated-fiber-optical-catv-system-performances",signatures:"Hai-Han Lu, Ching-Hung Chang and Peng-Chun Peng",authors:[{id:"4684",title:"Professor",name:"Hai-Han",middleName:null,surname:"Lu",fullName:"Hai-Han Lu",slug:"hai-han-lu"},{id:"62688",title:"Prof.",name:"Peng-Chun",middleName:null,surname:"Peng",fullName:"Peng-Chun Peng",slug:"peng-chun-peng"}]},{id:"8454",title:"Optical Beam Steering Using a 2D MEMS Scanner",slug:"optical-beam-steering-using-a-2d-mems-scanner",signatures:"Yves Pétremand, Pierre-André Clerc, Marc Epitaux, Ralf Hauffe, Wilfried Noell and N.F. de Rooij",authors:[{id:"5054",title:"Dr.",name:"Yves",middleName:null,surname:"Petremand",fullName:"Yves Petremand",slug:"yves-petremand"},{id:"135512",title:"Prof.",name:"Pierre-Andre",middleName:null,surname:"Clerc",fullName:"Pierre-Andre Clerc",slug:"pierre-andre-clerc"},{id:"135514",title:"Prof.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Epitaux",fullName:"Marc Epitaux",slug:"marc-epitaux"},{id:"135516",title:"Prof.",name:"Ralf",middleName:null,surname:"Hauffe",fullName:"Ralf Hauffe",slug:"ralf-hauffe"},{id:"135518",title:"Prof.",name:"Wilfried",middleName:null,surname:"Noell",fullName:"Wilfried Noell",slug:"wilfried-noell"},{id:"135519",title:"Prof.",name:"N.F.",middleName:null,surname:"De Rooij",fullName:"N.F. De Rooij",slug:"n.f.-de-rooij"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"69206",title:"Otitis Media, Behavioral and Electrophysiological Tests, and Auditory Rehabilitation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88800",slug:"otitis-media-behavioral-and-electrophysiological-tests-and-auditory-rehabilitation",body:'\n
\n
1. Introduction
\n
Otitis media (OM) is a common childhood disease. Research has shown that recurrent episodes can induce changes or delay the development of the central auditory nervous system, leading to central auditory processing disorder (CAPD). In this chapter, we present results obtained in the behavioral and electrophysiological evaluation of the auditory processing of children and adolescents with OM over the first few years of life. In addition, we discuss aspects of the auditory rehabilitation process itself.
\n
\n
\n
2. Auditory system and otitis media
\n
Language plays an essential role in perceptual organization, including the reception and structuring of information, learning, and social interactions. Language enables us to communicate with each other and acquire and transmit experience and knowledge. The development of speech and language requires a functional auditory system capable of detecting sound, paying attention, remembering, discriminating, and perceiving location. Any interruption to development will lead to significant functional impairments, not only in language but also in cognitive, intellectual, cultural, and social development [1, 2].
\n
Central auditory processing (CAP) is defined as the efficiency and effectiveness with which the central auditory nervous system uses auditory information. It refers to the perceptual processing of auditory information and to the neurobiological activity underlying this processing that gives rise to electrophysiological auditory potentials [3, 4]. The efficient analysis and interpretation of normal auditory information involves several subprocesses and skills, and includes neural mechanisms underlying a range of auditory behaviors such as sound localization and lateralization; auditory discrimination; recognition of auditory patterns; temporal aspects of the hearing (integration, discrimination, resolution, temporal masking); auditory performance in the presence of competing acoustic signals (which includes dichotic listening); and decoding degraded acoustic signals [5, 6].
\n
This whole process involves a complex system of neurons located in several stations of the auditory system. The initial analysis of the stimulus occurs in the peripheral auditory system, constituted by the external and middle ear, responsible for the capture, transduction, and processing of the sound stimulus. The stimulus arrives first at the cochlear nucleus and encephalic trunk, followed by the upper olivary complex, lateral lemniscus, inferior colliculus, and medial geniculate body, and finally reaches the primary area of auditory reception in the temporal lobe of each hemisphere. From the primary auditory cortex of each hemisphere, the signals travel to other regions of the brain-the association areas-both in the same hemisphere and in the opposite hemisphere. As the auditory information travels by ipsi- and contralateral routes, it undergoes increasingly complex levels of processing. This processing occurs both hierarchically and serially, as well as in parallel or overlapping. The result of combining serial and parallel processing makes the system highly efficient and redundant. In addition to ascending pathways, there are also descending pathways that can moderate the response to a received acoustic stimulus [7, 8].
\n
Central auditory processing disorder (CAPD) is a dysfunction of the central auditory nervous system that leads to hearing difficulties. It can lead to, or be associated with, changes in language, learning, cognition, or other communicative functions [3, 4, 5, 9]. In the pediatric population, there are several possible causes of the disorder, among them otitis media [10, 11].
\n
Otitis media with effusion (OME) is a clinical entity characterized by the presence of effusion in the middle ear, without perforation of the tympanic membrane, but with an acute infection that lasts for a period of at least 3 months. The condition is common enough to be called an “occupational hazard of early childhood” [12] because about 90% of children have OM before school age and they develop, on average, four episodes of OM per year. OM may occur during an upper respiratory infection or occur spontaneously because of poor Eustachian tube function or an inflammatory response following a previous OM, most often between the ages of 6 months and 4 years [13, 14]. In the first year of life, 50% of children will experience OM, increasing to 60% by age 2. When primary school children aged 5–6 years were screened for OM, about 1 in 8 was found to have fluid in one or both ears [15] Figure 1a–d.
\n
Figure 1.
(a–d) Otitis media with effusion (OME). Personal collection.
\n
Most episodes of OM resolve spontaneously within 3 months, but about 30–40% of children have repeated OM episodes and 5–10% of episodes last 1 year [13]. At least 25% of OM episodes persist for 3 months and may be associated with hearing loss which is usually noticed by parents or teachers as inattention, needing to ask several times, disinterest, and poor school achievement.
\n
OM impairs sound transmission to the inner ear by reducing mobility of the tympanic membrane and ossicles, thereby reflecting acoustic energy back into the ear canal instead of allowing it to pass freely to the cochlea.
\n
Diagnosis is performed by otoscopy and confirmed by a basic audiological evaluation. Under otoscopy, a retracted, opaque tympanic membrane with reduced mobility is seen. In the vast majority of cases, a yellowish liquid line, sometimes with air bubbles, is visible through the tympanic membrane. In the audiological evaluation, the result can range from normal hearing to moderate conductive hearing loss (HL of 0–55 dB) [16]. The mean hearing loss associated with OM in children is 28 dB, while a lesser proportion (~20%) exceeds 35 dB, with a type B tympanometric curve characteristic of effusion. Auditory losses are characterized by being fluctuating, temporary, and asymmetrical [17]. The mild degree of loss is sufficient to impair certain auditory functions, and the fluctuating nature (which may change to periods of normal hearing) leads to variable stimulation of the central auditory nervous system. The effect is to make it difficult to perceive sounds, and leads to diffuse cognitive and linguistic abilities affecting both speech and the perception of phonemes; school performance also suffers [18]. In addition, the fluid in the middle ear can cause noise near the cochlea, producing a distorted perception of sounds.
\n
Depending on the clinical history and functional conditions of the child’s middle ear, treatment involves either clinical or surgical management. In small children with OME, the most common surgical procedure is tympanotomy with ventilation tube placement, which drains fluid from the middle ear and thus restores hearing. Diagnosis and treatment is essential, since in an acute episode of OM fluids can remain in the middle ear for 3–12 months; in 10–30% of children, the fluid remains for 2–3 months. Thus, a child who has had three to four OME episodes before the age of three can have had 12 months of conductive hearing loss, which is a third of the period considered critical for development and learning [19]. The periods of auditory deprivation during the active periods of OME over the first years of life can delay the maturation of the structures in the CANS and consequently impair auditory abilities associated with central auditory processing.
\n
Therefore, evaluation of auditory processing is fundamental in children with a history of otitis media in order to allow diagnosis, intervention, and guidance.
\n
\n
\n
3. Testing the central auditory processing of children with a history of otitis media
\n
To evaluate central auditory processing in children with a history of OM, it is recommended that a battery of test procedures be used by which the mechanisms and auditory abilities involved in the analysis and interpretation of sounds can be investigated. Due to the complexity of CANS, no single test is sufficient to explore its nature [3, 4]. Since the 1950s, numerous tests have been developed to evaluate central hearing function. These tests differ in that each presents different types of stimuli (verbal or nonverbal) and involves presentation to one or both ears (monaural or binaural). Each test is designed to evaluate a particular auditory mechanism or auditory ability and consequently probes different areas and functions of the CANS. Below the tests are divided into categories according to the way in which the stimuli are presented to the ears, the nature of the auditory tasks involved, and the method or approach used. Other currently accepted classifications involve categorizing them as binaural interaction tests, dichotic tests with verbal and non-verbal sounds (binaural integration and separation), monaural tests using low redundancy stimuli, time processing tests, and electroacoustic and electrophysiological procedures [20].
\n
A comprehensive assessment allows for correct quantification and qualification of the various CANS mechanisms and dysfunctions and provides important information for planning and managing treatment.
\n
\n
3.1 Behavioral evaluation
\n
Research by Colella-Santos et al. [11] involved 50 children (28 boys, 22 girls, mean age 11.2 years) with a documented history of bilateral SOM in the first 6 years of life and who had bilateral tympanostomy tube insertion (experimental group, EG); a control group (CG) consisted of 40 children (17 boys, 23 girls, mean age 10.7 years) with no history of otitis media. All children had auditory thresholds within normal limits on the day of evaluation and had a type A tympanometric curve. They were all evaluated with the tests described below [21, 22, 23]. The tests were the dichotic digits test, synthetic sentence identification test, gaps-in-noise test, and frequency pattern test. Details are as follows Figure 2a and b.
\n
Figure 2.
(a–b) Tympanostomy tube insertion. Personal collection.
\n
\n
3.1.1 Dichotic digits (DD)
\n
The DD test as developed in Brazil consists of four presentations of a list of two-syllable digits in Brazilian Portuguese, in which four different digits are presented simultaneously, two in each ear. The list contains 40 randomly arranged pairs of digits presented at 50 dB HL. The digits used to form the numbers are four, five, seven, eight, and nine. The participants are instructed to listen to two numbers in each ear and repeat all the numbers they hear. The order does not matter. The dichotic digits test verifies binaural integration ability [21].
\n
\n
\n
3.1.2 Synthetic sentence identification (SSI)
\n
The SSI test consists of the presentation of 10 Brazilian Portuguese sentences at 40 dB HL, in the presence of a competing children’s story in the same ear at a signal-to-noise ratio of 0, −10, or −15 dB. The task of the subject is to listen to the sentence and point to it in a frame. The ability analyzed in this test is figure-ground discrimination [21].
\n
\n
\n
3.1.3 Frequency pattern test (FPT)
\n
The FPT test is composed of three 150 ms tones presented at 50 dB HL and separated by 200 ms. The tones in each triplet are combinations of two sinusoids, 880 and 1122 Hz, which are designated as low frequency (L) and high frequency (H), respectively. Thus, there are six possible combinations of the three-tone sequence (LLH, LHL, LHH, HLH, HLL, and HHL). The subjects are instructed that they will hear sets of three consecutive tones that vary in pitch. Their task is to repeat the pattern by humming and verbalizing the frequency pattern (e.g., high–low–high). The FPT test checks temporal ordering ability [22].
\n
\n
\n
3.1.4 Gaps-in-noise (GIN)
\n
The GIN test consists of a series of 6-second segments of broad-band noise presented at 50 dB HL with 0–3 gaps embedded within each segment. The gaps vary in duration from 2 to 20 ms. The gap-detection threshold is defined as the shortest duration that is correctly identified at least four out of six times. The participants are instructed to indicate each time they perceive a gap. The GIN test measures temporal resolution ability [23].
\n
To establish a difference between the right and left ears of subjects in the EG, it was necessary that there was a statistically significant difference in both the Dichotic Digits (p = 0.001) and GIN (p = 0.004) tests. No significant difference was found for gender in the behavioral tests. It was observed that the EG had lower mean responses than the CG for the DD test of approximately 5% in both ears; for the FPT 9.6% (humming) and 30% (naming); and 8% for the SSI test. For the GIN test, there was a statistically significant difference in the gap-detection threshold between the groups, with the highest threshold obtained in the EG compared to the CG (the higher the threshold, the worse the performance).
\n
In summary, there was a negative effect of OM on the auditory skills of figure-background discrimination, resolution, and temporal ordering. The poorer results in CAP behavioral tests in the EG participants can be explained by the fact that OM, by generating a fluctuating auditory threshold and causing temporary auditory deprivation, hampers the maturation of auditory abilities (such as binaural integration, resolution, temporal ordering, and discrimination) which are fundamental for understanding speech. During this period of auditory deprivation due to episodic OM, the CANS received inconsistent and incomplete auditory information. That is, the period between clinical assessment and the decision to perform surgery may have been too long Table 1.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Procedure
\n
Ear
\n
Control group
\n
Experimental group
\n
\n
\n
\n
N
\n
∑ (%)
\n
SD
\n
N
\n
∑ (%)
\n
SD
\n
p-value
\n
\n\n\n
\n
DD
\n
R
\n
40
\n
98.93
\n
1.86
\n
50
\n
95.40
\n
5.16
\n
<0.001
\n
\n
\n
L
\n
40
\n
97.93
\n
4.15
\n
50
\n
92.55
\n
7.95
\n
<0.001
\n
\n
\n
FPT
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
Humming
\n
B
\n
80*
\n
73.50
\n
21.2
\n
100*
\n
42.7
\n
22.2
\n
<0.001
\n
\n
\n
Verbalizing
\n
B
\n
80*
\n
73.50
\n
21.2
\n
100*
\n
42.7
\n
22.2
\n
<0.001
\n
\n
\n
SSI
\n
B
\n
80*
\n
67.5
\n
13.9
\n
100*
\n
59.8
\n
16.9
\n
0.020
\n
\n
\n
GIN
\n
R
\n
40
\n
4.65
\n
1.00
\n
50
\n
6.22
\n
1.40
\n
<0.001
\n
\n
\n
L
\n
40
\n
4.72
\n
1.06
\n
50
\n
6.56
\n
1.52
\n
<0.001
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
Behavioral evaluation values of central auditory processing between control and experimental groups.
n = number, * = number of ears, B = both, R = right, L = left; ∑ = mean, SD = standard deviation, DD = dichotic digits, SSI = synthetic sentence identification, FPT = frequency pattern test, GIN = gaps-in-noise.
\n
Recent research has demonstrated associations similar to those found in the present study. Borges et al. [11] studied the effect of OM in 69 children of different socioeconomic levels who underwent surgical intervention (insertion of ventilation tubes) and observed worse performance in both the DD and GIN tests. The authors concluded that a history of OM can lead to changes in central auditory functioning, regardless of socioeconomic status.
\n
Khavarghazalani et al. [24] evaluated 12 children with a history of OM who had undergone surgical intervention for insertion of ventilation tubes and found worse performance in the DD and GIN responses than in normals.
\n
Gravel and Wallace [25] also found a significant increase in signal-to-noise ratio in a prospective study of children with a history of OM. There was worse performance on the SSI test (responsible for the figure-ground ability) in the OM group.
\n
Tomlin and Rance [26] recommend that children with a history of OM undergo an evaluation of spatial processing upon entering school. They studied 35 children with a history of chronic OM and found a statistically worse performance compared to the control group in the listening in spatialized noise-sentences test (LISN-S). They concluded that these children have altered spatial processing, difficulty in focusing attention on the relevant stimulus, and difficulty in simultaneously suppressing competing stimuli coming from other directions. It is hypothesized that fluctuating access to binaural cues, caused by OM, may negatively affect the development of spatial processing in the CANS.
\n
\n
\n
\n
3.2 Electrophysiological evaluation
\n
Auditory evoked potentials are an extremely useful instrument for the study of auditory perception and its disorders, especially when a range of stimuli are used [27].
\n
\n
3.2.1 Click ABR
\n
In the literature, there are contradictory results in Click ABR responses in individuals with a history of OM. Chambers et al. [28] and Folsom et al. [29] identified an increase in the latency of waves III and V in a group of children with a history of OM, whereas Shaffer [30] did not find a statistically significant difference in Click ABR responses in individuals with and without a history of OM. The majority of studies relating Click ABR results with OM history have investigated latency values; however, Maruthy and Mannarukrishnaiah [31] found a reduction in the amplitude of waves I and III. Sanfins et al. [32] observed statistically significant differences in the absolute latencies of waves I and V as well as in the amplitude of waves III and V from children with a history of bilateral OME compared to their healthy peers. Colella-Santos et al. [11] reported a significant increase in the absolute latency of wave III associated with a decrease in amplitude in children with bilateral OME. Finally, Sanfins [33] reported alterations in the values of waves III and V for both groups of children with a history of OME, seeing both bilateral and unilateral alterations Figure 3.
\n
Figure 3.
Click ABR. Personal collection.
\n
In animals, the effect of conductive hearing loss on CANS was studied by unilaterally removing the malleus and applying a fluid to simulate OM [34], finding a decrease in neuronal activity due to changes in various structures (wave III), upper olivary complex (wave IV), and lateral lemniscus (wave V). At the same time, based on the results of Maruthy and Mannarukrishnaiah [31], it has been suggested that the auditory nerve and cochlear nuclei are more susceptible to modifications after OM infection.
\n
Sanfins et al. [32] suggest that different modifications may occur in CANS structures depending on the unilaterality or bilaterality of the infection. In episodes of bilateral OME, the latency values indicated that the auditory nerve (wave I, wave III) and the lateral lemniscus (wave V) were affected, whereas in unilateral OME, the cochlear nuclei (wave III) was affected. However, when the amplitudes were analyzed, the structures involved were the cochlear nuclei (wave III) and the lateral lemniscus (wave V), both for children with unilateral and bilateral involvement. It should be noted that when evaluating click ABR, the amplitude values show greater variability than the latencies. It is important to emphasize that a unilateral OM may not provide a better performance in the processing of auditory information than bilateral OM. The use of only one ear can lead to damage to the functionality of the CANS and, over time, activities that depend on binaural auditory processing (binaural interaction and binaural integration, among others) can be compromised due to the auditory imbalance arising from OM.
\n
\n
\n
3.2.2 Frequency following response
\n
Few studies have investigated the frequency following response (FFR) in cases of otitis media. A study of two groups of children with a history of bilateral OM (recent onset and long-term) showed that FFR responses were affected in a statistically significant way in the onset portions (waves V and A) and offset portion (wave O), along with reduced values of the VA complex (more specifically VA slope) when responses between the groups were compared. The findings suggest that long-term OM in children is associated with a reduced neural conduction velocity relative to the processing time of speech stimuli, either at the beginning (onset) or final portion (offset), resulting in a decrease in the coding of speech in the brainstem [35] Figure 4.
\n
Figure 4.
FFR. Personal collection.
\n
Sanfins et al. [32] reported that children with a history of SOM present an increase in the absolute latency of all FFR waves compared to children with no history of otological problems. In addition, children without hearing loss have more coherent responses in both ears, whereas the group of children with a history of OME has a greater dispersion of latencies in all FFR components (Figure 5). Colella-Santos et al. [11] also reported a decrease in VA slope in girls with OME.
\n
Figure 5.
Comparison (left vs. right ear) of absolute latency values of FFR components in children with a history of otitis media (right panel) and children with no history of otitis media (left panel), from Sanfins et al. [32].
\n
\n
\n
3.2.3 Long latency auditory evoked potential
\n
\n
3.2.3.1 Tone burst
\n
The literature reports alterations in the components of the LLAEP in children with language disorders and also in those with phonological disorders [36] changes that are frequently associated with problems arising from OM. Researchers note that OM can lead to changes in central auditory pathways [30, 37, 38]. However, there are few studies that have associated the LLAEP responses in children with a history of OM Figure 6.
\n
Figure 6.
LLAEP. Personal collection.
\n
Maruthy and Mannarukrishnaiah [31], Shaffer [30], Sanfins [33], and Colella-Santos [11] reported similar results, i.e., the presence of LLAEP changes in children with a history of OME. In the studies by Maruthy and Mannarukrishnaiah [32], all components of the LLAEP (P1, N1, P2, and N2) were significantly longer in children with an SOM history. Shaffer [31] showed an increase in the latencies of N1 and P2, associated with the absence of the P300, in the majority of children evaluated. Sanfins [34] found prolongation of latencies only for P2 and N2 (for females), in comparison with the responses of children without otological alterations. Colella-Santos [11] observed an increase in P2, N2, and P300 latencies in children with a history of OME.
\n
\n
\n
3.2.3.2 Speech
\n
The LLAEP with verbal stimuli provides additional information about the biological processes involved in speech processing, enabling the collection of information complementary to those obtained by standard behavioral evaluations [30, 39, 40].
\n
In the studies of Sanfins [33], children with bilateral OME presented prolonged latencies for N1, P2, N2 (female), and P300, in comparison with responses of children without auditory changes. Children with unilateral OME had prolonged latencies for P2 and P300 in comparison to the responses from healthy children.
\n
The evaluation of the LLAEP using both nonverbal and verbal stimuli seems to be able to identify neurophysiological changes resulting from OM. However, it is important to note that, in unilateral OM episodes, only verbal sound stimuli (speech LLAEP) seem to be able to differentiate groups on the basis of latency. OM impairs speech perception as a result of a failure to recognize sound signals (discrimination, storage, memory). Therefore, the more accurate identification of LLAEP changes with verbal and non-verbal stimuli may relate to underlying OM.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
4. Auditory rehabilitation
\n
It is known that hearing loss due to OM during childhood development may result in long-term changes in neural function, structure, and connectivity. The changes are associated with a series of sensory, cognitive, and social difficulties suggestive of impaired brain function [41, 42] which may culminate in central auditory processing disorder (CAPD) [11].
\n
Intervention for CAPD should be initiated as soon as the diagnosis, made through a series of behavioral and electrophysiological procedures, demonstrates the involvement of the CANS. Early identification, followed by intensive intervention, makes best use of the brain’s inherent plasticity. Successful treatment outcomes depend on stimulation and repeated practice that induce cortical reorganization (and possibly reorganization of the brainstem), which is reflected in behavioral change [43, 44, 45].
\n
Neuroplasticity is the key to the effectiveness of repeated auditory stimulation. Through experience and stimulation it induces reorganization of the cortex and brainstem, improving synaptic efficiency and neural density, giving rise to associated cognitive and behavioral changes [46, 47, 48]. The ability of the CANS to adapt to internal and external changes has important implications for learning [49].
\n
Auditory training (AT) is defined as a set of (acoustic) conditions and/or tasks designed to activate the auditory system and related structures in such a way that their underlying neural processes and associated auditory behavior is altered in a positive way [8]. Both formal and informal AT procedures are conducted by audiologists in clinics; the difference between them is that formal training is acoustically controlled, meaning control over stimulus generation and presentation. Combined formal and informal AT offers an approach that provides more intensive practice and leads to better treatment efficacy [8]. AT performed in an individual with CAPD should include activities that aim to improve auditory skills such as sound localization and lateralization tasks, auditory discrimination, auditory pattern recognition, temporal aspects of audition, and auditory discrimination among competing acoustic signals [4].
\n
Donadon and colleagues [50] have studied the efficacy of AT through behavioral CAP tests in children with a history of OM who had undergone bilateral tympanotomy for insertion of ventilation tubes. The sample consisted of 34 subjects who were divided into two groups: an auditory training group (ATG) formed by 20 children and adolescents, aged 8–13 years, diagnosed with CAPD, who were given an auditory training program; and a visual training group (VTG) formed of 14 children and adolescents, aged 9–13 years, diagnosed with CAPD who were given a visual training program. All subjects underwent peripheral auditory evaluation and behavioral evaluation of their CAP (using the dichotic digit test, sentence identification test with ipsilateral competing message, gaps-in-noise test, frequency pattern test, and dichotic vowel test). Auditory training was given through repeated verbal and non-verbal stimuli and associated tasks (available at the website www.afinandoocerebro.com.br) via headphones in an acoustic booth (the intensity was set at 50 dB HL). Each session lasted between 40 and 45 minutes and was performed once a week. The stimulation protocol was developed with the purpose of developing the auditory abilities of:
temporal resolution-by means of minimum time interval perception exercises;
temporal ordering-using nonverbal tasks related to frequency, intensity, and duration; and
figure-background exercises with competing noise.
\n
The visual stimulation protocol was elaborated using varied stimuli and tasks from the website via a 15″ notebook positioned in front of the subject on a table arranged in a sound booth. The stimulation protocol was designed with the purpose of stimulating the visual abilities of:
visual background;
visual closure;
perception and discrimination of sizes and formats; and
visual memory.
\n
All subjects were reevaluated after 8 weeks with the same battery of behavioral tests as performed at the initial evaluation. In the ATG the results showed a statistically significant difference in the abilities of binaural integration (p = 0.001), temporal ordering (p < 0.0001), temporal resolution (p < 0.0001), and bottom figure (<0.0001) in a comparison of before and after AT. These results suggest that the auditory stimulation performed during AT induced changes in the central auditory nervous system, as demonstrated by the better values recorded in the behavioral tests after intervention. Behavioral changes observed after AT in this population with a history of OM point to evidence of neuroplasticity, since auditory stimulation brought about improvements to the identified impaired hearing abilities.
\n
For the visual training group, however, there was no significant difference in performance for any CAP behavioral tests when comparing pre and post interventions. Thus, auditory training appears to be effective as an intervention strategy for re-adjusting the auditory skills in subjects with a history of OM. Auditory stimulation brought about improvements in impaired hearing skills. AT was able to reorganize the neural substrate, providing appropriate experiences, shaping existing circuits in the CANS, and increasing neural density, reflected by an improvement in the behavioral evaluation Figure 7.
\n
Figure 7.
Comparison of performance in behavioral evaluation pre and post intervention by groups. ATG Pre = auditory training pre intervention; ATG Post = auditory training post intervention; VTG Pre = visual training pre intervention; VTG Post = visual training post intervention; DD = dichotic digits; FPT V = frequency pattern test verbalizing; FPT H = frequency pattern test humming; SSI = synthetic sentence identification.
\n
Modifications to a child’s environment are also important aspects for teachers and parents to address in order to help individuals with CAPD improve access to auditory information outside the therapy room. Some simple changes may bring many benefits to learning. Common recommendations for individuals with auditory disorders include the following:
Preferred seating arrangements
Addition of visual cues
Clear language
Making frequent checks for understanding
Repetition or rephrasing
Multimodality cues and hands-on demonstrations
Preteaching of new information and new vocabulary
Provision of a notetaker
Recording information pictorially
Gaining attention prior to speaking
Positive reinforcement
Reducing environmental noise
FM systems
\n
\n
\n
5. Summarize
\n
\n
The negative effects of otitis media on the development of auditory abilities in children and the maturation of their central auditory pathways is undeniable;
Early medical intervention in OM and family counseling is extremely important;
The aim should be to avoid prolonged auditory fluctuation caused by OM, thereby minimizing the effects generated by fluid in the middle ear in the development of auditory abilities;
The overall recommendation is that audiological diagnosis should include both behavioral evaluations and electrophysiological testing of auditory processing;
In cases of auditory processing disorder, research shows that auditory training is the most effective procedure to re-adjust auditory skills.
\n
\n\n',keywords:"otitis media, auditory processing, electrophysiology, frequency following response, evoked auditory potential, long latency auditory evoked potential",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/69206.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/69206.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69206",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69206",totalDownloads:79,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"April 25th 2019",dateReviewed:"July 24th 2019",datePrePublished:"September 23rd 2019",datePublished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"For speech and language to develop, an intact and active auditory system is of fundamental importance. The central auditory nervous system (CANS) can be hampered by several occurrences, including otitis media (OM) originating from inflammation in the middle ear and which is often associated with the accumulation of infected (or sometimes noninfected) fluid. OM can have a diffuse effect on cognitive and linguistic abilities, affecting both speech and phoneme perception through a failure to discriminate, store, and reproduce the acoustic contrasts necessary for comprehension. It is especially common in the first years of school. In addition, OM can generate internal noise from the presence of middle ear fluid near the cochlea, which can lead to changes in speech perception, distortion in acoustic images, and a reduction in the speed and accuracy of decoding speech. Evaluating the effectiveness of the CANS is recommended in cases where there have been repeated episodes of OM. Very useful information can be gained from behavioral and electrophysiological tests. The tests allow functional diagnoses to be made and can also reveal clinical and subclinical changes. In this way, they allow information to be collected, which can help in making a prognosis and planning intervention strategies.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/69206",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/69206",signatures:"Milaine Dominici Sanfins, Piotr Henryk Skarzynski and Maria Francisca Colella-Santos",book:{id:"7894",title:"The Human Auditory System - Basic Features and Updates on Audiological Diagnosis and Therapy",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"The Human Auditory System - Basic Features and Updates on Audiological Diagnosis and Therapy",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Stavros Hatzopoulos, Dr. Andrea Ciorba and Associate Prof. Piotr H. Skarzynski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7894.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"174266",title:"Prof.",name:"Stavros",middleName:null,surname:"Hatzopoulos",slug:"stavros-hatzopoulos",fullName:"Stavros Hatzopoulos"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Auditory system and otitis media",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Testing the central auditory processing of children with a history of otitis media",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Behavioral evaluation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"3.1.1 Dichotic digits (DD)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"3.1.2 Synthetic sentence identification (SSI)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"3.1.3 Frequency pattern test (FPT)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"Table 1.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.2 Electrophysiological evaluation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"3.2.1 Click ABR",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"3.2.2 Frequency following response",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"3.2.3 Long latency auditory evoked potential",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_4",title:"3.2.3.1 Tone burst",level:"4"},{id:"sec_11_4",title:"3.2.3.2 Speech",level:"4"},{id:"sec_15",title:"4. Auditory rehabilitation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16",title:"5. Summarize",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Baroch K. Universal newborn hearing screening: Fine-tuning process. Current Opinion in Otolaryngology & Head and Neck Surgery. 2003;11:003424-003427\n'},{id:"B2",body:'Yoshinaga-Itano C, Sedey A. Language, speech, and social emotional development of children who are deaf or hard of hearing: The early years. Volta Review. 2000;100(5):298\n'},{id:"B3",body:'AAA (American Academy of Audiology). Clinical practice guidelines for the diagnosis, treatment and management of children and adults with central auditory processing disorder. 2010. Available from: http://audiology.org/resources/documentlibrary/Documents/CAPD%20Guidelines%208-2010.pdf\n\n'},{id:"B4",body:'ASHA (American Speech-Language-Hearing Association). Central Auditory Processing Disorders [technical report]. Rockville, MD; 2005. Available from: http://www.asha.org/docs/html/TR2005-00043.html\n\n'},{id:"B5",body:'Bellis TJ. Assessment and Management of Central Auditory Processing Disorders in the Educational Setting: From Science to Practice. Clifton Park, NY: Thomson Learning; 2003. pp. 103-139\n'},{id:"B6",body:'Chermak GD, Musiek FE. Central Auditory Processing Disorders: New Perspectives. San Diego, CA: Singular; 1997\n'},{id:"B7",body:'Musiek FE, Chermak GD. Handbook of Central Auditory Processing Disorder: Auditory Neuroscience and Diagnosis. San Diego, CA: Plural Publishing; 2014\n'},{id:"B8",body:'Geffner D, Ross-Swain D. Auditory Processing Disorders: Assessment, Management and Treatment. San Diego, CA: Plural Publishing; 2013\n'},{id:"B9",body:'Billiet CR, Bellis TJ. The relationship between brainstem temporal processing and performance on tests of central auditory function in children with reading disorders. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research. 2011;54:228-242\n'},{id:"B10",body:'Borges L, Paschoal J, Colella-Santos MF. (Central) auditory processing: The impact of otitis media. Clinics. 2013;68(7):954-959\n'},{id:"B11",body:'Colella-Santos MF, Sanfins MD, Donadon C, Borges LR. Otitis media: Long-term effect on central auditory nervous system. BioMed Research International. 2019;2019:10. Article ID: 8930904. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/8930904\n\n'},{id:"B12",body:'Rosenfeld RM. A Parent’s Guide to Ear Tubes. Hamilton, Canada: BC Decker Inc; 2005\n'},{id:"B13",body:'Tos M. Epidemiology and natural history of secretory otitis. The American Journal of Otology. 1984;5:459-462\n'},{id:"B14",body:'Mandel EM, Doyle WJ, Winther B, Alper CM. The incidence, prevalence and burden of OM in unselected children aged 1-8 years followed by weekly otoscopy through the “common cold” season. International Journal of Pediatric Otorhinolaryngology. 2008;72:491-499\n'},{id:"B15",body:'Martines F, Bentivegna D, Di Piazza F, Martinciglio G, Sciacca V, Martines E. The point prevalence of otitis media with effusion among primary school children in Western Sicily. European Archives of Oto-Rhino-Laryngology. 2010;267:709-714\n'},{id:"B16",body:'Gravel JS. Hearing and auditory function. In: Rosenfeld RM, Bluestone CD, editors. Evidence-Based Otitis Media. 2nd ed. Hamilton, Canada: BC Decker Inc; 2003. pp. 342-359\n'},{id:"B17",body:'Sabo DL, Paradise JL, Kurs-Lasky M, Smith CG. Hearing levels in infants and young children in relation to testing technique, age group, and the presence or absence of middle-ear effusion. Ear and Hearing. 2003;24:38-47\n'},{id:"B18",body:'Katz J, Zalewski TR, Brenner MJ. Otitis media and central auditory processing disorder (CAPD). In: Geffner D, Ross-Swain D, editors. Auditory Processing Disorders. 3rd ed. San Diego, CA: Plural Publishing; 2019. pp. 307-326\n'},{id:"B19",body:'Rosenfeld RM, Shin JJ, Schwartz SR, Coggins R, Gagnon L, Hackell JM, et al. Clinical practice guideline: Otitis media with effusion (update). Otolaryngology and Head and Neck Surgery. 2016;154(1S):S1-S41\n'},{id:"B20",body:'Baran JA. Test battery principles and considerations. In: Musiek FE, Chermak GD, editors. Handbook of Central Auditory Processing Disorder: Auditory Neuroscience and Diagnosis. San Diego, CA: Plural Publishing; 2014. pp. 291-323\n'},{id:"B21",body:'Pereira LD, Schochat E. Testes Auditivos Comportamentais Para Avalia ṃ ca ̃o Do Processamento Auditivo Central. Barueri, Brazil: Pro ́ Fono; 2011\n'},{id:"B22",body:'Musiek FE, Baran JA, Pinheiro ML. Duration pattern recognition in normal subjects and in patients with cerebral and cochlear lesions. Audiology. 1990;29:304-313\n'},{id:"B23",body:'Musiek FE, Zaidan EP, Baran JA, Shinn JB, Jirsa RE. Assessing temporal processes in adults with LD: The GIN test. In: Convention of American Academy of Audiology. Vol. 203. Salt Lake City, Utah, USA: AAA; 2004\n'},{id:"B24",body:'Khavarghazalani B, Farahani F, Emadi M, Hosseni Dastgerdi Z. Auditory processing abilities in children with chronic otitis media with effusion. Acta Oto-Laryngologica. 2016;136(5):456-459\n'},{id:"B25",body:'Gravel JS, Wallace IF, Ruben RJ. Auditory consequences of early mild hearing loss associated with otitis media. Acta Oto-Laryngologica. 1996;116(2):219-221\n'},{id:"B26",body:'Tomlin D, Rance G. Long-term hearing deficits after childhood middle ear disease. Ear and Hearing. 2014;35(6):e233-e242\n'},{id:"B27",body:'Burkard R, Don M, Eggermont J. Auditory Evoked Potentials: Basic Principles and Clinical Application. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2007\n'},{id:"B28",body:'Chambers R, Rowan L, Mathics M, Novak L. Auditory brain-stem responses in children with previous otitis media. Archives of Otolaryngology – Head & Neck Surgery. 1989;115:452-456\n'},{id:"B29",body:'Folsom R, Weber B, Thompson G. Auditory brainstem responses and children with early recurrent middle ear disease. The Annals of Otology, Rhinology, and Laryngology. 1983;92:249-253\n'},{id:"B30",body:'Shaffer EK. Auditory evoked potentials in children with and without otitis medua. Tejas Journal of Audiology and speech pathology. 1999;XXIII:10-20\n'},{id:"B31",body:'Maruthy S, Mannarukrishnaiah J. Effect of early onset otitis media on brainstem and cortical auditory processing. Behavioral and Brain Functions. 2008;4:17\n'},{id:"B32",body:'Sanfins M, Borges L, Donadon C, Hatzopoulos S, Skarzynski P, Colella-Santos M. Electrophysiological responses to speech stimuli in children with otitis media. The Journal of Health Science. 2017;7(4):9-19\n'},{id:"B33",body:'Sanfins M. Electrophysiological evaluation with verbal and non-verbal sounds in children with a history of otitis media. State University of Campinas; 2017. Available from: http://www.repositorio.unicamp.br/handle/REPOSIP/330747\n\n'},{id:"B34",body:'Tucci DL, Cant NB, Durham D. Conductive hearing loss results in changes in cytochrome oxidase activity in gerbil central auditory system. JARO. 2001;3:89-106\n'},{id:"B35",body:'El-Kabarity RH, Abdel Rahman TT, Abdel Kader HA, Sanyelbhaa H. Effect of otitis media with effusion on brainstem timing in children. Hearing, Balance and Communication. 2016;14(1):20-24\n'},{id:"B36",body:'Tonnquist-Uhlén I. Topography of auditory evoked cortical potentials in children with severe language impairment. Scandinavian Audiology. Supplementum. 1996;25(44):1-40\n'},{id:"B37",body:'Hall JW, Grose JH, Buss E, Dev MB, Drake AF, Pillsbury HC. The effect of otitis media with effusion on perceptual masking. Archives of Otolaryngology – Head & Neck Surgery. 2003;129(10):1056-1062\n'},{id:"B38",body:'Gravel J, Roberts J, Roush J, Grose J, Besing J, Burchinal M, et al. Early otitis media with effusion, hearing loss, and auditory processes at school age. Ear and Hearing. 2006;27(4):353-368\n'},{id:"B39",body:'Oates P, Kurtzberg D, Stapells D. Effects of sensorineural hearing loss on cortical event-related potential and behavioral measures of speech-sound processing. Ear and Hearing. 2002;23(5):399-415\n'},{id:"B40",body:'Martin B, Tremblay K, Korczack P. Speech evoked potential: From the laboratory to the clinic. Ear and Hearing. 2002;23(5):399-415\n'},{id:"B41",body:'King AJ, Parsons CH, Moore DR. Plasticity in the neural coding of auditory space in the mammalian brain. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 2000;97(22):11821-11828\n'},{id:"B42",body:'Hogan SC, Moore DR. Impaired binaural hearing in children produced by a threshold level of middle ear disease. Journal of the Association for Research in Otolaryngology. 2003;4(2):123-129\n'},{id:"B43",body:'Kolb B. Brain Plasticity and Behavior. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum; 1995\n'},{id:"B44",body:'Merzenich M, Jenkins W. Cortical plasticity, learning and learning dysfunction. In: Julesz B, Kovacs I, editors. Maturational Windows and Adult Cortical Plasticity: SFI Studies in the Sciences of Complexity. Vol. XXIII. Reading, PA: Addison-Wesley; 1995. pp. 247-272\n'},{id:"B45",body:'Russo NM, Nicol TG, Zecker SG, Hayes EA, Kraus N. Auditory training improves neural timing in the human brainstem. Behavioural Brain Research. 2005;156(1):95-103\n'},{id:"B46",body:'de Boer J, Thornton ARD. Neural correlates of perceptual learning in the auditory brainstem: Efferent activity predicts and reflects improvement at a speech-in-noise discrimination task. The Journal of Neuroscience. 2008;28:4929-4937\n'},{id:"B47",body:'Johnson KL, Nicol T, Zecker SG, Kraus N. Developmental plasticity in the human auditory brainstem. The Journal of Neuroscience. 2008;28:4000-4007\n'},{id:"B48",body:'Song JH, Skoe E, Wong PC, Kraus N. Plasticity in the adult human auditory brainstem following short-term linguistic training. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience. 2008;20(10):1892-1902\n'},{id:"B49",body:'Bellis TJ. Assessment and Management of Central Auditory Processing Disorders in the Educational Setting: From Science to Practice. USA: Plural Publishing; 2011\n'},{id:"B50",body:'Donadon C, Sanfins MD, Borges L, Colella-Santos M. Auditory training: Effects on auditory abilities in children with history of otitis media. International Journal of Pediatric Otorhinolaryngology. 2019;118:177-180\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Milaine Dominici Sanfins",address:"msanfins@uol.com.br",affiliation:'
CENA – Centro de Eletrofisiologia e Neuroaudiologia Avançada, Brazil
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Piotr Henryk Skarzynski",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Teleaudiology and Hearing Screening, World Hearing Center, Institute of Physiology and Pathology of Hearing, Poland
Department of Heart Failure and Cardiac Rehabilitation, Medical University of Warsaw, Poland
Faculty of Medical Science, State University of Campinas, Brazil
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"7894",title:"The Human Auditory System - Basic Features and Updates on Audiological Diagnosis and Therapy",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"The Human Auditory System - Basic Features and Updates on Audiological Diagnosis and Therapy",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Stavros Hatzopoulos, Dr. Andrea Ciorba and Associate Prof. Piotr H. Skarzynski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7894.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"174266",title:"Prof.",name:"Stavros",middleName:null,surname:"Hatzopoulos",slug:"stavros-hatzopoulos",fullName:"Stavros Hatzopoulos"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"225887",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Anna",middleName:null,surname:"Gajda",email:"ag@iung.pulawy.pl",fullName:"Anna Gajda",slug:"anna-gajda",position:null,biography:null,institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalEditedBooks:"0",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:null},booksEdited:[],chaptersAuthored:[{title:"Activity and Variety of Soil Microorganisms Depending on the Diversity of the Soil Tillage System",slug:"activity-and-variety-of-soil-microorganisms-depending-on-the-diversity-of-the-soil-tillage-system",abstract:"Soil is an ecosystem capable of producing the resources necessary for the development of the living organisms. Soil microorganisms (bacteria and fungi) are responsible for biomass decomposition, biogenic element circulation, which makes nutrients available to plants, biodegradation of impurities, and maintenance of soil structure. The presence of microorganisms in soil depends on their chemical composition, moisture, pH, and structure. Human activity has an indispensable influence on the formation of ecosystems. Soil tillage has an impact on the chemical and physical parameters of the soil, and thus on its biological properties. The use of inappropriate agro-technology can lead to degradation of the soil environment. Changes in soil properties may cause changes in soil abundance, activity, and diversity. Cultivation can affect microorganisms, causing their mortality and reducing the availability of nourishment in the soil. Therefore, it is extremely important to assess the diversity and microbiological activity of soil in relation to soil-tillage technology.",signatures:"Karolina Furtak and Anna Maria Gajda",authors:[{id:"225887",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Anna",surname:"Gajda",fullName:"Anna Gajda",slug:"anna-gajda",email:"ag@iung.pulawy.pl"},{id:"225889",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Karolina",surname:"Furtak",fullName:"Karolina Furtak",slug:"karolina-furtak",email:"kfurtak@iung.pulawy.pl"}],book:{title:"Sustainability of Agroecosystems",slug:"sustainability-of-agroecosystems",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"200022",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan-Pablo",surname:"Martinez-Davila",slug:"juan-pablo-martinez-davila",fullName:"Juan-Pablo Martinez-Davila",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Colegio de Postgraduados",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"200029",title:"Dr.",name:"Lorena",surname:"Casanova-Perez",slug:"lorena-casanova-perez",fullName:"Lorena Casanova-Perez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"222416",title:"Dr.",name:"Hortensia",surname:"Brito-Vega",slug:"hortensia-brito-vega",fullName:"Hortensia Brito-Vega",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"223397",title:"Dr.",name:"Ram Prakash",surname:"Yadav",slug:"ram-prakash-yadav",fullName:"Ram Prakash Yadav",position:"Scientist",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"Agororestry, Forage production, Wasteland management",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"225889",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Karolina",surname:"Furtak",slug:"karolina-furtak",fullName:"Karolina Furtak",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Institute of Soil Science and Plant Cultivation",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"226429",title:"Dr.",name:"Matthew",surname:"Mariola",slug:"matthew-mariola",fullName:"Matthew Mariola",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]},generic:{page:{slug:"authorship-policy",title:"Authorship Policy",intro:'
',metaTitle:"Authorship Policy",metaDescription:"IN TECH's Authorship Policy is based on ICMJE criteria for authorship. In order to be identified as an Author, one must:",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/authorship-policy",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
\\n\\t
Substantially contribute to the conception or design of the work; or the acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data for the work
\\n\\t
Participate in drafting or revising the work
\\n\\t
Approve the final version of the work to be published.
\\n
\\n\\n
All contributors who meet these criteria are listed as Authors. Their exact contributions should be described in the manuscript at the time of submission.
\\n\\n
Conversely, all contributors who do not meet these criteria should be listed in the Acknowledgments section of the manuscript, along with a short description of their specific contributions.
\\n\\n
CHANGES IN AUTHORSHIP
\\n\\n
If it is felt necessary to make changes to the list of Authors after a manuscript has been submitted or published, it is the responsibility of the Author concerned to provide a valid reason to amend the published list. Additionally, all listed Authors must verify and approve the proposed changes in order for any amendments to be made.
\\n\\n
AFFILIATION
\\n\\n
Authors are responsible for ensuring all addresses and emails provided are correct. Under affiliation(s) all Authors should indicate where the research was conducted. Please note that no changes to the affiliation(s) can be made after the chapter has been published.
Substantially contribute to the conception or design of the work; or the acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data for the work
\n\t
Participate in drafting or revising the work
\n\t
Approve the final version of the work to be published.
\n
\n\n
All contributors who meet these criteria are listed as Authors. Their exact contributions should be described in the manuscript at the time of submission.
\n\n
Conversely, all contributors who do not meet these criteria should be listed in the Acknowledgments section of the manuscript, along with a short description of their specific contributions.
\n\n
CHANGES IN AUTHORSHIP
\n\n
If it is felt necessary to make changes to the list of Authors after a manuscript has been submitted or published, it is the responsibility of the Author concerned to provide a valid reason to amend the published list. Additionally, all listed Authors must verify and approve the proposed changes in order for any amendments to be made.
\n\n
AFFILIATION
\n\n
Authors are responsible for ensuring all addresses and emails provided are correct. Under affiliation(s) all Authors should indicate where the research was conducted. Please note that no changes to the affiliation(s) can be made after the chapter has been published.
\n\n
Policy last updated: 2017-05-29
\n"}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5318},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:4830},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1469},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:9372},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:837},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:14789}],offset:12,limit:12,total:108346},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{hasNoEditors:"1",sort:"title"},books:[{type:"book",id:"8196",title:"ABC Transporters",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"bfec00d7a6a9666fe01c230f7b133297",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8196.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9767",title:"Acidophiles",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"ba894fe1cac18ff05e8a1301c23d1c68",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9767.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7982",title:"ACTH",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"03a7769d9449c11ba409f019d7de7e6e",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7982.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9558",title:"Active Learning",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"69b76b220dea608f0dfe2831938d79ba",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9558.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9124",title:"Acute Lung Injury - Causes and Treatment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"4aa2141498ee8501402786b878da9399",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9124.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8046",title:"Adrenaline, Noradrenaline and Dopamine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"6a6e8cf9e87acaad24d72b6fd94aa9f2",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8046.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10097",title:"Aerospace Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"9d1ee7f8f6fd3edf19dfd4341c712599",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10097.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8135",title:"Agricultural Development in China",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c59830927f0af98db4e1913f6f88e09e",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8135.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9761",title:"Albumin",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"6d97c7d47ac94afecc0878a5cef62d86",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9761.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9006",title:"Aloe Vera",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"dac00be5a0c64ef5238c22d2155cfb75",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9006.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10090",title:"Altimetry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"fe0278e410b32fe87c33e6e930c70c3c",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10090.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9046",title:"Amyloidosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"3cc7a63d7caadabd3533149c4d5f9833",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9046.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:58},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:50},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:16},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:18},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:23},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:20},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:13},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:107},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:1}],offset:12,limit:12,total:377},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7640",title:"Perspective of Carbon Nanotubes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8b85a9957fad5206369eadf0c1ffa27d",slug:"perspective-of-carbon-nanotubes",bookSignature:"Hosam El-Din Saleh and Said Moawad Mohamed El-Sheikh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7640.jpg",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam El-Din",middleName:"M.",surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-el-din-saleh",fullName:"Hosam El-Din Saleh"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7583",title:"Advanced Computational Fluid Dynamics for Emerging Engineering Processes",subtitle:"Eulerian vs. Lagrangian",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"896509fa2e7e659811bffd0f9779ca9d",slug:"advanced-computational-fluid-dynamics-for-emerging-engineering-processes-eulerian-vs-lagrangian",bookSignature:"Albert S. Kim",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7583.jpg",editors:[{id:"21045",title:"Prof.",name:"Albert S.",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",slug:"albert-s.-kim",fullName:"Albert S. Kim"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7839",title:"Malaria",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"91cde4582ead884cb0f355a19b67cd56",slug:"malaria",bookSignature:"Fyson H. Kasenga",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7839.jpg",editors:[{id:"86725",title:"Dr.",name:"Fyson",middleName:"Hanania",surname:"Kasenga",slug:"fyson-kasenga",fullName:"Fyson Kasenga"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7698",title:"Educational Psychology",subtitle:"Between Certitudes and Uncertainties",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"740943e2d029253e777150e98ebe2f0d",slug:"educational-psychology-between-certitudes-and-uncertainties",bookSignature:"Victori?a Trif",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7698.jpg",editors:[{id:"201656",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Victorița",middleName:null,surname:"Trif",slug:"victorita-trif",fullName:"Victorița Trif"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7000",title:"Legume Crops",subtitle:"Characterization and Breeding for Improved Food Security",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4d0f73bf883bbb984cc2feef1259a9a7",slug:"legume-crops-characterization-and-breeding-for-improved-food-security",bookSignature:"Mohamed Ahmed El-Esawi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7000.jpg",editors:[{id:"191770",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed A.",middleName:null,surname:"El-Esawi",slug:"mohamed-a.-el-esawi",fullName:"Mohamed A. El-Esawi"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7093",title:"Pneumothorax",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0b1fdb8bb0448f48c2f234753898f3f8",slug:"pneumothorax",bookSignature:"Khalid Amer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7093.jpg",editors:[{id:"63412",title:"Dr.",name:"Khalid",middleName:null,surname:"Amer",slug:"khalid-amer",fullName:"Khalid Amer"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7612",title:"Electrospinning and Electrospraying",subtitle:"Techniques and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"77e9708250507395a4bea2c17d012982",slug:"electrospinning-and-electrospraying-techniques-and-applications",bookSignature:"Sajjad Haider and Adnan Haider",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7612.jpg",editors:[{id:"110708",title:"Dr.",name:"Sajjad",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"sajjad-haider",fullName:"Sajjad Haider"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8323",title:"Traditional and Complementary Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"60eadb1783d9bba245687adf284d4871",slug:"traditional-and-complementary-medicine",bookSignature:"Cengiz Mordeniz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8323.jpg",editors:[{id:"214664",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Cengiz",middleName:null,surname:"Mordeniz",slug:"cengiz-mordeniz",fullName:"Cengiz Mordeniz"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7646",title:"Scientometrics Recent Advances",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"86bbdd04d7e80be14283d44969d1cc32",slug:"scientometrics-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Suad Kunosic and Enver Zerem",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7646.jpg",editors:[{id:"88678",title:"Prof.",name:"Suad",middleName:null,surname:"Kunosic",slug:"suad-kunosic",fullName:"Suad Kunosic"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8516",title:"Metacognition in Learning",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5fa6eaad7b509b8b7ec5124d79e5f605",slug:"metacognition-in-learning",bookSignature:"Nosisi Feza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8516.jpg",editors:[{id:"261665",title:"Prof.",name:"Nosisi",middleName:"N.",surname:"Feza",slug:"nosisi-feza",fullName:"Nosisi Feza"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7404",title:"Hysteresis of Composites",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8540fa2378dbb92e50411cfebfb853a6",slug:"hysteresis-of-composites",bookSignature:"Li Longbiao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7404.jpg",editors:[{id:"260011",title:"Dr.",name:"Li",middleName:null,surname:"Longbiao",slug:"li-longbiao",fullName:"Li Longbiao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7878",title:"Advances in Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation",subtitle:"Volume 3",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f95bf990273d08098a00f9a1c2403cbe",slug:"advances-in-extracorporeal-membrane-oxygenation-volume-3",bookSignature:"Michael S. Firstenberg",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7878.jpg",editors:[{id:"64343",title:null,name:"Michael S.",middleName:"S",surname:"Firstenberg",slug:"michael-s.-firstenberg",fullName:"Michael S. Firstenberg"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:4406},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7640",title:"Perspective of Carbon Nanotubes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8b85a9957fad5206369eadf0c1ffa27d",slug:"perspective-of-carbon-nanotubes",bookSignature:"Hosam El-Din Saleh and Said Moawad Mohamed El-Sheikh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7640.jpg",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam El-Din",middleName:"M.",surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-el-din-saleh",fullName:"Hosam El-Din Saleh"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7583",title:"Advanced Computational Fluid Dynamics for Emerging Engineering Processes",subtitle:"Eulerian vs. Lagrangian",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"896509fa2e7e659811bffd0f9779ca9d",slug:"advanced-computational-fluid-dynamics-for-emerging-engineering-processes-eulerian-vs-lagrangian",bookSignature:"Albert S. Kim",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7583.jpg",editors:[{id:"21045",title:"Prof.",name:"Albert S.",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",slug:"albert-s.-kim",fullName:"Albert S. Kim"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7839",title:"Malaria",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"91cde4582ead884cb0f355a19b67cd56",slug:"malaria",bookSignature:"Fyson H. Kasenga",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7839.jpg",editors:[{id:"86725",title:"Dr.",name:"Fyson",middleName:"Hanania",surname:"Kasenga",slug:"fyson-kasenga",fullName:"Fyson Kasenga"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7698",title:"Educational Psychology",subtitle:"Between Certitudes and Uncertainties",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"740943e2d029253e777150e98ebe2f0d",slug:"educational-psychology-between-certitudes-and-uncertainties",bookSignature:"Victori?a Trif",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7698.jpg",editors:[{id:"201656",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Victorița",middleName:null,surname:"Trif",slug:"victorita-trif",fullName:"Victorița Trif"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7000",title:"Legume Crops",subtitle:"Characterization and Breeding for Improved Food Security",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4d0f73bf883bbb984cc2feef1259a9a7",slug:"legume-crops-characterization-and-breeding-for-improved-food-security",bookSignature:"Mohamed Ahmed El-Esawi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7000.jpg",editors:[{id:"191770",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed A.",middleName:null,surname:"El-Esawi",slug:"mohamed-a.-el-esawi",fullName:"Mohamed A. El-Esawi"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7093",title:"Pneumothorax",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0b1fdb8bb0448f48c2f234753898f3f8",slug:"pneumothorax",bookSignature:"Khalid Amer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7093.jpg",editors:[{id:"63412",title:"Dr.",name:"Khalid",middleName:null,surname:"Amer",slug:"khalid-amer",fullName:"Khalid Amer"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7612",title:"Electrospinning and Electrospraying",subtitle:"Techniques and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"77e9708250507395a4bea2c17d012982",slug:"electrospinning-and-electrospraying-techniques-and-applications",bookSignature:"Sajjad Haider and Adnan Haider",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7612.jpg",editors:[{id:"110708",title:"Dr.",name:"Sajjad",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"sajjad-haider",fullName:"Sajjad Haider"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8323",title:"Traditional and Complementary Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"60eadb1783d9bba245687adf284d4871",slug:"traditional-and-complementary-medicine",bookSignature:"Cengiz Mordeniz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8323.jpg",editors:[{id:"214664",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Cengiz",middleName:null,surname:"Mordeniz",slug:"cengiz-mordeniz",fullName:"Cengiz Mordeniz"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7646",title:"Scientometrics Recent Advances",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"86bbdd04d7e80be14283d44969d1cc32",slug:"scientometrics-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Suad Kunosic and Enver Zerem",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7646.jpg",editors:[{id:"88678",title:"Prof.",name:"Suad",middleName:null,surname:"Kunosic",slug:"suad-kunosic",fullName:"Suad Kunosic"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8516",title:"Metacognition in Learning",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5fa6eaad7b509b8b7ec5124d79e5f605",slug:"metacognition-in-learning",bookSignature:"Nosisi Feza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8516.jpg",editors:[{id:"261665",title:"Prof.",name:"Nosisi",middleName:"N.",surname:"Feza",slug:"nosisi-feza",fullName:"Nosisi Feza"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7698",title:"Educational Psychology",subtitle:"Between Certitudes and Uncertainties",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"740943e2d029253e777150e98ebe2f0d",slug:"educational-psychology-between-certitudes-and-uncertainties",bookSignature:"Victori?a Trif",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7698.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"201656",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Victorița",middleName:null,surname:"Trif",slug:"victorita-trif",fullName:"Victorița Trif"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8747",title:"Asphalt and Asphalt Mixtures",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6083f7c9881029f1e033a1e512af7e20",slug:"asphalt-and-asphalt-mixtures",bookSignature:"Haitao Zhang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8747.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"260604",title:"Prof.",name:"Haitao",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"haitao-zhang",fullName:"Haitao Zhang"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8516",title:"Metacognition in Learning",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5fa6eaad7b509b8b7ec5124d79e5f605",slug:"metacognition-in-learning",bookSignature:"Nosisi Feza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8516.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"261665",title:"Prof.",name:"Nosisi",middleName:"N.",surname:"Feza",slug:"nosisi-feza",fullName:"Nosisi Feza"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7000",title:"Legume Crops",subtitle:"Characterization and Breeding for Improved Food Security",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4d0f73bf883bbb984cc2feef1259a9a7",slug:"legume-crops-characterization-and-breeding-for-improved-food-security",bookSignature:"Mohamed Ahmed El-Esawi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7000.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"191770",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed A.",middleName:null,surname:"El-Esawi",slug:"mohamed-a.-el-esawi",fullName:"Mohamed A. El-Esawi"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8292",title:"Oral Health by Using Probiotic Products",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"327e750e83634800ace02fe62607c21e",slug:"oral-health-by-using-probiotic-products",bookSignature:"Razzagh Mahmoudi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8292.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"245925",title:"Dr.",name:"Razzagh",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoudi",slug:"razzagh-mahmoudi",fullName:"Razzagh Mahmoudi"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8323",title:"Traditional and Complementary Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"60eadb1783d9bba245687adf284d4871",slug:"traditional-and-complementary-medicine",bookSignature:"Cengiz Mordeniz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8323.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"214664",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Cengiz",middleName:null,surname:"Mordeniz",slug:"cengiz-mordeniz",fullName:"Cengiz Mordeniz"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8347",title:"Computer Architecture in Industrial, Biomechanical and Biomedical Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3d7024a8d7d8afed093c9c79ec31f15a",slug:"computer-architecture-in-industrial-biomechanical-and-biomedical-engineering",bookSignature:"Lulu Wang and Liandong Yu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8347.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"257388",title:"Dr.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"lulu-wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7583",title:"Advanced Computational Fluid Dynamics for Emerging Engineering Processes",subtitle:"Eulerian vs. Lagrangian",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"896509fa2e7e659811bffd0f9779ca9d",slug:"advanced-computational-fluid-dynamics-for-emerging-engineering-processes-eulerian-vs-lagrangian",bookSignature:"Albert S. Kim",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7583.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"21045",title:"Prof.",name:"Albert S.",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",slug:"albert-s.-kim",fullName:"Albert S. Kim"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7839",title:"Malaria",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"91cde4582ead884cb0f355a19b67cd56",slug:"malaria",bookSignature:"Fyson H. Kasenga",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7839.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"86725",title:"Dr.",name:"Fyson",middleName:"Hanania",surname:"Kasenga",slug:"fyson-kasenga",fullName:"Fyson Kasenga"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7093",title:"Pneumothorax",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0b1fdb8bb0448f48c2f234753898f3f8",slug:"pneumothorax",bookSignature:"Khalid Amer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7093.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"63412",title:"Dr.",name:"Khalid",middleName:null,surname:"Amer",slug:"khalid-amer",fullName:"Khalid Amer"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"192",title:"Otorhinolaryngology",slug:"otorhinolaryngology",parent:{title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"},numberOfBooks:14,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:299,numberOfWosCitations:27,numberOfCrossrefCitations:26,numberOfDimensionsCitations:69,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"otorhinolaryngology",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"7062",title:"Rhinosinusitis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"14ed95e155b1e57a61827ca30b579d09",slug:"rhinosinusitis",bookSignature:"Balwant Singh Gendeh and Mirjana Turkalj",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7062.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"67669",title:"Prof.",name:"Balwant Singh",middleName:null,surname:"Gendeh",slug:"balwant-singh-gendeh",fullName:"Balwant Singh Gendeh"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7461",title:"Management of Tinnitus",subtitle:"The Enriching Views of Treatment Options",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9626e5a89247b934de503a3d08752e14",slug:"management-of-tinnitus-the-enriching-views-of-treatment-options",bookSignature:"Tang-Chuan Wang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7461.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"201262",title:"Dr.",name:"Tang-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"tang-chuan-wang",fullName:"Tang-Chuan Wang"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7131",title:"Selected Topics in Facial Nerve Disorders",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0c16c1a947ded4fae51c047243593fbf",slug:"selected-topics-in-facial-nerve-disorders",bookSignature:"Isam Al-Zwaini and Mohammed Jalal Hussein",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7131.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"30993",title:"Prof.",name:"Isam Jaber",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Zwaini",slug:"isam-jaber-al-zwaini",fullName:"Isam Jaber Al-Zwaini"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7245",title:"Challenging Issues on Paranasal Sinuses",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"67a331ebb2dd2b8f73228fa4daa7382f",slug:"challenging-issues-on-paranasal-sinuses",bookSignature:"Tang-Chuan Wang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7245.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"201262",title:"Dr.",name:"Tang-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"tang-chuan-wang",fullName:"Tang-Chuan Wang"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6364",title:"An Excursus into Hearing Loss",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a38726fa9ccb2ba12a90ef3f02843770",slug:"an-excursus-into-hearing-loss",bookSignature:"Stavros Hatzopoulos and Andrea Ciorba",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6364.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"174266",title:"Prof.",name:"Stavros",middleName:null,surname:"Hatzopoulos",slug:"stavros-hatzopoulos",fullName:"Stavros Hatzopoulos"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5454",title:"Up to Date on Meniere's Disease",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0729be54c6af8fcc7d9a9d0ec73e541b",slug:"up-to-date-on-meniere-s-disease",bookSignature:"Fayez Bahmad Jr",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5454.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"77351",title:"Prof.",name:"Fayez",middleName:null,surname:"Bahmad",slug:"fayez-bahmad",fullName:"Fayez Bahmad"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5911",title:"Paranasal Sinuses",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"96eef6e794a6b96952fdd1ce1e46f411",slug:"paranasal-sinuses",bookSignature:"Balwant Singh Gendeh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5911.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"67669",title:"Prof.",name:"Balwant Singh",middleName:null,surname:"Gendeh",slug:"balwant-singh-gendeh",fullName:"Balwant Singh Gendeh"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5603",title:"Advances in Clinical Audiology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0f52ebfa4173882c42e96ac8325309ab",slug:"advances-in-clinical-audiology",bookSignature:"Stavros Hatzopoulos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5603.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"174266",title:"Prof.",name:"Stavros",middleName:null,surname:"Hatzopoulos",slug:"stavros-hatzopoulos",fullName:"Stavros Hatzopoulos"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4654",title:"Update On Hearing Loss",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e873bdf86336e2ebfd21f0d9855fe861",slug:"update-on-hearing-loss",bookSignature:"Fayez Bahmad Jr.",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4654.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"77351",title:"Prof.",name:"Fayez",middleName:null,surname:"Bahmad",slug:"fayez-bahmad",fullName:"Fayez Bahmad"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4545",title:"Seminars in Dysphagia",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"34993dd62703a7b1051e147bdb3258c2",slug:"seminars-in-dysphagia",bookSignature:"Renee Speyer and Hans Bogaardt",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4545.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"171934",title:"Dr.",name:"Renee",middleName:null,surname:"Speyer",slug:"renee-speyer",fullName:"Renee Speyer"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1758",title:"Otolaryngology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8b845def701f65d6ae3487686581983f",slug:"otolaryngology",bookSignature:"Balwant Singh Gendeh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1758.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"67669",title:"Prof.",name:"Balwant Singh",middleName:null,surname:"Gendeh",slug:"balwant-singh-gendeh",fullName:"Balwant Singh Gendeh"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1393",title:"Hearing Loss",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2708b72df1b6ff9c1cd1960233e1cdff",slug:"hearing-loss",bookSignature:"Sadaf Naz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1393.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88753",title:"Dr.",name:"Sadaf",middleName:null,surname:"Naz",slug:"sadaf-naz",fullName:"Sadaf Naz"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:14,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"33875",doi:"10.5772/32762",title:"Cochlear Implants in Children: A Review",slug:"cochlear-implants-in-children-a-review",totalDownloads:4070,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:12,book:{slug:"hearing-loss",title:"Hearing Loss",fullTitle:"Hearing Loss"},signatures:"Julia Sarant",authors:[{id:"92583",title:"Dr.",name:"Julia",middleName:null,surname:"Sarant",slug:"julia-sarant",fullName:"Julia Sarant"}]},{id:"24280",doi:"10.5772/25349",title:"Rhinosinusitis - Its Impact on Quality of Life",slug:"rhinosinusitis-its-impact-on-quality-of-life",totalDownloads:8705,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:6,book:{slug:"peculiar-aspects-of-rhinosinusitis",title:"Peculiar Aspects of Rhinosinusitis",fullTitle:"Peculiar Aspects of Rhinosinusitis"},signatures:"Petr Schalek",authors:[{id:"63053",title:"Dr.",name:"Petr",middleName:null,surname:"Schalek",slug:"petr-schalek",fullName:"Petr Schalek"}]},{id:"33874",doi:"10.5772/32663",title:"Usher Syndrome: Genes, Proteins, Models, Molecular Mechanisms, and Therapies",slug:"usher-syndrome-genes-proteins-models-molecular-mechanisms-and-therapies",totalDownloads:1563,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:4,book:{slug:"hearing-loss",title:"Hearing Loss",fullTitle:"Hearing Loss"},signatures:"Jun Yang",authors:[{id:"92274",title:"Dr.",name:"Jun",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"jun-yang",fullName:"Jun Yang"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"63699",title:"Management of the Complications of Maxillary Sinus Augmentation",slug:"management-of-the-complications-of-maxillary-sinus-augmentation",totalDownloads:1875,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"challenging-issues-on-paranasal-sinuses",title:"Challenging Issues on Paranasal Sinuses",fullTitle:"Challenging Issues on Paranasal Sinuses"},signatures:"Alper Sindel, Mehmet Mustafa Özarslan and Öznur Özalp",authors:[{id:"244837",title:"Dr.",name:"Alper",middleName:null,surname:"Sindel",slug:"alper-sindel",fullName:"Alper Sindel"},{id:"244918",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet Mustafa",middleName:null,surname:"Özarslan",slug:"mehmet-mustafa-ozarslan",fullName:"Mehmet Mustafa Özarslan"},{id:"244919",title:"Ms.",name:"Öznur",middleName:null,surname:"Özalp",slug:"oznur-ozalp",fullName:"Öznur Özalp"}]},{id:"55472",title:"Paranasal Sinus Anatomy: What the Surgeon Needs to Know",slug:"paranasal-sinus-anatomy-what-the-surgeon-needs-to-know",totalDownloads:2841,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"paranasal-sinuses",title:"Paranasal Sinuses",fullTitle:"Paranasal Sinuses"},signatures:"Abdulmalik S. Alsaied",authors:[{id:"199716",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulmalik",middleName:"Saad",surname:"Alsaied",slug:"abdulmalik-alsaied",fullName:"Abdulmalik Alsaied"}]},{id:"49574",title:"Classification of Hearing Loss",slug:"classification-of-hearing-loss",totalDownloads:3394,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"update-on-hearing-loss",title:"Update On Hearing Loss",fullTitle:"Update On Hearing Loss"},signatures:"Waleed B. Alshuaib, Jasem M. Al-Kandari and Sonia M. Hasan",authors:[{id:"174550",title:"Prof.",name:"Waleed",middleName:null,surname:"Alshuaib",slug:"waleed-alshuaib",fullName:"Waleed Alshuaib"},{id:"174551",title:"MSc.",name:"Jasim",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Kandari",slug:"jasim-al-kandari",fullName:"Jasim Al-Kandari"},{id:"174552",title:"Dr.",name:"Sonia",middleName:null,surname:"Hasan",slug:"sonia-hasan",fullName:"Sonia Hasan"}]},{id:"49108",title:"Hearing Loss and the Voice",slug:"hearing-loss-and-the-voice",totalDownloads:1981,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"update-on-hearing-loss",title:"Update On Hearing Loss",fullTitle:"Update On Hearing Loss"},signatures:"Ana Cristina Coelho, Daniela Malta Medved and Alcione Ghedini\nBrasolotto",authors:[{id:"174260",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Ana Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Coelho",slug:"ana-cristina-coelho",fullName:"Ana Cristina Coelho"},{id:"174643",title:"Dr.",name:"Alcione",middleName:null,surname:"Brasolotto",slug:"alcione-brasolotto",fullName:"Alcione Brasolotto"},{id:"174644",title:"MSc.",name:"Daniela",middleName:null,surname:"Medved",slug:"daniela-medved",fullName:"Daniela Medved"}]},{id:"65792",title:"The Proprioception in the Muscles Supplied by the Facial Nerve",slug:"the-proprioception-in-the-muscles-supplied-by-the-facial-nerve",totalDownloads:326,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"selected-topics-in-facial-nerve-disorders",title:"Selected Topics in Facial Nerve Disorders",fullTitle:"Selected Topics in Facial Nerve Disorders"},signatures:"Juan L. Cobo, Antonio Solé-Magdalena, Sonsoles Junquera, Teresa Cobo,\nJosé Antonio Vega and Juan Cobo",authors:null},{id:"66341",title:"Introductory Chapter: Facial Nerve - An Overview",slug:"introductory-chapter-facial-nerve-an-overview",totalDownloads:433,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"selected-topics-in-facial-nerve-disorders",title:"Selected Topics in Facial Nerve Disorders",fullTitle:"Selected Topics in Facial Nerve Disorders"},signatures:"Isam Jaber Al-Zwaini and Mohammed Jalal Hussein",authors:[{id:"30993",title:"Prof.",name:"Isam Jaber",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Zwaini",slug:"isam-jaber-al-zwaini",fullName:"Isam Jaber Al-Zwaini"}]},{id:"70024",title:"Neuroplasticity and the Auditory System",slug:"neuroplasticity-and-the-auditory-system",totalDownloads:67,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:null,title:"The Human Auditory System - Basic Features and Updates on Audiological Diagnosis and Therapy",fullTitle:"The Human Auditory System - Basic Features and Updates on Audiological Diagnosis and Therapy"},signatures:"Caroline Donadon, Stavros Hatzopoulos, Piotr Henry Skarzynski and Milaine Dominici Sanfins",authors:null},{id:"62423",title:"Relation between Metopic Suture Persistence and Frontal Sinus Development",slug:"relation-between-metopic-suture-persistence-and-frontal-sinus-development",totalDownloads:338,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"challenging-issues-on-paranasal-sinuses",title:"Challenging Issues on Paranasal Sinuses",fullTitle:"Challenging Issues on Paranasal Sinuses"},signatures:"Silviya Nikolova, Diana Toneva, Ivan Georgiev and Nikolai Lazarov",authors:[{id:"101891",title:"Prof.",name:"Nikolai",middleName:null,surname:"Lazarov",slug:"nikolai-lazarov",fullName:"Nikolai Lazarov"},{id:"244263",title:"Dr.",name:"Silviya",middleName:null,surname:"Nikolova",slug:"silviya-nikolova",fullName:"Silviya Nikolova"},{id:"244268",title:"Dr.",name:"Diana",middleName:null,surname:"Toneva",slug:"diana-toneva",fullName:"Diana Toneva"},{id:"244269",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Georgiev",slug:"ivan-georgiev",fullName:"Ivan Georgiev"}]},{id:"52996",title:"Pathophysiology of Meniere's Disease",slug:"pathophysiology-of-meniere-s-disease",totalDownloads:11526,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"up-to-date-on-meniere-s-disease",title:"Up to Date on Meniere's Disease",fullTitle:"Up to Date on Meniere's Disease"},signatures:"Shazia Mirza and Sankalp Gokhale",authors:[{id:"189064",title:"M.D.",name:"Sankalp",middleName:null,surname:"Gokhale",slug:"sankalp-gokhale",fullName:"Sankalp Gokhale"},{id:"189066",title:"Dr.",name:"Shazia",middleName:null,surname:"Mirza",slug:"shazia-mirza",fullName:"Shazia Mirza"}]},{id:"64095",title:"Sinonasal Cancers: Diagnosis and Management",slug:"sinonasal-cancers-diagnosis-and-management",totalDownloads:399,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"challenging-issues-on-paranasal-sinuses",title:"Challenging Issues on Paranasal Sinuses",fullTitle:"Challenging Issues on Paranasal Sinuses"},signatures:"Deepti Sharma, Neha Sharma and Vivek Sharma",authors:[{id:"244342",title:"Dr.",name:"Deepti",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"deepti-sharma",fullName:"Deepti Sharma"},{id:"255595",title:"Dr.",name:"Neha",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"neha-sharma",fullName:"Neha Sharma"},{id:"255596",title:"Dr.",name:"Vivek",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"vivek-sharma",fullName:"Vivek Sharma"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"otorhinolaryngology",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"70024",title:"Neuroplasticity and the Auditory System",slug:"neuroplasticity-and-the-auditory-system",totalDownloads:69,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90085",book:{title:"The Human Auditory System - Basic Features and Updates on Audiological Diagnosis and Therapy"},signatures:"Caroline Donadon, Stavros Hatzopoulos, Piotr Henry Skarzynski and Milaine Dominici Sanfins"},{id:"69206",title:"Otitis Media, Behavioral and Electrophysiological Tests, and Auditory Rehabilitation",slug:"otitis-media-behavioral-and-electrophysiological-tests-and-auditory-rehabilitation",totalDownloads:79,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88800",book:{title:"The Human Auditory System - Basic Features and Updates on Audiological Diagnosis and Therapy"},signatures:"Milaine Dominici Sanfins, Piotr Henryk Skarzynski and Maria Francisca Colella-Santos"},{id:"68735",title:"Role of Glucocorticoids in Hearing Preservation in Partial Deafness Treatment",slug:"role-of-glucocorticoids-in-hearing-preservation-in-partial-deafness-treatment",totalDownloads:44,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88863",book:{title:"The Human Auditory System - Basic Features and Updates on Audiological Diagnosis and Therapy"},signatures:"Magdalena B. Skarżyńska"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:8},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10080",title:"Vortex Dynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"ea97962e99b3e0ebc9b46b48ba5bea14",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Zambri Harun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10080.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"243152",title:"Dr.",name:"Zambri",middleName:null,surname:"Harun",slug:"zambri-harun",fullName:"Zambri Harun"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8903",title:"Carbon Based Material for Environmental Protection and Remediation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"19da699b370f320eca63ef2ba02f745d",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Mattia Bartoli and Dr. Marco Frediani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8903.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"188999",title:"Dr.",name:"Mattia",middleName:null,surname:"Bartoli",slug:"mattia-bartoli",fullName:"Mattia Bartoli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8771",title:"Raman Scattering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"1354b3097eaa5b27d9d4bd29d3150b27",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Samir Kumar and Dr. Prabhat Kumar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8771.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"296661",title:"Dr.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"samir-kumar",fullName:"Samir Kumar"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10073",title:"Recent Advances in Nanophotonics-Fundamentals and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"aceca7dfc807140870a89d42c5537d7c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Mojtaba Kahrizi and Ms. Parsoua Abedini Sohi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10073.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"113045",title:"Dr.",name:"Mojtaba",middleName:null,surname:"Kahrizi",slug:"mojtaba-kahrizi",fullName:"Mojtaba Kahrizi"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10132",title:"Applied Computational Near-surface Geophysics - From Integral and Derivative Formulas to MATLAB Codes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"38cdbbb671df620b36ee96af1d9a3a90",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Afshin Aghayan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10132.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"311030",title:"Dr.",name:"Afshin",middleName:null,surname:"Aghayan",slug:"afshin-aghayan",fullName:"Afshin Aghayan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10110",title:"Advances and Technologies in Building Construction and Structural Analysis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"df2ad14bc5588577e8bf0b7ebcdafd9d",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Ali Kaboli and Dr. Sara Shirowzhan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10110.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"309192",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Kaboli",slug:"ali-kaboli",fullName:"Ali Kaboli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10175",title:"Ethics in Emerging Technologies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"9c92da249676e35e2f7476182aa94e84",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Ali Hessami",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10175.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"108303",title:"Prof.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Hessami",slug:"ali-hessami",fullName:"Ali Hessami"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9284",title:"Computational Aeroacoustics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"7019c5e5985faef7dc384c87dca5c8ef",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Ramesh K. Agarwal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9284.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"38519",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramesh K.",middleName:null,surname:"Agarwal",slug:"ramesh-k.-agarwal",fullName:"Ramesh K. Agarwal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:16},humansInSpaceProgram:{},teamHumansInSpaceProgram:{},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/225887/anna-gajda",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"225887",slug:"anna-gajda"},fullPath:"/profiles/225887/anna-gajda",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var t;(t=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(t)}()