Positions of the valence band edge (VBE) and value of electron affinity (EA) for variously terminated diamond (111) and (100) surfaces.
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More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
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Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
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\r\n\tThe real world we live in and the problems of it which we try to solve is complex, dynamic, and uncertain. As pointed out by Aristotle “only an approximation of the truth is possible.” As the advancement of science and technology, we feel this fact more intense every day. Even if we may handle the randomness by probability theory, to process imprecise or vague information Fuzzy Logic may be seen as a better approach. Fuzzy Logic is similar to the decision making process of humans using imprecise and non-numerical information. It may directly process verbal information unlike many other methods. It may be used to combine benefits of human decision making process and computational power of computers. With all these advantages it may be used in all areas requiring modelling, control and decision making. These areas include artificial intelligence, computer science, control engineering, medicine, meteorology, expert systems, economics and management, pattern recognition, image processing, robotics, etc. In this context, this book aims to introduce or support the understanding of Fuzzy Logic and Control principles to enhance the knowledge and application of specialists in all related areas of engineering and science. Book is planned to contain subjects on Computational intelligence, Fuzzy clustering, Data processing, Control theory, Computer-Aided diagnosis, Expert system, Image analysis, and Robotics. Focus of this book is intended to be on the Fuzzy Control Systems.
\r\n\t
Fluid instabilities show up everywhere in nature. Fluid flow will start off laminar and smooth and then quickly transition to an irregular pattern eventually transitioning to turbulence. All you have to do to see its prevalence is look up at the sky on a cloudy day when the conditions are right such that there will be large clouds rolling past one another and spirals develop. This is the Kelvin-Helmholtz instability (where there is a shear between two fluids with different relative velocities). Another common instability is when you add cold milk to hot tea. The larger density of the cold fluid falls and displaces the hotter less dense fluid, and it is clear that specific structures form. A similar phenomenon occurs for contained flows, such as in pipes, or as in unbounded flow, such as that over a wing or out of a faucet. In all of these cases, solving too simplified equations of motion would lead to the solution that our ignorant view of the world might expect, where the fluids retain their smooth laminar structure, but this does not happen. Instead a specific size and shape of structure forms, usually in a periodic fashion, and this structure grows until finally becoming more and more chaotic until the flow is not longer laminar, but has transitioned to turbulence. A normal mode analysis can often be performed (where the equations of motion are assumed to be in a form where different wavelengths can be tested), and through solving the equation, the growth rate of various wavelength is found. This will tell us what specific configuration is expected.
When engineering new devices that involve fluid flows, it is important to account for these instabilities. This can be to try and minimize the onset of turbulence (or speed it up) or to understand the different wavelengths that may form and possibly causes resonances or unwanted behavior.
From a fluid instability perspective, stratified fluid systems are in some ways the easiest to understand and visualize, so we will start there. It is often the case when there is a fluid system in which two fluids with different properties, an unstable configuration can be realized. Here we will mainly consider the case where there is a clear boundary between two fluids, but this concept can be extended to a continuous variation between fluids, but the diffusion effects would damp out any perturbation and instability, so would not be as pronounced.
We can start our discussion by taking a vorticity perspective to the instability growth. If we start in two-dimensions with the inviscid Navier-Stokes equation and add a background velocity base state to the perturbed equation (here we are considering small perturbations to the base state), some conclusions can be drawn although not a rigorous derivation.
In Eq. 1, where
The expansion of the extra vorticity production term from the base velocity gives a few terms that can be neglected for this discussion
From this we see that a pressure gradient across a density gradient can create vorticity (this is a buoyancy-driven instability) and a velocity gradient can create vorticity as well (shear-driven instability). Both of these require a perturbation at the interface to develop.
Buoyancy-driven fluid instabilities occur in a stratified fluid system when the light fluid is accelerated into the heavier one often by means of a pressure gradient. One way to understand this form of instability is from the baroclinic torque present at the stratified, perturbed interface. This baroclinic torque is created from the misalignment of the pressure and density gradients at the perturbed interface. When in the unstable configuration, for a particular harmonic component of the initial perturbation, this torque between the two fluids will create vorticity. This vorticity will impose a velocity field that will tend to increase the misalignment of the gradient vectors, which in turn will create additional vorticity, leading to more misalignment. This is observed in Eq. 4, where if we neglect the velocity gradient in the base flow as we have not considered that here, an increase in vorticity will be realized if
Illustrated in Figure 1, it is observed that the two counter-rotating vortices with strength
Visualization of an unstable buoyancy instability configuration where baroclinic torque at the interface creates vorticity and induces a velocity field that increases the baroclinic torque.
Two specific buoyancy-driven instabilities are the Rayleigh-Taylor (characterized by a constant acceleration) and Richtmyer-Meshkov (characterized by an impulsive acceleration).
The Rayleigh-Taylor instability (RTI) is a buoyancy-driven instability where the acceleration is constant with respect to the fluid flow time. The most notable example of the Rayleigh-Taylor instability is when a heavy fluid lies atop a light one while in the presence of a downward acting gravitational field. This instability is displayed in Figure 2 of the experimental images of Roberts [1]. Here, the initially light over heavy stable fluid configuration is made unstable by accelerating the system downward at a rate greater than gravity (essentially switching the direction of gravity so that it is upward). As can be seen, a specific wavelength appears out of the background which grows and eventually creates a turbulent mixing region.
Experimental images of Roberts [
A simplified way to understand how we may have a Rayleigh-Taylor (RT) stable (or unstable) stratified configuration is by considering the situation in which there is an acceleration
A fluid particle in the upper fluid is interchanged with one from the lower fluid in a stratified system with downward acting acceleration [
where we have also included the added mass
From this, if
This concept of a fluid particle moving across the interface resulting in instability can be extended to the deflection of an interface in the Rayleigh-Taylor instability and illustrates the necessity of an initial perturbation on the interface since there is no mechanism to interchange a fluid particle across the interface. An example of a simple interface is shown in Figure 4, where the coordinate system is the same as in Figure 3. The interface has been deformed, simulating perturbations on the interface. For simplicity the geometry of the interface deformation has been chosen to be rectangular (the derivation here can be generalized to an individual Fourier mode so that any interface deformation would follow the same behavior). The fluid particle relocation is caused by deformation of the interface. The pressure force on the fluid particle’s lower surface is
Here an interface is shown [
In this arrangement, if
From this derivation, it is seen how the instability progresses, but does not say much about the initial stages (for that we need to use linear stability theory, Section 2.1.4) or late time. For the late time development, from Eq. (7), we can make some back of the envelope assumptions and arrive at a well known expression for the late time turbulent Rayleigh-Taylor instability. If we assume
where
We can extend our understanding of the Rayleigh-Taylor instability to that of the Richtmyer-Meshkov instability (RMI). From the vorticity argument for the instability it is obvious that all that is needed is
The evolution of the Rayleigh-Taylor instability follows four main stages. Initially, if the perturbation amplitudes are small when compared to wavelength, the growth is exponential (following linear stability theory). Eventually, this will form spikes (fluid structures of heavy fluid growing into light fluid) and bubbles (fluid structures of light fluid growing into heavy fluid) from the individual sinusoidal modes on the interface. The growth of these structures can be modeled by using a buoyancy drag model and the growth is linear in time (the velocity is constant); this is the second stage [3]. At this time, non-linear terms in the equations of motion can no longer be ignored and mode-coupling will begin to play a role. Then, the spikes and bubbles interact with each other through bubble merging and competition, where fluid structures merge to create larger structures and larger structures envelop smaller ones respectively; this is the third stage. This eventually develops into a region of turbulent mixing, which is the fourth and final stage.
The mixing region that develops is believed to be self-similar and turbulent if the Reynolds number is large enough [4]. Figure 5 represents the evolution of the Rayleigh-Taylor instability from small wavelength perturbations at the interface.
This figure represents the evolution of the Rayleigh-Taylor instability from small wavelength perturbations at the interface (a) which grow into the ubiquitous mushroom shaped spikes (fluid structures of heavy into light fluid) and bubbles (fluid structures of light into heavy fluid) (b) and these fluid structures interact due to bubble merging and competition (c) eventually developing into a mixing region (d) [
The turbulent mixing that takes place represents active-scalar, level 2 mixing where the mixing is coupled to the flow dynamics [4]. The flow is postulated to follow the model
When studying the mixing region produced by the Rayleigh-Taylor instability, discrepancies between experiments and simulations make it obvious that it is necessary to verify that fully developed turbulence is indeed being reached. One method of doing this is to look at the spectra and verify that it obeys the Kolmogorov −5/3 energy cascade in the inertial subrange. Also, with the loss of initial conditions that is indicative of turbulent flow, verifying the self-preserving behavior of the flow is a possibility.
It is well accepted that fully developed turbulence displays the
An important aspect of fully developed turbulence is the concept of self-preservation. In the case of the turbulent Rayleigh-Taylor instability this would require the various turbulent properties along the mixing zone to have a shape that maintains itself in time. When normalized by the proper scale, the curves should collapse on top of each other.
Comparison of self-similarity is a difficult task when it comes to experiment, but Ramaprabhu and Andrews [8] does this with the use of PIV measurements. It is indeed observed that when normalizing with mean velocity, there is a collapse of the curves for profiles in later time. This can also be observed by looking at the similarity of different concentration profiles in time (Figure 6) from the experiments of Roberts and Jacobs [2]. From the profile images the self-similarity becomes obvious, thus implying turbulence.
From the experiments of Roberts and Jacobs [
Linear stability theory is often used derive equations governing the stability of a fluid system. It has been done many times in the past for the Rayleigh-Taylor instability. One such derivation is that done by Roberts which combines both the Rayleigh-Taylor and Richtmyer-Meshkov instabilities [9]. The way in which the derivation begins, is by considering a slightly perturbed interface and plugging this into the Navier-Stokes equations. By assuming small perturbations of the interface, simplifications can be made since squares of small values should be neglected. The full derivation will not be performed here, just some notable points for discussion.
We consider two stratified incompressible fluids where the interface is assumed infinitesimally thin and a sinusoidal disturbance is imposed upon it, in both the x and y directions, as displayed in Figure 7. Since each fluid region is considered to be initially at rest, they are irrotational. Here vorticity can only be introduced at the boundaries (in this case the interface) and then transmitted into the rest of the flow by viscous diffusion.
Interface representing our fluid configuration [
Considering diffusion effects to be confined to the infinitesimally thin interface we can say that the fluid is irrotational throughout the two regions. By using the potential functions:
where
This equation applies both to the Rayleigh-Taylor and Richtmyer-Meshkov instabilities.
In Eq. (10), when considering a constant acceleration for
Representing
If
If
This equation can also be represented in a better way in which the coefficients represent the initial amplitude and velocity of the sinusoidal disturbance,
Eq. (10) can also be considered when
This can be integrated to yield
where
by integrating once more we acquire
The effects of viscosity act only at small scales in RT instability and therefore act to select particular wavelengths as opposed to others. Since viscosity only acts at small scales, its effect can be neglected once the instability has become larger than these scales. This can be understood by comparing the terms of RT growth with that of viscous damping. First, The RT growth term from inviscid theory is
This yields
Eq. (17) gives us a way to calculate an approximate wavelength at which larger than which we can ignore viscosity effects. As an example, with water and air at room temperature,
This yields
As an example, from the experiments of Roberts and Jacobs [2], by assuming an approximate
Keep in mind, this is an approximation to the viscous effects where a viscous damping was used. If a detailed analysis is necessary to determine the fastest growing wavelength, the derivations of Chandrasekhar [11] will give a more detailed explanation and more exact solution.
Another damping effect at small wavelengths is that due to interfacial tension. We use the term interfacial tension here to be more general, but the most obvious example of this is surface tension where there is a free surface - such as in the air water interface created in a glass of water or a straw. Interfaces of oil and water will also have an interfacial tension which will act to shift the fastest growing wavelength to the larger scales by damping out smaller scales as well as viscosity. However, interfacial tension has more than just a damping effect but actually has a stabilizing effect, such that there becomes a critical wavelength smaller than which the instability will not grow.
The classic observation of the Rayleigh-Taylor instability is the simple inversion of a glass of water. Due to gravity, air (the less dense fluid) moves into the water (the more dense fluid) and the instability develops as a consequence of perturbations at the interface (as typically is in a natural environment). If one were to look at simple fluid statics, the water should not “fall” out. Since the bottom of the glass is covered, atmospheric pressure should hold the water in place when fluid statics alone is considered; this does not take place because of the instability. An interesting phenomenon is that of a covered straw with water in it. The same configuration is present, however the water stays in place. By considering surface tension, we must recognize that it has a stabilizing affect on the instability for smaller wavelengths. The diameter of the straw is often smaller than the critical wavelength and therefore nothing larger can develop and the wavelengths that do are not unstable. This has implications for any engineering applications that rely on gravity. If the diameter is too small, you cannot rely on the presence of the instability to assist and you would need to account for the pressure difference given by fluid statics and atmospheric pressure. An extension of this example can be made to the Richtmyer-Meshkov instability. With the straw example, instead of just allowing the water to remain under gravity, you can shake the straw thus creating impulsive accelerations that (if strong enough) may shift the critical wavelength low enough such that the flow becomes unstable and the liquid flows out. The same can be thought of for the bottle of ketchup that needs that impulsive acceleration to start flowing. Although the physics of the ketchup are more complicated since it is a non-Newtonian fluid, at least at the beginning of the flow, RM instability plays a role. The extension here to our pipe under gravity example would be that in a situation where some external pressure differential is applied, but not necessarily enough to overcome atmospheric pressure and the diameter of the pipe is too small for the RT instability alone to work, pulsing the pressure source might help trigger a RM instability.
A more natural occurrence of these instabilities is in supernovae. Here, there are stratified gases of different density. This difference in density arises from the fact that the gas closer to the center is hotter (and therefore less dense), due to its proximity to the burning fuel, than the gas farther from the center. This, in addition to the outward acceleration that was produced by the explosion (both impulsive and constant), creates unstable RT and RM configurations [12]. This in turn will generate mixing which will alter the way in which the flow progresses and how heat is distributed. Astronomers can use this information to better understand and find these phenomena. In relation to studying the stars, RTI also shows up when we explore them. Hall-effect thrusters are becoming very popular for space flight (especially satellites) due to their large specific impulse. In these thrusters, the wall at the thruster exit has been shown to erode due to the instability and therefore a better understanding is necessary [13]. We also see RTI in salt domes. Here, the less dense salt that is buried beneath more dense sediment experiences an upward acceleration due to gravity [14]. Although the timescales and effective viscosities are very large, this still forms a RTI on geologic timescales.
Another important application is inertial confinement fusion (ICF), which if mastered would lead to cheap and plentiful energy from water. In ICF, a capsule containing a Deuterium/Tritium (DT) mixture is bombarded with energy originating from high powered lasers with the purpose of causing a fusion reaction to take place; the two isotopes fuse producing He4, a neutron and energy [15]. ICF experiments are currently being performed at the National Ignition Facility (NIF) in Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL). The ICF capsule is a sphere comprised of three main layers. The outer shell is an ablator material made from plastic doped with other elements such as Beryllium or Germanium. Interior to that is a layer of DT ice surrounding DT gas. There are two main types of ICF, direct and indirect drive. In direct drive, lasers directly irradiate the target. In indirect drive, lasers enter a hohlraum which has the capsule in the center. The hohlraum is a hollow cylinder that is composed of a high Z (large atomic number) material, such as gold. The lasers irradiate the inside of the hohlraum which re-emits the energy as x-rays. In the indirect drive method, a more uniform energy distribution is deposited on the ablator layer. The energy deposited on the ablator causes it to blow off, and by Newton’s third law,
Firstly, RTI and RMI can occur at the interface of the outer ablator shell (after becoming a plasma) and the DT ice layer during the initial implosion of the target. In this configuration, the smaller density of the outer ablator plasma layer and the larger density DT ice inner layer create an inward acting density gradient. This in conjunction with the outward acting pressure gradient results in an RT/RM unstable configuration. By choosing layers of gradually varying density with different dopants such as Germanium, for the ablator material, the density difference can be decreased; thus, decreasing RT growth. Also, by using indirect drive (to produce a more uniform energy deposition), the effect of the instabilities can be minimized as well by effectively decreasing the perturbations necessary to begin the instability. The second way that RTI and RMI can occur is during the deceleration phase between the high temperature, high pressure DT gas and the outer, colder DT ice layer. Here, the pressure gradient is directed inward and the density gradient is directed outward which is also an RT/RM unstable configuration. The RTI generated in both these instances causes mixing. This mixing brings cold fuel from the outer layer into the center “hot spot,” lowering the temperature and decreasing the reaction rate; this process may prevent ignition altogether [17]. By more fully understanding this instability, more efficient capsules can be designed. In addition to this, other methods to control the onset of RTI in fusion experiments using rotating magnetic fields is being studied [18].
There are some situations where one does not want to prevent these instabilities from forming at all, but actually want to encourage it and the increased mixing that happens from it. One such example for RMI is that for a scramjet. With scramjets (supersonic combustion ramjets), we wish to do combustion at supersonic speeds. This is as opposed to standard ramjets in which the flow is slowed in the engine so that proper mixing can occur. To accomplish this in scramjets, RMI is utilized to enhance the mixing [19]. The geometry of the engine can be configured to create shockwaves that will interact at specific fuel/air boundaries; this will impart impulsive accelerations that trigger RMI and eventually turbulent mixing. This extra mixing is necessary to get a proper fuel/air mixture.
As can be observed, there are many applications to studying these instabilities to control, prevent or encourage their growth.
Another class of stratified instabilities is shear-driven ones—where there is a difference in shear forces across the interface for instance. One such instability is the Kelvin-Helmholtz instability that happens if there is a jump in velocity across an interface. From Eq. 4, we see that if the velocity gradient is large enough, then a stabilizing buoyancy instability effect will be overcome and we will have vorticity deposited.
Vorticity created when there is velocity gradient in the base flow and a perturbed interface. It is clear here that a torque would be created when the interface is misaligned.
All of the instabilities mentioned so far often occur in nature as there are often stratified flows in the atmospheres and oceans. Another extension of this is on the much larger geophysical scale, where the Coriolis force due to the earth rotation and velocity difference at different lines of latitude as the radius with the rotation axis varies. In this configuration, we have both the hydrostatic balance
The rotation of the earth sets up a situation in which instability can occur due to the combined action of the hydrostatic and geostrophic balances.
It is then determined that for instability that,
A very broad and far reaching class of flows is that of parallel shear flows. These are flows that are mostly unidirectional and have velocity profiles created by the no slip condition at the boundary. This includes and has historically been studied for pipe flow by Reynolds [22]. The flow can also be extended to that of unbounded flows and even base flows in which there is a slight curvature, but parallel to a first-order approximation, such as flow over a wing. Under certain conditions, these flows can become unstable leading to turbulence and separation which has implications to engineering design. First, we will consider inviscid flow and then discuss viscosity effects.
It was Rayleigh [23] who first recognized the importance of inflection points in the velocity profile. He proposed that for instability to be present, a necessary condition is an inflection point in the velocity profile. This was expanded upon by Fjørtoft [24] who proposed that another necessary condition for instability is that
One way that an inflection point occurs is with an adverse pressure gradient. In pipe/duct flow this can be difficult to realize if the main flow is caused by a pressure gradient. However, we can have a situation where a localized pressure gradient (caused by a fan or impeller) creates a forward moving velocity profile, but there is back pressure in the over all configuration that will make an unstable flow configuration. Adverse pressure gradients are a bit more obvious with unbounded flows. We can start by looking at the boundary layer equation,
where the pressure gradient is based has the form from the base flow as
Therefore, in the immediate vicinity of the wall, the curvature of the velocity profile is dictated by whether the pressure gradient is positive or negative. Thus, an adverse pressure gradient will lead to an inflection point. Over a wing, what creates lift (and a pressure gradient in the y direction) is streamline curvature. The streamlines must curve to fit the body at first, but this also means that toward the trailing edge they must then curve back to the background stream, and there will be an adverse pressure gradient. Decreasing the degree of curvature over the trailing edge will decrease the magnitude of the adverse pressure gradient and thus prevent separation further along the wing, thus minimizing drag. In addition, “tripping” the boundary layer by making it turbulent early on also prevents separation as there is more momentum in the flow giving a wider velocity profile that can withstand an adverse pressure gradient longer.
The criteria for stability so far have been considered for inviscid flow. To extend this to include viscosity as well does make the equations much more complicated. We will not derive this here. It can be derived by using linear stability theory on the Navier-Stokes equations as done by Cohen and Kundu [21] yielding the result,
where
Parallel shear flows have become some of the most obvious flows around us and thus have strong engineering importance. From pipe flow to flow over wings and cars there is great importance. With flow in pipes, it was noticed by Rayleigh [23] that turbulent spots develop above a certain Reynolds number and then eventually the flow becomes fully turbulent. This happens at a Reynolds number of approximately 3000. This is important to take note of as a turbulent flow will be noisier and the extra flow non-uniformity can lessen the life of pipes. For flow over bodies, we have to also look at the pressure gradient and whether it is adverse or not. An adverse pressure gradient will eventually lead to separation, but this can be delayed if the flow is turbulent. This means, that although we need to locally introduce irregularities in the flow to induce turbulence, at the same time we would want to minimize the adverse pressure gradient to prevent separation (which will in turn increase drag). A pictorial representation of a simplified view of the flow over the wing is shown in Figure 10.
Initially, the flow is in a favorable pressure gradient, but this eventually changes to adverse one where an inflection point forms in the velocity profile and the flow is in danger of separation which would increase drag. The top row of velocity profiles represent that for laminar flow, whereas the bottom row represents that for a turbulent flow which is seen to be fuller and thus less susceptible to backflow.
As can be observed from the flow over a wing, at first there is a favorable pressure gradient, which eventually turns into an adverse pressure gradient at the trailing edge. In order to make lift, we want to have a pretty large wing curvature at first (this creates the pressure gradient perpendicular to the wing that creates lift), but then we can smoothly allow the wing and streamlines transition to free stream to try and push back the section where we have an adverse pressure gradient. In this adverse pressure gradient region is where the velocity profile can get an inflection point which could eventually lead to back flow in the velocity profile and flow separation. Once the flow separates, you will have increased pressure drag as there will be a low pressure region in this separated trailing edge region. It also turns out that since turbulent boundary layers are fuller and have more momentum, it takes longer for an inflection point to create backflow and therefore the flow stays attached longer. One can “trip” the boundary layer (by depositing a small amount of vorticity in the flow right in the boundary layer (small triangular surfaces seen on a wing’s leading edge) such that the boundary layer becomes turbulent, but the rest of the flow does not.
Fluid instabilities show up everywhere in nature. In this chapter we have discussed some of the main instability classes. Stratified fluid flows were discussed first as it is in some ways the simplest to understand. They show up in our coffee, our condiments, in the atmosphere and the oceans, basically wherever there is a density difference present between the two layers. Depending on the orientation of the density difference, vorticity can be generated in a self-sustaining process. Using linear stability theory, it is determined how different wavelengths grow at different rates for the system and how interfacial or surface tension acts has a stabilizing effect. One can also look at the effects of viscosity which has a damping effect on the smaller wavelengths, thus giving rise to a fastest growing wavelength which has direct implications to engineering applications as the geometry of the system can act to directly prevent or create these wavelengths, therefore controlling instability growth. Once the instability has grown enough, the linearized equations no longer hold and non-linear effects including interactions between structures will take place. This eventually leads to turbulence. This instability can then be extended to include the case where instead of a density difference at an interface, there is a velocity difference causing what is known as shear-driven instabilities. Once these two base instabilities are discussed, it is an easy extension to that of the baroclinic instability which is a primary cause of many of the earth’s weather patterns. Due to interactions of velocity and density gradients (caused by temperature gradients), it is a natural extension to the previously discussed instabilities. From this, the more complicated case of parallel shear flows was discussed. This includes flow over wings and flows in pipes. In this case, first the stability criteria was discussed, but then extended to the full Orr-Sommerfeld equation, where unlike linear stability theory, does not remove viscosity from its initial derivations and allows for non-linear effects. Here we discuss instability more as an eventual path to turbulence and how controlling, preventing and even creating it can be advantageous to reducing drag, or preventing noise. In this chapter, much was covered but a broad understanding of how different fluid instabilities all relate together and can be understood to thus control them when designing and running our engineering systems.
The diamond material possesses very attractive properties, such as high transparency, high thermal conductivity at room temperature, radiation hardness, as well as an extreme mechanical hardness. It is also chemically inert. In addition, diamond also exhibits superior electronic properties (including high carrier mobility), large electrochemical potential window, low dielectric constant, controllable surface termination, and a high breakdown voltage [1]. However, the large band gap (5.4 eV) limits the usage of diamond for electronic devices. Hence, impurities have been introduced into the diamond lattice in order to eliminate this limitation. Impurities within a diamond lattice can dramatically change both the geometrical and electronic properties.
More generally, the properties of a surface (for solid material) depend on various factors, such as (i) number of binding atoms (i.e. for the atoms in the diamond surface plane), (ii) surface reconstructing, (iii) type and degree of chemisorption to the surface, and (iv) elemental doping within the upper surface region. The number of binding atoms to a surface atom (i) is always smaller than for a bulk atom, making it more reactive (since it has the driving force to become bulk-like). This is also the underlying reason to the specific surface electronic properties, which differ from the corresponding bulk scenario. Moreover, factors (ii)–(iv) do all represent changes in the surrounding electron density for the surface atoms, of which all are different from the situations with bulk atoms.
The boron atom is one of the most commonly used p-type dopants. The B-doped diamond electrode is a semiconducting material with very promising properties like (i) a wider potential window in aqueous solution (approximately −1.35 to +2.3 V vs. the normal hydrogen electrode), (ii) low background current, and (iii) corrosion stability in aggressive environments [2]. Hence, boron-doped diamond (BDD) has been widely used for electronic applications. Nitrogen, as an n-type dopant, has also frequently been studied during the last decades [3, 4, 5, 6]. However, the deep donor level of nitrogen (1.7 eV below the conduction band) limits the usage of nitrogen-doped diamond as an effective n-type semiconductor. Thus, phosphorus has instead been introduced as a plausible n-type donor in diamond (111) [7]. Phosphorus, P, is nowadays the only well-established substitutional n-type donor [8]. Kato et al. produced this type of n-type diamond epilayer on (100)-oriented diamond surfaces [9]. N-type diamond heavily doped with P atoms has more recently been obtained with low electric resistivity and low incorporation activation energy [10, 11]. This makes phosphorus-doped diamond more promising for device applications, e.g. as an electron source for bipolar devices [12, 13, 14], as Schottky barrier diodes [15], and for thermionic emission applications [16].
Surface termination is the general notation when a surface-binding species is used to uphold the cubic structure or to change the surface properties of diamond. For instance, hydrogen-terminated B-doped diamond surfaces have been found to be hydrophobic [17]. An H-terminated P-doped diamond surface has also been found to show negative electron affinity (NEA) [18]. (NEA means that electrons in the conduction band of diamond easily emit from the surface.) Electron emission from the conduction band of H-terminated P-doped homoepitaxial diamond (111) has experimentally been observed [16, 19]. The oxygen atom is also one of the most commonly used diamond surface-terminating species. Oxygen-terminated diamond surfaces do generally show hydrophilic properties [20], as well as a positive electron affinity. Oxygen termination can appear as a surface-binding OH, Obridge, Contop, or OOH groups. Different chemical routes are used to link functional groups to these O-group adsorbates. This procedure is usually performed in, e.g. electroanalytical applications [21]. Fluorine-termination will, compared to H-termination, result in an even more hydrophobic diamond surfaces. In addition, F-terminated diamond surfaces exhibit exceptional electrochemical properties, such as a lower electrocatalytic activity, a wide electrochemical potential window, and low background current [22, 23]. Nitrogen-terminated diamond surfaces are generally very chemically reactive and are thereby commonly used as an intermediate for further modification of the diamond surface (e.g. as a linker). For instance, a diamond surface that is terminated with amine (NH2) can be modified to be used as a functionalized surface in biosensors [24].
All these interesting properties of terminated diamond surfaces make it clear that surface termination is crucial for especially those applications for which diamond can function as an electrode material. The relative stability and the electronic structures of the variously doped diamond surfaces, terminated with either H, O-containing groups, F or NH2, are therefore very important to study from an atomic-level point of view.
Theoretical modeling, using density functional theory (DFT), has been shown to be a valuable tool in the explanation and prediction of experimental results. For instance, DFT calculations have been shown powerful in studying thin film growth mechanisms, as well as for the simulation of surface reconstruction, modification, and functionalization, respectively.
Theoretical modeling has been found useful in the (i) interpretation of experimental results and in the (ii) prediction of parameters in the design of experimental setups. First-principle DFT calculations have thereby become useful for a variety of materials of practical importance. This method is, however, quite demanding since it relies on the electrons in the systems under investigations. Hence, this circumstance puts a strong demand in the model size. It should here be stressed that these more advanced computational methods are needed when studying chemical reactions, where bonds are formed and/or broken. Other observables that are very sensitive to the theoretical method used, with its parameters, are the electronic structures with their intrinsic band gaps. In conclusion, first-principle DFT methods are very useful for studies of, e.g. electronic and geometrical surface structures, in addition to surface reactivity and chemical processes.
Periodic boundary conditions are most frequently used for DFT calculations on solid surfaces or interfaces. For this purpose, an ultrasoft pseudopotential [25] plane-wave approach is most often used, which, in turn, is based on the Perdew-Wang (PW91) generalized gradient approximation (GGA) [26] for the exchange-correlation functional. The GGA method takes into account the gradient of the electron density, which improves the accuracy of, e.g. the bond energies [27].
The model used under periodic boundary conditions are the so-called super cells where these cells will become translated in x-, y-, and z-directions, forming an infinite three-dimensional model. In the case of modeling surfaces, only a part of the supercell will be filled (i.e. in x- and y-directions), forming a repetitive pattern of infinite slabs with a vacuum layer in between. This vacuum layer has to be large enough to avoid any type of interactions between neighboring slabs.
There are two factors that are very important for a solid surface reactivity. One is the number of binding atoms for a surface atom. The other factor is the density of surface atoms. Bulk diamond C atoms bind covalently, with sp3 hybridized bonds, to four C neighbors in. For the most commonly observed diamond facets (111) and (100), the (111) surface atoms only have three binding neighbors, whilst the corresponding (100) atoms have two (Figure 1a, c). (These surfaces are then assumed to be non-reconstructed.) When instead describing the situation in terms of dangling bonds (i.e. unpaired electrons), a (111) surface atom has only one dangling bond. On the other hand, the (100) surface has two dangling bonds, which makes it more reactive (as compared with the (111) surface). However, the presence of dangling bonds is most often the cause of a high surface reactivity. Hence, surface reconstructions may occur, with a resulting lowering of the surface energy. This is the reason why an ideal diamond (100) surface (i.e. (100)-1 × 1) most often undertakes a surface reconstruction, thereby forming a (100)-2 × 1 surface structure (Figure 1d). As a matter of fact, also the more ideal (111) surface (i.e. (111)-1 × 1) will at higher temperatures be transferred to a 2 × 1 reconstruction (i.e. (111)-2 × 1), called the Pandey chain structure (Figure 1b).
Optimized periodic models of diamond (111)-1 × 1 (a), (111)-2 × 1 (b), (100)-1 × 1 (c), and (100)-2 × 1 (d) surfaces. The upper row shows a side view of the different models, and the lower row shows on-top orientations. The top-most C atoms are shown with a whiter shade.
The relative energies for these surface structures have earlier been calculated theoretically by using an ab initio DFT method [28]. It was then shown that the 2 × 1-reconstruction of the bare diamond (100) surface will result in a stabilization of the total energy by 1.85 eV per surface C. The corresponding energy stabilization for the bare diamond (111) surface was found to be 0.54 eV per surface C (see Figure 2). These stabilization energies do not give any information about the possibility for a transfer from, e.g. a non-reconstructed diamond (100) surface to a 2 × 1-reconstructed (100) surface (i.e. the kinetics of a phase transformation). However, the activation energy (i.e. energy barrier) for this specific phase transformation was earlier studied by performing DFT calculations. A very small energy barrier of energy (0.32 eV) was obtained for the phase transformation from the non-reconstructed (111) surface to the slightly more stable 2 × 1-reconstruction of the same surface (also called a Pandey-Chain structure) (Figure 3). This minor barrier energy was recently justified by using ab initio molecular dynamic (MD) simulations on a non-reconstructed diamond (111) at 500 K [29].
Adsorption energies for various terminating species (H, OH, and O) onto (1 × 1)- and (2 × 1)-reconstructed diamond (100) and (111) surfaces.
Calculated activation energies for transformation between diamond (111), (1 × 1), and (2 × 1) structures as a function of surface termination with H and O, respectively.
The adsorption of various species onto diamond (111) and (100) surfaces were theoretically studied in earlier studies by the present author [28, 30]. The adsorption energies for the species O and OH are presented in Figures 4 and 5, where the adsorption and stabilization energies are shown over the whole range (0–100%) of surface coverage. Each of these figures starts with a 100% surface coverage with H adsorbates. These H adsorbates are then, one by one, replaced with oxygen atoms or hydroxyl molecules.
An initially 100% H-terminated diamond (100)-2 × 1 or (111)-1 × 1 surface is successively oxygen-terminated by successively replacing the H adsorbates with O in either bridge or on-top positions.
The stabilization energies in these figures are defined as the total adsorption for a 100% coverage of H, O, or OH, to be compared with the total adsorption energy for a 100% H-terminated diamond surface. A negative stabilization energy does, hence, mean that the corresponding surface configuration is energetically more favorable than a completely H-terminated surface.
A clean surface was the starting point for the hydrogen adsorption studies. As was shown in Ref. 28, the clean (111)-2 × 1 surface is energetically more favorable than the corresponding 1 × 1 reconstruction (Figure 6). However, the (111)-1 × 1 phase becomes favorable for a hydrogen coverage above 30%. It has also experimentally been shown that a small number of hydrogen atoms on the diamond surface will reconstruct the (111)-2 × 1 to the 1 × 1 configuration [30]. A LEED pattern showed that 0.05 ML would effectively reconstruct the (111)-2 × 1 surface to the 1 × 1 reconstruction. Hence, hydrogen atoms are not able to stabilize the Pandey chain carbon atoms as much as they do for the non-reconstructed 1 × 1 surface. A plausible explanation may be that the delocalized π-bonds of the Pandey chain are weakened. Hence, the electron configuration that stabilized the clean Pandey chain becomes perturbed.
The value of the adsorption energy for hydrogen on the diamond (100)-1 × 1 surface was in Ref. [30] found to be surprisingly large (−6.96 eV). Two hydrogens per carbon atom were chemisorbed onto the surface in order to saturate the two dangling bonds (per surface carbon) and thereby to uphold the sp3 configuration and prevent 2 × 1 reconstruction. This dihydride configuration has been under much speculation [31, 32, 33, 34, 35], but it is generally accepted [36] that it does not occur during CVD growth conditions. The very favorable adsorption energy for the dihydride surface configuration is probably not seen experimentally due to the favorable (and spontaneous) 2 × 1 reconstruction. Moreover, the calculated adsorption energy for hydrogen on the 2 × 1-reconstructed (100) surface (−4.30 eV [30]) is in excellent agreement with experimental investigations [37].
In summary, the most stable H-terminated diamond surfaces phases under experimental conditions are pristine (111) and 2 × 1-reconstructed (100) (Figure 6).
Stabilization and adsorption energies for a successively replacement of H adsorbates with OH groups on diamond (100)-2 × 1 and (111)-1 × 1 surfaces.
Oxygen atoms are generally more effective than hydrogen in stabilizing a diamond surface. This is most probably due to the divalent nature of oxygen, whereby it may break C-C double bonds and form two C–O bonds. As a consequence, a high surface coverage of oxygen will yield a de-reconstruction of the 2 × 1-reconstruction of the diamond (100) surface into a bulk-equivalent 1 × 1 surface structure. This is shown in Figure 4 for the termination with O atoms in both on-top and bridge positions [30]. As presented in Ref. 30, the most favorable position for oxygen on the (100) surface seems to be the bridge position which is supported by other experimental and theoretical studies [38, 39, 40]. The spontaneous reconstruction from (100)-2 × 1 to (100)-1 × 1 is shown in Figure 4. This implies that no activation barrier is present during this specific surface phase transformation process (since DFT is a 0 K method).
For the situation with a diamond (111) surface, no surface de-reconstruction was observed as a result of oxygen adsorption (100% coverage) onto the (111)-2 × 1 surface. Hence, the (111)-2 × 1 to (111)-1 × 1 reconstruction must be associated with an activation energy. This is true for also the reverse direction. Furthermore, the on-top and bridge positions of O were only found stable for an oxygen coverage less than 50% (for both diamond (111)-2 × 1 and 1 × 1).
In summary, the most stable O-termination of a diamond (100) surface seems to take place for oxygen in bridge position on the bulk-like (100)-1 × 1 surface. For the situation with a diamond (111) surface, the most stable O-termination is most probably for an on-top position at a surface coverage of 100%.
For the terminating OH groups, there are two types of adsorbate-adsorbate interactions: hydrogen bonding (energy stabilization) and steric repulsions (energy destabilization). The hydrogen bonding will be noticeable at lower OH coverage, whereas steric repulsion dominates at higher coverage. The destabilization of OH-terminated surfaces is supported by an experimental study that reports a small number of hydroxyl groups present on an oxygenated (100) surface [1]. Hydrogen-bonding enthalpies of −0.15 eV were thereby reported.
The adsorption of OH groups onto diamond surfaces was calculated in Ref. 30, using a DFT method. The results for a 2 × 1-reconstructed (100) were found to be −4.1 eV. Hence, this adsorption energy is in good agreement with the corresponding results for the 1 × 1 surface: −4.2 eV (0.1 eV difference). Another DFT study for the diamond (111) surface has reported almost identical results for the OH adsorption energies of −4.2 (−4.0) eV for the 1 × 1 (and 2 × 1) reconstruction.
As shown in Ref. 28, the theoretically calculated adsorption energies for OH groups adsorbed onto the Pandey chain are unfavorable up to a 30% surface coverage (see Figure 5). A severe weakening of the π-bond chain, as well as absence of hydrogen bonding, is probably responsible for this effect.
A non-terminated 2 × 1 reconstructed diamond (111) surface successively H-, O-, and OH-terminated with increments of one adsorbate. A comparison with H-termination on diamond (111)-1 × 1 and (100)-2 × 1 is here included. The arrow identifies the H-coverage here; a (111)-1 × 1 and a (111)-2 × 1 surface have identical stabilization energy.
The adsorption of fluorine onto diamond (100) and (111) surfaces in their most common surface reconstructions (1 × 1 and 2 × 1) was also studied in Refs. 28 and 30. Only 100% terminated surfaces were considered. Fluorine is the termination species that most resembles hydrogen: monovalent with a rather small covalent radius. Fluorine was found to be strongly adsorbed to all of the studied diamond surfaces (−5.53, −6.33, −4.56, and −4.56 eV for the (100)-1 × 1, (100)-2 × 1, (111)-1 × 1, and (111)-2 × 1 surfaces, respectively). Although the diamond (100)-1 × 1 surface has two unpaired electrons, two fluorine atoms per carbon (difluoride configuration) atom was in Ref. 30 found to be highly unstable.
The diamond surface electron structure and properties, such as electron affinity (EA) and has work function (WF), have earlier been studied both experimentally and theoretically in a vast number of publications. The diamond surfaces included both (111) and (100) surface planes, and the dominant surface-terminating species were hydrogen (H), oxygen, as well as fluorine. A mixture of O-containing species is most probably present on the surface, and it is not yet outlined how the atomic-level structure looks like for fluorinated surfaces. However, what is missing is a more detailed information about the influence of N-containing adsorbates on both the (111) and (100) diamond surfaces. This is also the situation for, theoretically, the extreme situation with a 100% coverage of Oontop, Obridge, OH, F or NH2, species. The aim with a recent study by the present author was, hence, to theoretically investigate the effect by these individual terminating species on especially the EA of diamond (111) and the 2 × 1-reconstructed (100) surface. This theoretical study was based on DFT calculations, and the results are presented in Table 1.
Positions of the valence band edge (VBE) and value of electron affinity (EA) for variously terminated diamond (111) and (100) surfaces.
The values are given in eV.
At first, the DFT method used in calculating the electronic structures was evaluated by comparing the calculated band gap for bulk diamond with the experimental one: 5.4 vs. 5.5 eV. These band gaps were found to be almost identical, and, hence, the present DFT method was chosen for all of the density of state (DOS) calculations in the present study.
As a result of the geometry optimizations, it was not possible to bind O in bridge position on the diamond (111) surface. These O atoms were in the course of the optimization immediately transferred to on-top positions instead. Moreover, the (111) surface stayed in this state, and did not reconstruct to the Pandey Chain reconstruction when being adsorbed to. This was also the situation for the 2 × 1-reconstructed (100) surface and for all terminating situations except for Oontop− adsorption. This specific adsorption induced a re-reconstruction to diamond (100)-1 × 1. The reason for this process is that O forms a double bond with the surface carbon, thereby breaking the C-C bond within the paired C couple on the reconstructed (100) surface.
As can be seen in Table 1, the adsorption of H, OH, and NH2 resulted in negative electron affinities (NEA) for both diamond (111) and (100); −1.0, −0.4, and − 2.0 eV for diamond (111); and −0.7, −1.3, and −0.9 eV for diamond (100). For comparison, the experimentally obtained value of NEA for H is about −1.1. Hence, the here presented calculation of EA for H adsorption shows a very good resemblance with experimental findings. Moreover, adsorption of F, Oontop, and Obridge resulted in positive electron affinities (PEA): +1.1 (F) eV for diamond (111) and +2.1, +3.8, and +0.4 eV for diamond (100). Also, Oontop adsorption onto diamond (111) resulted in a metallic surface (i.e. surface electron conductivity). For comparison, the experimentally obtained value of PEA for oxygen is about +1.7. Hence, the here presented calculation of EAs for oxygen adsorption shows a not so good resemblance with experimental findings. But it must here be stressed that there is most probably a mixture of O-species on the surface, and it is not possible to analyze (experimentally) this distribution more in detail.
Diamond, as a material, possesses quite unique electrochemical properties, such as a large electrochemical potential window, a low dielectric constant, controllable surface termination, and a high breakdown voltage [41]. However, the large band gap (5.4 eV) limits the usage of diamond for electronic devices. Hence, impurities have been introduced into the diamond lattice, which can dramatically change both the geometrical and electronic properties. The boron atom is one of the most commonly used p-type dopants. It has been found that the B dopant will increase the electronic conductivity, as compared with the intrinsic non-doped diamond [1]. For different doping levels, the diamond material will show a metallic-type conductivity [42, 43], p-type semi-conductivity [44, 45], and superconductivity [46]. Nitrogen and phosphorus are commonly used as n-type dopants within the diamond material. However, substitutional doping with N atoms creates a deep donor level in diamond, which limits the usage of this material as an n-type semiconductor [3, 4, 5, 6]. Instead, substitutional doping with phosphorus is regarded to be more efficient in creating an n-type semiconductor [7, 47].
Substitutional doping with boron atoms did not render any major structural changes in the diamond surface region, as compared to the corresponding non-doped situations. Moreover, the atomic dopant was positioned within the second C layer, and this was the situation for all three different types of dopants studied (i.e. B, N, and P). The reason to this position is that these dopants have earlier been found to have a major influence on the surface structure and properties when positioned in C layer 2.
As can be seen in Table 1, the adsorption of H, OH, and NH2 resulted in NEAs for B-doped diamond (111): −0.6, −0.3, and −0.6 eV. It was, however, only H-terminated diamond (100) surfaces that resulted in a NEA of −0.6. The other terminating species (OH and NH2) resulted in PEAs of +0.1 and +3.2 eV. The results obtained for the (111) surface are thus similar to the non-doped situation, whilst it is completely different for the (100) surface.
As can further be seen in Table 1, the adsorption of F species on both the (111) and (100) B-doped diamond surfaces resulted in PEA values of +0.8 vs. +1.1 eV. Moreover, the influence by B doping was found to be very small. As stated above, adsorption of O in bridge position was only feasible for the diamond (100) surface. The calculated PEA value for the B-doped surfaces was +0.7 eV, which is also very similar to the corresponding value for a non-doped surface. On the contrary, the calculated results for Oontop position were completely different when comparing diamond (111) with (100). Both non- and B-doped (111) surfaces rendered surface conductivity (i.e. a metallic-like situation), whilst the PEA values obtained for the (100) surfaces were completely different with respect to each other: +3.8 (non-doped) vs. +1.1 (B-doped) eV. An experimentally obtained EA value for the oxygen-terminated non-doped diamond surface is about +1.7 eV. However, it should be kept in mind that a surface coverage with oxygen most often involves a variety of O-related species (e.g. O and OH), as well as different types of adsorption sites (e.g. Oontop and Obridge). It is therefore very difficult to compare experimental values with theoretically obtained ones.
As was the situation with B doping, substitutional doping with nitrogen atoms within the second diamond C layer did not render any major structural changes in the diamond surface region, as compared to the corresponding non-doped situations.
As can be seen in Table 1, the adsorption of H, OH, and NH2 resulted in NEAs for N-doped diamond (111): −0.5, −0.1, and − 0.8 eV. On the contrary, these species resulted in an electrically conductive surface for diamond (100). Hence, the valence bands were not filled when using these terminating species in combination with substitutional N doping. Moreover, the other terminating species (Oontop and F) on the diamond (111) species resulted also in an electrically conductive surface. The results obtained for the (111) surface are thus, with one exception, similar to the non- (or B-)doped situation. F-termination on a non- (or B-)doped diamond (111) surface resulted in a PEA, whilst it gave surface conductivity for the corresponding N-doped situation.
When comparing diamond (111) with (100) in Table 1, it is obvious that only Oontop-termination yielded similar results for the two different surface planes (i.e. surface electronic conductivity). The other surface-terminating species gave completely different results. For Obridge-termination on diamond (100), which cannot be found on diamond (111), it was shown that Obridge-termination in combination with B doping will render a PEA value of +2.6 eV. This value is closer to the experimental value for non-doped diamond (100) (+1.6 eV) than to the calculated one (+0.4 eV). When comparing an N-doped diamond (100) surface with non- (or B-)doped counterparts, it has been found that only Obridge- and F-termination will give similar results (i.e. PEA values). The other terminating species (H, OH, Oontop, and NH2) give completely different results.
As was the situation with both B and N doping, substitutional doping with phosphorus atoms within the second diamond C layer did not render any major structural changes in the diamond surface region, as compared to the corresponding non-doped situations.
As can be seen in Table 1, the adsorption of all adsorbates (H, F, Oontop, Obridge, OH, and NH2) resulted in electrically conductive surfaces for diamond (111). On the contrary, almost all of these species resulted in PEAs for diamond (100): +0.5 (H), +2.2 (F), +3.9 (Oontop), +3.0 (Obridge), and + 0.8 (OH) eV. The only adsorbate that did not render a PEA value was NH2, which instead resulted in a NEA value (−0.7 eV). The results obtained for the (111) surface are thus, with only one exception, completely different compared to the non-, B-, or N-doped situation. Oontop-termination gave surface electronic conductivities for both non-doped and doped diamond (111) surfaces. F-termination resulted in surface conductivity for both P- and N-doped diamond (111), whilst non- and B-doped surfaces showed PEA values. Moreover, H, OH, and NH2 adsorbates induced NEA values, which is completely different to the surface conductivity observed for P-doped diamond (111).
Surface-terminated P-doped diamond (100) surfaces gave results that were both similar and dissimilar to the other types of doping situations. F- and Obridge-termination gave PEA values for all non-doped and doped situations (B, N, and P). Oontop-termination resulted in PEA values for non-, B-, and P-doped surfaces, whilst it for N-doped diamond gave surface conductivity. As can be seen in Table 1, H-, OH-, and NH2-termination resulted in a mixture of all three types of surface electronic properties (i.e. surface conductivity, PEA, and NEA), depending on the type of doping situation.
The combined effect of surface termination and substitutional doping on diamond surface electronic properties has here been presented and discussed. Firstly, the stability and geometrical structures of variously terminated diamond (111) and (100) surfaces were presented. The terminating species included H, F, OH, Oontop, Obridge, and NH2. Moreover, the results for the doped surfaces were compared with non-doped diamond (111) and (100) surfaces. The doping species included B, N, and P. Theoretical DFT calculations had been used for the here presented results.
As a result of these first-principle calculations, F- and Obridge-terminations gave PEA values for all non-doped and doped situations. Moreover, Oontop-termination resulted in PEA values for non-, B-, and P-doped surfaces, whilst it for N-doped diamond gave surface conductivity. Various results were obtained for the other combinations of surface terminations and doping situations.
This work was supported by the Swedish Research Council (VR). The computational results were obtained using Materials Studio from BIOVIA.
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It often results in high productivity and requires large capital investments, low operating costs, and good safety conditions. The main topics that will be discussed in this chapter will include an introduction into the general features of open pit mining, ore body characteristics and configurations, stripping ratios and stripping overburden methods, mine elements and parameters, open pit operation cycle, pit slope angle, stability of mine slopes, types of highwall failures, mine closure and reclamation, and different variants of surface mining methods including opencast mining, mountainous mining, and artisan mining.",book:{id:"8620",slug:"mining-techniques-past-present-and-future",title:"Mining Techniques",fullTitle:"Mining Techniques - Past, Present and Future"},signatures:"Awwad H. Altiti, Rami O. Alrawashdeh and Hani M. 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The first stage contains the area recognition, its limitation to the target, and elimination of external factors until defining a geothermal zone with characteristics to be commercially exploited. The main studies and analysis that can be applied during the exploration stage are listed, and the major indicator to continue with the project or suspend is the prefeasibility report. The major risks in the exploration stage are due to studies that are carried out on the surface; at this stage, the costs can be considered low. The main results of the exploration are the selection of sites to drill three or four initial wells. Each well provides a direct overview of the reservoir: depth, production thicknesses, thermodynamic parameters, and production characteristics. The drilling of three to four exploratory wells is recommended, as far as there is certainty of the feasibility of the project, and the development of the field begins with drilling of sufficient wells to feed the plant. In this stage, the cost increases, but the risks decrease.",book:{id:"7504",slug:"renewable-geothermal-energy-explorations",title:"Renewable Geothermal Energy Explorations",fullTitle:"Renewable Geothermal Energy Explorations"},signatures:"Alfonso Aragón-Aguilar, Georgina Izquierdo-Montalvo,\nDaniel Octavio Aragón-Gaspar and Denise N. Barreto-Rivera",authors:[{id:"258358",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Aragón-Aguilar",slug:"alfonso-aragon-aguilar",fullName:"Alfonso Aragón-Aguilar"}]},{id:"65070",title:"Biochar: A Sustainable Approach for Improving Plant Growth and Soil Properties",slug:"biochar-a-sustainable-approach-for-improving-plant-growth-and-soil-properties",totalDownloads:6959,totalCrossrefCites:60,totalDimensionsCites:99,abstract:"Soil is the most important source and an abode for many nutrients and microflora. 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This chapter exclusively summarizes the properties of biochar, its interaction with soil microflora, and its role in plant growth promotion when added to the soil.",book:{id:"7305",slug:"biochar-an-imperative-amendment-for-soil-and-the-environment",title:"Biochar",fullTitle:"Biochar - An Imperative Amendment for Soil and the Environment"},signatures:"Jyoti Rawat, Jyoti Saxena and Pankaj Sanwal",authors:null},{id:"39170",title:"Study of Impacts of Global Warming on Climate Change: Rise in Sea Level and Disaster Frequency",slug:"study-of-impacts-of-global-warming-on-climate-change-rise-in-sea-level-and-disaster-frequency",totalDownloads:6702,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:32,abstract:null,book:{id:"2206",slug:"global-warming-impacts-and-future-perspective",title:"Global Warming",fullTitle:"Global Warming - Impacts and Future Perspective"},signatures:"Bharat Raj Singh and Onkar Singh",authors:[{id:"26093",title:"Dr.",name:"Bharat Raj",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"bharat-raj-singh",fullName:"Bharat Raj Singh"},{id:"118426",title:"Prof.",name:"Onkar",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"onkar-singh",fullName:"Onkar Singh"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"10",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82823",title:"The Metropolitan Transformation of Ioannina City from 1940 to 2015",slug:"the-metropolitan-transformation-of-ioannina-city-from-1940-to-2015",totalDownloads:5,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105884",abstract:"The chapter presents the urban and regional changes in the city of Ioannina, Greece. This city is located in the periphery of Epirus, which is in the western Balkans, Eastern Europe. The chapter examines, with the tools of aerial photos and QGIS software, the spatial transformation of Ioannina city from 1940 to 2015. Map science is a field through which the users could observe and compare maps from past to future. The plans and the planning were formed under the values, standards, and fundamentals of the mosaic of politics, good practices, urban rules, and citizen level. The urban space has already changed until nowadays. The chapter examines the reasons for urban politics and social–economic moments that became the epitome of these urban and regional changes. The results show the comparative spatial study from each historical period.",book:{id:"11488",title:"GIS and Spatial Analysis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11488.jpg"},signatures:"Efthymios-Spyridon Georgiou"},{id:"83032",title:"Introductory Chapter: Solar Photovoltaic Energy",slug:"introductory-chapter-solar-photovoltaic-energy",totalDownloads:5,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106259",abstract:null,book:{id:"9862",title:"Solar Radiation - Measurements, Modeling and Forecasting for Photovoltaic Solar Energy Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9862.jpg"},signatures:"Mohammadreza Aghaei, Amir Nedaei, Aref Eskandari and Jafar Milimonfared"},{id:"82963",title:"Evolution of Radio Source Components and the Quasar/Galaxy Unification Scheme",slug:"evolution-of-radio-source-components-and-the-quasar-galaxy-unification-scheme",totalDownloads:4,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106244",abstract:"In this work, a theoretical model is developed for explanation of temporal evolution of extragalactic radio sources via beaming, orientation effects and asymmetries. Equation of the form D≈P±q1+z−m is used to account for the D ∼ P/z relation. Also, D≈D01+z−1+z1+z2 accounted properly for Ω0=1 cosmology than the Ω0=0 counterpart in linear size versus redshift of radio sources. Similarly, D=Dc1∓lnPPc1/2 model explained redshift-luminosity relationship of extragalactic radio sources. The results from the regression analyses are q = +0.003 (r = 0.04) for sources with z < 1 and q = −1.59 (r = −0.6) for all z≥1 sources. A critical linear size, Dc of 316kpc which matches the maximum theoretical linear size, Dmax of 0.15D0 at a critical redshift zc∼1 and a critical luminosity Pc=26.33WHz−1 are obtained. The indication of all these results is that the linear size of radio sources evolves up to a certain limit in D–P plane and thereafter decreases with increasing luminosity as predicted in this work.",book:{id:"11737",title:"Astronomy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11737.jpg"},signatures:"Costecia Ifeoma Onah, Augustine A. Ubachukwu and Finbarr C. Odo"},{id:"82981",title:"Wood Quality and Pulping Process Efficiency of Elite Eucalyptus spp. Clones Field-Grown under Seasonal Drought Stress",slug:"wood-quality-and-pulping-process-efficiency-of-elite-eucalyptus-spp-clones-field-grown-under-seasona",totalDownloads:8,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106341",abstract:"The objective of the present study is to evaluate the wood quality of five elite Eucalyptus spp. clones at 4 years of age from a clonal test installed in a region of seasonal drought stress in central-western Brazil focusing on pulp production. A total of 25 trees were systematically felled and disks and logs were obtained along the trunk. Wooden disks were used for density and fiber analyses and the logs were converted into chips for application in the pulping process. For the denser genotype, clone D (E. grandis x E. urophylla x Eucalyptus tereticornis), a thicker cell wall associated to thinner fibers results in a negative effect on the fiber quality. In contrast, clone B (Eucalyptus pellita x E. grandis), which has relatively inferior pulping performance, displayed the lowest wood density associated to wider lumen and fibers. The best growth performances in response to acclimatization and adaptation to the site strongly influences the pulp productivity, which is identified as the parameter of greatest variance between genotypes, and highlighting clone E (E. grandis x E. urophylla).",book:{id:"11840",title:"Arid Environment - Perspectives, Challenges and Management",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11840.jpg"},signatures:"Deborah Rodrigues de Souza Santos, Camila Sarto, Rafael Fernandes dos Santos, Júlia Lôbo Ribeiro Anciotti Gil, Carlos de Melo e Silva-Neto, Regina Maria Gomes, Evandro Novaes, Carlos Roberto Sette-Junior, Mario Tomazello-Filho, Rafael Tassinari Resende and Matheus Peres Chagas"},{id:"82957",title:"The Socio-Economic Factors of the Covid-19 Pandemic in Turkey: A Spatial Perspective",slug:"the-socio-economic-factors-of-the-covid-19-pandemic-in-turkey-a-spatial-perspective",totalDownloads:9,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106048",abstract:"This study investigates the role of various socioeconomic determinants and vaccination rates in the spread of Covid-19 in a spatial setting in Turkey. For this aim, we employ the 41 sub-indicators of Life Index in Provinces data provided by the Turkish Statistical Institute which is obtained based on the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) Better Life Index approach. Our results indicate no global interactions in the transmission process of the disease among Turkish provinces. This means that the infection burden in the neighboring province does not significantly affect the infection burden of a given state. Yet, we show that vaccination rates and the median age of a neighboring province significantly affect the number of total cases in a given province. We find that as the vaccination rates of a neighboring province rise, the number of total cases in a given province also increases. This finding can be attributed to the “neighbor–reliant immunity” concept. It seems that people with vaccine hesitancy toward Covid-19 feel safer without a vaccine when their neighbors are mostly vaccinated. Last, people with a higher satisfaction rate with their health status are more likely to catch the disease due to underestimation of negative consequences.",book:{id:"11488",title:"GIS and Spatial Analysis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11488.jpg"},signatures:"Sevgi Eda Tuzcu and Esra Satıcı"},{id:"82652",title:"Intra-Plate Dynamics and Active Tectonic Zones of the Indian Plate",slug:"intra-plate-dynamics-and-active-tectonic-zones-of-the-indian-plate",totalDownloads:8,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105647",abstract:"The tectonic framework of the Indian Plate started to evolve since the break-up of Gondwanaland in the Late Triassic. It evolved mainly during the time between its separation from the African plate in the Early-Cretaceous and its collision with the Eurasian plate on the north in Late-Middle Eocene and with the Burmese plate in the northeast in Late-Oligocene. Present active tectonic zones, responsible for earthquake generation, were created by the collision pattern and subsequent plate motion. Continued subduction and plate motion due to ridge push and slab pull are responsible for the activation of primordial faults in the inherent structural fabric of the craton depending on the related stress field. Major tectonic zones of the Indian continental plate are related to the collision fronts and the reactivated intra-cratonic faults along the resurgent paleo-sutures between the proto-cratons. Major Tectonic Zones (TZ) are Himalayan TZ, Assam-Arakan TZ, Baluchistan- Karakoram TZ, Andaman-Nicobar TZ, and Stable Continental Region (SCR) earthquake zone. The structure of the continental margins developed during the break-up of Gondwana continental fragments. Western margin evolved during the sequential separation of Africa, Madagascar, and Seychelles since the Late-Triassic to Late Cretaceous time. The Eastern margin structure evolved during the separation of Antarctica in Mid Cretaceous. The orogenic belt circumscribing the northern margin of Indian plate is highly tectonised as the subduction of the plate continues due to northerly push from the Carlsberg Ridge in the SW and slab-pull towards northeast and east along the orogenic and island arc fronts in the NE. This stress pattern induced an anticlockwise rotatory plate motion. The back thrust from the collision front in the direction opposite to the ridge push put the plate under an overall compressive stress. This stress pattern and the plate motion are responsible for the reactivation of the major intra-cratonic faults. While the tectonised orogenic belts are the zones for earthquake nucleation, the reactivated faults are also the strained mega shear zones across the plate for earthquake generation in SCR. These faults trending WNW-ESE are apparently the transform faults that extend across the continent from Carlsberg ridge in the west to the collision zones in the northeast. As such, they are described here as the ‘trans-continental transform faults’. Three such major fault zones from north to south are (i) North Kathiawar fault - Great Boundary fault (along the Aravalli belt) zone, (ii) South Saurashtra fault (extension of Narmada fault) – SONATA-Dauki-Naga fault zone, and (iii) Tellichery-Cauvery-Eastern Ghat-T3-Hail Hakalula-Naga thrust zone. All these trans-continental faults, which are mega-shear zones, are traceable from western offshore to the northeastern orogenic belts along mega tectonic lineaments across the continent. The neotectonic movements along these faults, their relative motion, and displacement are the architect of the present geomorphic pattern and shape of the Indian craton. The overall compressive stress is responsible for strain build-up within these fault zones and consequent earthquake nucleation. The mid-continental Sonata-Dauki shear zone follows the Central Indian Suture Zone between Bundelkhand Proto Continent (BPC) and Deccan Proto Continent (DPC). With the reactivation of this shear zone, the two proto-cratonic blocks are subjected to relative movement as the plate rotates anticlockwise. The kinematics of these movements and their implications are discussed here with a special reference to the recent 2001 Bhuj earthquake.",book:{id:"11490",title:"Advances in Plate Tectonics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11490.jpg"},signatures:"Sanjib K. Biswas and Gaurav D. 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",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/22.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 17th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:1,editor:{id:"356540",title:"Prof.",name:"Taufiq",middleName:null,surname:"Choudhry",slug:"taufiq-choudhry",fullName:"Taufiq Choudhry",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000036X2hvQAC/Profile_Picture_2022-03-14T08:58:03.jpg",biography:"Prof. Choudhry holds a BSc degree in Economics from the University of Iowa, as well as a Masters and Ph.D. in Applied Economics from Clemson University, USA. In January 2006, he became a Professor of Finance at the University of Southampton Business School. He was previously a Professor of Finance at the University of Bradford Management School. He has over 80 articles published in international finance and economics journals. His research interests and specialties include financial econometrics, financial economics, international economics and finance, housing markets, financial markets, among others.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Southampton",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"86",title:"Business and Management",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/86.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"128342",title:"Prof.",name:"Vito",middleName:null,surname:"Bobek",slug:"vito-bobek",fullName:"Vito Bobek",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/128342/images/system/128342.jpg",biography:"Dr. Vito Bobek works as an international management professor at the University of Applied Sciences FH Joanneum, Graz, Austria. He has published more than 400 works in his academic career and visited twenty-two universities worldwide as a visiting professor. Dr. Bobek is a member of the editorial boards of six international journals and a member of the Strategic Council of the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Slovenia. He has a long history in academia, consulting, and entrepreneurship. His own consulting firm, Palemid, has managed twenty significant projects, such as Cooperation Program Interreg V-A (Slovenia-Austria) and Capacity Building for the Serbian Chamber of Enforcement Agents. He has also participated in many international projects in Italy, Germany, Great Britain, the United States, Spain, Turkey, France, Romania, Croatia, Montenegro, Malaysia, and China. Dr. Bobek is also a co-founder of the Academy of Regional Management in Slovenia.",institutionString:"Universities of Applied Sciences FH Joanneum, Austria",institution:{name:"Universities of Applied Sciences Joanneum",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Austria"}}},editorTwo:{id:"293992",title:"Dr.",name:"Tatjana",middleName:null,surname:"Horvat",slug:"tatjana-horvat",fullName:"Tatjana Horvat",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hXb0hQAC/Profile_Picture_1642419002203",biography:"Tatjana Horvat works as a professor for accountant and auditing at the University of Primorska, Slovenia. She is a Certified State Internal Auditor (licensed by Ministry of Finance RS) and Certified Internal Auditor for Business Sector and Certified accountant (licensed by Slovenian Institute of Auditors). At the Ministry of Justice of Slovenia, she is a member of examination boards for court expert candidates and judicial appraisers in the following areas: economy/finance, valuation of companies, banking, and forensic investigation of economic operations/accounting. At the leading business newspaper Finance in Slovenia (Swedish ownership), she is the editor and head of the area for business, finance, tax-related articles, and educational programs.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Primorska",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"87",title:"Economics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/87.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"327730",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaime",middleName:null,surname:"Ortiz",slug:"jaime-ortiz",fullName:"Jaime Ortiz",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002zaOKZQA2/Profile_Picture_1642145584421",biography:"Dr. Jaime Ortiz holds degrees from Chile, the Netherlands, and the United States. He has held tenured faculty, distinguished professorship, and executive leadership appointments in several universities around the world. Dr. Ortiz has previously worked for international organizations and non-government entities in economic and business matters, and he has university-wide globalization engagement in more than thirty-six countries. He has advised, among others, the United Nations Development Program, Inter-American Development Bank, Organization of American States, Pre-investment Organization of Latin America and the Caribbean, Technical Cooperation of the Suisse Government, and the World Bank. Dr. Ortiz is the author, co-author, or editor of books, book chapters, textbooks, research monographs and technical reports, and refereed journal articles. He is listed in Who’s Who in the World, Who’s Who in America, Who’s Who in Finance and Business, Who’s Who in Business Higher Education, Who’s Who in American Education, and Who’s Who Directory of Economists. Dr. Ortiz has been a Fulbright Scholar and an MSI Leadership Fellow with the W.K. Kellogg Foundation. His teaching interests revolve around global economies and markets while his research focuses on topics related to development and growth, global business decisions, and the economics of technical innovation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Houston",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"88",title:"Marketing",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/88.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"203609",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Hanna",middleName:null,surname:"Gorska-Warsewicz",slug:"hanna-gorska-warsewicz",fullName:"Hanna Gorska-Warsewicz",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSD9pQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-06-14T11:58:32.jpeg",biography:"Hanna Górska-Warsewicz, Ph.D. is Associate Professor at Warsaw University of Life Sciences and Head of Department of Food Market and Consumption Research. She specializes in the subject of brands, brand equity, and brand management in production, service, and trade enterprises. She combines this subject with marketing and marketing management in both theoretical and practical aspects. Prof. Hanna Górska-Warsewicz also analyzes brands in the context of trademarks, legal regulations and the protection of intangible. She is an author or co-author of over 200 publications in this field, including 8 books. She works with the business sector and has participated in projects for the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development and the Ministry of Education and Science in Poland.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Warsaw University of Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:12,paginationItems:[{id:"83040",title:"Corporate Social Responsibility and Social Report: A Case Study in the Basque Country",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105511",signatures:"Vincenzo Basile",slug:"corporate-social-responsibility-and-social-report-a-case-study-in-the-basque-country",totalDownloads:1,totalCrossrefCites:null,totalDimensionsCites:null,authors:null,book:{title:"Corporate Social Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11602.jpg",subseries:{id:"86",title:"Business and Management"}}},{id:"83075",title:"Practices and Challenges of Community Services at Debre Markos University, Ethiopia: A Case Study",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105896",signatures:"Adane Mengist",slug:"practices-and-challenges-of-community-services-at-debre-markos-university-ethiopia-a-case-study",totalDownloads:9,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Corporate Social Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11602.jpg",subseries:{id:"86",title:"Business and Management"}}},{id:"82858",title:"Corporate Social Responsibility a Case of the Provision of Recreational Facilities",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105608",signatures:"Peter Musa Wash, Shida Irwana Omar, Badaruddin Mohamed and Mohd Ismail Isa",slug:"corporate-social-responsibility-a-case-of-the-provision-of-recreational-facilities",totalDownloads:5,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Corporate Social Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11602.jpg",subseries:{id:"86",title:"Business and Management"}}},{id:"82786",title:"Discussion of Purchasing Virtual Digital Nature and Tourism",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105869",signatures:"Hiroko Oe and Yasuyuki Yamaoka",slug:"discussion-of-purchasing-virtual-digital-nature-and-tourism",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"A New Era of Consumer Behavior - Beyond the Pandemic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11581.jpg",subseries:{id:"88",title:"Marketing"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:1,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"11392",title:"Leadership in a Changing World",subtitle:"A Multidimensional Perspective",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11392.jpg",slug:"leadership-in-a-changing-world-a-multidimensional-perspective",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Muhammad Mohiuddin, Bilal Khalid, Md. 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He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94311/images/system/94311.jpeg",biography:"Martins Emeje obtained a BPharm with distinction from Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria, and an MPharm and Ph.D. from the University of Nigeria (UNN), where he received the best Ph.D. award and was enlisted as UNN’s “Face of Research.” He established the first nanomedicine center in Nigeria and was the pioneer head of the intellectual property and technology transfer as well as the technology innovation and support center. Prof. Emeje’s several international fellowships include the prestigious Raman fellowship. He has published more than 150 articles and patents. He is also the head of R&D at NIPRD and holds a visiting professor position at Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nigeria. He has a postgraduate certificate in Project Management from Walden University, Minnesota, as well as a professional teaching certificate and a World Bank certification in Public Procurement. Prof. Emeje was a national chairman of academic pharmacists in Nigeria and the 2021 winner of the May & Baker Nigeria Plc–sponsored prize for professional service in research and innovation.",institutionString:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",institution:{name:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"436430",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Mesut",middleName:null,surname:"Işık",slug:"mesut-isik",fullName:"Mesut Işık",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/436430/images/19686_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bilecik University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"268659",title:"Ms.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/268659/images/8143_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Zhan received his undergraduate and graduate training in the fields of preventive medicine and epidemiology and statistics at the West China University of Medical Sciences in China during 1989 to 1999. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a scientist and Principal Investigator at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering the lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via artificial intelligence-based analyses of exosomal Raman signatures. Dr. Paul also works on spatial multiplex immunofluorescence-based tissue mapping to understand the immune repertoire in lung cancer. Dr. Paul has published in more than sixty-five peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award and the 2022 AAISCR-R Vijayalaxmi Award for Innovative Cancer Research. He is a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He is currently working on the protective activity of phenolic compounds in disorders associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329248",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"md.-faheem-haider",fullName:"Md. Faheem Haider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329248/images/system/329248.jpg",biography:"Dr. Md. Faheem Haider completed his BPharm in 2012 at Integral University, Lucknow, India. In 2014, he completed his MPharm with specialization in Pharmaceutics at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India, in 2018. He was selected for the GPAT six times and his best All India Rank was 34. Currently, he is an assistant professor at Integral University. Previously he was an assistant professor at IIMT University, Meerut, India. He has experience teaching DPharm, Pharm.D, BPharm, and MPharm students. He has more than five publications in reputed journals to his credit. Dr. Faheem’s research area is the development and characterization of nanoformulation for the delivery of drugs to various organs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/system/329795.png",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is an assistant professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, India, where he obtained a Ph.D. in Pharmacology in 2020. He also obtained a BPharm and MPharm from the same university in 2013 and 2015, respectively. His area of research is the pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/natural products in liver cancer and cardiac diseases. He is a member of many professional bodies and has guided many MPharm and PharmD research projects. Dr. Siddiqui has many national and international publications and one German patent to his credit.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"2",type:"subseries",title:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry",keywords:"Osseointegration, Hard Tissue, Peri-implant Soft Tissue, Restorative Materials, Prosthesis Design, Prosthesis, Patient Satisfaction, Rehabilitation",scope:"