The estimated parameters k and the standard error of estimates (S.E.) in Eqs. (1) and (2) for dipped fresh-cut mangoes at different concentration and anti-browning agents.
\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Milestone",originalUrl:"/media/original/124"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"10229",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Teacher Education in the 21st Century - Emerging Skills for a Changing World",title:"Teacher Education in the 21st Century",subtitle:"Emerging Skills for a Changing World",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"In the face of unprecedented disruption from the COVID-19 pandemic and the rapid acceleration of digital technologies, it is necessary to rethink the competences required by teachers for meeting new and flexible learning demands. Teacher training is an area constantly evolving along with emerging social challenges that are transforming educational institutions and agents. This book provides teachers with skills, innovative solutions, cutting-edge studies, and methodologies to meet education and training system demands. In our changing world, preparing teachers worldwide for the challenges and shifts of this era involves the opportunity to exchange theories, practices, and experiences such as those contained in this book.",isbn:"978-1-83968-793-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-792-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-794-5",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91070",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"teacher-education-in-the-21st-century-emerging-skills-for-a-changing-world",numberOfPages:378,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"b01f9136149277b7e4cbc1e52bce78ec",bookSignature:"Maria Jose Hernández-Serrano",publishedDate:"June 16th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10229.jpg",numberOfDownloads:8309,numberOfWosCitations:4,numberOfCrossrefCitations:4,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:10,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:18,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 14th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 12th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 11th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 1st 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 30th 2021",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"187893",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Hernández-Serrano",slug:"maria-jose-hernandez-serrano",fullName:"Maria Jose Hernández-Serrano",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/187893/images/system/187893.jpg",biography:"Maria Jose Hernandez Serrano, DPhil, is a tenured lecturer in the Department of Theory and History of Education, University of Salamanca, Spain, where she currently teaches Teacher Education. She is interested in the analysis of cognitive and affective processes, along with the study of social contingencies affecting educational institutions and requiring new skills for educators. Her publications are mainly of the educational process mediated by technologies and digital competences. Her new research interest is on the transdisciplinary application of brain-based research to educational contexts and virtual environments, and the neuropedagogical implications of the technologies on the development of the brain in younger students. Dr. Serrano is currently the deputy director of Institutional and International Relationships in de School of Education, University of Salamanca.",institutionString:"University of Salamanca",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Salamanca",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"265",title:"Education",slug:"social-sciences-education"}],chapters:[{id:"75224",title:"Decoding the Digital Gap in Teacher Education: Three Perspectives across the Globe",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96206",slug:"decoding-the-digital-gap-in-teacher-education-three-perspectives-across-the-globe",totalDownloads:592,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Educational use of technology is regularly assessed, and results often show a gap between educational policies and what is actually practiced. This chapter will help clarify how teacher educators experience the changing educational contexts due to the digital revolution, how their meaning-making shifts, and how outside forces influence those processes. The results are based on comparative international studies. Central for this study is practitioners’ professional digital competence, their attitudes towards digital technology and the use of digital technology in education. We found that the influence and contribution of digital practice is carried out quite differently across the globe. Our research questions were: How do practitioners experience teaching in a rapidly changing context? How do attitudes change due to top-down governing of education? and What motivates teacher educators to implement digital technology?",signatures:"Steinar Thorvaldsen and Siri Sollied Madsen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75224",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75224",authors:[{id:"332624",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Siri Sollied",surname:"Madsen",slug:"siri-sollied-madsen",fullName:"Siri Sollied Madsen"},{id:"332626",title:"Prof.",name:"Steinar",surname:"Thorvaldsen",slug:"steinar-thorvaldsen",fullName:"Steinar Thorvaldsen"}],corrections:null},{id:"75439",title:"Remote Support through Technologies: A Research-Training on Teachers’ ‘Sophisticated Knowledge’",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95949",slug:"remote-support-through-technologies-a-research-training-on-teachers-sophisticated-knowledge-",totalDownloads:353,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The COVID-19 pandemic accelerated the process of transforming teaching practices, such as remotely supporting students through innovative technological means. After a reflection on the impact of COVID-19 emergency on teachers’ skills, on the basis of a series of professional resources made available to teachers in order to support remote participation and learning of students, the work presents methodologies and results of an intervention-research, which involved 108 teachers in service, aimed at develop the teachers’ ability to integrate remote teaching technologies resources, with a view to personalizing interventions and effectiveness of learning content. The survey highlighted that relationship with students has been the teaching practice aspect most influenced by technologies/digital resources in the period of the pandemic. Such results offer support for didactic research to integrate the well-known explanatory model of TPACK (Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge) with further aspects relating to ‘sophisticated’ knowledge, more linked to adaptation and re-shaping of knowledge to be taught with reference to the students needs.",signatures:"Laura Sara Agrati",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75439",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75439",authors:[{id:"334610",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Laura Sara",surname:"Agrati",slug:"laura-sara-agrati",fullName:"Laura Sara Agrati"}],corrections:null},{id:"76736",title:"The Revolutionary Media Education Decade: From the UNESCO to the ALFAMED Curriculum for Teacher Training",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97804",slug:"the-revolutionary-media-education-decade-from-the-unesco-to-the-alfamed-curriculum-for-teacher-train",totalDownloads:333,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Nations across the globe are immersed in a technological revolution—intensified by the need to respond to COVID-19 issues. In order to be critical and responsible citizens in the current media ecosystem, it is important that students acquire and develop certain skills when consuming and producing information for and when communicating through the media. This is a major challenge that educational systems worldwide have to face. Hence, new curricula in media education to guide future teachers towards the successful acquisition of new media skills have been proposed. The aims of this work are to conduct a theoretical approach to this worldwide technological and media evolution in the past decade, to make an in-depth comparison between the Curriculum for teachers on media and information literacy published by the UNESCO (2011) and the publication of the new AlfaMed Curriculum for the training of teachers in media education (2021). This framework starts by providing an extensive analysis of the key elements of both curricula and of their corresponding modules, establishing, thus, a constructive comparison while updating them, according to the needs, changes, and realities that have taken place regarding digital literacy in the past decade. Finally, the chapter concludes with the detailing of the challenges and with proposals for teacher training in media and information literacy.",signatures:"Paula Renés-Arellano, Ignacio Aguaded and Maria Jose Hernández-Serrano",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76736",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76736",authors:[{id:"187893",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Jose",surname:"Hernández-Serrano",slug:"maria-jose-hernandez-serrano",fullName:"Maria Jose Hernández-Serrano"},{id:"209824",title:"Dr.",name:"Ignacio",surname:"Aguaded",slug:"ignacio-aguaded",fullName:"Ignacio Aguaded"},{id:"356638",title:"Dr.",name:"Paula",surname:"Renés-Arellano",slug:"paula-renes-arellano",fullName:"Paula Renés-Arellano"}],corrections:null},{id:"75225",title:"Are Teacher Students’ Deep Learning and Critical Thinking at Risk of Being Limited in Digital Learning Environments?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96151",slug:"are-teacher-students-deep-learning-and-critical-thinking-at-risk-of-being-limited-in-digital-learnin",totalDownloads:476,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The 21st century is quite different from the 20th in regard to the skills people need for work, citizenship, and self-actualisation. Proficiency in the 21st century differs primarily due to the emergence of sophisticated information and communication technologies. In this chapter, we will discuss whether teaching students are sufficiently prepared regarding the need for 21st century skills and how learning in a digital age affects the need for high-level critical thinking. Based on 20 in-depth interviews of Norwegian and New Zealand teaching educators, teaching students’ low critical thinking skills seem to be understood as a global challenge and as connected to the digital revolution. Despite being from different sides of the globe, teaching educators from both countries expressed concern regarding students’ in-depth learning and critical thinking skills in an educational where learning is influenced by digital technology. This article discusses the dilemmas regarding having easier access to greater amounts of information, which requires a different form of critical thinking. We question whether we are and have been preparing students sufficiently for this educational change.",signatures:"Siri Sollied Madsen, Steinar Thorvaldsen and Sissel Sollied",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75225",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75225",authors:[{id:"332624",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Siri Sollied",surname:"Madsen",slug:"siri-sollied-madsen",fullName:"Siri Sollied Madsen"},{id:"332626",title:"Prof.",name:"Steinar",surname:"Thorvaldsen",slug:"steinar-thorvaldsen",fullName:"Steinar Thorvaldsen"},{id:"343786",title:"Dr.",name:"Sissel",surname:"Sollied",slug:"sissel-sollied",fullName:"Sissel Sollied"}],corrections:null},{id:"75908",title:"From the Classroom into Virtual Learning Environments: Essential Knowledge, Competences, Skills and Pedagogical Strategies for the 21st Century Teacher Education in Kenya",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96950",slug:"from-the-classroom-into-virtual-learning-environments-essential-knowledge-competences-skills-and-ped",totalDownloads:519,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"As teachers in Kenya begin to migrate from the classroom to virtual learning spaces following COVID 19 pandemic, there is pressing need to realign Teacher Education to requisite Knowledge, competences, skills, and attitudes that will support online teaching. This chapter explores these needs using a combination of lived experiences and literature review that captured a meta-analysis of research trends on e-learning. While trends in Teacher Education indicate progression towards adoption of technology, there are disparities between the theory and practice. Evidence from recent research and reports; and the recollected experiences confirmed knowledge, competence, skills and pedagogical gaps in the implementation of online learning, that have been exacerbated by COVID-19. The researcher recommends that teacher education should sensitize and train teacher trainees on how to access, analyze and use new knowledge emerging with technology; they also should be coached on how learners learn with technology and on fundamentals of the communication process. Particularly the course on educational technology, should focus on how to create and manage online courses. The 5-stage E-Moderator Model and Universal Design for Learning (UDL) are recommended as effective pedagogical scaffold for online teaching.",signatures:"Catherine Adhiambo Amimo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75908",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75908",authors:[{id:"333482",title:"Dr.",name:"Catherine Adhiambo",surname:"Amimo",slug:"catherine-adhiambo-amimo",fullName:"Catherine Adhiambo Amimo"}],corrections:null},{id:"76062",title:"Modern Teacher Education - Supporting the Vast Landscape of 21st Century Pedagogy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97032",slug:"modern-teacher-education-supporting-the-vast-landscape-of-21st-century-pedagogy",totalDownloads:403,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Learners have changed; Teaching has changed; Expectations have changed. How to best support modern learners is the challenge of all educators at all grade levels. The students of today are sophisticated users of technology, they are multitasking constantly and can sometimes be more comfortable with the technology than they are interacting with teachers and peers in the real world. Marc Prensky described them as “Digital Natives” over 10 years ago implying that they are efficient users of technology. This is not always the case. While they are exposed to various technologies and can successfully use them outside the classroom their use of these same tools as learning support tools can be lacking. Digital natives have different learning styles and different concerns than previous students. Educators need to keep up with this changing landscape and need to learn, develop and innovate new ways to support todays’ learners. Supporting today’s learners now requires more than just educating them in a specific content area but also includes supporting them in the use of technology tools in an education setting. Supporting educators through areas of primary training such as teacher preparation programs and degree programs are one way to accomplish this but also the many credible teacher training programs that provide experience, peer support or certifications are also excellent tools. Through this chapter we will take a close look at pedagogy, learning styles, support tools, and the skills needed to be a modern educator.",signatures:"Dr Joshua C. Elliott and Dr Craig S. Tunks",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76062",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76062",authors:[{id:"333961",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Joshua C.",surname:"Elliott",slug:"joshua-c.-elliott",fullName:"Joshua C. Elliott"},{id:"334718",title:"Dr.",name:"Craig S.",surname:"Tunks",slug:"craig-s.-tunks",fullName:"Craig S. Tunks"}],corrections:null},{id:"75116",title:"Sustainable Teaching in an Uncertain World: Pedagogical Continuities, Un-Precedented Challenges",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96078",slug:"sustainable-teaching-in-an-uncertain-world-pedagogical-continuities-un-precedented-challenges",totalDownloads:527,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Beyond the very pressing immediacy of the pace of change induced by internationalising tendencies, a world without borders, there is increasing pressure on teachers to be more adept, agile, and adaptive, particularly at incorporating new and emerging technologies into their pedagogical repertoires, while international agencies, increasingly influential in this febrile landscape, proffer reform rhetorics that are superficial at best in their appreciation or understanding of local conditions, the realities of teachers’ lives and work. While an emphasis on ‘what works’ too has its limitations, what this chapter seeks to identify is not merely incremental contributions to often limited pedagogical repertoires, but to approach the considerable challenge from a sustainability perspective, sufficient to identify adaptive steps to possible futures that are hopeful, life enhancing, sustaining and sustainable, enriching the quality of teaching and learning, contributing to an emerging pedagogical praxis.",signatures:"Rachel Farrell and Ciaran Sugrue",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75116",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75116",authors:[{id:"333714",title:"Prof.",name:"Ciaran Sugrue",surname:"Sugrue",slug:"ciaran-sugrue-sugrue",fullName:"Ciaran Sugrue Sugrue"},{id:"333717",title:"Ms.",name:"Rachel",surname:"Farrell",slug:"rachel-farrell",fullName:"Rachel Farrell"}],corrections:null},{id:"75700",title:"Connecting Pedagogical Interactions in the Twenty-First Century Classrooms: The Role of the Learners’ Perspective in Knowledge Production in the Curriculum Transformation in South Africa",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96401",slug:"connecting-pedagogical-interactions-in-the-twenty-first-century-classrooms-the-role-of-the-learners-",totalDownloads:379,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter presents the analysis of the interactions in the context of knowledge acquisition and learning. Despite the different contesting approaches to knowledge acquisition, this chapter unveils the confusion prevailing in classrooms concerning the gaps and questions arising from knowledge that is asserted to be empirically verified. The observation sheets and notes were the primary sources of data gathered from the evaluation of lesson presentations conducted in classrooms, with the focus being on teacher-learner-interaction. Learners’ reflections, questions, comments as well as feedback from teachers were analysed through qualitative procedures. The results and the findings highlighted that the preparation of the lessons by the teachers have unforeseen gaps, blind spots, and undesired learning outcomes. This work concluded that teachers are experiencing challenges and difficulties in addressing the cognitive and intellectual needs of the twenty-first generation learners in classrooms. This study recommends the review of factual knowledge by school subject curriculum experts, and teacher educators in the faculties.",signatures:"Mamsi Ethel Khuzwayo and Kwanele Booi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75700",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75700",authors:[{id:"275464",title:"Dr.",name:"Mamsi Ethel",surname:"Khuzwayo",slug:"mamsi-ethel-khuzwayo",fullName:"Mamsi Ethel Khuzwayo"},{id:"332452",title:"Dr.",name:"Kwanele",surname:"Booi",slug:"kwanele-booi",fullName:"Kwanele Booi"}],corrections:null},{id:"75416",title:"Self-Study Research: Challenges and Opportunities in Teacher Education",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96252",slug:"self-study-research-challenges-and-opportunities-in-teacher-education",totalDownloads:781,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"This article aims to describe what self-study research is, why self-study can be a good approach to teacher educators’ professional development and improvements in practice and highlight some challenges and opportunities in this research approach. In addition, the article will shed light on some methodological aspects related to self-study. Self-study refers to teacher educators who in an intentionally and systematically way examine their practice to improve it, based on a deeper understanding of practice, as well as the context practice takes place. In the article, I argue that engaging in self-study is a learning and development process and an approach to developing personal professionalism, collective professionalism and improvements in practice.",signatures:"Kåre Hauge",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75416",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75416",authors:[{id:"332053",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Kåre",surname:"Hauge",slug:"kare-hauge",fullName:"Kåre Hauge"}],corrections:null},{id:"75672",title:"Building Pre-Service Teacher Capabilities through Remote and Flexible Placement - A New Narrative",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96468",slug:"building-pre-service-teacher-capabilities-through-remote-and-flexible-placement-a-new-narrative",totalDownloads:300,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Within practical placements, Australian pre-service teachers acquire a range of skills and strategies. This is in addition to linking the theory that they acquire at university to that in the classroom context. In 2020, to ensure that the pre-service teachers in education courses continue this practical component of their degree, remote and flexible placements were negotiated between the schools and the university. These changes were embedded in order for pre-service teachers to work with schools, students and mentors and they did so from within their homes. This chapter focuses on the experiences from three pre-service teachers during their time on practicum in remote and flexible contexts. A case study approach was applied to analyse each individual’s experiences. The case studies highlight the commonalities in experiences for each individual pre-service teacher. Upon analysis of these case studies, these commonalities included implications around how these capabilities were being formed and developed throughout the placement. These capabilities included inference, deduction, pivoting and empathy. These common capabilities across the pre-service teacher’s experiences, during their remote and flexible placement, highlight the need for a new narrative around the emerging skills, strategies and capabilities for teacher education in the 21st Century.",signatures:"Ondine Jayne Bradbury, Tatainia Stewart, Anabelle Barker and Jessica Rowe",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75672",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75672",authors:[{id:"332008",title:"Ms.",name:"Ondine",surname:"Bradbury",slug:"ondine-bradbury",fullName:"Ondine Bradbury"},{id:"340106",title:"Ms.",name:"Anabelle",surname:"Barker",slug:"anabelle-barker",fullName:"Anabelle Barker"},{id:"340107",title:"Ms.",name:"Jessica",surname:"Rowe",slug:"jessica-rowe",fullName:"Jessica Rowe"},{id:"340108",title:"Ms.",name:"Tatainia",surname:"Stewart",slug:"tatainia-stewart",fullName:"Tatainia Stewart"}],corrections:null},{id:"75268",title:"How Philosophizing the Dialogos Way Can Promote Education for Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96198",slug:"how-philosophizing-the-dialogos-way-can-promote-education-for-sustainable-development",totalDownloads:578,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This paper is an inquiry into an action research process in which staff from a combined vocational and academic upper secondary school philosophized “The Dialogos Way” together, as part of ongoing curriculum reforms in Norway. Some teachers were also trained in facilitating such dialogs with their students. Since sustainable development is one of three interdisciplinary topics now supposed to run through all subjects at all educational levels, our chosen action inquiry research question in this paper reads as follows: How can training teachers in philosophizing the Dialogos Way promote attitudes and skills required for dialogic learning-and-teaching, and how can this form of learning-and-teaching support education for sustainable development? Using teachers’ and students’ meta-reflection notes as data, the authors find that the Dialogos approach offers a fruitful way of integrating sustainable development issues in the curriculum.",signatures:"Eirik Hæreid Marcussen, Michael Weiss and Guro Hansen Helskog",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75268",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75268",authors:[{id:"333626",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guro Hansen",surname:"Helskog",slug:"guro-hansen-helskog",fullName:"Guro Hansen Helskog"},{id:"333629",title:"MSc.",name:"Eirik Hæreid",surname:"Marcussen",slug:"eirik-haereid-marcussen",fullName:"Eirik Hæreid Marcussen"},{id:"333630",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael Noah",surname:"Weiss",slug:"michael-noah-weiss",fullName:"Michael Noah Weiss"}],corrections:null},{id:"76008",title:"21st Century Pedagogies and Citizenship Education: Enacting Elementary School Curriculum Using Critical Inquiry-Based Learning",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96998",slug:"21st-century-pedagogies-and-citizenship-education-enacting-elementary-school-curriculum-using-critic",totalDownloads:443,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"How elementary teachers address citizenship is important in 21st century teaching and learning. Situating citizenship education within the varied global contexts of schooling and connecting content to pedagogical approach is a complex task. Even so, citizenship education can be the philosophical underpinning, or vision, for a teaching pedagogy that engages students in active, creative, and critical ways. This chapter illustrates key features and priorities for citizenship education by exploring the concepts of perspective taking, inquiry pedagogy and critical pedagogy and how they work together using the example of elementary school Social Studies in a Canadian context. Using examples from previous studies and narratives from elementary school teachers, this chapter includes portraits of classroom teachers’ work using a critical inquiry-based approach. The chapter illustrates how resources can be used in teachers’ planning to design learning that is nestled in citizenship education. Government curriculum documents as well as scholarly literature and teaching resources can support critical-inquiry for citizenship education. This teaching can lead to active, engaged citizens. There are many approaches to citizenship education; drawing awareness to perspectives and pedagogical possibilities is essential in teacher development. Teacher education is the ideal place for introducing and connecting foundations of education to best practice.",signatures:"Yiola Cleovoulou",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76008",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76008",authors:[{id:"337311",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Yiola",surname:"Cleovoulou",slug:"yiola-cleovoulou",fullName:"Yiola Cleovoulou"}],corrections:null},{id:"75540",title:"Green Pedagogy: Using Confrontation and Provocation to Promote Sustainability Skills",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96432",slug:"green-pedagogy-using-confrontation-and-provocation-to-promote-sustainability-skills",totalDownloads:356,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The chapter describes the features of Green Pedagogy, originally developed in Austria in German where it is still being actively researched. Green Pedagogy offers a structured approach to lesson planning to achieve embedded sustainability competencies within a specific vocational or academic field. The Green Pedagogy approach achieves sustainability competency through a controlled appeal to the emotions and the explicit uncovering of learner values to take on new ideas and new perspectives in a more sustainable direction. The approach is compatible with many recommended Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) pedagogies such as project-based teaching and the case study approach. The approach also implements several more general evidence-based pedagogical strategies such as concept change. The key feature of Green Pedagogy is that the process ends with locally based action whose wider implications are explored. We relate some of the challenges involved in translating a pedagogical approach from one language to another as the ProfESus Erasmus project aimed to disseminate Green Pedagogy to a global cohort of teachers of home economics in English. Reactions of participating teachers in the piloting of the training are explored and some practical solutions offered.",signatures:"Anne Fox and Christine Wogowitsch",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75540",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75540",authors:[{id:"334261",title:"M.A.",name:"Anne",surname:"Fox",slug:"anne-fox",fullName:"Anne Fox"},{id:"344250",title:"Mrs.",name:"Christine",surname:"Wogowitsch",slug:"christine-wogowitsch",fullName:"Christine Wogowitsch"}],corrections:null},{id:"75486",title:"Intentional Teaching: Building Resiliency and Trauma-Sensitive Cultures in Schools",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96571",slug:"intentional-teaching-building-resiliency-and-trauma-sensitive-cultures-in-schools",totalDownloads:316,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In a time where many students and their families are grappling with uncertainties and educators are faced with uniquely complex challenges in the delivery of effective instruction, the ability to create educational communities that respond to the needs of all learners is crucial. There is increasing emergence of technology and pedagogy that have facilitated connections to the classroom never seen before. Yet, educators and school communities need to respond to this time of uncertainty with the lens of trauma sensitive instruction, the creation of meaningful teacher-student relationships, and building the resilience necessary for students to thrive in the ever-shifting landscape of education. This descriptive paper explores strategies for implementation including creating safe spaces for learning, addressing disparities in learning opportunities, preventing academic disruption, and using a proactive approach to address stress and trauma in the classroom. The multitude of teaching modalities available has paved the way for a transition to fluid education but the need to do so with intentionality cannot be ignored. The transition to remote and hybrid learning may change the landscape of education forever, and with it comes the responsibility to ensure high expectations for student success are balanced with compassion, and rigidity is replaced with flexibility.",signatures:"Christian Scannell",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75486",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75486",authors:[{id:"316991",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",surname:"(Scannell) Williams",slug:"christian-(scannell)-williams",fullName:"Christian (Scannell) Williams"}],corrections:null},{id:"75400",title:"Temperament in the Early Elementary Classroom: Implications for Practice",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96270",slug:"temperament-in-the-early-elementary-classroom-implications-for-practice",totalDownloads:392,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Temperament is a contextual and biological trait that influences how an individual interacts with the environment. Although scholars have organized and prioritized different dimensions of temperament, in this chapter we focus on temperament dimensions that are most salient to—and how they are exhibited in—early childhood classrooms. Temperament continues to be an important topic in early childhood classrooms because it is both important for children learning to manage their social emotional competence, which relates to long-term academic success and positive mental health, and for teachers to develop classroom management skills that provide a positive climate for an array of children and temperament types. After introducing the notion of temperament, we describe how teachers may create environments and react to children in ways that support child temperament. Finally, INSIGHTS into Children’s Temperament, an empirically based social–emotional intervention, will be introduced. This intervention focuses on how children’s temperament unfolds in the classroom and how the adults in children’s lives can create “goodness-of-fit” for optimal outcomes.",signatures:"Martinique Ann Sealy, Kathleen Moritz Rudasill, Jentry S. Barrett, Jungwon Eum, Nicole Adams, Angela Hinrichs and Sandee McClowry",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75400",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75400",authors:[{id:"335414",title:"Dr.",name:"Kathleen",surname:"Rudasill",slug:"kathleen-rudasill",fullName:"Kathleen Rudasill"},{id:"336164",title:"Ms.",name:"Martinique",surname:"Sealy",slug:"martinique-sealy",fullName:"Martinique Sealy"},{id:"336166",title:"Ms.",name:"Jentry",surname:"Barrett",slug:"jentry-barrett",fullName:"Jentry Barrett"},{id:"336167",title:"Dr.",name:"Jungwon",surname:"Eum",slug:"jungwon-eum",fullName:"Jungwon Eum"},{id:"346514",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicole",surname:"Adams",slug:"nicole-adams",fullName:"Nicole Adams"},{id:"346515",title:"Dr.",name:"Angela",surname:"Hinrichs",slug:"angela-hinrichs",fullName:"Angela Hinrichs"},{id:"346516",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandee",surname:"McClowry",slug:"sandee-mcclowry",fullName:"Sandee McClowry"}],corrections:null},{id:"75580",title:"Foundations for Promoting LGBT+ Social Justice through Early Childhood Teacher Education",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96522",slug:"foundations-for-promoting-lgbt-social-justice-through-early-childhood-teacher-education",totalDownloads:289,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"This chapter presents a framework for early childhood (EC) teacher education experiences that align with aims of LGBT+ (lesbian, gay, bi, trans, plus other identities) social justice. The chapter begins with an introduction to the populations addressed: children of LGBT-led families, trans people, children who represent gender diversity, and LGBT+ teachers. Ethical and teaching responsibilities of educators who serve children aged birth to five are shared, including the work of authors in the interrelated fields within EC education. Examples of supportive educator competencies are shared across three critical aims: including and supporting LGBT-led families, supporting children’s explorations of gender (including combating gender bias), and supporting LGBT+ educators. Next, a model for authentic, field-based EC educator preparation is presented, including strategies for better linking preparation to practice. Finally, resources for EC educators and those who prepare them are provided. The overall goal of the chapter is to integrate topics, competencies, and issues typically treated separately into a more holistic view of the possibilities within EC teacher education to enhance the inclusivity of preparation programs, broaden the knowledge and skills of pre-service educators, and positively influence the lives of LGBT+ individuals.",signatures:"Adam S. Kennedy",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75580",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75580",authors:[{id:"238985",title:"Dr.",name:"Adam S.",surname:"Kennedy",slug:"adam-s.-kennedy",fullName:"Adam S. Kennedy"}],corrections:null},{id:"75669",title:"A Guide for Deconstructing Social Reproduction: Pedagogical Conocimientos within the Context of Teacher Education",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96213",slug:"a-guide-for-deconstructing-social-reproduction-pedagogical-em-conocimientos-em-within-the-context-of",totalDownloads:253,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"As the mosaic of student demographics continue to change into the 21st century, teacher credential training programs must necessarily prepare educators to be culturally affirming and responsive to the equitable schooling of students. Through pedagogical conocimientos, educators-in-training may rely on self-reflexive methodologies, which facilitates the engagement of self and others in interaction, as they collectively retrieve family legacies, focusing on gathering histories on their family’s origins, language, religion, work, education, and migration. This prepares future teachers to unearth and examine internalized prejudices, traumas, and stereotypes, to thus counter and contest deficit thinking and distorted views of student populations, beginning with them. This chapter introduces pedagogical conocimientos, illustrating the praxis as it problematizes social reproduction in the context of schooling.",signatures:"Jesus Jaime-Diaz and Josie Méndez-Negrete",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75669",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75669",authors:[{id:"332166",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",surname:"Jaime-Diaz",slug:"jesus-jaime-diaz",fullName:"Jesus Jaime-Diaz"},{id:"343700",title:"Dr.",name:"Josie",surname:"Méndez-Negrete",slug:"josie-mendez-negrete",fullName:"Josie Méndez-Negrete"}],corrections:null},{id:"75591",title:"Quality Inclusion of Young Children with Disabilities: Taking a Stance to Support Early Childhood Leaders",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96511",slug:"quality-inclusion-of-young-children-with-disabilities-taking-a-stance-to-support-early-childhood-lea",totalDownloads:329,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In the educational lexicon, inclusion is not a term, rather a philosophy that values and advocates for every child’s right to quality education and learning to develop their skills and realize their full potentials. Research over the past 40 years has demonstrated that inclusive education is associated with improved outcomes for children and students with disabilities. In early childhood (EC) education, inclusive education is in the best interest of all young children to improve their sense of belonging and membership, positive social relationships and friendships, and learning goals. As more EC programs, schools, and educational settings move toward including children with disabilities in general education settings, a need exists to better prepare EC professionals, most importantly EC leaders as gatekeepers of quality to better enhance and facilitate inclusive instructional opportunities for children with disabilities. This chapter focuses on EC leaders’ role in developing, adopting, and supporting inclusive education with recommendations to implement and sustain quality inclusive education practices in EC programs and settings.",signatures:"Sara Movahedazarhouligh",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75591",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75591",authors:[{id:"333748",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Sara",surname:"Movahedazarhouligh",slug:"sara-movahedazarhouligh",fullName:"Sara Movahedazarhouligh"}],corrections:null},{id:"76541",title:"Linguistic Diversity and Comparability in Educational Assessment",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.97405",slug:"linguistic-diversity-and-comparability-in-educational-assessment",totalDownloads:378,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"This chapter reports on recent mixed method research investigating the comparability between assessment in relation to linguistic and cultural diversity. It takes as its premise that assessment is an integral part of instruction that becomes a main component for attaining of equal opportunities. Therefore, assessment plays a key role in terms of the wider consequences at both individual and societal levels. One of the central functions of assessment is its measure of quality assurance and comparability for grading to such an extent that it is readily employed to indicate evidence of student achievement of standards and quality. This may sometimes present issues in terms of learner diversity. We focus on the challenges facing teaching in linguistically diverse learning settings in which a foreign language may be used as an alternative to instruction. Here we draw on a recent study from two separate multilingual learning contexts in Sweden. We shed light on the generic questions arising from such disjuncture in these linguistically diverse educational sites as evidence on a call for much needed scholarly attention on the quality aspect in assessment.",signatures:"Helena Reierstam and Meeri Hellstén",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76541",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76541",authors:[{id:"335455",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Helena",surname:"Reierstam",slug:"helena-reierstam",fullName:"Helena Reierstam"},{id:"335829",title:"Prof.",name:"Meeri",surname:"Hellstén",slug:"meeri-hellsten",fullName:"Meeri Hellstén"}],corrections:null},{id:"75325",title:"Preparing Practice-Based Researchers for Diverse Classrooms: A Pathway for Teacher Education",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96398",slug:"preparing-practice-based-researchers-for-diverse-classrooms-a-pathway-for-teacher-education",totalDownloads:315,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Twenty-first century educators are faced with new dilemmas, as well as new opportunities. In response to the increasing racial, cultural, and linguistic diversity of students, some school districts and states have implemented policies mandating particular curriculum. However, evidence increasingly shows that teachers who are effective in diverse classrooms are adaptive and responsive rather than strictly adhering to scripted curriculum. One proposed solution is preparation to conduct practice-based research as part of teaching. Practice-based research is a method of studying ones’ own teaching that draws on action research, design-development research, and transformative research. As a method through which teachers define questions, explore solutions, and share successes in professional communities, practice-based research holds tremendous potential to support teachers in diverse classrooms as they work to teach in culturally sustaining ways despite external pressures. This chapter begins with the history of action research and the tradition of teachers conducting research on their practice. Then, examples of practice-based research in literacy teacher education settings from a review of the research literature are provided to demonstrate the challenges, opportunities, and design features for this work. The chapter concludes with recommendations for teacher education policies, for teacher educators, and for practice.",signatures:"Catherine Lammert",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75325",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75325",authors:[{id:"333192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catherine",surname:"Lammert",slug:"catherine-lammert",fullName:"Catherine Lammert"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6674",title:"Contemporary Pedagogies in Teacher Education and Development",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"33d1ab42e6304ea91a1ee326da9b4101",slug:"contemporary-pedagogies-in-teacher-education-and-development",bookSignature:"Yehudith Weinberger and Zipora Libman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6674.jpg",editedByType:"Edited 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\r\n\tAn inverse problem, which starts with the causes and then calculates the effects, covers many fields of science. In many cases, models of given inverse problems can be linearized which allows the use of methods of linear algebra for their solutions. Effective tools of linear algebra in linear inverse problems are, in particular, generalized inverse matrices as one of the ways to represent (pseudo)solutions to singular (differential) matrix equations. Nowadays, the theory of generalized inverses is one of the hot topics of linear algebra in various aspects, such as elements of the ring, operators of Hilbert space, or matrices with real, complex, and quaternion entries. Matrices over quaternion algebra are also useful tools in a lot of applied inverse problems, among them in signal and color image processing, quantum physics, etc. In recent years, methods of simultaneous decompositions for tensors have been actively used in different inverse problems. In particular, a product singular value decomposition of a quaternion tensor triplet (higher-order PSVD) has various applications in digital watermarking technology. The main goals of this book are both to give the last achievements in various areas of linear algebra, such as generalized inverses and their applications in solving matrix equations and matrix minimization problems, decompositions of matrices and tensors, new developments in theories of quaternion matrices, and operators of Hilbert space, etc. It is also important to consider new applying models of inverse problems that can be linearized.
",isbn:"978-1-80355-223-1",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-222-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-224-8",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"778be380846c917e320eceaf5d7a5983",bookSignature:"Dr. Ivan Kyrchei",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11863.jpg",keywords:"Generalized Inverse Matrix, Singular Value Decomposition, Quaternion Matrix, Tenzor, Pseudoinverse Solution, Matrix Equation, Matrix Minimization Problem, Linear Operator Equation, Regularization Method, Tomographic Method, Iterative Reconstruction Method, Convolution",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 26th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 29th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 28th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 16th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 15th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A Leading Researcher of Pidstryhach Institute for Applied Problems in Mechanics and Mathematics of NAS, Ukraine. Dr. Kyrchei is an Editorial Board Member of the Journal ‘’Advances in Linear Algebra & Matrix Theory’’ and is a member of the International Linear Algebra Society.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"226980",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Kyrchei",slug:"ivan-kyrchei",fullName:"Ivan Kyrchei",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226980/images/system/226980.jpg",biography:'Ivan Kyrchei was born in 1964 in Lviv region, Ukraine. In 1992, he was awarded a Master of Science in Mathematics from Ivan Franko National University (Lviv, Ukraine). After that, he worked a high school teacher, studied in graduate school of Pidstryhach Institute for Applied Problems in Mechanics and Mathematics of NAS of Ukraine in Lviv and started his jobs in this institute in junior research positions. In 2008, he held a Doctor of Philosophy (Candidate of Science) degree from Taras Shevchenko National University of Kyiv in specialty of Algebra and the Theory of Numbers. His PhD thesis "Theory of the column and row determinants and inverse matrix over a skew field with involution" introduces and develops the theory of new column and row determinants for matrices with noncommutative entries. In 2021, he was awarded a Doctor of Physical and Mathematical Sciences degree from Institute of Mathematics of NAS of Ukraine in Kyiv. His habilitation ScD thesis " Generalized inverse matrices over the quaternion skew field and their applications" is devoted to generalized inverse matrices over the quaternion skew field, first of all to their determinantal representations, and their applications to solving quaternion matrix equations, some differential matrix equations, and problems of quaternion matrix minimizations and approximations. Now, he is working as the Leading Researcher of PIAPMM of NAS of Ukraine. In 2014, he held an academic degree of Senior Research Fellow (Algebra and the Theory of Numbers) from Ministry of Education and Science of Ukraine that is equivalent to Associate Professor. He obtained the award for significant achievements in the field of science from the Lviv Regional State Administration and Regional Council (2019, 2021). His research interests are mostly in Algebra, Linear Algebra and their Applications. He has more than 80 scientific publications, from them more than 60 are papers with the high science citation index that have been published in well-known professional scientific journals and editor\'s books. He serves also as Editorial Board Member and reviewer in several SCI-journals.',institutionString:"National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Ukraine"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"15",title:"Mathematics",slug:"mathematics"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"347258",firstName:"Marica",lastName:"Novakovic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",email:"marica@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"117",title:"Artificial Neural Networks",subtitle:"Methodological Advances and Biomedical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"artificial-neural-networks-methodological-advances-and-biomedical-applications",bookSignature:"Kenji Suzuki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/117.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"3095",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenji",surname:"Suzuki",slug:"kenji-suzuki",fullName:"Kenji Suzuki"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3828",title:"Application of Nanotechnology in Drug Delivery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"51a27e7adbfafcfedb6e9683f209cba4",slug:"application-of-nanotechnology-in-drug-delivery",bookSignature:"Ali Demir Sezer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3828.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"872",title:"Organic Pollutants Ten Years After the Stockholm Convention",subtitle:"Environmental and Analytical Update",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f01dc7077e1d23f3d8f5454985cafa0a",slug:"organic-pollutants-ten-years-after-the-stockholm-convention-environmental-and-analytical-update",bookSignature:"Tomasz Puzyn and Aleksandra Mostrag-Szlichtyng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/872.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"84887",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomasz",surname:"Puzyn",slug:"tomasz-puzyn",fullName:"Tomasz Puzyn"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3569",title:"Biodegradation",subtitle:"Life of Science",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb737eb528a53e5106c7e218d5f12ec6",slug:"biodegradation-life-of-science",bookSignature:"Rolando Chamy and Francisca Rosenkranz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3569.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"165784",title:"Dr.",name:"Rolando",surname:"Chamy",slug:"rolando-chamy",fullName:"Rolando Chamy"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"56159",title:"Processing and Preservation of Fresh-Cut Fruit and Vegetable Products",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69763",slug:"processing-and-preservation-of-fresh-cut-fruit-and-vegetable-products",body:'\nAccording to the International Fresh-Cut Produce Association (IFPA), fresh-cut fruit and vegetable products (FFVP) are defined as fruits or vegetables that have been trimmed, peeled or cut into a 100% usable product which has been packaged to offer consumers high nutrition and flavour while still maintaining its freshness [1, 2]. The importance of fresh-cut produce lies in its major characteristics of freshness, convenience, nutrient retention and sensory quality while providing extended shelf life [3, 4]. Fresh-cut fruits and vegetables (FFV) are products partially prepared and which require no additional preparation for their use. This makes it unavoidable that their overall quality diminishes during processing and storage. It is made more so, as the operations involved in preparing fresh-cut products damage the integrity of the cells, promotes contact between enzymes and substrates, increases the entry of microorganisms and creates stress conditions on the fresh-cut produce [4, 5].
\nAccording to Artes-Hernandez et al. [6] FFVP are also referred to as products prepared with slight peeling, cutting, shredding, trimming and sanitizing operations and which have been packed under semipermeable films and stored under refrigerated temperature. Fresh-cut products are also reported to contain similar nutrients and ingredients as whole products with the added advantage of short time preparation and the low prices at which they are been sold [7]. Fresh-cut products constitute a major rapidly growing food segment which is of interest to food processors and consumers. The fresh-cut industry is expanding more rapidly than other sectors of the fruit and vegetable market due to its supply of both the food service industry, retail outlet as well as its expanding production and access to new markets across the globe. The growth rate of the sector is reported to be in the region of billions of dollars in recent years with USA as the main producer and consumer while the UK and France follows after [6]. FFVP presently sold in markets across the globe includes: lettuce (cleaned, chopped, shredded), spinach/leafy greens (washed and trimmed), broccoli and cauliflower (florets), cabbage (shredded), carrots (baby, sticks, shredded), celery (sticks), onions (whole peeled, sliced, diced), potatoes and other roots (peeled, sliced), mushrooms (sliced), jicama/zucchini/cucumber (sliced, diced), garlic (fresh peeled, sliced) as well as tomato and pepper (sliced) [2].
\nDespite the fact that food processing methods extend the shelf life of fruit and vegetable products, processing of fresh-cut produce however reduces the shelf life of the commodity, rendering the product highly perishable as a result [6]. This biological changes may lead to flavour loss, cut-surface discolouration, decay, rapid softening, increased rate of vitamin loss, shrinkage as well as shorter shelf life of the fresh-cut produce. Interactions between intracellular and intercellular enzymes with substrates as well as increased water activity may also lead to flavour and textural changes upon processing [8]. A major effect of fresh-cut processing is stress on vegetable tissues with the resultant phytochemical accumulation and loss induced through reduced activity in key enzymes of secondary metabolic pathways. Fresh-cut processing also results in cell breakdown as well as the release of intracellular products such as oxidizing enzymes thereby quickening product decay [2].
\nSeveral factors are reported to affect the overall quality of fresh-cut produce. Among many of such factors is appearance [1, 9]. Appearance according to Kays [10] and Lante and Nicoletto [11] in combination with size, shape, form, colour as well as the absence of defects are factors which greatly affects the purchase of fresh-cut produce by consumers. All of these factors can also be influenced by several pre-harvest factors. Available nutrients inherent in fruits and made available upon consumption includes antioxidant vitamins beta-carotene (pro-vitamin A), α-tocopherol (vitamin E) and ascorbic acid (vitamin C). Research has also shown that regular consumption of fruits and vegetables reduces risk of cancers, cardiovascular diseases and several inflammations [12, 13]. This apart from regular body exercise and genetics has made fruit and vegetable consumption one of the main factors that contributes to a healthy lifestyle. With studies showing the nutritional benefits of fruits and vegetables, consumption of FFVP therefore promotes health through increase in the supply of antioxidant and other phytochemical nutrients to the body.
\nFFV have been known to have a shorter shelf-life compared to intact fruit and vegetable products due mainly to processing. Several processes involved in the production of FFVP have been known to alter greatly the shelf stability of the cut-produce. There are traditional processing procedures involved in obtaining fresh-cut products and this procedures usually requires an order of unit operations such as peeling, trimming, shredding, dicing, cutting, washing/disinfecting, drying and packaging. Shelf life extension of the cut produce is therefore dependent on a combination of these unit operations as well as proper temperature management during storage, use of antibrowning agents, proper packing conditions as well as good manufacturing and handling practices [6, 7]. The unit operations required in the handling and processing of FFVP is shown in Figure 1.
\nUnit operations and maximum recommended temperatures for each step in the processing of fresh-cut fruit and vegetable produce. Adapted from Artes-Hernandez et al. [
An essential aspect of processing of fresh-cut produce is cutting. Cutting helps divide whole harvested fruit and vegetable products into minute fractions before packaging. The effect of cutting however on the products is the wounding stress which the cut tissues are allowed to suffer thus accelerating the rate of spoilage and deterioration of the cut produce [14]. Cutting has been attributed to be the main factor responsible for the deterioration of FFV thereby enabling the product to experience a more rapid rate of deterioration than whole products [15]. Cutting increases respiration rate [16], induces deteriorative changes associated with plant tissue senescence and thus the consequential decrease in shelf life when compared to the unprocessed produce [4]. Cutting shape as well as the sharpness of the cutting blade has been attributed as some factors that affect the quality attributes of fresh-cut products [17, 18]. The works of Portela and Cantwell [19] showed that melon cylinders cut with a blunt blade demonstrated higher ethanol concentrations, off-odour scores, electrolyte leakage, and increased potential for ethylene secretion when compared to products processed with a sharp blade. It was also reported that use of sharp cutting implements reduces wound response, lignin accumulation, white blush, softening and microbial growth in fresh-cut carrots [18, 20–22]. Cutting-induced injury has been implicated as affecting the immediate visual quality of fresh-cut products and has also been known to have longer-term effects on metabolism with the concomitant quality changes that are detected at a later time. The actual cutting process results in great tissue disruption as formerly sequestered enzymes and substrates mix are found to mix, hydrolytic enzymes released, while signalling-induced wounding responses may be initiated [23].
\nDuring the process of cutting, phenolic metabolism takes place: breakage of the plasma membrane with the resultant effect of inducing oxidative enzymatic reactions thus triggering browning of tissues and oxidation of polyphenols [14, 24]; and production of injury signals which induces the secretion of more secondary metabolites including phenolic antioxidants to heal the wound damage [14, 25, 26]. It has been reported that the content of phenolic acids increases in fresh-cut products. This fact can be attributed to the cutting of fresh fruits and vegetables with knives thereby inducing the activity of polyphenol oxidase (PPO) in the cut fresh fruit and vegetables. FFV are thus easily susceptible to browning reaction as a result [27, 28]. Accumulation of phytochemicals can also be as a result of altered O2 and CO2 levels during packaging as well as the use of preservatives such as [14] ascorbic and citric acid [28–31].
\nWounding as a result of cutting has been attributed as one of the basic source of stress experienced by fresh-cut produce. Some factors can however affect the wound response of the fresh-cut produce and these factors include stage of maturity, cultivar, storage, processing temperature, cutting method, water vapour pressure as well as O2 and CO2 levels [18, 19]. According to literature, wounding stress as a result of cutting of fruit and vegetables has been shown to increase the antioxidant activity as well as the polyphenolic content in fresh-cut produce such as carrots [32, 33], celery [34], lettuce [35], broccoli [36], mushroom, onions, and mangoes [37]. Consequences of wounding includes increase in respiration rate; production of ethylene; oxidative browning; water loss; and degradation of membrane lipids [4, 5]. This therefore increases the susceptibility of FFV to increased perishability than their source commodity [38].
\nDuring the production process, cut fruits are exposed to environmental microbes in the processing facility. Reducing the level and rate of contamination will be dependent on the use of the appropriate disinfectants and sanitizers. One of such disinfectants of high use in the FFV industry is chlorine. The use of chlorine as a disinfectant is however of great concern and is presently prohibited in some European countries due to issues of public health [39]. Chlorine is generally used in the food industry due mostly to its low price and its wide application of antimicrobial effectiveness [39, 40]. However, under certain conditions, chlorine has been shown to be weak in reducing microbial loads [41] as it can easily be inactivated by organic matter [40, 42] and its action is highly pH reliant. Chlorine has also been shown to produce unhealthy by-products which are carcinogenic and mutagenic such as chloroform, trihalomethanes, chloramines and haloacetic acids, when reacting with organic molecules [43, 44]. Chlorine is also corrosive with its use banned in some European countries such as Belgium, Denmark, Germany and The Netherlands [40, 45–47]. Presently, alternative chemical compounds, biological methods and physical technologies which are more environmentally friendly and possess less risk to the health of workers and consumers have been developed to replace the use of chlorine [45–52].
\nConcentrations of 50–200 ppm and exposure time of 5 min of chlorine is commonly applied as hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite and as disinfectant in the FFV industry in order to enhance microbial safety of the produce [1, 49]. The exposure time of 5 min (depending on the microorganism) has been shown in literature as the maximum exposure time required as longer times of > 5–30 min did not result in increased removal of the pathogenic organisms [39, 53].
\nIn the handling and processing of FFV, common practices are undertaken and needs to be taken note of. These practices consist of protection from damage as a result of poor handling and poor functioning of machinery, foreign body contamination, improper washing, drying and unhygienic practices by personnel. Hence worker sanitation which is most often neglected in the fresh cut industry in collaboration with good manufacturing practices must be enforced by food processors. In accompanying this process, training of food handlers in food hygiene techniques must be undertaken [6].
\nPresently, new and alternative technologies for safety, improved quality and extended shelf life of processed fresh-cut products have been developed. Such technologies include: ozone (O3), a strong oxidizing agent in destroying microorganisms which has also been suggested as an alternative to sanitizers due to its effectiveness at low concentrations, short contact times and in the breakdown of nontoxic products; chlorine dioxide (ClO2), which is known for its efficacy against pathogenic spores, bacteria and viruses; organic acids and calcium (Ca) salts applied for maintenance of cell wall structure and firmness (Ca), inhibition of enzymatic and non-enzymatic browning as well as in the prevention of microbial growth at heights that did not affect flavour of the fresh-cut products with their efficacy against microbes higher for bacteria than molds; electrolyzed water employed due to its strong bactericidal effect against pathogens and spoilage microbes [6].
\nIt has been shown that fresh-cut process increases the metabolic activity mainly as a result of the enzymes polyphenol oxidase (PPO) causing discoloration and peroxidase (POD) causing enzymatic browning as well as de-compartmentalization of enzymes and substrates in tissues causing changes in flesh colour [54]. PPO can induce the browning occurrence by catalyzing the oxidation of phenol to o-quinones which are polymerized to produce brown pigments. Postharvest techniques maintaining the quality of fresh-cut fruit have been investigated by several researchers [55–57] including physical and chemical treatments. Many anti-browning agents or mixtures have been investigated like: calcium ascorbate with citric acid and N-acetyl-L-cysteine [58], citric acid [59], ascorbic acid with citric acid and calcium chloride [30], 4-hexylresorcinol with potassium sorbate and D-isoascorbic acid [60] and modelling of the effects anti-browning agents on colour change in fresh-cut [57].
\nIn a study using mathematical modelling (Table 1), the effects of different anti-browning compounds (ascorbic acid, citric acid, L-cysteine and glutathione) at four concentrations of 0% as control, 0.5, 1.5 and 2.5% on
Treatments | \n||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Control | \n0.0209 ± 0.0012 | \n0.0158 ± 0.0008 | \n0.2604 ± 0.0474 | \n0.2616 ± 0.0187 | \n
Ascorbic acid | \n||||
0.5% | \n0.0132 ± 0.0012 | \n0.0132 ± 0.0002 | \n0.3313 ± 0.04567 | \n0.1566 ± 0.0231 | \n
1.5% | \n0.0088 ± 0.0007 | \n0.0090 ± 0.0004 | \n0.2146 ± 0.0777 | \n0.1272 ± 0.0062 | \n
2.5% | \n0.0066 ± 0.0010 | \n0.0079 ± 0.0003 | \n0.2231 ± 0.0572 | \n0.1186 ± 0.0129 | \n
Citric acid | \n||||
0.5% | \n0.0213 ± 0.0023 | \n0.0120 ± 0.0014 | \n0.1859 ± 0.0466 | \n0.1981 ± 0.0212 | \n
1.5% | \n0.0210 ± 0.0030 | \n0.0098 ± 0.0012 | \n0.1642 ± 0.0971 | \n0.1559 ± 0.0177 | \n
2.5% | \n0.0164 ± 0.0023 | \n0.0097 ± 0.0007 | \n0.1443 ± 0.1053 | \n0.1386 ± 0.0062 | \n
L-Cysteine | \n||||
0.5% | \n0.0068 ± 0.0019 | \n0.0095 ± 0.0011 | \n0.1776 ± 0.0521 | \n0.1427 ± 0.0263 | \n
1.5% | \n0.0053 ± 0.0008 | \n0.0077 ± 0.0011 | \n0.1342 ± 0.0400 | \n0.1188 ± 0.0127 | \n
2.5% | \n0.0025 ± 0.0002 | \n0.0041 ± 0.0001 | \n0.1385 ± 0.0213 | \n0.0653 ± 0.0047 | \n
Glutathione | \n||||
0.5% | \n0.0180 ± 0.0010 | \n0.0107 ± 0.0004 | \n0.1866 ± 0.0487 | \n0.1993 ± 0.0095 | \n
1.5% | \n0.0094 ± 0.0011 | \n0.0089 ± 0.0004 | \n0.1676 ± 0.0262 | \n0.1311 ± 0.0115 | \n
2.5% | \n0.0061 ± 0.0007 | \n0.0087 ± 0.0004 | \n0.1329 ± 0.0229 | \n0.0973 ± 0.0167 | \n
The estimated parameters k and the standard error of estimates (S.E.) in Eqs. (1) and (2) for dipped fresh-cut mangoes at different concentration and anti-browning agents.
a
Adapted from Techavuthiporn and Boonyaritthonghai [57].
The unit operation employed in processing of FFV involves peeling, cutting, slicing and shredding; all of which cause disruption of surface cells, tissue and cytoplasm exposure, coupled with high water activity and low pH; thereby providing a breeding ground for growth of pathogenic microorganisms such as
Microbial growth and survival depend largely of the quality or type of fruit or vegetable in question. The quality factors of a product that may affect microbial growth include pH, water activity, respiration rate, type of packaging, competitive microflora and innate antimicrobials [61]. The pH of a product strongly influences microbial growth. Most vegetables are known to have a pH of ≥ 5 which supports the growth of pathogenic microorganisms. Despite the acidic pH of most fruits, organisms such as
Peeling and cutting increases respiration and ethylene secretion rate of fruits which in turn increases senescence, which makes more sugar available thereby allowing rapid microbial growth on fresh-cut fruits. Microbial contamination of fresh-cut produce can also be facilitated by cross-contamination of produce through: (a) transfer of organisms from surface of fruits onto FFV; (b) attachment of pathogens onto shredders and slicers which can be re-introduced, for instance L. monocytogenes has been recovered from the environment of vegetable processing plant [61]; (c) re-use of the same water for washing fruits and vegetables allows transfer of microorganisms from contaminated parts to uncontaminated parts. Packaging conditions also has influence on the growth of pathogenic microorganisms during storage. Modified atmosphere packaging which uses low oxygen and increased carbon dioxide for preservation of fresh-cut produce influences growth of pathogenic organisms.
Conventional method of bacterial enumeration works exquisitely on the recovery of viable bacteria from fruits and vegetables. Many food microbiology laboratories lack availability and utilization of novel molecular-based technologies. Due to this, conventional methods such as standard plate count, selective or differential media for isolation and detection and of bacteria samples; and further identification using biochemical methods such as gram stain and other commercially available profiling systems [67]. Non-selective media such as nutrient agar, tryptone soy agar can aid proliferation of bacteria cells at incubation time of 4 h before subsequent transfer to a selective media such as Mac Conkey agar for
Another media used for isolation and detection of pathogenic bacteria is the use of fluorogenic and chromogenic culture media. Identification of bacteria on fluorogenic media is made possible through the incorporation of enzyme substrates (which consists of a sugar/amino acid-fluorogen complex) into a selective media which in turn speeds up biochemical confirmation of the bacterial identity [68]. For example, methylumbelliferyl is a fluorogen that has been incorporated in an array of media for detection of coliforms such as
Nucleic acid-based systems designed for the detection of genomic DNA specific to particular microorganisms are capable of achieving rapidly and highly sensitive identification even when the target microbe is present in low numbers [72]. In order to achieve this, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is quite useful. PCR is a molecular-based detection method. This method is focused on extraction of bacteria DNA; and it works best when there is enough bacterial cells from which is boosted by the enrichment step. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) is another molecular-based method that works on the principle of antigen-antibody interaction. It is more sensitive and specific to a bacteria strain than standard plate count method. Steps in Antigen (food slurry/extract) is added to sample wells in a microtiter plate containing an antibody with specificity to the target molecule. ELISA has been successfully used to detect virulence determinants of pathogens such as
Standard methods of isolation and identification of pathogenic microorganisms in foods are slower and time consuming which has led to demand of quicker methods; and for the past two decades the latter have been developed for both on-site and laboratory tests. A method can be characterized as rapid when it gives quicker results that the conventional method. Other factors that determine its effectiveness are sensitivity, standardization, reliability, accuracy, specificity, evaluation, ease of use, cost, validation, convenience and potential for automation. Most of the advances in development of rapid methods are in molecular-based methods and other areas including impedance and conductance, bacteriophages, biosensors, microscopy as well as in miniaturized, automated biochemical detection kits [72]. There are currently many diagnostic systems like RapID, Minitek, API, Biolog, MicroID, Crystal ID and VITEK systems which are commercially available for identifying different microorganisms [8].
\nThe rate of contamination of FFVP after processing (cutting or wounding) is greater when compared to those of whole fruits and vegetables [73, 74]. This has been largely attributed to high moisture content in the fruits and vegetables as well as wound occurring in the tissues due to processing [75]. Wounding of tissue as a result of slicing, cutting or peeling releases the nutrients inherent in these products thereby enhancing microbial contamination and growth [76]. Upon growth of these microbes on the FFV surface, susceptibility to the formation of biofilms increases in the produce thus bringing about difficulty in the elimination of these microbes [77]. Microbial biofilms are thus able to attach, grow and spread to any surface with the cells associated with the biofilms possessing an advantage in growth and survival over planktonic cells. Growth and survival advantage over planktonic cells by biofilms has been attributed to the formation of exopolysaccharide matrix which surrounds the biofilms, thereby building a wall against the environment and protecting the biofilms from sanitizers [74, 78].
\nPathogens of major concern in FFVP include
Some of the biological methods employed in the reduction of pathogenic attack and spoilage of processed FFV include bacteriocins such as lactic acid bacteria which produces organic acids and bacteriocins that can act as antimicrobials [85]. For instance bacteriocin nisin is a natural preservative produced by
Enzymes have also been employed in the control of pathogenic organisms in fresh-cut products. According to Simões et al. [91] and Thallinger et al. [92], enzymes are able to target directly the biofilms that interfere with their development process, speed up the formation of antimicrobials and even destroy mature biofilm. In attacking biofilms, enzymes mostly target the extracellular polymeric matrix which surrounds the biofilm cells and influences the shape of the biofilm structure as well as its resistance to shear forces [93]. Hence, enzymes can be used as an alternative to conventional chemical disinfectants in the removal of biofilms from fruits, leaves and other abiotic surfaces [39]. However, the use of enzymes requires prolonged contact times for effectiveness against biofilms and the fact that extracellular polymeric substances produced by biofilms are mostly heterogeneous confers some disadvantages on the use of enzymes [39]. Accordingly, use of enzymes alone as a biological control against pathogens in fresh produce does not guarantee total removal of biofilms. Lequette et al. [93] and Augustin et al. [94] therefore suggested the use of enzymes in combination with other treatments especially with antimicrobial agents.
\nOne of the various ways of processing fresh-cut fruits and vegetable is the use of modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) of the produce. The process of MAP helps in altering the gaseous composition within a food packaging system. MAP relies greatly on the interface between the rate of respiration of the produce and the transfer of gases through the packaging material without any further alteration to the initial gas composition [95–98]. MAP can either be passive: which involves generation of MAP in a packaging material by reliance wholly on the natural process of respiration of the packaged produce as well as the permeability of the packaging film material in bringing about the desired gas composition. MAP can also be active: involving the replacement of the gaseous composition in a packaged material through the introduction of gas scavengers or absorbers such as ethylene scavengers, oxygen and carbon (iv) oxide, thereby establishing the preferred gas mixture within the package [95, 98–100].
\nFFV have a short shelf life due to respiratory metabolism (Figure 2). Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) has been used to reduce the rate of respiration and water loss leading to prolonged storage period. MAP comprising of low O2 and elevated CO2 atmospheres have been used to extend the shelf life and leading to high organoleptic characteristics of pear [101], apple [102], mango [55] and peach [103] fresh cut. The effects of low O2 and CO2-enriched atmospheres associated to different packaging, traditional and compostable, on shelf life of fresh-cut nectarine slices stored (1°C) for 7 days by Maghenzani et al. [104] showed that low permeability of the film has a positive influence on weight loss and firmness as the less permeable film allowed a greater water retention, which caused a lower weight loss. They observed that MAP, acting on the respiratory metabolism, reduced respiratory metabolism with positive effect on colour, total soluble solids, titratable acidity, firmness and PPO activity, though efficacy differed among two cultivars of the fruit. Biodegradable films performs better than polyethylene film as a packaging material.
\nFresh foods such as fruit and vegetables are alive and continue to respire after harvest. Reducing the respiration rate and reducing the heat produced through efficient airflow inside ventilated packaging is important in maintaining product quality [
Freezing is a widely known and applied preservation process of various foods which offers the advantage of producing high-quality nutritious foods with prolonged shelf life. Freezing has also been described as one of the best methods used in preserving foods such as fruits and vegetables. Freezing of FFV will reduce the problem of spoilage experienced by the fresh-cut commodities. However, there is a perception by consumers that freezing reduces and affects negatively the nutritional composition of the fruits [106, 107]. A point of comparison is based on the fact that fresh produce could maintain its keeping quality in the consumer’s home for a number of days prior to consumption [108].
\nDuring freezing most of the liquid water constituent of the food materials is transformed into ice, thereby reducing water activity, which slows down the physical and biochemical changes involved in the deterioration of foods as well as the growth and reproduction of spoilage microorganisms. Fruits and vegetables are composed of approximately 85–90% water which crystallizes during freezing. The freezing process prevents microbial growth, reduces water activity, and decreases chemical and enzymatic reactions [109]. According to Jaiswal et al. [110], decrease in temperature experienced during freezing impedes metabolic reactions taking place in the fruit and vegetable after harvesting. Freezing also reduces the rate of microbiological activities occurring in the FFV positively affecting the overall product quality. During the process of freezing, conversion of water to ice brings about various stress mechanism such as volumetric change of water converting into ice, spatial distribution of ice within the system as well as the size of the ice crystal [111, 112]. The effect of this stress mechanism is the deterioration of the frozen products by affecting the texture and structure of the cut fruit and vegetable.
\nIt is well known that FFV undergo faster physiological deterioration, biochemical changes and microbial degradation [113] which may result in degradation of the colour, texture and flavour. However, the high water content of fresh-cut products adversely affects the textural quality of the products after thawing due to the formation of ice crystals and water solids within the cell structure. When thawing takes place the cellular structure of the fruit and vegetables is destroyed [114]. The reduction in the product water content results in improved freezing performance and ameliorated product quality including better preservation of structural and textural characteristics [115]. Thus, in order to preserve the structural and textural characteristics and improve freezing performance, the water content of the fruits and vegetables are reduced by dehydration before freezing. Frozen fruits and vegetables are mostly consumed cooked with majority of vegetables blanched prior to freezing. Blanching action prior to freezing has been reported to influence greatly the structure of the vegetable thus resulting in an initial loss of firmness due to disruption of the plasma lemma and an increase in the ease of cell separation accompanied by swelling of the cell wall [112, 116].
\nSeveral novel freezing practices are presently being investigated to overcome the problems of FFV and other food produce undergoing physical and chemical changes as a result of freezing. One of such novel methods which is presently being explored is dehydrofreezing [115]. During dehydrofreezing process, the food is first dried up to a needed moisture content level before the onset of freezing. Hence it is aptly described as a process of freezing relatively dehydrated foods [117]. For fresh-cut products, non-thermal dehydration techniques such as vacuum and air drying are mildly applied prior to freezing. When the method of drying the FFV is through osmosis then it is termed osmodehydrofreezing. Dehydrofreezing is particularly well suited for fresh-cut fruits and vegetables due to the fact that reducing the moisture content in the produce will allow for the formation and expansion of ice crystals without damaging the cellular structure of the product [115]. Theoretically, the dehydration treatment not only reduces the amount of water to be frozen but also makes cell structures less susceptible to breakdown by changing cell turgor pressure [118]. The reduced water content has the potential to reduce the freezing time, the initial freezing point and amount of ice formed within the product [117]. As a consequence, the damage to plant cells caused by ice crystal formation and the post-thawing quality degradation such as softening and loss of good textural attributes are alleviated. Reduction in moisture content before freezing also leads to reduced freezing time since there is less water to freeze as well as a reduction in the amount of ice formed within the produce [119, 120]. According to Li and Sun [118], fruits and vegetables are said to exhibit better quality over those that are frozen without any form of reduction in moisture content.
\nGenerally, the texture of a thawed frozen fresh-cut fruit and vegetable product is much softer than normal produce due to cell rupturing caused by expansion of the plant cells during freezing. Hence the recommendation that the moisture content of fresh-cut produce be reduced before freezing in order to mitigate the effect of freezing on the thawed product.
\nFFV are derived from whole fruits by cutting them into desired shapes and sizes. However, peeling and cutting cause serious damage to vegetable tissues which leads to dissociation of cell components that brings about biochemical reactions such as accelerated oxidative browning and chlorophyll degradation. Other quality deterioration include water loss, development of off-flavours, stimulation of microbial growth and tissue softening which makes fresh-cut fruits have short shelf life [121–123]. Wounding stress as a result of cutting first causes the plasma membrane to break thereby inducing reaction of oxidative enzymes with existing phenolic compounds causing oxidation of the latter [24].
\nNutritional value of fresh-cut fruits is usually a measure of vitamins A, B, C, E, polyphenolics and carotenoids; while that of vegetables include the previously mentioned vitamins, glucosinolates, carotenoids and polyphenolics through spectrophotometric and colorimetric methods [121]. Li et al. [123] tested the effect of cutting a whole pitaya fruit into slice, half and quarter slices on its nutritional quality. Their results revealed that the various cutting styles had little influence on vitamin C and soluble solids. However, total phenolic content, antioxidant activity, increased significantly with cutting wounding intensity up to first two days of storage before deterioration set in. Some nutritional contents of selected fruits and vegetables are highlighted in Table 2.
\nFruits/veg | \nSugars (oBrix) | \nVitamin C (mg/100 g) | \nPolyphenols (mg/100 g) | \nAntioxidants (%DPPH) | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
Kiwi | \n12.6 | \n44.99 | \n- | \n- | \n
Apple | \n- | \n3.00 | \n329.30–660.00 | \n12 | \n
Pitaya | \n0.15 g/kg | \n0.16 g/kg | \n0.6–1.2 g/kg | \n40–70 | \n
Papaya | \n11.82 | \n13.3–18.0 | \n1.9–3.5 | \n- | \n
Pineapple | \n- | \n76.27–142.41 | \n42.28–46.70 | \n30–60 | \n
Banana | \n- | \n46.75–53.25 | \n60.25–85.24 | \n70–90 | \n
Guava | \n- | \n65.16–198.25 | \n96.51–178.51 | \n- | \n
Radicchio leaves | \n- | \n- | \n143–360 | \n- | \n
Swede | \n535.2 g/kg | \n- | \n- | \n- | \n
Turnip | \n468.9 g/kg | \n- | \n- | \n- | \n
Total sugar content of swede were not affected by storage temperature; while lower temperatures (0 & −2°C) increased the sugar content of turnip than higher temperatures as a result of glucose and fructose metabolism by enzymes at lower temperatures [124]. Benítez et al. [122] reported that soluble solid content of kiwi slices coated with aloe vera gel, alginate and chitosan did not significantly change up till day 8 of storage at 5°C.
\nVitamin C is the vitamin that usually degrades most rapidly and can be used as an index of freshness. Vitamin C is unstable in many vegetables such as asparagus [121]. There was no significant difference in the ascorbic acid contents of FC papaya stored at 10–20°C for 0 to 24 h but a significant decrease was observed at storage temperature and time of 4C, 48 h [125]. There was no significant influence of cutting style on vitamin C content of pitaya fruit when cut in slice, half and quarter shape [123]. Exposure of fresh-cut banana, pineapple and guava slices to ozone for 0–30 min drastically reduced vitamin C contents of the fruits by 12.21, 46.44 and 67.13% respectively [126]. Vitamin C content of kiwi slices coated with chitosan and alginate, stored at 5°C depreciated at storage time from day 1 to day 11. However, kiwi slices coated with aloe vera gel significantly increased from 44.99 to 47.99 mg/100 g at the same storage conditions [122].
\nWhen wounding stress occurs, plants produce injury signals to induce the production of more secondary metabolites including phenolic antioxidants to defense and heal the wounding damage [24]. Wounding stress also activates phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL) - an enzyme responsible for synthesis of phenolic compounds in plant tissues. For example, carrots synthesize lignin along wound barriers [127]. Flavonoid contents of fresh-cut papaya significantly increased at storage conditions of 20°C at 24, 36 and 48 h when treated with 405 nm LED illumination [125]. Li et al. [123] reported a gradual increase in total polyphenol content of pitaya fruit with storage time of 4 days. An approximate increase of 63, 78 and 90% was reported for slice, half and quarter slice respectively at day 2; after which a decline was observed. Total polyphenols and flavonoids in fresh-cut pineapple, and banana increased as the fruit slices were exposed to ozone for up to 20 min; but a reverse trend was observed for guava slices. The reason for increase polyphenols by ozone treatment was attributed to activation of PAL [126]. Upon 1 day in storage, total phenolic content of untreated and fresh-cut apples treated with citric acid and UV light decreased by 50% Ref. [128].
\nKim et al. [6] observed no significant difference in antioxidant capacity of fresh-cut papaya stored at 4–20°C for 0 to 48 h. Antioxidant capacity of fresh-cut pineapple and banana increased when exposed to ozone for 20 min and declined upon further treatment; while that of fresh-cut guava reduced with ozone treatment and increased when ozone exposure time was increased to 30 min [126]. A drastic loss of antioxidant potential of fresh-cut apples was observed in both untreated and fruit pieces treated with pulsed light and gellan-gum coatings during the first week of storage [129].
\nFruits and vegetables remain important health food with low in fat, sodium and calories and high concentrations of vitamins, minerals and phytochemicals especially antioxidants protecting body cells against free radicals [130, 131]. Emerging technologies to fresh-cut fruits and vegetables to inactivate bacteria and viruses are focusing on modified atmosphere packaging process. The microbial inactivation effect of this technologies has to be further assessed. The number of studies is still low in the area of emerging technologies such as low-pressure application to reduce microbial populations in FFV. Very few studies have focused on viral inactivation during MAP processes. More evidence is needed that MAP process can contribute to reduce or eliminate specific foodborne pathogens to reduce the risk for foodborne infection associated with FFV when consumed as such or when used further in the food supply chain as ingredients.
\nPackaging material, including low density polyethylene (LDPE), laminated aluminium foil (LAF), high density polyethylene (HDPE), polypropylene (PP), polyethylene (PE), is an essential component of the FFV, assuring the safe handling and delivery of such food products from the point of production to the end user. Technological developments in smart packaging offer new prospects to reduce losses, maintain quality, add value and extend shelf-life of agricultural produce [105]. More novel and emerging packaging technologies are therefore still needed in the way we handle and package FFV to meet the increasing consumer demand for consistent supply of high quality, wholesome and nutritious products.
\nSmart, active and intelligent packaging with food spoilage indicator label (Green = fresh; orange = warning) are beginning to emerge in FFV industry. We are also beginning to see freshness and leakage indicators are commercially available for monitoring food [132]. Recent advances in biotechnology, nanotechnology, nano-sensors and material science offer new opportunity to develop new packaging materials and design for the fresh-cut fruit and vegetable industry. Incorporation of nano-sensors in the packaging material could capture and analyze environmental signals and adjust stress response treatments on fresh fruits and vegetables. Evidently, recent developments and applications of nanotechnology could lead to the development of antimicrobial packaging in response to spoilage. As stated by Opara and Mditshwa [105], the application of emerging technologies in packaging design offers new prospects for advanced quality monitoring using electronic devices that monitor and report real time information on nutritional quality and safety of food. This and other areas of packaging design remain a challenge for food, chemical and mechanical engineers.
\nFFV are increasing in demand due to its less processing and high nutritional content. However, the impact of processing and storage conditions should be taken into consideration by consumers due to the fact that nutritional quality of the produce can change as a result of storage and due largely to biochemical and enzymatic reactions. While conventional food processing method extends the shelf life and wholesomeness of fruits and vegetables, fresh-cut processing renders the products highly perishable and undesirable by the consumers. Suitable technology and techniques for preservation, retention of wholesomeness and consumer desirability of fresh-cut products are therefore required to meet the present day growing consumer demands.
\nCotton is one of the most important fiber crops cultivated worldwide. India has the largest cotton acreage approximately 12.7 million hectares and is now the second largest cotton producing country in the world with 312 lakh bales (each of 170 kg) [1]. Cotton cultivation in India encounters with several environmental factors like, abiotic stresses such as drought, flooding, salinity, heat waves and extreme events that limits cotton productivity and projected climate changes could increase their negative effects in the future [2]. Plant root system represents an important interface through which plants respond to various environmental factors. The interface between the environment and plants is multifaceted, with temporally and spatially dynamic processes affecting the signals that growing cells grasp [3]. Taproot systems like in cotton plants are composed of a primary root (the taproot) and lateral roots that emerge from this primary root. The depth of the primary root; the periodicity of lateral root patterning [4], growth rate, and root tip angles of the lateral roots define the potential volume of soil that can be explored and foraged for soil resources by the root system. The sessile nature of plants has made them extremely sensitive toward the constant flux of surrounding environmental factors. Root architecture is intimately interwoven with and shaped by the availability of soil resources. Strategies for enhanced resource acquisition have recently focused on root traits with the targeted approach for efficient utilization of water and nutrients. [5] proposed that quantification of root traits should focus on phenes, which are defined as the smallest quantifiable phenotypic elements that cannot be divided further. These traits can be computed automatically from root images. The role of the root system under soil moisture stress is receiving much focused research attention recently and which signify importance of root traits such as root length, root-to-shoot ratios, rooting habit, conductance of water through the xylem vessels, and drought tolerance. The depth of root penetration depends on a number of environmental factors, but in general the taproot can reach depths of over three meters and can root cells elongate one to six centimetres per day. In general, the root system traits such as root length continues to thrive upto young boll formation [6], at which time root length declines as older roots die. New roots continue to be formed but overall decline in total length [7]. Roots constitute a critical organ and functionally associated with crop architecture, lodging resistance, drought resistance and yield potential [8]. Due to low heritability and complexity of root system, breeding for root traits has been relatively slow associated with its expensive, labor intensive methodology and time-consuming phenotyping [9]. So far, no report has explored the developmental behaviour of seedling root traits with molecular markers in upland cotton.
Cotton is one of the taproot crop, where the root system consists of tap root, lateral root, branch root, hair root and root hairs. Cotton production systems are exposed to several abiotic stresses during the growing season. In general, plant root zone expansion is a highly desirable outcome of crop production. Roots are a plant’s lifeline to water and nutrients that directly impacts cotton productivity. Cotton is grown under stressful conditions that can limit water and nutrient availability throughout the growing cycle. Access to water and nutrients is especially critical to production of the highest quality fiber [10]. Root system architecture is constituted an assemblage of root phenes which determine the temporal and spatial distribution of roots in the diverse soils and the ability of the plant roots to absorb water and essential nutrients from the soil [5]. Cotton plant has a taproot that grows fast and reaches to a depth of 20–25 cm even before seedling emergence. The total depth of root system usually reaches about 2.5 meter depending upon soil physical traits such as soil moisture, soil aeration, soil temperature and genetic potential of variety [11].
In general
The studies on characterization of genetic diversity for root traits in cotton crop with respect to abiotic stresses is very scanty due to inherent challenges in sampling intact roots from the field condition [11]. Therefore, existence of variability for root traits among available cotton germplasm/cultivar in response to environmental stresses indicates the possibility of selecting best genotype to withstand future change climatic scenario. Extensive research has shown that water uptake into plant roots occurs primarily in response to water potential gradients between bulk soil and the root interior. Hence, traits like osmotic adjustment of roots offers potential for manipulation in the breeding of drought resistant plants [14]. In cotton, morphological adaptive response to excess water has been seen as formation of adventitious root and hypertrophied lenticels. Formations of shallow or deep roots are some of the differential strategies adopted by growing plants to adapt to their environments. Root length density sets the magnitude of water uptake both under irrigated and rainfed soils. Thus, root responds to the altered root architecture that may further impact soil properties by decreasing the development of secondary roots. With the help of modern phenotypic tools to understand root system, studies on adaptive root system architecture can be one of the breeding strategies to incorporate into modern cultivar with taking advantage of available genetic variability [11].
Cotton have vertical tap roots [15]; secondary and tertiary roots originates from the tap roots [16] having a single layer covering of epidermal cells surrounded by root cortex. The Arrangement of xylem is either tetrarch or pentrach and the endodermis cells surround the stele and pericycle cells of roots [17]. The secondary roots can grow up to two meters [6]. Lateral roots are mostly shallow [18] and are formed by a taproot cambial cell. Their radial arrangement depends on number of vascular bundles (four or five) in primary root [19, 20]. Vascular bundles also have a direct correlation with taproots and number of lateral roots [21]. Functional significance of root size is determined by length, surface area, diameter, and volume of roots [22]. These traits determine growing plants nutrient uptake efficiency under low nutrient conditions [23]. Root growth and distribution is closely linked with nutrient and water uptake from the soil as most of cotton roots are present in 0–60 cm depth. Adequate nitrogen (N) supply may enhance the root biomass. However, application of N in sodic soils reduces the root parameters such as density, volume, and surface area of cotton roots [24]. Soil temperature of 35°C is optimal for cotton root growth [25]. Soil water status also influences the root development. Soils with less water holding capacity have deeper roots than soils with high water holding capacity [26]. Type of irrigation also affect the cotton root growth as heavy irrigation water supply affects the root system more rapidly during reproductive stage than normal reduction in root growth during boll development [27].
Root traits can be used as reliable selection criteria for drought tolerance in cotton [28]. Several studies revealed that introgression of root traits has been successfully enhanced crop productivity [29]. Maintaining of cell tissue turgor reinforced by superior water mining through roots has also been shown to enhance photosynthetic carbon assimilation and finally water use efficiency. Aquaporins, the water channels through the cell membrane are gaining significance as a possible mechanism to enhance water uptake and transport [30]. They assume significance in the scenario of drought tolerance as they actively involved in the regulation of hydraulic conductivities for a better water uptake, CO2 transport as well as tight cell osmoregulation across cell membranes under water stress [31]. More profuse (higher root length density) and deeper root systems in the soil is often proposed as desirable characteristics for drought adaptation [11, 31]. Mild and initial-stage drought stress enhanced root length in cotton, but long-time water deficit reduced the root activity [32]. Nevertheless, drought tolerant genotypes having large root system coupled with a low ∆13C could be the best donor parent for breeding for abiotic stress tolerance in cotton [33].
Generally, compaction is considered to be detrimental to plant root growth; however, usually not all parts of a root system are exposed to the same degree of compaction under field conditions, and the capacity of unimpeded parts of the root system for compensatory growth may result in only the distribution of roots being changed and not the total length. Compacted soils will have lower root densities and be inefficient absorbers of water and nutrients. Nutrient deficiencies that may show up due to restricted rooting and soil compaction. When soils are compacted, bulk density increases and the number of larger pores decreases, leading to increased resistance (soil strength) to root growth. Roots growing into compacted soil must displace soil particles, so that the rate of root elongation decreases as soil strength increases. In soil without significant compaction, roots will grow through soil pores and rapidly extend into the profile. Taylor and Ratliff [34] showed that root elongation rates in cotton (
Early season moisture stress to cotton plants can be the cause of a deeper root system [36]. During this time, the greatest root deepening is attained; however, lateral roots carry on growing throughout the rooting zone; therefore, the maximum size of the roots may not be achieved till 90 days of sowing [37]. Moreover, cotton has a deep root system with low density of roots in the surface layer of soils where availability of nutrients is high. Therefore, the rooting system makes cotton crop more dependent on the subsoil for nutrition. Soils with smaller particles have less pore space and bind water more tightly owing to capillary forces. This effect is quantified by the soil matric potential, which is affected by compaction and drying. In Vertisol soil, wetting and drying cycles in soil cause swelling and shrinking, respectively, which induce cracks that can extend deep into the soil. Models of soil chemical and physical properties (such as matric potential, hydraulic conductance, and hardness) need to be designed that enable prediction of such properties based on image data [38]. These data can be integrated into plant physiological models such as SimRoot to predict the effects of the soil environment on root physiology [39]. The distribution of water in the soil is generally determined by influence of gravity. But the porosity of the soil and the presence of hardpans and macropores influence overall the rate of bulk flow [40]. Some nutrients, such as nitrogen, follow similar principles as water because they do not bind tightly to clay particles in soil. Phosphorus is present at very low levels in about 70 percentage of agricultural soils and in chemical forms that are unavailable to the plant [41].
Improving of yield and maintaining yield stability of cotton crop, under normal as well drought stress conditions, is very much essential for the ever-increasing global population. India is the only country where all the four cultivated cotton species are being cultivated in rainfed conditions. India experiences drought like situation or gaps in rains during most critical cotton crop growth period in such areas every year. Various other factors, such as high temperature, flood, low light, pests and diseases and nutrients deficiency affects cotton production severely. Environmental factors, such as drought stress affect growth, productivity, and fibre quality of cotton [42, 43]. Deep root systems and more profuse root length density in the soil are often considered as selection criteria for drought adaptation trait. Luo et al. [32] reported that mild and early stage drought stress enhanced root length in cotton, but at later stage reduced the root activity as compared to water sufficient plants. Riaz et al. [44] established genotypic variability for root/shoot parameters under water stress in cotton (
Laboratory experiment was conducted at ICAR-Central Institute for Cotton Research, Nagpur in a newly designed rhizotron made of transparent acrylic resin sheets to understand root architecture of intact plants of cultivated cotton species. Transparent acrylic resin sheets filled with soil media facilitate the study of root systems of intact cotton plant seedlings grown in a rain out shelter. This method eliminates destructive root sampling and makes possible continuous observations and periodic tracing of undisturbed root systems of the seedlings. Megha et al. [45] evaluated
Acrylic resin sheet rhizotron assembly for seedling roots showing of four cultivated Cotton species.
The results of the experiment revealed that root growth of
Root length after every 5 days interval of cultivated cotton species.
Root growth of four cultivated cotton species after 60 days after sowing.
Shoot/Stem thickness after 60 DAS from crown level upward (mm).
Root thickness after 60 DAS from crown level downward (mm).
Dry root/shoot ratio after 60 DAS.
In most of crop plants drought stress is perceived initially by the root, which continues to grow underneath the soil even though shoot growth is inhibited under water deficit conditions [50]. Root temporal and spatial growths in soil matrix are closely linked with aboveground shoot traits. Water stress affects more to the growth of lateral roots than the growth of primary root, mainly by suppression of the activation of the lateral root meristems [51]. Increased root length in the soil under drought stress helps to get water from deeper soil layer [52, 53]. An increase in root density in soil layer (70–180 cm) in drying soil profile shown in cotton by [54]. More profuse (higher root length density) and deeper root systems in the soil are often proposed as desirable characteristics for drought adaptation [11, 31]. Luo et al. [32] described response of mild drought stress at initial-stage enhanced root length in cotton, but long-time water deficit induced the root activity as compared to control plants. In another study, biotech cotton plants were more tolerant to drought stress, with a better efficient root system than in wild type [55]. Similarly, the transgenic cotton plants harbored Arabidopsis that enhanced drought tolerance 1/homodomain glabrous 11 (AtEDT1/HDG11) gene had well-developed roots in addition to other drought-tolerant features [56].
Roots sense the edaphic water stress, transmit chemical signals to the above ground portion ie.shoots, and maintenance of root growth despite reduced water availability through water foraging [57]. The transpiration rate and stomatal conductance of plants are reduced during water deficit, and they are stimulated by chemical and hormonal signalling before hydraulic signalling in the roots. Various phytohormonal signalling molecules such as auxin and cytokinin are produced in the roots and play a crucial role in shoots during the drought stress in plants [10].
The water content of the soil can have a significant influence on rooting depth and root length density and therefore on the overall function of cotton roots [54]. McMichael and Lascano [58] demonstrated presence of “hydraulic lift” phenomenon in cotton roots where water is transported to the roots in the drier upper soil layers through the root system. The water moves from the wetter lower layers to the upper layers to maintain the viability of the roots in the drier layers to reduce overall root stress. In general, soils with high water holding capacity have shallow roots and with low water holding capacity have deeper roots [26]. Klepper et al. [54] reported change in root morphology under drying soil. Initially more roots were in the upper soil profile, but as a result of the death of the older roots in the upper soil layer due to the soil drying and production of new young roots at deeper layer results in increased rooting density with depth. Radin et al. [27] reported that long duration irrigation cycles makes more rapid deterioration of the root system during periods of boll development. Carmi et al. [59] showed that subsurface irrigation such as drip have more profuse growth of roots within one millimeter in diameter of size concentrating nearer to emitters site. Carmi and Shalhevet [60] reported that dry matter production in root in less affected than shoot growth under drying soil condition. In other studies, changes in rooting growth pattern based on maturity of cotton plants and availability of water distribution and in response to progressive drying soil [61]. This implies that changes in the root dry weight/root length relationships can change in response to changes in soil moisture. In terms of water extraction, Taylor and Klepper [62] observed that water uptake in cotton was proportional to the rooting density as well as the difference in water potential between the root xylem and the bulk soil. Taylor and Klepper [6] showed that both deep roots and shallow roots were effective in extracting water from the soil. Radin [63] showed that the hydraulic conductance of cotton roots declined at cooler temperatures which would affect water uptake. Oosterhuis [64] reported under mild drought stress in cotton decreased activity of root hydraulic conductance, influence on axial and radial movement of water and overall impact of water on root development. Field study on root traits using mini-rhizotrons has shown that rainfed cotton had tendency to grow at deeper depth than irrigated cotton [65, 66].
These results suggested that cotton cultivars express large differences in root length distribution under water stress, and therefore, deep rooting cultivars should be selected within environments under low rainfall regions. [67] reported significant role of osmotic adjustment with the growth of a root system in drought stress condition under field. In cotton, drought stress limits root development, shoot traits and fibre quality [68]. Drought affects the root growth which in turn may leads to reduced biomass accumulation in cotton. Cotton undergoing water deficit explores moisture and nutrients by deeper root penetration [69]. Cotton showed some adaptations toward drought stress effect with increased root length and decreased shoot length; the enhanced root/shoot ratio indicates water assimilation and enhanced drought tolerance [68]. The capacity to form a greater number of lateral roots increased root surface area for water absorption which is desirable traits for drought adaptation [70]. Drought treatments reduced the GA content of roots; upon rewatering GA content and CAT activity increases [71]. Overexpression of GhNAC2 suppressed the ethylene pathway and activated the ABA/JA pathway which leads to longer roots, larger leaves, and hence higher yield in cotton under drought [72]. ABP9 gene was introduced into
Waterlogging creates a hypoxic condition [75] and cotton is most susceptible to O2 deficiency [76]. Moreover, waterlogging causes reduction in cotton yield [77] due to reduced plant growth and nutrient uptake [78]. The excessive water-logging particularly with younger plants is responsible for root damage due to lack of oxygen, yellowing of leaves due to gaseous hormone ethylene production or poor nutrient uptake and wilting of plants, increased square abscission and shorter internodes [79]. Excess water in waterlogged soil promotes the fruit and boll shedding in cotton due to hypoxia in the root zone. Invitro studies show that root apices must be at or above the critical oxygen pressure for normal root growth and extension [80]. The O2 concentration threshold value below which root expansion begins to decline depends on the critical oxygen pressure for respiration, which in turn is influenced by the characteristics of the tissues through which O2 must diffuse the O2 affinity of oxidases [81]. In field-grown cotton, root growth is a function of O2 consumption in the soil by roots and microbes [82]; growth inhibition starts under mildly hypoxic (O2, 10%) conditions. Short term eexposure of cotton plants to transient (2–3 min) anoxia caused transitory cessation of tap root elongation but it resumed activity as the O2 supply was normalize. But continues exposure for example 3 h of anoxia resulted in complete death of the terminal apices of cotton roots [83]. Armstrong and Drew [81] proposed that inhibited energy production in reduced oxygen supply condition of root, inhibits cell division which results into deterioration in absorption of water and nutrients from the soil. Zhang et al. [84] also demonstrated that despite up-regulation of fermentative genes, waterlogging also induces oxidative damage to cotton root tissues.
In a comprehensive study by Davies et al. [85] reported waterlogging tolerance of different plant species confirmed that primary tolerance mechanisms reside in roots not in shoots. The root system plays a pivotal role in root-shoot communication to waterlogging through mechanism of (i) Water and nutrient uptake from soils and supply to the aboveground organs; (ii) Synthesis of endogenous hormones regulating plant response to hypoxia. Root structural traits and processes strongly depend on edaphic factors. Root internal cellular arrangement impacts shape and growth of cortical cells, path lengths, tissue level oxygen demands and radial losses, and shape of the root apical region [86]. Within a single root axis of a plant, root apices and the stele are potentially anoxic while the outer cortical tissues may continue to be aerobic [87]. Factors controlling these tissue-specific and genotypic variations in O2 status are not well understood in cotton, where phenotypic variation in anatomical features such as radial dimensions and biophysical characteristics of roots cells might yet be exploited. Initiation of morphological adaptation like adventitious root primordia is controlled by an interaction with production of gaseous hormone ethylene [88]. Ethylene accumulation also triggers various cellular adaptive traits such as cortical cell senescence, root porosity and secondary growth of phelloderm in dicot species [89].
Eudicotyledons species such as cotton do not display the same widespread tendency to form aerenchymatous roots as that of monocots [90]. However, there are other potential adaptations to submergence tolerance, with cotton enhancing survival in short-term deficient oxygen supply by developing lenticels [91]. Parawilt or sudden wilt in the cotton field are noticed under drought conditions that are followed by heavy rains or irrigation. In studies at ICAR-CICR, Nagpur, Gotmare et al. [92] reported genotypic differences were observed in terms of morphological adaptations such as lenticel and adventitious root formation when cotton plants subjected to waterlogged conditions. Agronomic practices such as sub-soiling prior to planting to improve root development and increase sufficient soil O2 is necessary for root development [93].
Cotton is relatively salt tolerant and can tolerate salinity up to 7.7dS m−1 [94] beyond that growth declines when the plant is exposed. Germination and emergence [95] and seedling growth [96] are most salt-sensitive stages of cotton. Salinity induces nutrient imbalance by high accumulation of ions such as Na+ and Cl− with lower concentration of K+, Mg2+, and Ca2+ ions. Salinity also caused altered growth and root expression. Cramer et al. [97] observed that the growth of the taproot of cotton seedlings was reduced in the presence of NaCl but that the effects could be alleviated by the addition of Ca2+ to the growing media.
The elongation of the taproot cotton seedlings was reduced to 60 percentages when roots were subjected to 150 mol/m3 NaCl salinity stress, Zhong and Lauchli [96]. Salinity stress causes morpho-physiological alterations in cotton by reducing the leaf and root weight, root growth, proline, and chlorophyll contents, stomatal conductance and net photosynthesis [98]. Salinity usually reduces the root growth due to inhibition of root length and reduction in number of secondary roots [99]. Leidi [100] demonstrated that high salinity stress condition constrained the growth of primary root length and under mild salinity stress also inhibited the length of secondary roots. Plant growth heavily relies on ionic influx in the root system along with their translocation toward shoot part. With the increase in the salinity, root growth reduced significantly in different soils but the suppression in root growth, fresh and dry weight was more in clay and loam soils [101]. Salinity has ddecreased root length and delayed secondary root growth have been reported [97]. Sodium is also a competitor of calcium to limit its uptake by cotton roots [102]. Cotton is salt tolerant, but its vegetative growth is severely affected on saline soil. Shoot is more sensitive to salt than roots. Reinhardt and Rost [103] showed that high salinity stress reduces cellular structural features such as root width and length of metaxylem in cotton growing seedlings which increase with increase in plant growth.
These altered changes in root morphology along with changes in osmotic relationships as a result of high salt, can result in a significant reduction in root growth and root activity to reduce plant productivity.
Cotton are photosynthetically more tolerant to drought and heat that requires a mean minimum temperature of 12–15°C and mean maximum temperature of 20–30°C for better growth [104]. The minimum temperature for seed sowing is 15.5°C [105] and optimum temperature of 35°C for root growth and development [106] for irrigated, while thermal kinetic window (TKW) is 23.5–25°C for rainfed cotton. The lowering of temperature from 30 to 18°C causes reduction in hydraulic conductivity of roots, resulting in reduced proliferation of roots [107]. Cotton root growth is maximum at day/night temperatures of 30/22–35/27°C and rise in temperatures to 40/32°C alter root distribution pattern resulting in limited downward extension of roots [108, 109]. Generally, abiotic stresses such as heat and drought stress restricted the root growth, plant height, boll development, and fiber quality. The root growth is faster at initial stages than shoot growth. McMichael and Burke [106] reveal that soil with a temperature range of between 20 and 32°C is suitable for proper root growth and development. The elevated root temperature between 35 and 40°C affects the root hydraulic conductivity, affect nutrient uptake, reduce hormone synthesis and translocation in different part of the plant [110, 111]. It is well established that the site of cytokinin originates in roots and the most sensitive process in growth and development of plants [112]. As compare to shoot temperature, root temperature are more critical because of less adaptable to extreme temperature variations [113]. Bolger et al. [107] also showed that conductance decreased when the root temperatures were reduced from 30–18°C. These results would suggest that under certain conditions the water uptake by cotton roots may decrease as a result of low soil temperatures even though water was not a limiting factor.
Phytohormone auxin is a small tryptophan derivative that induces a battery of developmental responses in plants. But auxin rarely acts alone. Cytokinin, an adenine derivative is required for vascular patterning, and hormonal signalling that pattern the root vasculature in crop plants [114]. During drought stress abscisic acid (ABA) plays a crucial role as a signalling molecule from its production site (roots) to the leaves for closure of stomata [115]. The root system of crop plants is altered by intrinsic developmental signals and diverse environmental cues. Trigger for to activate internal and external environmental cues on phytohormones to regulate the formation of a highly plastic and adaptive root system [116], which sustains the growth of plants even in unfavorable conditions. Several recent studies on hormonal regulation suggest that cross-talks among different hormones are essential for the regulation of root development, and auxin plays a central role in these processes. Although two phytohormones, auxin and cytokinin are the key regulators of root development have been extensively studied, the roles of other phytohormones still need to be further characterized to give us a full view of root development. Hormones appear to control root growth by regulating cell division and/or expansion [117, 118]. Phytohormone regulate root growth processes such as cell proliferation, differentiation or expansion in distinct tissues. New studies have highlighted a new target zone for hormonal regulation is transition zone found between the zones of proliferating and expanding root cells. Jasmonic acid (JA) promotes lateral root formation by directly inducing the auxin biosynthesis and/or modulating PIN2 accumulation on the plasma membrane [119]. A growth retardant mepiquat chloride (MC), a gibberellin synthetic growth inhibitor regulates the plant growth upon soaking seeds or foliar spraying of leaves. Response of MC on cotton plants results into shorten internode elongation, reduce main stem nodes, and decrease plant height, leading to more compact plant architecture and increase numbers of lateral roots. Over view of phytohormones involve in root structure and function regulation shown in Table 1.
Hormone | Production site | Transport | Site of Action | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Auxin (IAA) | Shoot meristem | Xylem & Phloem | Root meristem, dynamic regulation of root meristem size. | [120] |
Abscisic acid (ABA) | Roots | Xylem & Phloem | Regulate root growth and LR branching | [115, 121, 122] |
Cytokinins (CK) | Root tips & Developing seeds | Xylem & Phloem | Cell enlargement, amount of CKs reaching the shoot will reflect the extent of the root system | [98, 123] |
Gibberellins (GAs) | Root meristem | Xylem & Phloem | Endodermis of the root elongation zone | [124] |
Ethylene | Tissues undergoing senescence or ripening | Moves by diffusion from its site of synthesis | Adventitious root formation | [125] |
Brassinosteroids (BRs) | Root | Xylem | Lateral root development epidermis | [126, 127, 128] |
Strigolactones (SLs) | Root | Xylem | Shoot branching regulation, positive regulators of primary root elongation and negative regulators of adventitious root formation | [127, 129, 130] |
Jasmonic acid (JA) | Plasma membrane | Xylem & Phloem | Promotes lateral root formation | [119] |
β-Cyclocitral (β-carotene–derived apocarotenoid) | Endogenous root compound | - | Promote cell divisions in root meristems and stimulate lateral root branching | [131] |
Karrikins (KARs) smoke-derived butenolides | Root ligand | - | Root hair elongation, root density, | [132] |
An overview on the phyto-hormones involved in the regulation of root meristem size and the pivot of root growth.
The major areas of PGR research are to improve defoliation characteristics and control rank growth in cotton. Roots play an essential role in plant growth by acquisition of water and nutrients from the soil. Endogenous hormone auxin, which is transported and regulated by auxin efflux transporters, has been reported as a positional cue for root cell type determination [133]. Comparative gene analysis of
Plant nutrient absorption and uptake is the process successfully executed by young roots, especially by the root hairs. The absorption of water through roots is always in a continual state of flux and further, the uptake of water by the cells generates a pressure known as turgor. Root system architecture plays a critical role for crop growth by providing above ground mechanical support and controlling water and nutrient acquisition. Lateral roots, the major part of the root system in terms of root length and number, have crucial physiological capacities for water and nutrient uptake, and serve as the primary interface in response to heterogeneous soil environments. Lateral root initiation originates from asymmetric cell division of xylem pole-pericycle cells induced by auxin-accumulation [135].
Efforts to increase flowering and boll retention cannot be realized unless the plant has the ability to supply sufficient nutrients to these sinks to cater their demands. Alteration of root: shoot (i.e. higher root: shoot) ratios could potentially benefit the plant by providing a larger root mass to meet the needs of the aboveground biomass. The total plant root length continues to increase as the plant develops from seedling to until the maximum plant height is achieved and boll begin to form [6, 136]. The root then begins to decline as plant height enter into reproductive phase and older roots die. Synchronization of plant root activity with boll production is critical both in variety and Bt-hybrids [13]. Increased root activity during the later stages of boll filling is important for supplying needed nutrients and water to the developing cotton boll, but prolonged activity can hamper with late-season vegetative growth at cut out stage near to or following defoliation and problem of regrowth after application of harvest aids.
Plant root growth is closely linked with shoot growth, both of which are affected by N availability in the soil. In addition, roots in the surface soil were more strongly affected by availability N than roots distributed in the deeper soil layers. Root trait such as total root length, total root surface area, and root biomass in the top soil layer (0–15 cm) was significantly correlated with shoot and boll biomass. Next, 60–75 cm layer, total root length, total root surface area, and root length were significantly positively correlated with seed cotton yield. The application of a moderate level of N markedly increased total shoot biomass, boll biomass, and seed cotton yield [137]. Nitrogen plays an important role in plants root and shoot communications during plant growth and is critical for maximizing crop productivity [138].
Insufficient N fertilizer application causes premature senescence, while excessive application causes excessive vegetative growth and increases soil pollution. Root growth is significantly affected by N fertilization; especially low N levels enhanced root elongation [139, 140]. Zhang et al. [141] suggested that N can affect the distribution of roots in the soil. Iqbal et al. [142] showed that for improving N use efficiency in cotton the morphological characteristics of the root system is an important feature.
Luo et al. [143] demonstrated that cotton root activity in the soil at a depth of 40–120 cm was significantly correlated with canopy photosynthetic rate and significantly affected by nitrogen levels. N-sensitive period of cotton growth are flowering and boll period [144]. Root length and surface area are important traits for describing root system architecture [145]. Moderate available N could improve assimilate transport from source to sink, which could increase biomass in the fruiting parts [146]. The modulation of root development by N availability has great agricultural importance and its understanding provides the basis for improvement of cultivars with better root architecture. Recent studies demonstrated that arginine is the precursor of nitric oxide in roots catalysed by nitric oxide synthase [147], and nitric oxide plays a key role in the lateral root formation. In Arabidopsis reduced activity of arginase may increase synthesis of nitric oxide contents in roots and therefore resulted into improved formation of the lateral roots in transgenic plants. Wang et al. [73] reported use of CRISPR/Cas9-mediated editing of arginase genes in cotton in upland cotton R18, orthologous arginase genes (GhARG), Gh_A05G2143 and Gh_D05G2397, in the A and D chromosomes. CRISPR/Cas system was efficient in producing targeted mutations in the selected genes which improved lateral root system under both sub-optimal nitric conditions consequent adaptation of cotton on a different type of soils [70].
McMichael et al. [17] showed that the increased root xylem cells in radial cellular fashion in the vertical taproot of few exotic cotton germplasms resulted in a significant increase in total xylem cross-sectional area and number of lateral roots which may be associated with drought tolerance in plants with the increased xylem vessels. Oosterhuis and Wullschelger [10] supported the finding that increased water flux was associated with increased xylem cross sectional area. Elevated number of xylem cell files in the primary root did not contribute to the decrease in axial resistance to water movement. The increased number of lateral roots cells associated with increased vascular bundles resulting in increased xylem vessels may be important characteristics associated with drought tolerance in plants with the increased xylem vessels which may lead to improved yields. The root tip grows by adding new root file cells along the axis and enlarging at the tip, forming the tap root. The root tip produces a tap root of 12 to 20 cm by the time cotyledons emerge from the soil [148]. Lateral roots initiate inside the tap root tissue and grow horizontal into fresh soil for nutrient and water uptake. Because these young lateral roots proliferate near the surface in warm, nutrient rich soil, they are critical for seedling vigour. The origins of lateral roots are from cambium of the tap root and are arranged in radial fashion depend upon the number of vascular bundles present in the primary root. Crop roots are the main organs that primarily sense and respond to the biotic as well as abiotic stresses [88]. A high number of lateral roots would increase the total root surface volumetric area of the plant that may potentially improve the overall growth, fiber length, yield, and stress tolerance against severe conditions. Therefore, genetic engineering of root traits especially lateral roots makes cotton plants to enhance yield and fibre contents but will also make cotton crop tolerant to abiotic stresses [73].
The number of border cells that can be produced daily by a given root is conserved at the plant family level, and can range from a dozen for tobacco to ten thousand for cotton. During cell differentiation of root system, the border cell production of tap roots, branch roots and secondary roots are identical [149]. Current evidences and results have suggested that border cell production in different plant species is tightly regulated process including cotton and govern by endogenous and environmental cues [149]. Upland cotton (
Other than abiotic stresses faced by cotton plants during cotton root development, however, biotic stresses that might be categorized as root stress, would be the infection of roots by plant pathogens such as
Cotton
The root rot disease caused by
Complete wilting of the affected plants and drooping of leaves from top to bottom with sudden wilting is the characteristics symptoms of root rot disease (Figure 7). In the field, diseased may occur in isolated spots and later develops into more or less in circular patches. Earlier symptoms appear on roots including main roots and brown to black discoloured infection on the roots with sore-shin and the diseased plants can be easily pulled out from the soil (Figure 8). The germinating seedlings and young seedlings are attacked by the pathogen to hypocotyl causing black lesions, stem girdling and finally death of the seedling. Generally, roots of affected plants shreds and become yellowish in colour as compared to disease free plants. In case of severe infection, higher numbers of dark brown coloured sclerotia bodies are seen on the stem or on the shredded bark. Similarly, microsclerotia may be observed on roots and stems in case of
Diseased cotton plants showing black discolored infection on the roots with sore-shin.
Cotton root rot disease.
It was observed that the disease progressed faster in
Seed dressing with recommended fungicides is an important strategy for the management of root rot and seedling diseases with any one of the fungicides i.e. Fluxapyroxad 333 g/l FS, Tetraconazole 11.6% w/w (12.5% w/v) SL, Carboxin 37.5% + Thiram 37.5% DS and Thiram75% WS at the recommended doses. It was observed that biocontrol agents
Other studies have shown that infection of cotton roots by nematodes may impact the growth and development of the plant with infections similar to water stress. This conditions favours reduction in hydraulic conductivity and increases drought resistance in plants [160].
Root-knot nematodes (RKN): Plant parasitic nematodes, especially root-knot nematodes (RKN), are the hidden enemy of crops. The estimated overall annual yield loss of world’s major crops due to damage by phytoparasitic nematodes has been reported to the extent of 12.3% [161]. The national loss due to plant parasitic nematodes in 24 different crops in monetary terms has been worked out to the tune of 21068.73 million rupees [162]. Amongst all, the root-knot nematodes
The root knot nematode,
Roots of cotton infected with Meloidogyne incognita showing heavy root galling on entire root.
The improvement of belowground plant efficiency has potential to further increase crop productivity. However, hidden half i.e., plant roots studies are challenging, due to its underground nature and difficult to screen. Several tools for identifying root anatomical features and image analysis software have been proposed (Table 2). However, the existing tools are not fully automated and require significant human effort to produce accurate results [202, 203, 204].
1. | Fully automated reconstruction software | Ez-Rhizo | [171] |
Rhizo scan | [172] | ||
Dynamic Root | [173] | ||
Root Reader 3D | [174] | ||
GrowScreen Root | [175] | ||
Root Track | [176] | ||
Root Trace | [177] | ||
NM Rooting | [178] | ||
REST | [179] | ||
DIRT | [180] | ||
GIA Roots | [181] | ||
GLO-RIA | [182] | ||
Root Scape | [183] | ||
RhizoVision | [184] | ||
2. | Semi- automated reconstruction software | Root Nav | [185] |
Root System Analyzer | [186] | ||
Smart Root | [187] | ||
Root Reader 2D | [188] | ||
DART | [189] | ||
3. | Database | GRooT | [190] |
sROOT | [191] | ||
FungalRoot | [192] | ||
FunFun | [193] | ||
MycoDB TraitAM | [194, 195] | ||
FRED | [196] | ||
TRY | [197] | ||
TropiRoot | [198] | ||
Open Traits | [199] | ||
CLO-PLA | [200] | ||
Rhizopolis | [201] |
List of root system architecture image analysis tools and database.
Studies of cotton root biology bring challenges and opportunities to understand the intimate interaction between plants and their environment. Root systems use a variety of mechanisms to adjust growth dynamics to local conditions, such as uneven distributions of nutrients and water. These signals are integrated using different systemic signals such as phyto-hormonal at the whole-plant and root system levels to adjust root and plant growth accordingly. The complexity of soil-root interactions in a highly heterogeneous environment calls for the use of computational models to help integrate the different underground soil processes. However, despite major advances made in plant–soil-microbe interaction, large gaps remain in understanding root biology.
Nutrient acquisition (N, P, K) under changing environmental conditions through roots.
Characterization of Root system architecture (RSA) which is an important trait for genetic improvement of nutrient acquisition from nutrient limiting soils.
One major challenge will be to reconcile the optimal root architectures, for example, N and P acquisition in one root system. Since the optimal RSA is also related to the carbon status of the plant, planting density, and temperature.
Identification of root system ideotypes for important abiotic stress conditions such as drought and salinity is necessary to facilitate breeding efforts focused on root traits.
Understanding how plants integrate signals from different nutrients at different concentrations and locations within the root system will require developing new methods to capture these complex interactions.
The modification of soil parameters, as well as microbial or plant engineering are strategies developed to engineer the rhizosphere. Thus, rhizosphere engineering may ultimately reduce our reliance on agrochemicals by replacing their functions.
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Currently, he is a professor of Orthodontics. He holds a Certificate of Advanced Study type A in Technology of Biomaterials used in Dentistry (1995); Certificate of Advanced Study type B in Dento-Facial Orthopaedics (1997) from the Faculty of Dental Surgery, University Denis Diderot-Paris VII, France; Diploma of Advanced Study (DESA) in Biocompatibility of Biomaterials from the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Casablanca (2002); Certificate of Clinical Occlusodontics from the Faculty of Dentistry of Casablanca (2004); University Diploma of Biostatistics and Perceptual Health Measurement from the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Casablanca (2011); and a University Diploma of Pedagogy of Odontological Sciences from the Faculty of Dentistry of Casablanca (2013). 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He is an academic staff member of the Department of Reproduction and Artificial Insemination, Selçuk University, Turkey. He manages several studies on sperms and embryos and is an editorial board member for several international journals. His studies include sperm cryobiology, in vitro fertilization, and embryo production in animals.",institutionString:"Selçuk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine",institution:null},{id:"90846",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Bozkurt",slug:"yusuf-bozkurt",fullName:"Yusuf Bozkurt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/90846/images/system/90846.jpg",biography:"Yusuf Bozkurt has a BSc, MSc, and Ph.D. from Ankara University, Turkey. He is currently a Professor of Biotechnology of Reproduction in the field of Aquaculture, İskenderun Technical University, Turkey. His research interests include reproductive biology and biotechnology with an emphasis on cryo-conservation. He is on the editorial board of several international peer-reviewed journals and has published many papers. Additionally, he has participated in many international and national congresses, seminars, and workshops with oral and poster presentations. He is an active member of many local and international organizations.",institutionString:"İskenderun Technical University",institution:{name:"İskenderun Technical University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61139",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Tkachev",slug:"sergey-tkachev",fullName:"Sergey Tkachev",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61139/images/system/61139.png",biography:"Dr. Sergey Tkachev is a senior research scientist at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University, Russia, and at the Institute of Chemical Biology and Fundamental Medicine SB RAS, Novosibirsk, Russia. He received his Ph.D. in Molecular Biology with his thesis “Genetic variability of the tick-borne encephalitis virus in natural foci of Novosibirsk city and its suburbs.” His primary field is molecular virology with research emphasis on vector-borne viruses, especially tick-borne encephalitis virus, Kemerovo virus and Omsk hemorrhagic fever virus, rabies virus, molecular genetics, biology, and epidemiology of virus pathogens.",institutionString:"Russian Academy of Sciences",institution:{name:"Russian Academy of Sciences",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"310962",title:"Dr.",name:"Amlan",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Patra",slug:"amlan-patra",fullName:"Amlan Patra",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/310962/images/system/310962.jpg",biography:"Amlan K. Patra, FRSB, obtained a Ph.D. in Animal Nutrition from Indian Veterinary Research Institute, India, in 2002. He is currently an associate professor at West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences. He has more than twenty years of research and teaching experience. He held previous positions at the American Institute for Goat Research, The Ohio State University, Columbus, USA, and Free University of Berlin, Germany. His research focuses on animal nutrition, particularly ruminants and poultry nutrition, gastrointestinal electrophysiology, meta-analysis and modeling in nutrition, and livestock–environment interaction. He has authored around 175 articles in journals, book chapters, and proceedings. Dr. Patra serves on the editorial boards of several reputed journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"West Bengal University of Animal and Fishery Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"53998",title:"Prof.",name:"László",middleName:null,surname:"Babinszky",slug:"laszlo-babinszky",fullName:"László Babinszky",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/53998/images/system/53998.png",biography:"László Babinszky is Professor Emeritus, Department of Animal Nutrition Physiology, University of Debrecen, Hungary. He has also worked in the Department of Animal Nutrition, University of Wageningen, Netherlands; the Institute for Livestock Feeding and Nutrition (IVVO), Lelystad, Netherlands; the Agricultural University of Vienna (BOKU); the Institute for Animal Breeding and Nutrition, Austria; and the Oscar Kellner Research Institute for Animal Nutrition, Rostock, Germany. In 1992, Dr. Babinszky obtained a Ph.D. in Animal Nutrition from the University of Wageningen. His main research areas are swine and poultry nutrition. He has authored more than 300 publications (papers, book chapters) and edited four books and fourteen international conference proceedings.",institutionString:"University of Debrecen",institution:{name:"University of Debrecen",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"201830",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",middleName:"Sanchez",surname:"Davila",slug:"fernando-davila",fullName:"Fernando Davila",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201830/images/5017_n.jpg",biography:"I am a professor at UANL since 1988. My research lines are the development of reproductive techniques in small ruminants. We also conducted research on sexual and social behavior in males.\nI am Mexican and study my professional career as an engineer in agriculture and animal science at UANL. Then take a masters degree in science in Germany (Animal breeding). Take a doctorate in animal science at the UANL.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"309250",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Quaresma",slug:"miguel-quaresma",fullName:"Miguel Quaresma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309250/images/9059_n.jpg",biography:"Miguel Nuno Pinheiro Quaresma was born on May 26, 1974 in Dili, Timor Island. He is married with two children: a boy and a girl, and he is a resident in Vila Real, Portugal. He graduated in Veterinary Medicine in August 1998 and obtained his Ph.D. degree in Veterinary Sciences -Clinical Area in February 2015, both from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro. He is currently enrolled in the Alternative Residency of the European College of Animal Reproduction. He works as a Senior Clinician at the Veterinary Teaching Hospital of UTAD (HVUTAD) with a role in clinical activity in the area of livestock and equine species as well as to support teaching and research in related areas. He teaches as an Invited Professor in Reproduction Medicine I and II of the Master\\'s in Veterinary Medicine degree at UTAD. Currently, he holds the position of Chairman of the Portuguese Buiatrics Association. He is a member of the Consultive Group on Production Animals of the OMV. He has 19 publications in indexed international journals (ISIS), as well as over 60 publications and oral presentations in both Portuguese and international journals and congresses.",institutionString:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",institution:{name:"University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"38652",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Payan-Carreira",slug:"rita-payan-carreira",fullName:"Rita Payan-Carreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRiFPQA0/Profile_Picture_1614601496313",biography:"Rita Payan Carreira earned her Veterinary Degree from the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine in Lisbon, Portugal, in 1985. She obtained her Ph.D. in Veterinary Sciences from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Portugal. After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"283019",title:"Dr.",name:"Oudessa",middleName:null,surname:"Kerro Dego",slug:"oudessa-kerro-dego",fullName:"Oudessa Kerro Dego",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/283019/images/system/283019.png",biography:"Dr. Kerro Dego is a veterinary microbiologist with training in veterinary medicine, microbiology, and anatomic pathology. Dr. Kerro Dego is an assistant professor of dairy health in the department of animal science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. He received his D.V.M. (1997), M.S. (2002), and Ph.D. (2008) degrees in Veterinary Medicine, Animal Pathology and Veterinary Microbiology from College of Veterinary Medicine, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia; College of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, the Netherlands and Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Canada respectively. He did his Postdoctoral training in microbial pathogenesis (2009 - 2015) in the Department of Animal Science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. Dr. Kerro Dego’s research focuses on the prevention and control of infectious diseases of farm animals, particularly mastitis, improving dairy food safety, and mitigation of antimicrobial resistance. Dr. Kerro Dego has extensive experience in studying the pathogenesis of bacterial infections, identification of virulence factors, and vaccine development and efficacy testing against major bacterial mastitis pathogens. Dr. Kerro Dego conducted numerous controlled experimental and field vaccine efficacy studies, vaccination, and evaluation of immunological responses in several species of animals, including rodents (mice) and large animals (bovine and ovine).",institutionString:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",institution:{name:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gardón Poggi",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon-poggi",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251314/images/system/251314.jpeg",biography:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi received University degree from the Faculty of Agrarian Science in Argentina, in 1983. Also he received Masters Degree and PhD from Córdoba University, Spain. He is currently a Professor at the Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, at the Department of Medicine and Animal Surgery. He teaches diverse courses in the field of Animal Reproduction and he is the Director of the Veterinary Farm. He also participates in academic postgraduate activities at the Veterinary Faculty of Murcia University, Spain. His research areas include animal physiology, physiology and biotechnology of reproduction either in males or females, the study of gametes under in vitro conditions and the use of ultrasound as a complement to physiological studies and development of applied biotechnologies. Routinely, he supervises students preparing their doctoral, master thesis or final degree projects.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Valencia Catholic University Saint Vincent Martyr",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"309529",title:"Dr.",name:"Albert",middleName:null,surname:"Rizvanov",slug:"albert-rizvanov",fullName:"Albert Rizvanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309529/images/9189_n.jpg",biography:'Albert A. Rizvanov is a Professor and Director of the Center for Precision and Regenerative Medicine at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University (KFU), Russia. He is the Head of the Center of Excellence “Regenerative Medicine” and Vice-Director of Strategic Academic Unit \\"Translational 7P Medicine\\". Albert completed his Ph.D. at the University of Nevada, Reno, USA and Dr.Sci. at KFU. He is a corresponding member of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences, Russian Federation. Albert is an author of more than 300 peer-reviewed journal articles and 22 patents. He has supervised 11 Ph.D. and 2 Dr.Sci. dissertations. Albert is the Head of the Dissertation Committee on Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Genetics at KFU.\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9427-5739\nWebsite https://kpfu.ru/Albert.Rizvanov?p_lang=2',institutionString:"Kazan Federal University",institution:{name:"Kazan Federal University",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"210551",title:"Dr.",name:"Arbab",middleName:null,surname:"Sikandar",slug:"arbab-sikandar",fullName:"Arbab Sikandar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210551/images/system/210551.jpg",biography:"Dr. Arbab Sikandar, PhD, M. Phil, DVM was born on April 05, 1981. He is currently working at the College of Veterinary & Animal Sciences as an Assistant Professor. He previously worked as a lecturer at the same University. \nHe is a Member/Secretory of Ethics committee (No. CVAS-9377 dated 18-04-18), Member of the QEC committee CVAS, Jhang (Regr/Gen/69/873, dated 26-10-2017), Member, Board of studies of Department of Basic Sciences (No. CVAS. 2851 Dated. 12-04-13, and No. CVAS, 9024 dated 20/11/17), Member of Academic Committee, CVAS, Jhang (No. CVAS/2004, Dated, 25-08-12), Member of the technical committee (No. CVAS/ 4085, dated 20,03, 2010 till 2016).\n\nDr. Arbab Sikandar contributed in five days hands-on-training on Histopathology at the Department of Pathology, UVAS from 12-16 June 2017. He received a Certificate of appreciation for contributions for Popularization of Science and Technology in the Society on 17-11-15. He was the resource person in the lecture series- ‘scientific writing’ at the Department of Anatomy and Histology, UVAS, Lahore on 29th October 2015. He won a full fellowship as a principal candidate for the year 2015 in the field of Agriculture, EICA, Egypt with ref. to the Notification No. 12(11) ACS/Egypt/2014 from 10 July 2015 to 25th September 2015.; he received a grant of Rs. 55000/- as research incentives from Director, Advanced Studies and Research, UVAS, Lahore upon publications of research papers in IF Journals (DR/215, dated 19-5-2014.. He obtained his PhD by winning a HEC Pakistan indigenous Scholarship, ‘Ph.D. fellowship for 5000 scholars – Phase II’ (2av1-147), 17-6/HEC/HRD/IS-II/12, November 15, 2012. \n\nDr. Sikandar is a member of numerous societies: Registered Veterinary Medical Practitioner (life member) and Registered Veterinary Medical Faculty of Pakistan Veterinary Medical Council. The Registration code of PVMC is RVMP/4298 and RVMF/ 0102.; Life member of the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Alumni Association with S# 664, dated: 6-4-12. ; Member 'Vets Care Organization Pakistan” with Reference No. VCO-605-149, dated 05-04-06. :Member 'Vet Crescent” (Society of Animal Health and Production), UVAS, Lahore.",institutionString:"University of Veterinary & Animal Science",institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"311663",title:"Dr.",name:"Prasanna",middleName:null,surname:"Pal",slug:"prasanna-pal",fullName:"Prasanna Pal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311663/images/13261_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Dairy Research Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"283315",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"El-Gendy",slug:"samir-el-gendy",fullName:"Samir El-Gendy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRduYQAS/Profile_Picture_1606215849748",biography:"Samir El-Gendy is a Professor of anatomy and embryology at the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University, Egypt. Samir obtained his PhD in veterinary science in 2007 from the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University and has been a professor since 2017. Samir is an author on 24 articles at Scopus and 12 articles within local journals and 2 books/book chapters. His research focuses on applied anatomy, imaging techniques and computed tomography. Samir worked as a member of different local projects on E-learning and he is a board member of the African Association of Veterinary Anatomists and of anatomy societies and as an associated author at local and international journals. Orcid: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6180-389X",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"246149",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Kubale",slug:"valentina-kubale",fullName:"Valentina Kubale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246149/images/system/246149.jpg",biography:"Valentina Kubale is Associate Professor of Veterinary Medicine at the Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. Since graduating from the Veterinary faculty she obtained her PhD in 2007, performed collaboration with the Department of Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Denmark. She continued as a post-doctoral fellow at the University of Copenhagen with a Lundbeck foundation fellowship. She is the editor of three books and author/coauthor of 23 articles in peer-reviewed scientific journals, 16 book chapters, and 68 communications at scientific congresses. Since 2008 she has been the Editor Assistant for the Slovenian Veterinary Research journal. She is a member of Slovenian Biochemical Society, The Endocrine Society, European Association of Veterinary Anatomists and Society for Laboratory Animals, where she is board member.",institutionString:"University of Ljubljana",institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"258334",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Fonseca-Alves",slug:"carlos-eduardo-fonseca-alves",fullName:"Carlos Eduardo Fonseca-Alves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/258334/images/system/258334.jpg",biography:"Dr. Fonseca-Alves earned his DVM from Federal University of Goias – UFG in 2008. He completed an internship in small animal internal medicine at UPIS university in 2011, earned his MSc in 2013 and PhD in 2015 both in Veterinary Medicine at Sao Paulo State University – UNESP. Dr. Fonseca-Alves currently serves as an Assistant Professor at Paulista University – UNIP teaching small animal internal medicine.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Paulista",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"245306",title:"Dr.",name:"María Luz",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia Pardo",slug:"maria-luz-garcia-pardo",fullName:"María Luz Garcia Pardo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/245306/images/system/245306.png",biography:"María de la Luz García Pardo is an agricultural engineer from Universitat Politècnica de València, Spain. She has a Ph.D. in Animal Genetics. Currently, she is a lecturer at the Agrofood Technology Department of Miguel Hernández University, Spain. Her research is focused on genetics and reproduction in rabbits. The major goal of her research is the genetics of litter size through novel methods such as selection by the environmental sensibility of litter size, with forays into the field of animal welfare by analysing the impact on the susceptibility to diseases and stress of the does. Details of her publications can be found at https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9504-8290.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Miguel Hernandez University",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"350704",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Camila",middleName:"Silva Costa",surname:"Ferreira",slug:"camila-ferreira",fullName:"Camila Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/350704/images/17280_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Veterinary Medicine at the Fluminense Federal University, specialist in Equine Reproduction at the Brazilian Veterinary Institute (IBVET) and Master in Clinical Veterinary Medicine and Animal Reproduction at the Fluminense Federal University. She has experience in analyzing zootechnical indices in dairy cattle and organizing events related to Veterinary Medicine through extension grants. I have experience in the field of diagnostic imaging and animal reproduction in veterinary medicine through monitoring and scientific initiation scholarships. I worked at the Equus Central Reproduction Equine located in Santo Antônio de Jesus – BA in the 2016/2017 breeding season. I am currently a doctoral student with a scholarship from CAPES of the Postgraduate Program in Veterinary Medicine (Pathology and Clinical Sciences) at the Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRRJ) with a research project with an emphasis on equine endometritis.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"41319",title:"Prof.",name:"Lung-Kwang",middleName:null,surname:"Pan",slug:"lung-kwang-pan",fullName:"Lung-Kwang Pan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41319/images/84_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"125292",title:"Dr.",name:"Katy",middleName:null,surname:"Satué Ambrojo",slug:"katy-satue-ambrojo",fullName:"Katy Satué Ambrojo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/125292/images/system/125292.jpeg",biography:"Katy Satué Ambrojo received her Veterinary Medicine degree, Master degree in Equine Technology and doctorate in Veterinary Medicine from the Faculty of Veterinary, CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in Valencia, Spain.Dr. Satué is accredited as a Private University Doctor Professor, Doctor Assistant, and Contracted Doctor by AVAP (Agència Valenciana d'Avaluació i Prospectiva) and currently, as a full professor by ANECA (since January 2022). To date, Katy has taught 22 years in the Department of Animal Medicine and Surgery at the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in undergraduate courses in Veterinary Medicine (General Pathology, integrated into the Applied Basis of Veterinary Medicine module of the 2nd year, Clinical Equine I of 3rd year, and Equine Clinic II of 4th year). Dr. Satué research activity is in the field of Endocrinology, Hematology, Biochemistry, and Immunology in the Spanish Purebred mare. She has directed 5 Doctoral Theses and 5 Diplomas of Advanced Studies, and participated in 11 research projects as a collaborating researcher. She has written 2 books and 14 book chapters in international publishers related to the area, and 68 scientific publications in international journals. Dr. Satué has attended 63 congresses, participating with 132 communications in international congresses and 19 in national congresses related to the area. Dr. Satué is a scientific reviewer for various prestigious international journals such as Animals, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Veterinary Clinical Pathology, Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, Reproduction in Domestic Animals, Research Veterinary Science, Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research, Livestock Production Science and Theriogenology, among others. Since 2014 she has been responsible for the Clinical Analysis Laboratory of the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University Veterinary Clinical Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"201721",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatrice",middleName:null,surname:"Funiciello",slug:"beatrice-funiciello",fullName:"Beatrice Funiciello",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201721/images/11089_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated from the University of Milan in 2011, my post-graduate education included CertAVP modules mainly on equines (dermatology and internal medicine) and a few on small animal (dermatology and anaesthesia) at the University of Liverpool. After a general CertAVP (2015) I gained the designated Certificate in Veterinary Dermatology (2017) after taking the synoptic examination and then applied for the RCVS ADvanced Practitioner status. After that, I completed the Postgraduate Diploma in Veterinary Professional Studies at the University of Liverpool (2018). My main area of work is cross-species veterinary dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"291226",title:"Dr.",name:"Monica",middleName:null,surname:"Cassel",slug:"monica-cassel",fullName:"Monica Cassel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/291226/images/8232_n.jpg",biography:'Degree in Biological Sciences at the Federal University of Mato Grosso with scholarship for Scientific Initiation by FAPEMAT (2008/1) and CNPq (2008/2-2009/2): Project \\"Histological evidence of reproductive activity in lizards of the Manso region, Chapada dos Guimarães, Mato Grosso, Brazil\\". Master\\\'s degree in Ecology and Biodiversity Conservation at Federal University of Mato Grosso with a scholarship by CAPES/REUNI program: Project \\"Reproductive biology of Melanorivulus punctatus\\". PhD\\\'s degree in Science (Cell and Tissue Biology Area) \n at University of Sao Paulo with scholarship granted by FAPESP; Project \\"Development of morphofunctional changes in ovary of Astyanax altiparanae Garutti & Britski, 2000 (Teleostei, Characidae)\\". She has experience in Reproduction of vertebrates and Morphology, with emphasis in Cellular Biology and Histology. She is currently a teacher in the medium / technical level courses at IFMT-Alta Floresta, as well as in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Animal Science and in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Business.',institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"442807",title:"Dr.",name:"Busani",middleName:null,surname:"Moyo",slug:"busani-moyo",fullName:"Busani Moyo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gwanda State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"439435",title:"Dr.",name:"Feda S.",middleName:null,surname:"Aljaser",slug:"feda-s.-aljaser",fullName:"Feda S. Aljaser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"423023",title:"Dr.",name:"Yosra",middleName:null,surname:"Soltan",slug:"yosra-soltan",fullName:"Yosra Soltan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"349788",title:"Dr.",name:"Florencia Nery",middleName:null,surname:"Sompie",slug:"florencia-nery-sompie",fullName:"Florencia Nery Sompie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sam Ratulangi University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"428600",title:"MSc.",name:"Adriana",middleName:null,surname:"García-Alarcón",slug:"adriana-garcia-alarcon",fullName:"Adriana García-Alarcón",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428599",title:"MSc.",name:"Gabino",middleName:null,surname:"De La Rosa-Cruz",slug:"gabino-de-la-rosa-cruz",fullName:"Gabino De La Rosa-Cruz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428601",title:"MSc.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Campuzano-Caballero",slug:"juan-carlos-campuzano-caballero",fullName:"Juan Carlos Campuzano-Caballero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"95",type:"subseries",title:"Urban Planning and Environmental Management",keywords:"Circular Economy, Contingency Planning and Response to Disasters, Ecosystem Services, Integrated Urban Water Management, Nature-based Solutions, Sustainable Urban Development, Urban Green Spaces",scope:"