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",isbn:"978-1-83968-236-0",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-235-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-237-7",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c85e82851e80b40282ff9be99ddf2046",bookSignature:"Dr. Rama Sashank Madhurapantula, Prof. Joseph Orgel P.R.O. and Ph.D. Zvi Loewy",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8018.jpg",keywords:"Collagen, Proteoglycans, Arthritis, Congenital Diseases, Osteogenesis Imperfecta, Blood Vessels, ECM - Tissue Interfaces, Elasticity, Cartilage Implant, Bone Graft, Angiogenesis, Extracellular Triggers",numberOfDownloads:18,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"July 3rd 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 24th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 22nd 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 11th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 9th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"7 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Most recently, dr. Madhurapantula has been involved with developing microscopy techniques to establish macroscopic stress vs. strain relations in body tissues that present mixed tissue compositions, in conjunction with X-ray diffraction scanning techniques to establish tissue composition.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Prof. Orgel is a multi-disciplinarian by research and professional practice with international name recognition in the collagen and connective tissue fields and in X-ray diffraction.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"212416",title:"Dr.",name:"Rama Sashank",middleName:null,surname:"Madhurapantula",slug:"rama-sashank-madhurapantula",fullName:"Rama Sashank Madhurapantula",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212416/images/system/212416.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madhurapantula holds a Ph.D. in Biology from the Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, with a focus on the molecular structure and function of type I collagen. Since obtaining his Ph.D., he has worked on various ECM based research projects on understanding the structural aspects of various fibrous tissue assemblies in the human body, in non-disease and disease conditions. He is an expert in the field of in situ X-ray fiber diffraction. Most recently, he has been involved with developing microscopy techniques to establish macroscopic stress vs. strain relations in body tissues that present mixed tissue compositions, in conjunction with X-ray diffraction scanning techniques to establish tissue composition. These datasets together are being used to develop a high definition model of human heart valves with accurate stress-strain finite element models to improve the characteristics of these tissues in the CAVEMAN full human body simulation, which is further utilized in simulated blast and vehicular accident calculations, and to develop a simulated surgery apparatus to train surgeons.",institutionString:"Illinois Institute of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Illinois Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"212413",title:"Prof.",name:"Joseph",middleName:null,surname:"Orgel P.R.O.",slug:"joseph-orgel-p.r.o.",fullName:"Joseph Orgel P.R.O.",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/no_image.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Illinois Institute of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Illinois Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"235950",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zvi",middleName:null,surname:"Loewy",slug:"zvi-loewy",fullName:"Zvi Loewy",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/235950/images/system/235950.png",biography:"Dr. Zvi Loewy, a senior academic leader and an experienced global pharmaceutical – biotechnology executive leverages a diversified background in big-pharma senior management, biotech startup creation and academia. \nDr. Loewy’s international experience has included leading international research teams; championing the commercial penetration of healthcare products in China; and leading open innovation in the Mid-East. \nDr. Loewy received his education at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute and at the Albert Einstein College of Medicine. Dr. Loewy is on the faculty of the Touro College of Pharmacy and New York Medical College; is on the boards of the New Jersey Bioscience Incubator; and is an Editor of the Journal of Prosthodontics. Dr. Loewy has published broadly and has over 25 issued patents.",institutionString:"New York Medical College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"New York Medical College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"6",title:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",slug:"biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology"}],chapters:[{id:"74538",title:"The Cellular Stress Response Interactome and Extracellular Matrix Cross-Talk during Fibrosis: A Stressed Extra-Matrix Affair",slug:"the-cellular-stress-response-interactome-and-extracellular-matrix-cross-talk-during-fibrosis-a-stres",totalDownloads:17,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"74739",title:"The Evolutionary Origin of Elastin: Is Fibrillin the Lost Ancestor?",slug:"the-evolutionary-origin-of-elastin-is-fibrillin-the-lost-ancestor",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"297737",firstName:"Mateo",lastName:"Pulko",middleName:null,title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297737/images/8492_n.png",email:"mateo.p@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6694",title:"New Trends in Ion Exchange Studies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3de8c8b090fd8faa7c11ec5b387c486a",slug:"new-trends-in-ion-exchange-studies",bookSignature:"Selcan Karakuş",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6694.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"206110",title:"Dr.",name:"Selcan",surname:"Karakuş",slug:"selcan-karakus",fullName:"Selcan Karakuş"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"65655",title:"National Accounting Standards in Turkey",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84364",slug:"national-accounting-standards-in-turkey",body:'\nEvery country initially established its own accounting techniques to report the results of the activities of the enterprises to the relevant interest groups. Due to economic, historical, and traditional differences, there are differences between the accounting techniques. A need to standardize accounting techniques was born both locally and internationally in order to eliminate these differences, which caused negativity about the consistency and comparability of the information in the financial statements. The existence of different accounting systems for different countries can cause various difficulties for international money flow, while a Uniform Accounting System makes it easier for businesses. The existence of a single accounting system to be implemented by all enterprises increases the speed of international transactions, facilitates transparency, and supervision in financial statements and also facilitates transactions.
\nTo eliminate the differences in accounting practices; to perform uniformity in the accounting principles; to ensure that the financial statements are clear, appropriate, understandable, objective, and comparable; to prevent misappropriation of the individuals and institutions related to enterprises; to prevent wrong decisions; and to create a common language during the production and presentation of financial information, Uniform Accounting System and Uniform Chart of Accounts came into force in Turkey in 1994 and still continue today.
\nAs with financial reports prepared in accordance with the different legal and financial structures of countries, International Accounting Standards (IAS) were made compatible which resulted in an exact translation of the International Accounting Standards (IAS), and International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) were entered into force as Turkish Financial Reporting Standards (TFRS) in Turkey. Public Oversight, Accounting and Auditing Standards Authority (POAASA) is authorized for the creation, publishing, and monitoring of changes of the accounting standards that are in compliance with international standards. POAASA aims to ensure the transparency, reliability, comprehensibility, comparability, and consistency of the financial statements of the firms. Currently, there are various accounting practices in Turkey, and the preference of which one to be used depends on being subject to independent audit by the enterprises. Companies whose shares are traded on the stock exchange and that are subject to independent audit apply TFRS, while Large- and Medium-Sized Enterprises which are subject to independent audit but whose shares are not traded on the stock exchange and do not apply TFRS, apply Financial Reporting Standards for Large- and Medium-Sized Enterprises (FRS for LMEs). Enterprises that are not subject to independent audit apply Uniform Accounting System.
\nUniform Chart of Accounts is used by all businesses. Despite the application of new accounting standards in Turkey, there are no new regulations regarding the needs of Uniform Chart of Accounts, which are used by the companies that perform accounting and reporting in accordance with these new standards. In Uniform Chart of Accounts, there is a need for a revision of the needs of enterprises.
\nBanks and insurance companies: private financial institutions: financial leasing, factoring, and financing companies: security mutual funds, brokerage houses, and investment trusts are subject to Banking Regulation and Supervision Agency (BRSA) legislation and have a different chart of accounts, and a revision has been performed for this chart of accounts. The mentioned company activities are accounted in accordance with the declarations of BRSA and TFRS.
\nBefore 1994, there was no standard in accounting applications and in accounting principles in Turkey. As of 1.1.1994, there has been a transition to the standard Uniform Accounting System in accordance with the Accounting System Application General Communiqué, Order No.1 published in the Official Gazette dated 26.12.1992 and numbered 21,447 (repeated). With the regulation, it was aimed to provide uniformity in all accounting applications in Turkey and to have the same operating language for all segments. Accordingly, natural and legal persons holding books according to balance sheet basis are obliged to apply the accounting procedures and principles stated in the General Communiqué on Accounting System.
\nTax regulations in Turkey may directly interfere with accounting practices and education in time. This relationship between tax regulations and accounting causes accounting in Turkey to be intended for tax and focused on tax regulations. Tax Procedure Law obligates application of the conditions required by the General Communique on Accounting System Application and Tax Procedure Law simultaneously. The arrangements made with the General Communique on Accounting System Application do not regulate or modify any matter related to tax legislation. The difference between period income and taxable income shall not be settled on balance sheets or income statements; taxable profit shall be calculated outside of financial statements.
\nUniform Accounting System is defined as the use of the same chart of accounts in accounting applications, adopting the same accounting principles, benefiting from the same accounting concepts, and providing accounting information in uniform financial statements and reports.
\nUniform Accounting System is a system that includes financial statements, charts of accounts, account codes, and similar details. This regulation related to the transition to Uniform Accounting System was made in order to facilitate and provide a sound and reliable follow-up of the results of the undertakings and enterprises belonging to real and legal persons holding books on a balance sheet basis and to ensure that the information presented to the related parties through the financial statements reflects the real situation while maintaining the consistency and comparability characteristics of the audit.
\nIt is the responsibility of the business to be in compliance with the procedures and principles seen in changes made in the name of Uniform Accounting System and organization of reports and declarations for related legislation provisions. Regulation [1]:
Full and direct delivery of accounting information to respective persons making a decision.
To compare different periods of the same enterprise with different enterprises.
Account names in the financial statements give the same meaning to all segments.
Retaining accounting term uniformity while remaining understandable.
Aims to establish trust between businesses and those concerned.
Uniformity of the financial statements to be prepared within the framework of the procedures and principles related to the regulation and presentation of financial statements in Uniform Accounting System cannot be changed. In the determination of the taxable income, companies are required to make the necessary adjustments and calculations in accordance with tax legislation. The accounting principles and procedures of the Uniform Accounting System are explained in five sections as follows:
Basic concepts of accounting
Explanation of accounting policies
Principles of financial statements
Arrangement and presentation of financial statements
Uniform account framework, chart of accounts, and descriptions of accounts. Businesses must establish their accounting systems in accordance with the uniform accounting framework and the chart of accounts. The basic concepts of accounting in Turkey are the concept of social responsibility, the concept of business entity, the going-concern concept, the concept of periodicity, the concept of monetary unit, the concept of cost basis, the concept of objectivity and documentation, the consistency concept, the full disclosure concept, the concept of prudence, the concept of materiality, and the concept of substance over form.
\nIn the Uniform Accounting System, it is not required to disclose them if they are prepared on the basis of the concepts of going-concern, consistency, and periodicity in the preparation of financial statements. However, in the case of deviation from these concepts, the disclosures of the financial statements should explain this deviation together with their reasons. All significant accounting policies included in the financial statements should be clarified and explained briefly. Financial statements should be comparable in terms of periods. If a change is made in the current period or will occur in future periods, which has a significant effect on financial policies, it should be explained together with the reasons and the effects of these changes on financial statements. The financial statements consist of the following ones [1]:
Balance sheet
Income statement
Statement of cost of sales
Fund flow statement
Cash flow statement
Statement of profit distribution
Statement of changes in equity
Providing useful information in making decisions for investors, lenders, and other interested parties; providing useful information on assessing future cash flows; providing information about assets, resources and changes in these items; and obtaining information about the business activities, these statements should be understandable, appropriate, reliable, comparable, and promptly arranged so that the information in the financial statements can be used in the best possible way by decision-makers.
\nUniform Accounting System includes real and legal persons holding books according to the balance sheet basis. However, there are institutions that need to use different accounting techniques in terms of their activities. These include bank and insurance companies; private financial institutions; financial leasing, factoring, and financing companies; security investment funds; brokerage houses; and investment trusts. These institutions are subject to BRSA’s legislation, and they are required to comply with the basic principles of accounting, explanation of accounting policies, and principles of financial statements in Uniform Accounting System. They have a different chart of accounts and do not have to fulfill other obligations.
\nBanks are required to account for their activities in accordance with the communiqués published by BRSA and within the framework of the conceptual provisions of POAASA. However, the accounting for subsidiaries, jointly controlled entities and associates and consolidated financial statements, financial statements to be disclosed to public, and procedures and principles regarding the disclosure and footnotes are determined by the communiqués issued by BRSA.
\nIn accordance with Banking Law, banks are obliged to implement a uniform order in accounting systems in accordance with the procedures and principles determined by BRSA by taking the opinion of the POAASA. Banks must be able to account for all transactions in accordance with their real nature in accordance with the accounting and Financial Reporting Standards issued by POAASA in a manner that is capable of meeting the need to obtain financial reports in an understandable, reliable, and comparable style, suitable for auditing, analysis, and interpretation. Banks are required to achieve transparency and uniformity in accounting and reporting systems, by preventing transactions from being left out of record and by accounting for all activities in a timely, healthy, and secure manner within the framework of correct and timely preparation, reporting, and publishing of financial statements showcasing financial performance and management.
\nThe “Declaration in Reference to the Uniform Chart of Accounts and Prospectus” published in 26.01.2007 and 26,415 (repeated) numbered Official Gazette based on the regulation of procedures and principles for the accounting of bank’s accounting practices and documents provides uniformity in terms of accounting and financial reporting for banks and direct acquisition of a single type of balance sheet and income statement, obtaining direct and healthy information in a verifiable and auditable manner in order to ensure supervision and monitoring and to provide the information needed for various analyses and interpretations in a standardized way.
\nThe chart of accounts is expressed as a list of accounts to be used in accounting. Uniform Chart of Accounts is a system that is organized for the systematic execution of all accounts held in an enterprise and to ensure that the same events are always recorded in the same accounts.
\nIn Turkey, Uniform Chart of Accounts mentioned in the Accounting System Application General Communiqué, Order No.1 published in the Official Gazette dated 26.12.1992 and numbered 21,447 (repeated) became a necessity for all businesses and accounting activities as of 01.01.1994. Thus, it is aimed to provide unity in accounting practices in enterprises. Uniform Chart of Accounts is a scale that shows the accounts of the activities of the enterprises, and the enterprises comply with the chart of accounts and transfer the same type of documents to the accounting records and financial statements according to the same chart of accounts and the same accounting system. The purpose of the Uniform Chart of Accounts is to use the same chart of accounts for companies holding books on the balance sheet basis and to include the economic events occurring in enterprises in the same accounts within the framework of the same systems and principles. Uniform Account Chart framework [1] is as follows:
Current assets
Noncurrent assets
Short-term liabilities
Long-term liabilities
Equity
Income statement accounts
Cost accounting accounts
Free
Off-balance sheet accounts
Uniform Chart of Accounts is divided into nine account classes, from 1 to 9. Likewise, each account class is divided into ten account groups, ranging from 0 to 9. There are a total of ten main accounts in each account group, from 0 to 9. The main accounts are given three-digit numbers. For instance; 1 Current assets (account class), 10 Cash and Cash Equivalents (account group), 100 Cash (main account). In the Uniform Chart of Accounts coding, various code systems are used while numbering the accounts. Account codes make it easy to distinguish between account groups and accounts.
\nAccording to the Uniform Accounting System, enterprises have to establish their accounting systems in accordance with the uniform accounting framework and chart of accounts. Businesses plan their accounts in advance and make a list of them. With the introduction of new standards in Turkey, there was a need for new account codes. There are a number of problems related to the definition of new account codes due to new applications of the Uniform Chart of Accounts related to the application of TFRS and FRS for LMEs such as account of investment property and account of qualified assets held for sale purpose. Therefore, a serious review and revision is needed.
\nThe draft chart of account has been drawn up by POAASA that will enable the companies to establish their accounting systems so that they can prepare their financial statements. In the drafting of the chart of account, account groups and accounts have added to ensure that all companies have access to financial statement data directly. This draft chart of account was submitted to the public on 25.12.2018. After taking the comments of the public and related institutions and organizations, the final version of the new chart of account will be given. These accounts have added in the draft chart of account [2]:
Financial investments whose fair value difference is measured at amortized cost by financial investments reflected in other comprehensive incomes (accounts 111, 112, 201, and 202)
Financial assets from ongoing construction (undertaking), project or service contracts, and obligations arising from these contracts and construction works performed in advance (groups 14 and 24 with the exception of accounts 142 and 242 and groups 34 and 44)
Live assets and gains and losses related to them (account numbers 17 and 27 and account numbers 643 and 653)
Liabilities related to noncurrent assets classified for sale and groupings classified as held for sale (account numbers 196–199 and account numbers 396–399)
Investment properties and related income and expenses (accounts numbers 245–249 and account numbers 647 and 657)
Deferred tax assets and liabilities and deferred tax income and expense effects (account numbers 289 and 489 and account numbers 692 and 696)
The effect of mergers involving enterprises or enterprises subject to joint control (account number 516)
Income and expenses accumulated in shareholders’ equity (groups 55 and 56)
Other comprehensive income and expenses for the period (groups 80, 81, 82, and 83)
Income and expenses relating to discontinued operations and taxes on these income and expenses (accounts 684 and 697)
Banks and leasing and factoring companies have a Uniform Chart of Accounts different from the other entities due to the different types of activities and operations of the financing companies. The operations of such institutions are recorded by using Bank Uniform Chart of Accounts that is recognized under the provisions of the Banks Association of Turkey. Banks are subject to the Bank Uniform Chart of Accounts and the regulatory authority, BRSA. Bank Uniform Chart of Accounts consists of the following groups [3]:
Return values
Credits
Investment values and other assets
Deposits and other foreign resources
Equity
Interest income
Interest expenses
Noninterest income
Noninterest expenses
Off-balance sheet accounts
The accounts in each group are divided into two as Turkish currency and foreign currency. The foreign currency-denominated accounts are the accounts in which the amounts arising from the foreign currency transactions of the bank are recorded. Foreign currency balances in these accounts are valued at the end of the period and transferred to related accounts. Foreign currency interest, commissions, and income received from foreign currency accounts and transactions are translated into Turkish Lira at the exchange rates prevailing at the transaction date and recorded in the related foreign currency profit/loss accounts. Even if the revenues are collected in Turkish currency instead of foreign currency, they are recorded in the related foreign currency profit and loss accounts. In the Uniform Chart of Accounts, the accounts working for Turkish Lira and foreign currency transactions are separated at the general ledger level. If the last digit of the general ledger accounts is an even number, then it is in Turkish Liras, and if the last digit is an odd number, then it indicates a foreign currency account.
\nA new account cannot be opened in the book at a new level without the permission of the BRSA. For the accounts that are opened at the level of general ledger and do not have any subaccounts, banks can open auxiliary, sub-, and subordinate accounts if needed. If there is no special account in which to record a transaction, a special account must be opened with permission from the BRSA for such transactions.
\nIn the POAASA’s decision dated 13.09.2018 numbered (03/161), TFRS are redefined. They cover the standards published under the names of TAS, TFRS, TAS Interpretation, and TFRS Interpretation [4].
\nThe financial statements are prepared and presented by their preparers across the globe for their users. There are some differences due to the use of different financial statements by different countries during the creation of national regulations for social, economic, and legal reasons. The efforts of the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) to form a common language in the process of globalization are in question. IASB aims to reduce the differences by harmonizing the rules and accounting standards and application procedures for the preparation and presentation of financial statements.
\nAs the common language used by businesses in terms of financial reporting, IFRS are the standard set which directs financial reporting in the world and are formed by the IASB that is the authority for financial reporting in terms of the level of implementation and adoption by the world. The purpose of the IFRS is to increase international investments and trade through a comparable, reliable, understandable, and transparent presentation of financial statements. TAS/TFRS and TAS/TFRS Interpretations are literal translations into the International Accounting Standards/International Financial Reporting Standards/International Financial Reporting Interpretation Committee (IAS/IFRS/IFRIC) as issued by the IASB.
\nA set of financial statements prepared under the TFRS [5] are as follows:
Statement of financial position.
Statement of profit or loss and other comprehensive incomes.
Statement of cash flows.
Statement of changes in equity.
Financial statements are composed of footnotes.
TFRS are prepared to meet the needs of the users of the securities and their financial statements.
\nThe accounting records of companies of the specified nature and scale determined by the decision of the Council of Ministers which was formed around the decision of the POAASA following 01.01.2013 continue to be done in accordance with Tax Procedure Law with compatibility to TFRS [6].
\nThe publication of TAS/TFRS does not mean that Uniform Accounting System has completed its function, but rather increases its importance in order to ensure their healthy implementation, comparability, and reliability [7].
\nWith the application of TAS/TFRS, there are some changes in the format and classification of the financial statements in the Uniform Accounting System which have been compulsory since 1994, and the formal structure is changing. The importance of information is emphasized in the standards, and it is required to present important information in a truthful manner. TAS/TFRS also made significant changes in the valuation of balance sheet items and income statement items. These changes in measurement and valuation significantly affect the reported amounts of items in financial statements [8].
\nIn the POAASA’s decision dated 13.09.2018 and numbered (03/161), TAS are redefined. TAS cover TFRS mentioned above and FRS for LMEs and other standards determined by the agency. TAS of the decision for determining the scope of application is detailed below [4]:
Institutions that require TFRS to be used in the preparation of their individual and consolidated financial statements: (A)—(i) Joint stock companies traded on the stock exchange; (ii) Investment institutions; (iii) Collective investment institutions; (iv) Portfolio management organizations; (v) Mortgage financing institutions; (vi) Housing finance and asset financing funds; (vii) Asset leasing companies; (viii) Central clearing houses; (ix) Central lending organizations; (x) Data storage organizations; and (xi) Capital market instruments that are not traded on the stock exchange, but which provide at least two of the three criteria from publicly traded companies in the capital market: (a) Total of 15 million and more Turkish Lira; (b) Annual net sales revenue of 20 million and more Turkish Liras; (c) Number of employees 50 and above. (B)—Businesses subject to the regulation and supervision of the BRSA in accordance with Banking Law—(i) Banks; (ii) Financial leasing companies; (iii) Factoring companies; (iv) Financing companies; (v) Asset management companies; (vi) Rating agencies; (vii) Financial holding companies; (viii) Companies holding financial holding companies; and (ix) Payment agencies. (C)—Insurance, reinsurance, and pension companies. (D)—Corporations, which are allowed to operate in Borsa Istanbul, joint stock companies.
Subject to independent audit and the implementation of FRS for LMEs in the preparation of individual and consolidated financial statements of institutions, establishments, and enterprises other than the above; however, it will be able to implement the TFRS upon request of the institutions, organizations, and enterprises in question.
TFRS is the basis of the policy. It does not give businesses the chance to use the account name according to their needs. In the principle-based approach, only the account framework is determined, and the chart of accounts is not compulsory. Each business determines its own chart of accounts.
\nIFRS is divided into two as IFRS full set and SME sets in the world and in Turkey, although TFRS for SMEs that was in line with IFRS for SMEs was published in 2010 in the official gazette, but there has been no chance to implement it. Later, FRS for LMEs was issued by POAASA instead of the TFRS for SMEs. FRS for LMEs, entered into force on the date of publication, to be applied in the accounting periods beginning on or after 01.01.2018. It consists of 27 chapters and sets out the accounting principles for all accounting transactions that the companies may encounter in general.
\nThe purpose of the IASB is to prepare a separate standard for SMEs as a set of accounting principles derived from IFRS, which will be used by small, simplified entities whose stocks are not listed on the stock exchange. IASB has defined IFRS for SMEs as a set of simple and simplified Financial Reporting Standards derived from IFRS that will be used by nonpublic entities [9].
\nFRS for LMEs was issued by replacing TFRS for SMEs with certain additions. This standard includes interest costs, fair value application, receivables and asset provisions, depreciation, severance pay, receivable and debt aging, inflation adjustment, and consolidation matters. It is essential that the fair value application and active registered fixed assets are valued. This issue has been added to FRS for LMEs while it was not included in TFRS for SMEs.
\nThe purpose of FRS for LMEs is to provide financial statements that are in compliance with financial information needs. Four financial statements are required to be prepared in the FRS for LMEs [10]:
Statement of financial position
Statement of Profit or loss
Statement of changes in equity
Statement of cash flows
The objectives of the FRS for LMEs are defined as follows:
Real
Fits financial information requirements
Providing the preparation of comparable financial statements
Since the FRS for LMEs has set a standard for the determination of commercial profit in Turkey and can be applied more easily than TFRS, it will contribute to a clearer understanding and proper implementation of the full set of standards. Thus, the main task of accounting, real activity result reporting, real situation detection, planning, and control will be available to produce information, and commercial purposes to use financial data will be become a habit [11].
\nFRS for LMEs is an important development in terms of accounting practices in Turkey. It is a financial reporting standard that enables the financial statements of the enterprises that are subject to independent audit and are not obliged to be accountable to the public and do not prefer to apply TFRS, to be understood by investors and lenders with their fair presentation, needed for financial information, and provides comparability of financial statements [12].
\nFRS for LMEs prepared by POAASA has been prepared in a simpler language than TAS/TFRS, avoiding the details that are not necessary for large- and medium-sized enterprises and addressing the basic principles of related subjects only [13].
\nThe primary objective of the Accounting System Application General Communiqué issued based on the Tax Procedure Law is to show the financial position of the taxpayers against tax. FRS for LMEs is subject to independent audit and replaces the Accounting System Application General Communiqué and Supplementary Issues in entities not applying TFRS. The financial reporting framework that will be the basis for the preparation of the financial statements of the companies which are subject to independent audit and which will not be subject to TFRS in accordance with the Turkish Commercial Code; the base financial report must be FRS for LMEs.
\nIn the POAASA’s decision dated 13.09.2018 and numbered (03/161), FRS for LMEs are redefined. FRS for LMEs is a financial reporting framework that is subject to independent audit and is valid for financial statements presented to general assemblies of enterprises that do not apply the TFRS. It has been decided that may apply FRS for LMEs in the preparation of the individual and consolidated financial statements of the institutions, establishments, and enterprises other than those which are obliged to apply TFRS. However, it has been decided that such institutions, organizations, and enterprises may apply TFRS on demand [4].
\nAccounting shows the financial structure of the enterprise and the results of its economic activities. Accounting practices constitute the source of accounting practices including basic accounting concepts, accounting principles, and accounting policies. Accounting standards is a set of rules that are formed in order to enable the comparison of the information generated in the accounting information system as a result of the business activities with confidence in accordance with the reality without considering the distinction of events of the same nature.
\nThe subject of accounting is the financial statements and reports to be prepared for public disclosure. Therefore, the concept of public disclosure is in a sense also the purpose of generally accepted accounting standards. In order to meet the increasing need for trust in an environment of global competition, the rapid increase of standardization movements has also emerged in the accounting field.
\nWorks aiming for standardization of both national and international dimensions of accounting are implemented in Turkey. Uniform Accounting System which has been in use in Turkey for a long period of time is a topic of discussion. However, as a result of this change, the Turkish translations of IAS/IFRS are in use as TAS/TFRS. TAS and TFRS-applicable Financial Reporting Standards also continues to use the Uniform Accounting System which has been applied for a long time. In addition, the financial reporting standard has been enacted for large- and medium-sized enterprises. Despite the fact that Full Set TAS/TFRS is translated into Turkish, FRS for LMEs has been put into effect instead of IFRS for SMEs because it is a closer match. Companies that are subject to independent auditing and that do not apply TFRS are required to apply FRS for LMEs in the presentation of their consolidated financial statements.
\nInternational Accounting Standards have emerged as a result of the harmonization of financial reports prepared according to the standards determined by the legal or financial structures of different countries in order to enable users to compare the same criteria for information users in different countries. The consolidated financial statements of companies whose stock is traded in the stock exchange and that are subject to independent auditing must be prepared in accordance with TFRS.
\nBanks, insurance, reinsurance and pension companies, factoring companies, finance companies, financial leasing companies, and asset management companies are required to implement TFRS and have their own chart of accounts.
\nFRS for LMEs is applied by companies subject to independent audits but do not apply TFRS and provides comparable financial information. The purpose of FRS for LMEs is to provide financial statements that are in compliance with financial information needs. The companies that are not subject to independent audits are generally required to prepare their financial statements in accordance with Uniform Accounting System.
The application of the Accounting System Application General Communiqué and its annexed Uniform Chart of Accounts as prescribed by the Tax Procedure Law is still in progress. The combination of all these applications may cause confusion in some cases. In addition, it is necessary to review Uniform Chart of Accounts as soon as possible to define and reorganize the account codes that businesses need due to new applications.
\nThe laser technology for manufacturing is classified into two categories; e.g., thermal and athermal processings [1]. CO2-laser with continuous power supply and fiber-lasers with use of short pulses are typical processing for welding, machining, and joining by formation of thermally hot spots [2]. Various fiber lasers [3] have been developed and applied to laser welding, laser machining, laser marking, and so on [3]. Most of them utilize the nanosecond solid-state oscillators and make thermal machining of materials. In recent, pico- and femtosecond laser machining [4, 5, 6] is widely utilized for athermal removal of materials with high dimensional accuracy in practice.
\nThere are two keywords to classify the laser processing; i.e., the wave length of light and the pulse duration time. CO2 laser has the longest wave length of 10.6 μm, while excimer laser by KrF, 248 nm. Most of laser wave length (λ) ranges from the far ultra-violet regime less than 200 nm to infra-red regime more than 20 μm. Since every material has its own relaxation rime (τ0), most of laser power can be absorbed by the material having the equivalent τ0 to λ. Then, this targeting work material is athermally machined by selecting the laser with suitable wave length; otherwise, the work is only thermally cut or drilled. A micromachining essentially requires for fast-rate removal of materials with sufficient accuracy in dimension and geometry; the repetition frequency as well as the wave length must be optimally selected to make suitable laser micromachining to each work-material. With use of second harmonic generator (SHG), third harmonic generator (THG), and forth harmonic generator (FHG), the fundamental wavelength of 1064 nm is controllable to be 532, 355 and 266 nm, respectively.
\nThe pulse duration time (Δt) is important for short-pulse laser micromachining. As shown in Figure 1a, the pulse power increases significantly with reduction of Δt. When the laser energy with Δt = 1 ms is 1 mJ, the laser power (P) is only 1 W; P reaches to 1 GW only by shortening Δt down to 1 ps.
\nTypical characteristics of ultra-short pulse laser machining. (a) Significant increase of laser power by reduction of Δt down to 1 ps, (b) ablation as an athermal removal of materials, and (c) laser intensity profile.
Under high power laser irradiation, most of materials are athermally removed, or, ablazed, as depicted in Figure 1b. The dimensional accuracy in laser micromachining is determined by focusing the laser spot for this ablation process. This laser irradiation has a finite spot size which is dependent on λ and Δt. The laser intensity distributes even in the focused spot; e.g., the well-controlled laser intensity distributes in Gaussian profile as depicted in Figure 1c.
\nIn the following, our developing ultrashort pulse laser machining systems are employed to make microdrilling and microtexturing into various kinds of work materials. In particular, the laser microtexturing technology is applied to microjoining process of dissimilar polymers, and to microdimple formation for friction control of sliding parts and components and for reservoir of wear debris during dry cutting. Further applications including the surface property control by using the nano-/microtexturing are discussed in this chapter.
\nOur developed pico- and femtosecond laser machining systems are stated with some comments on their capacity and configuration.
\nA single picosecond is equivalent to the relaxation time of molecular bonding stage; its pulsed power is readily absorbed by most of work materials. Three types of picosecond laser machining systems were developed; a standard system and its configuration are shown in Figure 2. The machining speed is dependent on the repletion frequency and average power. The dimensional accuracy in machining is determined by the beam spot size. To be discussed later, this spot size depends on the optical system; e.g., the minimum spot size can be controlled down to 1 μm when every lens is fixed on the stage. However, when the lens position is controlled during machining, the spot size becomes wider; e.g., it is limited by 10 μm when using the galvanometer.
\nOur developed picosecond laser machining system and its capacity and configuration.
A single femtosecond or subpicosecond lasers are developed for innovative research and development; most industrial applications stand on this laser machining in the order of 100 femtoseconds. Our developed system and its configuration are shown in Figure 3.
\nOur developed femtosecond laser machining system and its capacity and configuration.
Since the focused spot of work materials is subjected to ultra-high power irradiation, how to scan the beam spot becomes more important when using this laser machining system. Higher repetition frequency of laser beams as well as higher scanning speed result in fast-rate dimensionally accurate machining. At present, a laser oscillator with the repetition frequency of 40 MHz has been already developed for machining. How to make fast control of this short pulse laser becomes an essential issue in laser machining design.
\nIn parallel with the development of laser oscillators and machining unit, the optical unit design is also important for accurate laser machining. Two unit designs are introduced in Figure 4; e.g., an optical control unit with use of galvanometer to distribute the laser beam as designed, and a beam rotator for laser drilling with accurate circularity. The former unit is a standard approach for laser machining with moderate rate; new controller must be developed to make much faster rate laser machining. The latter is a powerful tool to rotate the optical units and to move the laser beam in the axisymmetric manner.
\nTypical two optical control units for laser micromachining. (a) Optical control unit with use of galvanometer and (b) beam rotator.
Various controlling tools of laser beam can be designed and developed for each application of laser machining.
\nThese pico- and femtoseconds with the pulse duration in the order of 10−12 and 10−15 s provide a reliable means to drill the through-holes into the ceramics, the metallic alloys, and the plastics [7]. Compared to the micromilling and the microelectrical discharge machining (micro-EDM), finer through-holes with higher circularity are formed without residuals at the inlet of holes and without deterioration on their inner surfaces [8]. In addition, no micromilling tools and no thin EDM wires are needed to drill the lots of through-holes onto the relatively large area. In this laser drilling process, the surface quality of through-holes as well as their circularity is strongly dependent on the laser beam control, as summarized in [9]. In the conventional fiber-laser machining, the inlet of through-holes is deteriorated by the redeposits and the residuals [10]. Even when using the picosecond pulse lasers, the through-hole shape is also damaged by the unstable laser beams [11, 12]. Typical damage of through-holes comes from the branching from the straight hole drilled in the initial stage to two holes. The deviation of beam focusing and positioning directly induces these defects [7, 8, 13]. Our developed picosecond laser machining system for industrial applications is applied to drill the through-holes into the ceramic plates. The beam rotator is used as a trepanning system for laser drilling. The alumina plate with the thickness of 1 mm is employed as a substrate. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) is used to measure the diameter of through-holes as well as their aspect ratio. The replica method is also utilized to describe the geometric alignment and homogeneity of through-holes. The drilled through-holes with the uniform diameter of 50 μm and the aspect ratio of 10.0 are accurately aligned into the alumina plate. The present trepanning device works to control the diameter of irradiation for fine drilling of the tapered and inversely tapered through-holes into steels.
\nThe alumina plate is prepared for the laser drilling under the experimental setup in Figure 5. The beam rotator as well as projection lens unit is utilized to improve the focused beam quality. Through the CCD and display, the microdrilling process is monitored during operation.
\nA typical experimental setup for laser microdrilling.
Let us first evaluate on the difference of drilling behavior between the fiber lasers and the picosecond laser. The through-hole with the diameter of 50 μm is drilled into alumina plate. When using the normal fiber lasers, the surroundings of hole are completely damaged with deposits on themFigure 6a. While, the accurate hole with circularity of 1 μm is drilled by the picosecond laser without damage and deposits, as shown in Figure 6b.
\nComparison of the drilled through-hole between fiber lasers and the picosecond laser. (a) Fiber laser drilling, and, (b) Picosecond laser drilling.
No residuals or no redeposits at the vicinity of through-hole inlets prove that the present picosecond lase drilling is free from the thermal effects to deteriorate the surface quality of work specimen. The picosecond laser drilling is utilized to fabricate a series of holes with periodically aligned into alumina substrate. Figure 7a depicts the through-holes drilled into the alumina. Each through-hole is aligned with the pitch of 300 μm as programmed by the CAM data mining through the positioning control of beams. As had been discussed in [11], the inner surface quality of through-holes is sensitive to the instability during the laser drilling. Figure 7b also demonstrates that the straight through-hole inner surfaces are formed to have constant diameter without any geometric damages by the picosecond laser drilling. This is because the laser beam is well profiled through the trepanning system before fine control by the galvanometer, and is controlled to move into the depth of work materials. The above straightforwardness of through-holes is also demonstrated by using the replica method. In this method, the silicone-based polymers are infiltrated into each through-hole. The frozen polymers are used as a replica to reproduce the drilled through-hole shape. Figure 7c depicts the alignment of replicas in correspondence to a series of laser-drilled through-holes. Three through-holes were laser-drilled down to the same depth in the alumina plate. Since the first three polymer pillars have the same height as 150 μm, the successive series of through-holes are accurately machined into the alumina with the same depth.
\nPicosecond laser drilling of through-holes into the alumina plate. (a) Alignment of through-holes, (b) inner surface of through-hole with the diameter of 50 μm, and (c) demonstration of the homogeneous laser drilling by using the replica method.
These straight through-holes with high aspect ratio provide a solution to the demand for the probe-cards to make accurate inspection of the semiconductor chips. The probe-pins are pierced through the straight through-holes of alumina or PSZ substrates for inspection. These through-holes must have higher aspect ratio than 10 to preserve the sufficient working space. Figure 8a depicts the through-hole with the diameter of 50 μm machined into the alumina plate with the thickness of 1 mm; the aspect ratio reaches to 20. This high aspect ratio is also attained even when laser drilling PSZ in Figure 8b. This demonstrates that the trepanned laser drilling enables to make through-holes with higher aspect ratio than 20 under the well-structured setup in laser machining.
\nPicosecond laser drilling of through-holes with higher aspect ratio. (a) Drilled through-holes into alumina plate and (b) drilled through-holes into partially stabilized zirconia (PSZ).
In the die and mold industries, the case-hardened and plasma-treated steels are often utilized for high proof of dimensional accuracy. Let us also compare the laser drilling performance between the fiber-lasers and the picosecond laser. Figure 9 compared the drilled through-holes between two lasers. The large heat-affected zones as well as damages surround the drilled hole by fiber laser in Figure 9a. While, the clean and accurate through-hole is drilled into the case-hardened steels by the picosecond laser in Figure 9b.
\nComparison of the drilled through-holes into the case-hardened steels. (a) Using the fiber lasers and (b) using the picosecond laser.
Without use of the beam rotation control, the tapering is difficult or nearly impossible in the laser drilling. In the present setup, the pair of lenses in the beam rotator in Figure 5 is radially adjusted to directly control the diameter of irradiated region. When this diameter is narrowed from the inlet to the outlet with the constant velocity, the uniformly tapered through-hole is drilled to have a constant tapered angle up to the specified positive skew angle. On the other hand, the inversely tapered through-hole is also machined by enlarging this diameter with the constant velocity in the similar way down to the negative skew angle. These tapering or inversely tapering processes from the inlet to outlet of the through-hole are automatically programmed. After CAM data in the present laser drilling, this diameter of irradiation is narrowed from the inlet by 100 μm to the outlet by 30 μm with the constant feeding velocity. Then, the tapered through-hole is built into the alumina plate with the constant angle of +30° and the higher aspect ratio than 10.0 in Figure 10. In the similar way, the inversely tapered through-hole is formed by enlarging the diameter of irradiation from the inlet by 100 μm to the outlet by 180 μm also with the constant velocity. The inversely tapered through-hole is also drilled into the alumina with the thickness of 1 mm. The inversely tapered angles are also constant by −25°. In both cases, the inner surfaces of holes are finely shaped with less roughness [14].
\nPicosecond laser drilling of the tapered and inversely tapered through-holes into the case-hardened steels.
Microtextures with the size in the order of 1–100 μm on the solid surface and interface work to reduce the friction and wear, to assist the joinability, and to functionalize the surfaces and interfaces [15]. Micromilling [16] and microelectrical discharge machining (micro-EDM) [17] have been utilized to make microtexturing onto the steel surfaces. Due to the limitation on the machining tool shape and their controllability for machining, their application is also limited in practice. Short-pulse laser machining is employed to make microtexturing onto the metallic and ceramic surfaces.
\nA circular dimple is formed on the various metallic surfaces as an aligned structure. Figure 11 depicts four microtexturing cases. The unit-geometry of microdimples, their alignment on the surfaces, and the finished surface quality are preserved with less roughing during laser processing. For an example, the circular microdimples with the diameter of 95 μm and the depth of 26 μm are formed on the AISI430 surface in the pitch of 110 μm as shown in Figure 11d. No difference in microdimple size and shape and in its alignment is noticed for various kinds of metallic substrates.
\nLaser microtexturing of circular dimples aligned on the metallic substrates. (a) Aluminum, (b) copper, (c) nickel, and (d) AISI430.
The initial geometric data in CAD and CAM for laser microdimple texturing are data-transformed from positive to negative; this transformed CAD and CAM data are automatically built for laser microemboss formation. In practice, the concave patterning to form the microdimples changes itself to the convex patterning to form the microembosses onto the substrate surfaces. Figure 12 depicts four microembossing cases. The dimensional and geometric accuracies are preserved in the similar manner of microdimple formation. For an example, the circular microembosses with the diameter of 250 μm and the depth of 125 μm are formed on the boron-silicate glass surface in the pitch of 280 μm, as shown in Figure 12d.
\nLaser microembossing of circular embosses aligned on the metallic and ceramic substrates. (a) AISI430, (b) Ni, (c) AISI304, and (d) boron-silicate glass.
With use of femtosecond lasers, finer microtextures are formed as a three-dimensional structure on the metallic surfaces. Figure 13 depicts the three-dimensional microstructures formed on the steel surfaces. In particular, the Gaussian-shaped pillar array with the height of 20 μm and the pitch of 20 μm is machined into the AISI430 substrate as shown in Figure 13c.
\nLaser microtexturing of three-dimensional structures onto the surfaces. (a) AISI410, (b) SISI304, (c) AISI430, and (d) AISI430.
Three-dimensional periodic microstructures have a capability to functionalize the metallic surfaces for optical reflection and diffraction devices and for stamping die and injection mold to transcribe their negative textures onto metallic and polymer sheets. Figure 14 depicts the periodic microstructures formed on the aluminum and AISI304 steel substrates, respectively. Figure 14a is a stepwise terrace structure machined into aluminum with each layer thickness of 5 μm by decreasing the diameter from 450 μm down to 50 μm with the step of 100 μm.
\nLaser microtexturing of fine periodic structures onto the surfaces. (a) Al, (b) AISI304, (c) AISI304, and (d) AISI304.
Two- and three-dimensional microtexturing becomes much important in preparation of mold-dies for mold-stamping of optical elements [18]. The most popular microtexture is a Fresnel pattern for optical lens; circumferential patterns with steep surfaces must be imprinted onto the surface of substrate materials. V-letter-shaped micropatterns are laser-machined onto the glassy carbon substrate to discuss the dimensional accuracy and to investigate the depth profile for different aspect ratio. Furthermore, our developing microstamping system [8, 19, 20] is utilized to duplicate these micropatterns onto optical polymers by using the patterned glassy carbon mold-dies and to discuss the accuracy by this imprinting.
\nIn the two-dimensional microtexturing, a unit pattern like a groove, a dimple, or a wedge is machined with the specified regularity onto the substrate by using X-Y positioning control. Here, a microgroove is employed as a standard unit pattern to fabricate the microtextured mold-die. Glassy carbon (GC) substrate is employed to make V-letter-shaped microgrooving with the pitch of 35 μm, the V-shaped wedge width of 10 μm, and the depth of 10 μm in design. Figure 15a shows the optical micrograph of V-shaped grooving pattern on GC substrate. One groove is laser-machined twice on the same designed machining path. This micropattern is formed onto the GC substrate with the area of 25 × 25 mm2 for 40 min or 2.4 ks. As shown in Figure 15b, a sharp wedge of microgroove is imprinted onto the multilayered GC substrate. The microgroove has 10 μm in width, and 35 μm in pitch. The geometric dimensions specified in CAM program are accurately reproduced in the actual laser microtexturing. The depth profile of V-letter-shaped microgrooves is directly measured to investigate the accuracy of depth in the two-dimensional texturing. Figure 16 depicts the measured depth profile by precise surface profilometer. Deviation of depth ranges from −1 to +2 μm around the average depth of 10 μm. This proves that regular patterns could be machined by the present approach. In order to investigate the controllability of microgrooving in depth, the designed depth parameter is varied with the laser beam power kept constant. Figure 17 compares the relationship between the designed and measured depths in this microgrooving. Up to 20 μm, the average depth of microgrooves is accurately controlled by the present laser machining system.
\nLaser microtexturing of V-letter shaped grooves into GC substrate. (a) Microscopic image of microgrooved GC and (b) SEM image of microgrooves.
Depth profile across the V-letter shaped microgrooves in GC substrate.
Relationship between the designed and measured microgroove depths.
The above microtextured GC substrate is used as a mold-die for warm mold-stamping. PMMA sheet with the thickness of 1 mm is employed as a work material for this mold-stamping just above its glass-transition temperature of 383 K (or 110°C). Figure 18a showed the V-letter-shaped grooving patterns, which are imprinted onto PMMA by the load of 1 kN for 60 s. The V-letter-shaped concave patterns in Figure 15b are accurately imprinted onto PMMA as the convex micropattern as shown in Figure 18b. That is, a series of microwedge fins are fabricated by this mold-stamping with use of microtextured mold in Figure 15. In the mold-stamping, the filling process of work materials into the micropatterns on the mold-die is essential for accurate imprinting. Precise observation with higher magnification in SEM is made to investigate this filling behavior at the initial stage of mold-stamping. Figure 18c depicted a convex bump with the width of 10 μm and the height of 3.5 μm. This bump formation is just the initial stage of filling process for viscous PMMA to infiltrate into the V-letter-shaped groove by mold-stamping. In case of mold-stamping just above the glass transition temperature, viscosity of plastic materials is so high as to reduce the filling velocity. This reflects on the slow shearing along the side faces of microgroove.
\nTranscription of the V-letter wedge microtexture on GC to the V-letter bump microtexture via the mold stamping. (a) Multimicrogrooved PMMA sheet, (b) V-letter bump microtextures on PMMA, and (c) formation of microbump by inclusion of melt PMMA into V-letter wedge on GC mold.
Most of mobile cellular phones are not water-proven so as to be diminished in the accident where those were dropped into water. To be free from these damages, there have been done many efforts to install the perfect waterproof into them [21]; e.g., a silicone rubber ring was sandwiched between plastic cover cases to prevent from water penetration through clearance. This fixture might work well just after shipping; it could be useless at the presence of dirt on the interface or through its misalignment by users in daily use of mobile phones. As the first remedy, a liquid silicone rubber with adhesives is fixed onto their polymer case by the liquid injection molding (LIM) process [22]. Since adhesives invoked in the silicone are responsible for joining, delamination might occur in partial after repetitive opening-and-closing operations in daily use of mobile phones. This difficulty requests us to reconsider the joining process between flexible rubber and hard plastic case in the mobile phone.
\nThe microgrooves are formed into the stainless steel mold for injection molding [23, 24]. Silicone rubber is joined with the polycarbonate plate as a specimen for joining strength test. The measured joining strength is constant by 4 N/mm at the presence of fine microgrooves, where the thinnest silicon rubber fractures without interfacial delamination. This joinability is common to the mobile phone model. The waterproof testing demonstrates that this joined interface has sufficient integrity at high pressure state by 15 kPa.
\nThe picosecond laser microtexturing with use of the galvanometer is employed to form the microgroove textures onto the AISI martensitic stainless steel mold. Figure 19 depicts four microgrooved AISI420 molds with varying widths of 100, 75, 45, and 20 μm, respectively. The groove depth is constant by 10 μm. Each microgroove is shaped to have Gaussian profile irrespectively; the beam intensity profile directly reflects on this microgroove geometry. This mold is inserted into the die-set for injection molding. Polycarbonate (PC) is employed as a work material to imprint these microgroove textures onto the work surface. Figure 20 depicts the transcribed microbump textures onto PC from the microgroove on the AISI420 mold. Both the groove width and pitch are accurately preserved through this injection molding.
\nMicrogroove textures with various widths from 100 to 20 μm and constant depth of 10 μm into AISI420 stainless steel substrate.
Transcription from the microgrooves on the AISI420 mold to the microbumps on the PC specimen.
In the LIM process, adhesive primer is deposited onto the interface before infiltration of silicone melt in the mold-die. Since intermission between two processes is less than 2–3 s, adhesion takes place between silicon and PC-plate under the cooling stage. Figure 21a depicts the PC plate specimen with a silicone square ring after joining in the inside of mold-die during LIM process. In the following test, only the joined section in the width of 80 mm is used for tensile adhesive strength testing. A uniaxial tensile testing system with the dynamic video monitoring is used to measure the loading behavior till the final fracture with in situ observation on the deformation of silicone. As shown in Figure 21b, when the microgroove width is less than the intrinsic microcavity width of 100 μm, the fatal fracture occurs in the tensile silicone rubber without any delamination of interface between PC and silicone. This joining strength reaches 4 N/mm irrespective of the joined length and size even if the microcavities are present on the interface. This implies that microtextures on the joined interface could control the cavitation process to be free from interfacial delamination.
\nJoining strength testing. (a) Microbump textured PC specimen joined with silicone rubber and (b) fatal fracture of silicone without interfacial delamination.
The skewed microgrooves with their width and depth of 20 μm are laser-machined into the AISI420 die insert. In the similar way to preparation for the PC-specimen with the silicone rubber ring, the injection molding is used to transcribe the microgrooves into the PC-cover case; LIM process is also utilized to make in situ joining of silicone rubber ring onto the PC-cover case via the microbump textures on PC. Figure 22 depicts the mobile phone model, fabricated in the above procedure. Each interface between the PC-cover case and silicone rubber has microbump textures. The Hamron leakage testing is employed to perform the waterproof test; e.g., this test aims at the quality check of significant deformation by small leaks under the applied pressure for 5 min. This model is dipped into a water pool, pressurized up to 15 kPa and held for 5 min. As shown in Figure 23, the PC-cover case deforms by pressuring it up to 15 kPa; no further deformation is detected during the holding duration. This demonstrates the perfect waterproof on the jointed interface with aid of microbump textures.
\nA mobile phone PC-model joined with the silicone rubber through the microtexture with the width of 20 mm on the interface.
Waterproof test to demonstrate the integrity of mobile phones under the pressure of 15 kPa.
Superhydrophilicity and superhydrophobicity have grown up as a key surface engineering to keep clean and fresh surface of products and to control the liquid flow on the product surfaces. The oxide-glass lens as well as metallic-glass, optical elements are a typical targeting product to have their surface hydrophilic or superhydrophilic for liquid film formation, and to have it hydrophobic or superhydrophobic for well-defined water repellency [25]. The high energy surface had higher attractive capacity to other material atoms and molecules; those are adherent to each other to form a wet film on the surface. While, the low energy surface had lower attractive capacity to other material atoms and molecules; those are isolated from each other to form the droplets on the surface.
\nThere are two modifications to control this surface state; e.g., the chemical and physical treatments. The chemical treatment is a general tool to modify the surface condition; e.g., fluorine-based coating increases the contact angle up to 130–150° in [26]. On the other hand, the idea of lotus effect has been discussed as a physical approach to form hydrophobic surface [27]. This lotus effect works in nature since the water droplets are supported by the air gap through the fine fibrous lotus leaf; this idea suggests that wettability might be widely controlled by the micro-/nanotexturing [28]. As has been reported in [29, 30, 31], the femtosecond laser micro-/nanotexturing methods have been developed to tune the surface wettability from superhydrophilic to superhydrophobic states. In particular, the micro-/submicro textures are formed on any materials by the laser-induced periodic surface structuring (LIPSS), where the incident and reflected lights have interaction with the scattered and diffracted lights at the vicinity of surface roughness [32]. Among several approaches to design this LIPSS, the authors proposed the micro-/submicrotexturing design by LIPSS with the use of fundamental wavelets and high-frequency ripples [33, 34]. Here, LIPSS is formed onto the AISI304 stainless steel substrates by using the femtosecond laser texturing. Both the superhydrophilic and superhydrophobic surfaces can be formed by the present laser nano-/microtexturing. The geometric effect of surface geometry on the superhydrophobicity is discussed to optimize the laser surface profile control.
\nWith reduction of the pulse duration, the optical interaction with irradiated materials localizes in the wavelength range. When irradiating the materials in the fundamental mode, this interaction field is limited within the submicrometer range. LIPSS is a typical local interaction, occurring at the site of material surface roughness in the order of micrometer. Figure 24 depicts the LIPSS formed on the austenitic stainless steel type 304 by the present femtosecond laser texturing. Nanotexturing alignment angulates itself across the microtexture in Figure 24asince optical interaction is affected by the surface profile in micrometer range. As shown in Figure 24b, the spatial periodicity of these nanotextures is constant by 250 nm. This reveals that fine nanotextures with constant periodicity are formed on the metallic surface by the femtosecond laser treatment.
\nLIPSS formed on AISI304 substrate surface by the present femtosecond laser texturing. (a) Microtextured angulation and nanotextures and (b) fine alignment of nanotextures.
After the classical theory on the surface wettability [35], the hydrophilic or the hydrophobic surfaces are modified to have superhydrophilic or superhydrophobic states, respectively. This is because the geometric item works to decrease the contact angle for hydrophilic surface or to increase it for hydrophobic one. Figure 25 depicts the wettability of nanotextured AISI304 surface by the femtosecond laser surface modification. The measured contact angle reaches down to 8°; it is superhydrophilic. This reveals that the classical theory is true to describe the geometric nanotexture effect on the contact angle when the spatial periodicity of nanotextures works as a major geometric item in surface quality.
\nModification of hydrophilic surface to have superhydrophilic state by laser nanotexturing.
In addition to the nanotexturing surface modification, the microtexturing angulation is taken into account as the geometric item. AISI304 stainless steel sheets with the size of 25 × 25 × 3 mm3 are nano-/microtextured to investigate the change of surface wettability by this processing. Figure 26 compares the droplets swelling on the specimen before and after this micro/submicrolaser texturing. The contact angle of pure water on the bare stainless steels is 70–75°, corresponding to the normal wettability of metals [36]. Through the present texturing, the contact angle increases up to 156°. This proves that nano-/microlaser texturing provides a tool to modify the wettability of stainless steel surfaces from hydrophobic to superhydrophobic state. This finding is completely against the classical theory; if more geometric items are put into laser texturing, the material surface quality can be widely controlled by geometric design.
\nModification of wettability on the AISI304 substrate from the original hydrophilic state to the superhydrophobic one by laser nano-/microtexturing.
There are two geometric items affecting on the surface property; the fractal dimension and the aspect ratio for nanotextures [37]. The former influences on the complexity of surface geometry; the latter, on the local angulation of geometry. Thirty AISI304 stainless steel sheets with the size of 10 × 10 × 0.1 t mm3 are laser nano-/microtextured to investigate the effect of microtexture pitch and height on the measured wettability. Figure 27 describes the relationship between the aspect ratio of nanotexture width to height on the measured contact angle. When this aspect ratio is less than 0.1 or more than 0.3, almost all measured contact angles are less than 155°; the micro-/submicrotextured AISI304 specimens are only hydrophobic. Higher contact angle up to 170° is attained when tuning this aspect ratio between 0.2 and 0.3; e. g., when using the microtextures with the width of 20 μm, their height might well be 2–6 μm. This implies that local angulation of surface geometry has significant influence on the controllability of hydrophobicity.
\nEffect of the longitudinal aspect ratio on the measured contact angle among 30 nano-/microtextured AISI304 substrates.
Under the strong demand for reduction of environmental burdens in manufacturing, every productive line must be energy-saving and highly material-efficient with less emission to environments [38]. In past, the huge amount of lubricating oils has been utilized to reduce the friction and wear not only in automobile industries but also in machining, metal forming, and so on [39]. In order to reduce this amount down to the minimum quantity, the contact surface of mechanical parts and tool surfaces are microtextured to reduce the friction coefficient and wear rate under minimum quantity lubrication (MQL) [40]. Microdimples on the working interfaces and surfaces play as a lubricating oil pocket to form a thin lubricating oil film on the interface between sliding parts and between work materials and tools [41]. The depth profile of each microdimple reflects on the local pressure distribution; this interfacial lubricating film works as a pressure boundary to support the sufficient film thickness to lubrication under MQL [42]. In addition, these microdimples work as a reservoir to store the wear debris of work materials and tool chips during the semidry machining and metal forming [43]. Here, the microdimples are formed by the picosecond laser texturing onto the dies and tools. The pin-on-ball method is employed to evaluate on the reduction of friction for the microdimpled die. The normal milling test is also utilized to describe the effect of microdimpled cutting tool on the reduction of tool wear.
\nThe picosecond laser microtexturing is employed to form the circular microdimples onto the AISI420 stainless steel dies, with the diameter of 50 and 100 μm and the depth of 10 μm in the regular lattice alignment with the pitch of 100 and 200 μm, respectively, for tribotesting. While, the isosceles triangular microdimples with the bottom edge of 155 μm, the height of 80 μm and the depth of 5 μm are machined onto the WC (Co) cutting tools in the zigzag alignment. Figure 28 depicts these microdimpled specimens and tool together with the SEM-image and three-dimensional profile of microdimples.
\nLaser microdimple texturing. (a) Microdimpled stainless steel die and (b) microdimpled WC (Co) cutting tool.
The pin-on-ball testing is employed to measure the time evolution of frictional force under the constant normal load. In this testing, the counter material ball is on contact with the die material under the applied normal weight as depicted in Figure 29. The frictional force is directly measured by load sensor attached to the arm. In the following tests, SUJ2 hard balls are utilized as a counter material. The friction coefficient is calculated by division of the measured friction force to the applied normal load. Figure 30 depicts the transients of friction coefficient with increasing the sliding distance for three die specimens; e.g., a bare AISI420 die without microdimples, and two microdimpled dies with the microdimple diameter (D) of 100 μm and its pitch (p) of 200 μm and with D = 50 μm and p = 100 μm, respectively. In case of bare die, the friction coefficient increases monotonically with sliding distance up to 0.15. When using the microdimpled die with D = 50 μm and p = 100 μm, lower friction coefficient than 0.07 is preserved during this tribotesting.
\nThe ball-on-disc method for measurement of friction coefficient during the sliding conditions.
Variation of the friction coefficient with increasing the sliding distance for three cases; the bare die without microdimples, and the microdimpled dies with D = 100 μm and p = 200 μm and D = 50 μm and p = 100 μm, respectively.
When milling the aluminum alloys by WC (Co) tools, the tool face is inevitably subjected to adhesion of work material. Microtexturing into the tool face enables to reduce this adhesion by storing the wear debris and cutting chips into these pockets on it. In this experiment, AA5052 aluminum alloy is employed as a work material for normal milling with use of the bare WC (Co) and microtextured one as shown in Figure 28b. Figure 31 compares the adhesion process of work material onto the tool face at the milling distance (L) of 900 and 1800 m, respectively, between the bare and microdimpled tools. Without microdimples, the adhesive area and thickness of work materials onto the tool face enlarges with increasing L; e.g., when L = 1800 m, nearly the whole face is covered by these work adhesives with their film thickness of 10 μm around the tool edge. On the other hand, little adhesion to microdimpled face is noted even after milling up to 1800 m. This significant reduction of adhesion by microtexturing comes from the storing mechanism where the wear debris and cutting chips are reserved into each microdimple. This reduction of adhesion influences on the cutting force; e.g., the cutting force becomes relatively insensitive to cutting distance when using these microtextured tools.
\nComparison of work material adhesion to tool face with increasing the milling distance between the bare and microdimpled WC (Co) tools.
Low friction and wear is indispensable for most of automotive parts and manufacturing tools. They have curved surfaces, the friction coefficient of which must be reduced to save the energy waste and to improve the fuel efficiency. In particular, the piston cylinder as well as piston skirt are important sliding-part. Figure 32a shows the microdimpled AISI316L inner surface of cylinder with the size of 30 × 500 μm2 and the depth of 5 μm in the pitch of 1 mm in the circumferential direction and 0.5 mm along the length. This wedge-shaped microdimples improve the fuel efficiency significantly. The AA7075 piston skirt is also microdimpled to have circular dimples with the diameter of 30 μm, the depth of 3 μm and the pitch of 120 μm, respectively, as shown in Figure 32b.
\nMicrotexturing into the inner surfaces of automotive parts. (a) Microtextured piston cylinder and (b) microtextured piston skirt.
The spatial resolution in this laser machining is first discussed to find out the way to improve its dimensional accuracy. Through the practical survey on the micromachining and texturing into curved surfaces, the feasible applications are understood to search for bio-medical laser processing. In particular, future trend of fast-rate laser technologies is discussed for further improvement of micromachining.
\nLaser drilling of circular holes is employed as a benchmark test to discuss the dimensional accuracy of 25 × 25 holes in square structure with the diameter of 30 mm and the pitch of 50 mm, as depicted in Figure 33a. Silicon nitride plate with the thickness of 125 mm is used as a work material. Figure 33b and c shows the X- and Y-deviation maps at the inlet diameter and outlet diameter for 625 holes. Since both maps are nearly coincident to each other, the straightness and circularity are preserved to be within 1/125 μm ~ 0.7°, and within 2 μm, respectively. The spatial resolution of hole diameter is within 2.5 μm in the 2σ-reliability.
\nBenchmark test to investigate the dimensional accuracy in the laser microdrilling. (a) Test-drilling, (b) deviation map, measured at the inlet, and (c) deviation map, measured at the outlet.
Without specially designed jigs and fixtures, both the micromilling and micro-EDM are difficult or nearly impossible to microdrill the holes and grooves. Laser microdrilling has little constraint in the manufacturing setup; it is readily applied to make direct drilling. AISI304 stainless steel pipe with its outer diameter (Dout) of 0.7 mm and its inner diameter (Din) of 0.58 mm is employed as a work to make microdrilling the holes and grooves. Figure 34 shows three microtexturing cases; e.g., a microdrilled pipe, a spiral-grooved pipe, and a laterally grooved pipe. The designed textures can be accommodated to the curved surfaces by this laser microdrilling.
\nMicrotexturing into the metallic tube. (a) Microdrilling of holes with the diameter of 100 μm into a AISI304 stainless steel pipe with Dout = 0.7 mm and Dιν = 0.58 mm, (b) microgrooving of shallow grooves with the width of 25 μm and the depth of 3 μm into the same pipe as (a), and (c) microgrooving of lateral grooves with the depth of 30 μm into the same pipe as (a).
Another feature of laser microtexturing is developed by changing the beam control. A thin spring is structured from a pipe in Figure 35a. A wide slit is structured into a pipe as depicted in Figure 35b. Any shaped short-cuts are equipped into a pipe as shown in Figure 35c. This suggests that complex microstructure can be built in the micromachine and micromember.
\nFabrication of the geometrically functionalized parts by laser microtexturing. (a) Structuring a spring with the pitch of 150 μm from thin brass pipe with Dout = 160 μm and Din = 80 μm, (b) structuring a slit with the size of 30 × 500 μm2 into AISI304 stainless steel pipe with Dout = 100 μm, and (c) fabrication of short-cuts with the size of 65 × 50 μm2 from the same pipe as (b).
Let us discuss how to make laser-structuring a micropart from commercial components. A polylactic acid (PLA) pipe is employed as a starting component to fabricate the PLA-stents for medical usage. Figure 35 depicts three PLA-stents fabricated from the same PLA-pipe by the laser microtexturing. These three can be selectively made from PLA-pipe only by varying the slit width (Ws) to be 154, 156 and 160 micro-meter, respectively. The topological geometry of stents can be designed and fabricated for each medical treatment by tuning the laser microtexturing parameters as shown in Figure 36.
\nLaser micropart formation of stents from PLA pipe with Dout = 2.55 mm, Din = 2.20 mm, and the length of 25 m. (a) Ws = 154 μm, (b) Ws = 156 μm, and (c) Ws = 160 μm.
Various geometric transformations can be realized only by the laser processing such as the micromachining, microtexturing, and microstructuring in the above. Through the fusion of other manufacturing treatments with the laser processing, further advancement is expected to propose the innovative procedures. With combination of laser nano-/microtexturing with laser polishing, the surface property is selectively controlled to be superhydrophilic or superhydrophobic by tuning the LIPSS-conditions. With combination of laser microtexturing with the mechanical milling, a multimaterial part as well as a structural member with large area can be functionalized as a complex-shaped part or as a functionalized component.
\nAmong the engineering issues related to ultrashort pulse laser processing, how to put the fast-rate microtexturing into practice is one of the important targets. In addition to increase of repetition frequency in laser oscillation, new optical control must be developed to transform the spatial geometry and topology in shape into time sequence of scanning in beam technology.
\nThe picosecond and femtosecond laser processing is designed to be tools for advanced manufacturing; laser microdrilling, laser microtexturing, laser nano-/microtexturing, laser microstructuring, and so on. The dimensional accuracy, the spatial resolution as well as the circularity approaches to 1 μm or less than; every micropart, every microstructure, and every microtexture is fabricated in the product size of 10 to 100 μm range. Most of engineering issues related to surface and interface are well defined in this laser processing to find an optimum solution to each problem. Reduction of friction and wear in tools and works is attained by microtexturing onto the tool and part surfaces. Reliable joining between dissimilar materials and parts is put into practice by chemical adhesion with aid of microtextures on their interface. Surface and interface properties are also controllable by optimization of nano-/microtextures.
\nSustainable manufacturing requires for the well-designed processing to support the efficient circulation of products, parts, and materials in addition to recycle and reuse of second hands. Laser micromachining is useful to prolong the tool life, to revise the product surfaces and interfaces for multiple use and to assist the multimaterialization for second-hand products and parts.
\nFurther research and development on the unknown features of laser processing is necessary to advance new steps in innovative technology and medical engineering to further improve the sustainability in future society.
\nThe authors would like to express their gratitude to Mr. T. Hasegawa, T. Miyagawa (SIT), Dr. K. Wasa (TecDia, Co. Ltd.), Mr. T. Omata, and Mr. K. Sanbongi (LPS-works, Co. Ltd.) for their help in experiments. The present study was financially support in part by the METI with Supporting-Industry Projects in Japanese Government from 2010 to 2017.
\nThe authors declared no conflict of interest.
This is a brief overview of the main steps involved in publishing with IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs and Edited Books. Once you submit your proposal you will be appointed a Author Service Manager who will be your single point of contact and lead you through all the described steps below.
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\n\nAfter approval, you will proceed in submitting your full-length manuscript. 50-130 pages for compacts, 130-500 for Monographs & Edited Books.Your full-length manuscript must follow IntechOpen's Author Guidelines and comply with our publishing rules. Once the manuscript is submitted, but before it is forwarded for peer review, it will be screened for plagiarism.
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