Fuel properties of cotton stalks, wheat straw, and wood on a dry basis.
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-expands-to-all-global-amazon-channels-with-full-catalog-of-books-20210308",title:"IntechOpen Expands to All Global Amazon Channels with Full Catalog of Books"},{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"1369",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Changing Diversity in Changing Environment",title:"Changing Diversity in Changing Environment",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"As everybody knows, the dynamic interactions between biotic and abiotic factors, as well as the anthropic ones, considerably affect global climate changes and consequently biology, ecology and distribution of life forms of our planet. These important natural events affect all ecosystems, causing important changes on biodiversity. Systematic and phylogenetic studies, biogeographic distribution analysis and evaluations of diversity richness are focal topics of this book written by international experts, some even considering economical effects and future perspectives on the managing and conservation plans.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-796-3",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4406-9",doi:"10.5772/1835",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"changing-diversity-in-changing-environment",numberOfPages:404,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,hash:"a9f3c1cbb7119a88079a1c07838455f8",bookSignature:"Oscar Grillo and Gianfranco Venora",publishedDate:"November 14th 2011",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1369.jpg",numberOfDownloads:40794,numberOfWosCitations:115,numberOfCrossrefCitations:21,numberOfDimensionsCitations:90,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:226,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 23rd 2010",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 21st 2010",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 27th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 27th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 26th 2011",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,8,9",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"51992",title:"PhD.",name:"Oscar",middleName:null,surname:"Grillo",slug:"oscar-grillo",fullName:"Oscar Grillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/51992/images/1749_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Oscar Grillo is a food technologist with an international PhD in applied and environmental botany. Since 2003 he has been working as a researcher at the Stazione Sperimentale di Granicoltura per la Sicilia, a governmental institute of agronomic research, mainly working with computer vision applied to food matrices and plant structures. Currently, he is collaborating with the Sardinian Germplasm Bank of the Biodiversity Conservation Centre of the University of Cagliari on projects devoted to wild plant seed characterization and identification by image analysis. He also works as a supervisor for many MSc and PhD students. He is the author of about 50 research works published in many peer-reviewed journals and about 70 international conference papers. Dr. Grillo is a referee for a few peer-reviewed journals, and many times was invited as a visiting professor by national and international universities and research centres. In 2011 he was the co-editor of five volumes published by InTech, and in 2014 the editor of the last one.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"7",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"54656",title:"Dr.",name:"Gianfranco",middleName:null,surname:"Venora",slug:"gianfranco-venora",fullName:"Gianfranco Venora",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/54656/images/1750_n.jpg",biography:"Gianfranco Venora is a biologist, born in Caltagirone (Sicily) in 1958, where he lives and works. He took his University degree in 1981, and since 1982 he has been working as researcher at the Stazione Sperimentale di Granicoltura per la Sicilia. His working expertise is mainly about durum wheat and leguminous breeding. At the beginning of 1990, after some years of experience on karyotyping cropped and wild species of agronomical importance, he was fascinated by computer vision applied to food matrices and plant structures, above all seeds, studying wheat and the related leguminous.\nHe was recently nominated as professor to the research doctorate on Applied and Environmental Botany of the University of Cagliari.\nMany peer-reviewed journals published his papers and he was invited as speaker in many international conferences, and as teacher/lecturer by some universities and research centres in Germany, Netherlands, Bulgaria, Spain, Czech Republic and Italy. Gianfranco Venora is currently referee for about 15 peer-reviewed journals and tutor of many MSc and PhD students.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"841",title:"Biodiversity",slug:"environmental-sciences-ecology-biodiversity"}],chapters:[{id:"23566",title:"Examination and Comparison of Microbial Diversity in Field-Scale Sewage Sludge Composters",doi:"10.5772/24083",slug:"examination-and-comparison-of-microbial-diversity-in-field-scale-sewage-sludge-composters",totalDownloads:1928,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Akihiro Ohnishi, Akihiro Nagano, Naoshi Fujimoto and Masaharu Suzuki",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/23566",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/23566",authors:[{id:"55415",title:"Dr.",name:"Akihiro",surname:"Ohnishi",slug:"akihiro-ohnishi",fullName:"Akihiro Ohnishi"},{id:"61970",title:"Dr.",name:"Akihiro",surname:"Nagano",slug:"akihiro-nagano",fullName:"Akihiro Nagano"},{id:"61971",title:"Dr.",name:"Naoshi",surname:"Fujimoto",slug:"naoshi-fujimoto",fullName:"Naoshi Fujimoto"},{id:"61972",title:"Prof.",name:"Masaharu",surname:"Suzuki",slug:"masaharu-suzuki",fullName:"Masaharu Suzuki"}],corrections:null},{id:"23567",title:"Food Microbiota Diversity",doi:"10.5772/24841",slug:"food-microbiota-diversity",totalDownloads:1964,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Corrado Fogher, Matteo Busconi, Serena Reggi and Giuliano Dallolio",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/23567",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/23567",authors:[{id:"59872",title:"Prof.",name:"Corrado",surname:"Fogher",slug:"corrado-fogher",fullName:"Corrado Fogher"},{id:"61399",title:"Dr.",name:"Matteo",surname:"Busconi",slug:"matteo-busconi",fullName:"Matteo Busconi"},{id:"61400",title:"Dr.",name:"Serena",surname:"Reggi",slug:"serena-reggi",fullName:"Serena Reggi"},{id:"61401",title:"Dr.",name:"Giuliano",surname:"Dallolio",slug:"giuliano-dallolio",fullName:"Giuliano Dallolio"}],corrections:null},{id:"23568",title:"Describing Parasite Biodiversity: The Case of the Helminth Fauna of Wildlife Vertebrates in Mexico",doi:"10.5772/25011",slug:"describing-parasite-biodiversity-the-case-of-the-helminth-fauna-of-wildlife-vertebrates-in-mexico",totalDownloads:2605,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:20,signatures:"Gerardo Pérez-Ponce de León, Luis García-Prieto and Berenit Mendoza-Garfias",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/23568",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/23568",authors:[{id:"61079",title:"Dr.",name:null,surname:"De Leon",slug:"de-leon",fullName:"De Leon"}],corrections:null},{id:"23569",title:"Yeasts Biodiversity and Its Significance: Case Studies in Natural and Human-Related Environments, Ex Situ Preservation, Applications and Challenges",doi:"10.5772/23906",slug:"yeasts-biodiversity-and-its-significance-case-studies-in-natural-and-human-related-environments-ex-s",totalDownloads:3285,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,signatures:"Enrique Javier Carvajal Barriga, Diego Libkind, Ana Isabel Briones, Juan Úbeda Iranzo, Patricia Portero, Ian Roberts, Steve James, Paula B. Morais and Carlos A. Rosa",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/23569",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/23569",authors:[{id:"54367",title:"Dr.",name:"Enrique Javier",surname:"Carvajal Barriga",slug:"enrique-javier-carvajal-barriga",fullName:"Enrique Javier Carvajal Barriga"},{id:"62658",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",surname:"Rosa",slug:"carlos-rosa",fullName:"Carlos Rosa"},{id:"62659",title:"Prof.",name:"Diego",surname:"Libkind",slug:"diego-libkind",fullName:"Diego Libkind"},{id:"62660",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana",surname:"Briones",slug:"ana-briones",fullName:"Ana Briones"},{id:"62661",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",surname:"Úbeda",slug:"juan-ubeda",fullName:"Juan Úbeda"},{id:"62662",title:"Dr.",name:"Ian",surname:"Roberts",slug:"ian-roberts",fullName:"Ian Roberts"},{id:"62663",title:"Dr.",name:"Steven",surname:"James",slug:"steven-james",fullName:"Steven James"},{id:"62664",title:"MSc.",name:"Patricia",surname:"Portero Barahona",slug:"patricia-portero-barahona",fullName:"Patricia Portero Barahona"},{id:"115034",title:"Dr.",name:"Paula",surname:"Morais",slug:"paula-morais",fullName:"Paula Morais"}],corrections:null},{id:"23570",title:"Polychaeta Diversity in the Continental Shelf Off the Orinoco River Delta, Venezuela",doi:"10.5772/24965",slug:"polychaeta-diversity-in-the-continental-shelf-off-the-orinoco-river-delta-venezuela",totalDownloads:1709,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"David Bone, Carmen Teresa Rodriguez and Iliana Chollett",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/23570",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/23570",authors:[{id:"60646",title:"Prof.",name:"David",surname:"Bone",slug:"david-bone",fullName:"David Bone"},{id:"60651",title:"Prof.",name:"Carmen Teresa",surname:"Rodríguez",slug:"carmen-teresa-rodriguez",fullName:"Carmen Teresa Rodríguez"},{id:"60652",title:"Prof.",name:"Iliana",surname:"Chollett",slug:"iliana-chollett",fullName:"Iliana Chollett"}],corrections:null},{id:"23571",title:"Butterfly Diversity in a Changing Scenario",doi:"10.5772/24117",slug:"butterfly-diversity-in-a-changing-scenario",totalDownloads:2284,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Simona Bonelli, Francesca Barbero, Luca P. Casacci, Cristiana Cerrato, Dario Patricelli, Marco Sala, Alessio Vovlas, Magdalena Witek and Emilio Balletto",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/23571",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/23571",authors:[{id:"55576",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",surname:"Bonelli",slug:"simona-bonelli",fullName:"Simona Bonelli"},{id:"61384",title:"Dr.",name:"Francesca",surname:"Barbero",slug:"francesca-barbero",fullName:"Francesca Barbero"},{id:"61385",title:"Dr.",name:"Luca Pietro",surname:"Casacci",slug:"luca-pietro-casacci",fullName:"Luca Pietro Casacci"},{id:"61386",title:"Dr.",name:"Cristiana",surname:"Cerrato",slug:"cristiana-cerrato",fullName:"Cristiana Cerrato"},{id:"61387",title:"Dr.",name:"Dario",surname:"Patricelli",slug:"dario-patricelli",fullName:"Dario Patricelli"},{id:"61388",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",surname:"Sala",slug:"marco-sala",fullName:"Marco Sala"},{id:"61389",title:"Dr.",name:"Alessio",surname:"Vovlas",slug:"alessio-vovlas",fullName:"Alessio Vovlas"},{id:"61390",title:"Dr.",name:"Magdalena",surname:"Witek",slug:"magdalena-witek",fullName:"Magdalena Witek"},{id:"61391",title:"Prof.",name:"Emilio",surname:"Balletto",slug:"emilio-balletto",fullName:"Emilio Balletto"}],corrections:null},{id:"23580",title:"Bee Diversity in Thailand and the Applications of Bee Products",doi:"10.5772/23068",slug:"bee-diversity-in-thailand-and-the-applications-of-bee-products",totalDownloads:4281,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Atsalek Rattanawannee and Chanpen Chanchao",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/23580",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/23580",authors:[{id:"50427",title:"Dr.",name:"Chanpen",surname:"Chanchao",slug:"chanpen-chanchao",fullName:"Chanpen Chanchao"}],corrections:null},{id:"23581",title:"South African Spider Diversity: African Perspectives on the Conservation of a Mega-Diverse Group",doi:"10.5772/24775",slug:"south-african-spider-diversity-african-perspectives-on-the-conservation-of-a-mega-diverse-group",totalDownloads:2150,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:8,signatures:"Stefan H. Foord, Anna S. Dippenaar-Schoeman and Charles R. Haddad",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/23581",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/23581",authors:[{id:"59480",title:"Dr.",name:"Stefan",surname:"Foord",slug:"stefan-foord",fullName:"Stefan Foord"},{id:"59900",title:"Prof.",name:"Anna",surname:"Dippenaar-Schoeman",slug:"anna-dippenaar-schoeman",fullName:"Anna Dippenaar-Schoeman"},{id:"59901",title:"Mr.",name:"Charles",surname:"Haddad",slug:"charles-haddad",fullName:"Charles Haddad"}],corrections:null},{id:"23582",title:"Relationships Between Bird Species Richness and Natural and Modified Habitat in Southern Mexico",doi:"10.5772/24960",slug:"relationships-between-bird-species-richness-and-natural-and-modified-habitat-in-southern-mexico",totalDownloads:2263,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Jorge E. Ramírez-Albores and Adolfo G. Navarro-Sigüenza",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/23582",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/23582",authors:[{id:"60612",title:"MSc.",name:"Jorge",surname:"Ramirez-Albores",slug:"jorge-ramirez-albores",fullName:"Jorge Ramirez-Albores"},{id:"66717",title:"Dr.",name:"Adolfo G.",surname:"Navarro-Siguenza",slug:"adolfo-g.-navarro-siguenza",fullName:"Adolfo G. Navarro-Siguenza"}],corrections:null},{id:"23583",title:"Anuran Amphibians: A Huge and Threatened Factory of a Variety of Active Peptides with Potential Nanobiotechnological Applications in the Face of Amphibian Decline",doi:"10.5772/25106",slug:"anuran-amphibians-a-huge-and-threatened-factory-of-a-variety-of-active-peptides-with-potential-nanob",totalDownloads:1929,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:4,signatures:"Leonardo de Azevedo Calderon and Rodrigo Guerino Stábeli",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/23583",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/23583",authors:[{id:"58075",title:"Dr.",name:"Rodrigo",surname:"Stábeli",slug:"rodrigo-stabeli",fullName:"Rodrigo Stábeli"},{id:"177382",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonardo de Azevedo",surname:"Calderon",slug:"leonardo-de-azevedo-calderon",fullName:"Leonardo de Azevedo Calderon"}],corrections:null},{id:"23584",title:"Brine Shrimp Diversity in China Based on DNA Barcoding",doi:"10.5772/24975",slug:"brine-shrimp-diversity-in-china-based-on-dna-barcoding",totalDownloads:2253,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Hangxiao Zhang, Jing Sun, Weiwei Wang and Jun Yu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/23584",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/23584",authors:[{id:"60738",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhang",surname:"Hangxiao",slug:"zhang-hangxiao",fullName:"Zhang Hangxiao"}],corrections:null},{id:"23585",title:"Fishes of the Atlantic Rain Forest Streams: Ecological Patterns and Conservation",doi:"10.5772/24540",slug:"fishes-of-the-atlantic-rain-forest-streams-ecological-patterns-and-conservation",totalDownloads:2778,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:28,signatures:"Vinícius Abilhoa, Raul R. Braga, Hugo Bornatowski and Jean R. S. Vitule",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/23585",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/23585",authors:[{id:"58022",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean Ricardo Simões",surname:"Vitule",slug:"jean-ricardo-simoes-vitule",fullName:"Jean Ricardo Simões Vitule"},{id:"61834",title:"Dr.",name:"Vinicius",surname:"Abilhoa",slug:"vinicius-abilhoa",fullName:"Vinicius Abilhoa"},{id:"123966",title:"Dr.",name:"Hugo",surname:"Bornatowski",slug:"hugo-bornatowski",fullName:"Hugo Bornatowski"},{id:"123968",title:"BSc.",name:"Raul",surname:"Braga",slug:"raul-braga",fullName:"Raul Braga"}],corrections:null},{id:"23586",title:"Diversification of Circum-Mediterranean Barbels",doi:"10.5772/24639",slug:"diversification-of-circum-mediterranean-barbels",totalDownloads:2618,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:11,signatures:"Hugo F. Gante",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/23586",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/23586",authors:[{id:"58669",title:"Dr.",name:"Hugo",surname:"Gante",slug:"hugo-gante",fullName:"Hugo Gante"}],corrections:null},{id:"23587",title:"Biogeography and Population Connectivity of Coral Reef Fishes",doi:"10.5772/24286",slug:"biogeography-and-population-connectivity-of-coral-reef-fishes",totalDownloads:2194,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,signatures:"Rachel A. Morrison and Stuart A. Sandin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/23587",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/23587",authors:[{id:"56478",title:"Dr.",name:"Stuart",surname:"Sandin",slug:"stuart-sandin",fullName:"Stuart Sandin"},{id:"61516",title:"Ms.",name:"Rachel",surname:"Morrison",slug:"rachel-morrison",fullName:"Rachel Morrison"}],corrections:null},{id:"23588",title:"Diversity of Wild Mammals in a Megalopolis: Mexico City, Mexico",doi:"10.5772/24450",slug:"diversity-of-wild-mammals-in-a-megalopolis-mexico-city-mexico",totalDownloads:2528,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,signatures:"Yolanda Hortelano-Moncada and Fernando A. Cervantes",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/23588",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/23588",authors:[{id:"57461",title:"Dr.",name:"Yolanda",surname:"Hortelano-Moncada",slug:"yolanda-hortelano-moncada",fullName:"Yolanda Hortelano-Moncada"},{id:"61875",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando A.",surname:"Cervantes",slug:"fernando-a.-cervantes",fullName:"Fernando A. Cervantes"}],corrections:null},{id:"23589",title:"Microbial Biodiversity and Biogeography on the Deep Seafloor",doi:"10.5772/23654",slug:"microbial-biodiversity-and-biogeography-on-the-deep-seafloor",totalDownloads:2670,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,signatures:"Shingo Kato and Akihiko Yamagishi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/23589",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/23589",authors:[{id:"53002",title:"Prof.",name:"Akihiko",surname:"Yamagishi",slug:"akihiko-yamagishi",fullName:"Akihiko Yamagishi"},{id:"60156",title:"Dr.",name:"Shingo",surname:"Kato",slug:"shingo-kato",fullName:"Shingo Kato"}],corrections:null},{id:"23590",title:"Natural Selection: Finding Specimens in a Natural History Collection",doi:"10.5772/25206",slug:"natural-selection-finding-specimens-in-a-natural-history-collection",totalDownloads:1378,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Marieke van Erp, Antal van den Bosch, Steve Hunt, Marian van der Meij, René Dekker and Piroska Lendvai",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/23590",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/23590",authors:[{id:"62494",title:"Dr.",name:"Marieke",surname:"Van Erp",slug:"marieke-van-erp",fullName:"Marieke Van Erp"},{id:"62495",title:"Prof.",name:"Antal",surname:"Van Den Bosch",slug:"antal-van-den-bosch",fullName:"Antal Van Den Bosch"},{id:"62496",title:"Dr.",name:"Piroska",surname:"Lendvai",slug:"piroska-lendvai",fullName:"Piroska Lendvai"},{id:"62497",title:"Dr.",name:"Marian",surname:"Van Der Meij",slug:"marian-van-der-meij",fullName:"Marian Van Der Meij"},{id:"62498",title:"Dr.",name:"René",surname:"Dekker",slug:"rene-dekker",fullName:"René Dekker"},{id:"98498",title:"Mr.",name:"Steve",surname:"Hunt",slug:"steve-hunt",fullName:"Steve Hunt"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3821",title:"Biodiversity",subtitle:"The Dynamic Balance of the Planet",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7233b40924b0a40793d6f2bd6db38356",slug:"biodiversity-the-dynamic-balance-of-the-planet",bookSignature:"Oscar Grillo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3821.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51992",title:"PhD.",name:"Oscar",surname:"Grillo",slug:"oscar-grillo",fullName:"Oscar Grillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1366",title:"Biodiversity Loss in a Changing Planet",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d325a1437cd12bf8823408657080ee8a",slug:"biodiversity-loss-in-a-changing-planet",bookSignature:"Oscar Grillo and Gianfranco Venora",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1366.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51992",title:"PhD.",name:"Oscar",surname:"Grillo",slug:"oscar-grillo",fullName:"Oscar Grillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1364",title:"The Dynamical Processes of Biodiversity",subtitle:"Case Studies of Evolution and Spatial Distribution",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c91392a64dfd9abd2532f68ea7ac3e21",slug:"the-dynamical-processes-of-biodiversity-case-studies-of-evolution-and-spatial-distribution",bookSignature:"Oscar Grillo and Gianfranco Venora",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1364.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51992",title:"PhD.",name:"Oscar",surname:"Grillo",slug:"oscar-grillo",fullName:"Oscar Grillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"394",title:"Ecosystems Biodiversity",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"49d03ba9ec3a70c20364366827d63cbf",slug:"ecosystems-biodiversity",bookSignature:"Oscar Grillo and Gianfranco Venora",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/394.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51992",title:"PhD.",name:"Oscar",surname:"Grillo",slug:"oscar-grillo",fullName:"Oscar Grillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1368",title:"Biological Diversity and Sustainable Resources Use",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2a2e4859e120fd16cbb50fe87a15d4a5",slug:"biological-diversity-and-sustainable-resources-use",bookSignature:"Oscar Grillo and Gianfranco Venora",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1368.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51992",title:"PhD.",name:"Oscar",surname:"Grillo",slug:"oscar-grillo",fullName:"Oscar Grillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6317",title:"Rediscovery of Landraces as a Resource for the Future",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b081917230f78f4420809fb47ef52713",slug:"rediscovery-of-landraces-as-a-resource-for-the-future",bookSignature:"Oscar Grillo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6317.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51992",title:"PhD.",name:"Oscar",surname:"Grillo",slug:"oscar-grillo",fullName:"Oscar Grillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2719",title:"Biodiversity Enrichment in a Diverse World",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"819b482d198dba210de22b9d66be3d79",slug:"biodiversity-enrichment-in-a-diverse-world",bookSignature:"Gbolagade Akeem Lameed",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2719.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"142349",title:"Dr.",name:"Gbolagade Akeem",surname:"Lameed",slug:"gbolagade-akeem-lameed",fullName:"Gbolagade Akeem Lameed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1850",title:"Diversity of Ecosystems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ee698d03ccce547bc8cdb4f13ebb2822",slug:"diversity-of-ecosystems",bookSignature:"Mahamane Ali",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1850.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"103960",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahamane",surname:"Ali",slug:"mahamane-ali",fullName:"Mahamane Ali"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2272",title:"The Functioning of Ecosystems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7e5a5f3530094a30a6870fab307c18cb",slug:"the-functioning-of-ecosystems",bookSignature:"Mahamane Ali",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2272.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"103960",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahamane",surname:"Ali",slug:"mahamane-ali",fullName:"Mahamane Ali"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3007",title:"Biodiversity Conservation and Utilization in a Diverse World",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"29534b458d8a76a366f9ab1e70038d1a",slug:"biodiversity-conservation-and-utilization-in-a-diverse-world",bookSignature:"Gbolagade Akeem Lameed",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3007.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"142349",title:"Dr.",name:"Gbolagade Akeem",surname:"Lameed",slug:"gbolagade-akeem-lameed",fullName:"Gbolagade Akeem Lameed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"69566",slug:"corrigendum-to-a-brief-overview-of-ophthalmic-ultrasound-imaging",title:"Corrigendum to: A Brief Overview of Ophthalmic Ultrasound Imaging",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/69566.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69566",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69566",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/69566",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/69566",chapter:{id:"65491",slug:"a-brief-overview-of-ophthalmic-ultrasound-imaging",signatures:"David B. Rosen, Mandi D. Conway, Charles P. Ingram, Robin D. Ross and Leonardo G. Montilla",dateSubmitted:"November 6th 2018",dateReviewed:"December 12th 2018",datePrePublished:"February 5th 2019",datePublished:"September 4th 2019",book:{id:"8633",title:"Novel Diagnostic Methods in Ophthalmology",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Novel Diagnostic Methods in Ophthalmology",slug:"novel-diagnostic-methods-in-ophthalmology",publishedDate:"September 4th 2019",bookSignature:"Anna Nowinska",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8633.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"261466",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna",middleName:"Karolina",surname:"Nowinska",slug:"anna-nowinska",fullName:"Anna Nowinska"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null}},chapter:{id:"65491",slug:"a-brief-overview-of-ophthalmic-ultrasound-imaging",signatures:"David B. Rosen, Mandi D. Conway, Charles P. Ingram, Robin D. Ross and Leonardo G. Montilla",dateSubmitted:"November 6th 2018",dateReviewed:"December 12th 2018",datePrePublished:"February 5th 2019",datePublished:"September 4th 2019",book:{id:"8633",title:"Novel Diagnostic Methods in Ophthalmology",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Novel Diagnostic Methods in Ophthalmology",slug:"novel-diagnostic-methods-in-ophthalmology",publishedDate:"September 4th 2019",bookSignature:"Anna Nowinska",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8633.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"261466",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna",middleName:"Karolina",surname:"Nowinska",slug:"anna-nowinska",fullName:"Anna Nowinska"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null},book:{id:"8633",title:"Novel Diagnostic Methods in Ophthalmology",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Novel Diagnostic Methods in Ophthalmology",slug:"novel-diagnostic-methods-in-ophthalmology",publishedDate:"September 4th 2019",bookSignature:"Anna Nowinska",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8633.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"261466",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna",middleName:"Karolina",surname:"Nowinska",slug:"anna-nowinska",fullName:"Anna Nowinska"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"10367",leadTitle:null,title:"Chitin and Chitosan - Physicochemical Properties and Industrial Applications",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tThe book, Chitin and Chitosan - Physicochemical Properties and Industrial Applications, provides an overview of the extraction, modification, characterization, and application of chitin and chitosan derivatives from crustacean by-products and their physicochemical properties. It presents and explains important studies and develops new and innovative methods of biological and physicochemical analysis in the fields of organic and mineral environmental pollution, corrosion inhibitors, drug delivery systems, superabsorbent materials, nanotechnology, textiles, biotechnology, and biomedical sciences.
\r\n\r\n\tOur book will distinguish itself from competing volumes by discussing the synthesis, purification, analysis, and properties of chitin-chitosan polymers as a renewable source of natural biodegradable polysaccharides and also by presenting various practical and potential new applications of these materials. It is highly recommended for industrial personnel involved in bioprocesses, biochemistry, microbiology, bioengineering, food engineering, medical and pharmaceutical industries as well as for readers interested in environmental protection and who wish to specialize in chitin and chitosan derivative technologies.
",isbn:"978-1-78984-425-2",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-424-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-695-5",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7c3368aba02cb516b5ef5e0711ce4da2",bookSignature:"Prof. Mohammed Berrada",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10367.jpg",keywords:"Chemistry of Chitosan, Synthesis, Modification, Drug Delivery Systems, Wound dressings, Hydrogels, Corrosion Inhibitors, Polysaccharide-Based Superabsorbents Materials, Bioactivity of Chitin, Bioactivity of Chitosan, Adsorption of Industrial Waste. Elimination of Industrial Waste",numberOfDownloads:396,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 4th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 2nd 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 1st 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 19th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 20th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"5 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A pioneering researcher in polymer science, involved in numerous university-industry transfer technology projects. Appointed head of the Innovation and Technology Platform at Hassan II University. Member of the Quebec Order of Chemists and holder of more than ten registered patents.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"224783",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Berrada",slug:"mohammed-berrada",fullName:"Mohammed Berrada",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/224783/images/system/224783.jpg",biography:"Professor Berrada joined the Hassan II University of Casablanca in 1994 and assumed many responsibilities which led him to head the Casablanca Innovation and Technology Platform. He has set up in his Laboratory of Biomolecules and Organic Synthesis, a research program in the fields of thermostable and photosensitive materials, intelligent polymers, hydrogels, and nanoparticles for drug delivery systems, biodegradable superabsorbents, and corrosion inhibitors. Professor Berrada received a Ph.D. in Polymer Science from the Macromolecular Sciences Division of Pierre and Marie Curie University in 1992, and another Ph.D. in Organic Chemistry from Ben M\\'Sik Faculty of Sciences in 1998. He completed postdoctoral training at the Engineering Department of Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology in Japan in 1994. From 2006 to 2009, Professor Berrada was Director of Research and Development Department at Intersand Inc., where he patented the innovative OdourLock litter technology which was a breakthrough and a huge success for the company. He joined Lysac Technologies in January 2003 and took on the task of creating and leading the Department of Polymer Chemistry. Prof. Berrada has also been involved in many University-Industry transfer technology projects. In 1998, he joined the Department of Radiation Oncology at McGill University. In 2000, he joined Biosyntech Inc. a Canadian pharmaceutical industry and was Director of the Therapeutic Delivery Department. Professor Berrada has published over 150 peer-reviewed scientific articles and conference proceedings and is the author of several published and industrially exploited patents.",institutionString:"Laboratory of Biomolecules and Organic Synthesis",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Hassan II Casablanca",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Morocco"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"6",title:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",slug:"biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology"}],chapters:[{id:"75077",title:"The Application of Chitosan-Based Compounds against Metallic Corrosion",slug:"the-application-of-chitosan-based-compounds-against-metallic-corrosion",totalDownloads:41,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"75105",title:"Ternary Solid Dispersion Strategy for Solubility Enhancement of Poorly Soluble Drugs by Co-Milling Technique",slug:"ternary-solid-dispersion-strategy-for-solubility-enhancement-of-poorly-soluble-drugs-by-co-milling-t",totalDownloads:33,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"75157",title:"Innovative Separation Technology Utilizing Marine Bioresources: Multifaceted Development of a Chitosan-Based System Leading to Environmentally-Friendly Processes",slug:"innovative-separation-technology-utilizing-marine-bioresources-multifaceted-development-of-a-chitosa",totalDownloads:32,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"74144",title:"A Novel Drug Delivery System Based on Nanoparticles of Magnetite Fe3O4 Embedded in an Auto Cross-Linked Chitosan",slug:"a-novel-drug-delivery-system-based-on-nanoparticles-of-magnetite-fe3o4-embedded-in-an-auto-cross-lin",totalDownloads:101,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"74561",title:"Gastrointestinal Delivery of APIs from Chitosan Nanoparticles",slug:"gastrointestinal-delivery-of-apis-from-chitosan-nanoparticles",totalDownloads:113,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"74941",title:"Modulating the Physicochemical Properties of Chitin and Chitosan as a Method of Obtaining New Biological Properties of Biodegradable Materials",slug:"modulating-the-physicochemical-properties-of-chitin-and-chitosan-as-a-method-of-obtaining-new-biolog",totalDownloads:34,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"74877",title:"Characterization of Chitosan Membrane Modified with Silane-Coupled Nanosilica for Polymer Electrolyte",slug:"characterization-of-chitosan-membrane-modified-with-silane-coupled-nanosilica-for-polymer-electrolyt",totalDownloads:46,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"297737",firstName:"Mateo",lastName:"Pulko",middleName:null,title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297737/images/8492_n.png",email:"mateo.p@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6694",title:"New Trends in Ion Exchange Studies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3de8c8b090fd8faa7c11ec5b387c486a",slug:"new-trends-in-ion-exchange-studies",bookSignature:"Selcan Karakuş",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6694.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"206110",title:"Dr.",name:"Selcan",surname:"Karakuş",slug:"selcan-karakus",fullName:"Selcan Karakuş"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"68053",title:"Bioenergy Recovery from Cotton Stalk",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88005",slug:"bioenergy-recovery-from-cotton-stalk",body:'\nWorldwide energy demand and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are predicted to increase by 70 and 60%, respectively, between 2011 and 2050 according to the International Energy Agency (IEA) [1]. An increase in GHG emissions is unequivocally the largest anthropogenic contributor to exacerbating climate change [2]. Currently, the majority of energy is derived from fossil fuels. As reported in 2017, it is estimated that if consumption of fossil fuels persists at 2016 levels, reserves of coal, gas, and oil will last only 153, 52.5, and 50.6 more years, respectively [3]. Therefore, other forms of energy such as biomass have significant potential to offset traditional energy sources [4]. Biomass, as a zero CO2 emission fuel, can offer one solution in the reduction of CO2 atmosphere content. In 2016 renewable energy accounted for 18.2% of the 576 exajoules (EJ) of total primary energy supply (TPES), of which 13% came from biomass [1, 5]. Biomass provided 46.4 EJ of TPES in 2016, and expert scientific analysis predicts that by 2050 the bioenergy share of TPES could reach 100–300 EJ per year (year−1) with the highest theoretical share proposed at 500 EJ year−1 [5, 6]. Although renewable energy makes up only a small percentage of current TPES, it has the theoretical potential to provide all of the human energy requirements on earth [7]. By 2035, biofuels could realistically provide at least a quarter of the estimated world’s TPES of 623 EJ. To increase the proportions of renewables in the TPES, innovative feedstocks or inputs are required [8]. A significant source of biomass for renewable energy is available globally in the form of agricultural waste. Agricultural wastes pose expensive and challenging issues for crop producers. With exception to the fraction of residues tilled back into the soil to increase soil organic carbon (SOC) content and enhance other soil physical characteristics, many of these wastes have little to negative value, and knowledge of revenue streams are sparse [9, 10]. For example, cotton biomass waste is an abundant and available waste from agricultural production at a high estimate of roughly 50 million tons annually [11]. Similarly, other crops produce even more abundant waste, such as rice husks which sum up to 822 million tons of waste with no real end of use application [12].
\nIt has been reported that cotton residues left during harvest are carriers of the pest; therefore, adequate disposal of these residues is necessary [13]. However, it is worth considering that one of the major complications of cotton production is the management of the pink bollworm (PBW) (Pectinophora gossypiella). It is considered one of the most detrimental cotton pests because of its hardiness to insecticides [14]. PBW’s life cycle consists of four stages: egg, larva, pupa, and adult. During the first stage, females lay 200–500 tiny eggs in single or small groups of 5–10 each on cotton plants which hatch 3–4 days later. During the second and most destructive stage, the larvae bore into the bolls to grow before cotton boll blossoming occurs. Here the larvae feed on seeds for 12–15 days where they mature to 12 mm long as a fully developed larva. The most significant damage occurs to the seed and lint. Before pupation, the larva experiences diapause during the winter for 2–4 months in which they do not feed or move. They may be found in bolls, in stems, or in the soil in which they are safe in a silken cocoon until spring. During the pupation stage, spring conditions cause the larva to drop to the soil beneath the cotton plants where they pupate; the pupa is roughly 7 mm long and brown, and the pupal period is between 7 and 8 days. During the adult stage in spring, first-generation adults develop from the pupae and are gray brown small moth which mate and lay eggs. In the summer, larvae from the previous generation fall to the soil, pupate, and emerge as second-generation moths, completing the life cycle. The entire cycle from egg to egg takes roughly 32 days, and the PBW can persist, on average, for up to six summer cycles [15, 16]. This pest is distributed globally where cotton is grown and is considered the key cotton pest. Its main effect on cotton crops is preventing flowering buds to open, shedding of the fruit, seed loss, and damage to lint. Trials in the USA have shown that the potential loss of harvest without control was 61%, whereas losses of 9% were estimated when the pest was controlled through insecticide application. In 1998, the total US crop yield of cotton was reduced by 2.7%, while in Egypt it is estimated that the PBW causes losses of about 10–20% of cotton crop annually [13, 15]. In 2014, it was reported that the PBW had been eradicated from California, Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas in the USA as well as Chihuahua in Northern Mexico. The eradication is attributed to a combination of insecticides and genetic modification of the cotton crop as well as releases of sterile PBW throughout the region [17]. In countries without robust pest management strategies, the most common method of PBW prevention is through burning the residues in the field or by shredding and plowing the residues to a depth of 6 inches into the soil, the latter of which is time and energy intensive [11, 15]. In light of the global challenges associated with cotton agricultural residuals, a promising method of cotton waste disposal is through their utilization as an energy source.
\nStudies indicate that undebarked cotton stalks are unsuitable for the production of fine paper and dissolving pulps [18, 19]. Furthermore, cotton stalks and other agricultural residues are unsuitable for hardboard and particle board due to their high water absorption and thickness swelling (deteriorated dimensional stability) [20, 21].
\nIn contrast, the usage of cotton waste as an energy feedstock has become a subject of numerous studies in recent years [22, 23, 24]. Researchers generally focused on the production of biogas, ethanol, and the production of fuel pellets or briquettes. Several studies on the subject of cotton waste pyrolysis indicate that pyrolysis of cotton stalks is deemed to have potential as one of the technological solutions for its management.
\nThe purpose of the study is to review current bioenergy conversion technologies and to provide quantitative data and interpretation of the heating value, proximate and elemental analysis, and product yields specific to bioenergy recovery from CS. The hypothesis is that resulting data will be consistent with past research proving that CS residues have a high potential for use as an energy source. Moreover, some products from the conversion (e.g., biochar from pyrolysis) can be used as soil additive to recover nutrients and carbon to the soil. The latter can additionally act as water storage. This subject is important because there are significant quantities of CS waste from agricultural production globally, which is a potential source of revenue. Furthermore, other risks associated with cotton waste such as farm hygiene by pesticide remnants and soilborne pathogens can be addressed. Therefore, utilizing CS biomass has the potential to be a significant source of energy and an opportunity to reduce their environmental issues and financial costs [11]. This study contributes to the needed understanding of energy derived from thermal and biological conversion products of cotton stalks.
\nCotton stalks are a common agricultural residue with little economic value. They may be utilized without direct competition to food or feed provision. It is a renewable lignocellulosic biomass produced during cotton production. Daud et al. report values of 58.5% cellulose, 14.4% hemicellulose, and 21.4% lignin, which makes it a particularly attractive feedstock for thermochemical conversion processes [25]. Based on biomass classifications, cotton agricultural waste is a primary residue and herbaceous biomass fuel [26, 27]. Cotton crop cultivation occurs between July and February, while harvesting occurs from October to March [28]. Cotton agricultural wastes consist of the main stem, branches, bur, boll rinds, bracts, peduncle, roots, petioles, and leaf blades (Figure 1) left as residual biomass after harvesting the floral cotton bolls for commercial purposes, equivalent to roughly 3–5 times the weight of the produced cotton. The roots are 23.2% of the whole plant in average with the measured values ranging between 14.3 and 29.1%. However, based on observations of the amount of the soil stacked on the roots during fieldwork, it was decided in most studies to investigate the possibility of collecting only the aerial part of the residue, leaving the roots in the field. It was anticipated that the collected material would be free of soil and with less moisture content. These factors would make its storage easier and its use for energy production by thermal conversions more attractive [29].
\nCotton residual wastes after harvesting.
The separated CS consists of the main stem, branches, burs, boll rinds, bracts, and peduncles [28, 30]. The stem has an outer fibrous bark weighing 20% of the weight of the stalk as well as an inner pith [11, 31]. It reaches between 1 and 1.75 m long, and the diameter above ground varies between 1 and 2.5 cm. On average depending upon species and crop conditions, 2 to 3 tons of CS are generated per each hectare of land annually; it’s worth noting that the moisture content was found to drop from 50% to under 20% when the stalks were left in the field, after harvesting, for 3 weeks [28].
\nAccording to the US Department of Agriculture (USDA), the total global production of cotton was roughly 26.9 million metric tons for the reporting year of 2018 from August 1, 2017, to August 1, 2018, which has been relatively steady for the last 5 years of data collection. The three largest global producers of cotton in 2018 were India, China, and the USA. India produced 6.3 million metric tons of cotton, China produced 6.0 million tons, and the USA produced 4.5 million tons. The remaining countries produce less than 2 million tons year−1 [32].
\nTo determine the total CS residue or collectable dry residue from the cotton production values, several factors are required. These are the annual production, residue to the crop factor, dry weight factor, and the availability factor [33]. The annual production is reported yearly by each respective country and collected by the USDA [32]. The residue factor is based on the ratio of the fresh weight of residue to the grain weight harvested at field moisture. It describes the relationship between crop grown for product and the residual biomass leftover after harvest. The relationship is specific to the type of crop variety [33, 34]. As mentioned previously, the residue typically weighs three to five times the harvested cotton [31]. Klass and co-workers estimate the residue factor to be 2.45 [33]. The availability factor is based on the end use of the CS residue and how much is available for collection. The availability of crop residues may be limited due to tilling some residues into the soil to reduce erosion risk; to provide structure; to preserve fertility; to use as a fertilizer, as fibrous material for various agricultural uses; or to feed to livestock [34]. Therefore, it can be best described as the sustainable removal rate of a residue [35]. Typically, in areas with low SOC, more crop residues will be tilled into the soil, while in areas with high SOC, more crops can be sustainably removed [34]. Many studies assume roughly 25% of total available agricultural residues can be recovered; however, recovery percentages may be higher or lower depending on the crop [35, 36]. It is estimated that in the USA, up to 70% of the residues are tilled back into the soil for nutrient cycling and soil health, whereas in India 15% is used for fuel, while the remainder is burned in the field [28, 30]. Klass et al. report a residue factor of 0.6 for cotton agriculture. Lastly, the dry weight factor is the amount of moisture in the freshly harvested cotton residue. Therefore, collectable dry biomass can be calculated with all of these values [33]. It is worth noting that harvesting crop residues for energy has been shown to be efficient and the energy required to collect and process residues is a small percentage of the energy content of the residue itself [37].
\nIn order to get an overview of the main fuel properties of cotton stalks, proximate as well as ultimate analyses need to be performed. Schaffer et al. [24] compared data from cotton stalks to data for wheat straw and beechwood (Table 1). In comparison with wood, the agricultural by-products are characterized by higher ash contents. The lower heating value (LHV) of dry cotton stalks is equivalent to poor-quality wood and varies from 16.4 to 18.26 MJ/kg [38]. Compared with wheat straw (LHV of 17.28–18.41 MJ/kg [38]), the cotton stalk can be considered as a biofuel with respect to its energy content. However, a clean and energy-efficient utilization in combustion plants is counterindicated by high contents of elements like Cl, K, and Na that decrease the ash melting point of SiO2 and lead to fouling and corrosion in the boiler plant. Although straw and stalks are, therefore, not suitable for conventional combustion plants, low-temperature thermochemical conversion could be applied with the effect to yield biologically stable biochar containing the critical ash constituents and also plant nutrients, while the ash-free volatiles can be used in high-temperature conversion routes such as combustion in gas boilers or cofiring in pulverized coal boilers. In this respect, it is important to notice that the fixed carbon content obtained in the proximate analysis is higher for cotton stalks than wheat straw and beechwood. This observation holds true also when looking at other fuel samples available in the literature cited in Table 1. Furthermore, it is seen that cotton stalks possess high amounts of carbon (47.05%) and oxygen (40.77%) and its composition is relatively similar to wheat straw and wood. The presence of these elements in biomass leads to more char formation as well as to the high calorific value of the product. Therefore, because cotton stalks, wheat straw, and wood have high carbon and oxygen contents, they are suitable for energy production and could be combined with the supply of biochar.
\nProperties | \n\n | Unit | \nBasis | \nBiomass | \n||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cotton stalks | \nWheat straw | \nWood (beech) | \n||||
Proximate analysis | \nAsh | \nwt% | \nDry | \n5.51 | \n4.35 | \n0.82 | \n
Volatile matter | \nwt% | \nDry | \n73.29 | \n79 | \n84 | \n|
Fixed carbon | \nwt% | \nDry | \n21.20 | \n17 | \n15 | \n|
Ultimate analysis | \nCarbon | \nwt% | \nDry | \n47.05 | \n47.82 | \n48.26 | \n
Hydrogen | \nwt% | \nDry | \n5.35 | \n5.29 | \n5.80 | \n|
Nitrogen | \nwt% | \nDry | \n0.65 | \n0.47 | \n0.29 | \n|
Sulfur | \nwt% | \nDry | \n0.21 | \n0.08 | \n0.03 | \n|
Oxygen | \nwt% | \nDry | \n40.77 | \n41.59 | \n44.80 | \n|
Lower heating value (LHV) | \nMJ/kg | \nDry | \n17.1 | \n17.7 | \n17.4 | \n
Proviso studies have shown that raw CS provides higher combustion efficiency and longer burn time than some other agricultural residuals; furthermore, the energy needed to collect and process these residues is a small percentage of the energy contained within them [11]. To summarize, cotton stalk can be considered a typical biofuel with respect to its energy content.
\nBioenergy carriers are solid, liquid, or gaseous fuels which can be obtained from the available technologies. Liquid fuels are commonly used in transportation vehicles but can also be used in stationary engines especially turbines. Solid fuels are directly combusted to obtain heat, power, or combined heat and power (CHP). Gaseous fuels can be applied to the full range of end uses. As CS calorific value is equivalent to poor-quality woody biomass. A method of increasing the calorific value of the feedstock while simultaneously utilizing the residue is the technological processing through thermal and bioconversions to yield high-energy-content products which can be more easily transported and stored for use at a later time [11, 22]. CS can be converted into several useful forms of energy using different processes (conversion technologies). Bioenergy is the term used to describe energy derived from CS feedstocks. Several processing steps are required to convert raw CS into useful energy using mainly the two main process technology groups available: biochemical and thermochemical. Biochemical conversion encompasses two primary process options: anaerobic digestion (to biogas) and fermentation (to ethanol). For the thermochemical conversion routes, the four main process options presented here are pyrolysis, gasification, combustion, and hydrothermal processing (basically hydrothermal carbonization (HTC)). Figure 2 provides a broad classification of energy conversion processes for CS.
\nSchematic diagram of the processes of energy conversion of cotton stalks.
Thermochemical conversion of biomass is the process of utilizing heat and, in some cases, chemical reagents, to create more energetically useful products. The output from the process is heat, gaseous, liquid, or solid fuels [40]. The four major thermal processes for converting biomass to useful energy are combustion, gasification, pyrolysis, and hydrothermal processes (see Figure 2). Hydrothermal processes summarize three distinct processes such as hydrothermal carbonization, liquefaction, and gasification. Hydrothermal carbonization is the process which fits best to cotton stalks and is the most developed, and therefore the focus is here on this conversion route. Pyrolysis, gasification, and combustion can be seen as state-of-the-art technologies, although not implemented in demonstration scale for cotton stalks yet. All processes can be implemented in similar plant configurations (fix bed, fluidized bed, entrained flow). Pyrolysis seems to be the most promising thermochemical conversion route due to its robustness, flexibility, and the possibility to provide a method to recover nutrients. Thus, pyrolysis is described in more details.
\nCombustion, or direct burning, of biomass consists of full oxidation of combustibles in air or oxygen-enriched air. Generally, biomass combustion produces a variety of pollutants and particulate matter (PM), as well as flue gas which requires special treatment of unburned particles. In comparison to gasification and dependent on the feedstock used for fuel, combustion can release the acid rain contributing pollutants sulfur oxides (SOx) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) at roughly 40 times and 9 times, respectively [41]. Combustion of biomass with high ash content has several drawbacks in comparison with low-ash biomass. The remnant ash content is left deposited on the internal heating surfaces, which forms slags and causes fouling to the process, affecting the heating rate negatively and decreasing process efficiency [9]. The inorganic compounds in the biomass feedstock may lead to an increase in particulate matter (PM) concentrations, such as crystalline silica, which has detrimental health effects in the air [9, 42]. With consideration to the detrimental impacts of ash on combustion processes, the ash content of the CS is relatively high with 5.5 wt% db. Although straw and stalks are, therefore, not suitable for conventional combustion plants, the ash problem can be avoided by separating it into biochar through pyrolysis at low temperatures prior to combustion [9]. This can be also done by air staging in the boiler to separate the oxidation of the gases from contact to the ash. However, it has been reported in a number of studies that CS provides the highest burning efficiency and longest burn time compared to corn stover and soybean residues. The greater the density, the longer the duration of combustion. This could lead to the necessity to pelletize the feedstock for certain applications. In the study by Coates [37], it was shown that cotton plant residue could be incorporated with pecan shells to produce commercially acceptable briquettes. However, changeover of the existing factories to facilitate utilization of CS would require an initial infusion of capital. This should be compensated by lower raw material costs in a reasonable period of time.
\nGasification is the thermochemical conversion of biomass by partial oxidation with O2 and the reformation by steam, carbon dioxide, or other gasification agents, producing syngas as a chemical product or fuel. The biomass is exposed to less O2 than in combustion but more than in conditions of pyrolysis. Gasification may be allo- or autothermal; therefore, the heat required for endothermal processing is provided by ex or in situ combustion of char or gas [43]. Gasification is one of the most efficient methods for converting the chemical energy stored in biomass into heat and other useful forms of energy. Estimates of overall exergetic efficiency range from high estimates between 80.5 and 87.6% [44]. It is closely related to pyrolysis, in which both processes undergo devolatilization of biomass in the absence of O2 or air to yield suitable products for energy without entire combustion. However, the process is optimized for maximum gas yield through oxidation and subsequent reduction [41, 44]. Gasification is processed at temperatures of typically 750–900°C for fixed and fluidized bed, 1200–1500°C for entrained flow, and up to 3000°C for plasma applications.
\nThe products yielded by gasification include a high proportion of gases, namely, carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), water (H2O), hydrogen (H2), gaseous hydrocarbons, minimal char residue, and condensed oil and tar. An oxidizing agent is added to the reaction in the form of air, O2, or steam; and the gaseous tar or oil in the gas is condensed to acquire the desired product, producer gas. The gas may have a low energy content for autothermal operation, between 3 and 5 MJ/m3, 10% of the heating value of natural gas; however, it is enough to power gas engines and increases the value of feedstocks that would otherwise be considered wasteful [41, 44]. For allothermal operation heating values of 12–14 MJ/m3 are achieved. The relatively low temperature of the process leaves a char residue, which can subsequently be gasified through burning it at a high temperature, such as at 1000°C, while simultaneously injecting steam into the process. This breaks down the steam into oxygen (O2) and hydrogen (H2) which react with the carbon (C) from the char to create CO and H2. By using O2 rather than air, high-quality syngas can be produced from the CO and H2 yield of the reaction, after impurities such as sulfur (H2S), ammonia (NH3), and tar have been removed. This syngas has the potential to be synthesized into methanol (CH3OH), a high value liquid fuel, as well as other types of hydrocarbon compounds through the Fischer-Tropsch process. The efficiency of the overall process varies from 40% in simple designs to roughly 75% in processes which are well designed [41]. Allesina et al. [45] indicate that cotton residue gasification represents the basis for local circular economy models.
\nPyrolysis is the process of thermochemical decomposition of a substance in the absence of O2 [46]. Pyrolysis is a similar process to gasification; however, gasification controls the O2 more precisely and generally; pyrolysis produces a significantly larger portion of biochar and is therefore sometimes called carbonization [47]. Pyrolysis is typically operated at 400–600°C. Pyrolysis produces a bio-oil liquid which can be used directly as a fuel and as a pretreatment intermediate step for converting biomass into a high-energy liquid which may be processed for power, heat, biofuels, and chemicals. Compared to the other technologies, pyrolysis is expected to offer more versatility, environmental stewardship, and higher efficiency [48]. Economically, periods of the energy crisis and fluctuating prices and availability have made biomass pyrolysis a more significant technology for development and research [49].
\nCotton stalk pyrolysis in a fixed-bed reactor has been studied to demonstrate products yield variation for different temperature regions [50]. They indicate that temperature increase from 650 to 800°C favored gas production, while char production decreased from 66.5 to 26.73 wt%, as the temperature increased from 250 to 650 C. This effect can be thought of as more volatile material being forced out of the char at higher temperatures, thereby reducing yield but increasing the proportion of carbon in the char. As far as the liquid fraction of the products is concerned, there is an optimum temperature at which maximum oil yield obtained (41% at ∼550°C). Further temperature increases resulted in tar and liquid cracking into gases, and hence a high gas production is achieved. Similar results are also reported by [51]. The higher heating value (HHV) of pyrolysis oil is 16–23 MJ/l compared to fossil fuel which is 37 MJ/l. Pyrolysis oil has a low pH value of around 3, which must be taken into account in its handling and use. The (hydrophilic) bio-oil has water contents of typically 15–35 wt%. Typically, phase separation does occur when the water content is higher than about 30–45%.
\nPyrolysis reactors can be operated in continuous or batch mode. Typical continuous pyrolysis reactors include fluidized-bed pyrolysis, auger/screw-type pyrolysers, and rotary kilns. These reactors involve continuous input of feedstock and output of biochar, bio-oil, and syngas and often result in higher biochar yields and operational efficiencies than batch processes [52]. Compared to batch reactors, continuous reactors are more complex and expensive to design and operate and may require a reliable source of electricity [52, 53]. Therefore, continuous reactors are ideal for medium- to large-scale biochar production systems relying on centralized large quantities of feedstock. Additional information about the particularities of different pyrolysis systems can be found in the literature [48]. Nevertheless, some continuous reactor types are suitable for application in small to medium scale, too [53, 54, 55, 56].
\nFor the present study with cotton stalks as the feedstock, the continuously operated, indirectly heated rotary kiln reactor has been recommended according to Figure 3. The reasons for this decision are:
The technology is robust and industrially proven not only for biomass but also for waste [57].
Small- to medium-scale technology is readily available for distributed application in cotton-producing countries.
Example of an indirectly heated rotary kiln pyrolysis process scheme [58].
The elements chlorine and potassium, which are critical for combustion systems, remain quantitatively in the pyrolysis char fraction [55], and about 50% of the primary fuel energy can be exported with the gas and oil fraction, while less than 50% of the primary fuel energy stays in the char fraction. Thus, if the char is not further converted but returned to the soil, the problematic compounds may even have positive effects as nutrients and the related carbon will not be released as CO2. Therefore, researchers consider the potential application of the pyrolysis char as a soil additive to increase crop yield [56, 59] or as a negative emission technology [24, 60].
\nCurrently, the cotton stalks are often burnt on the fields causing high local pollution. However, the solid residues of the stalks remain on the field supplying nutrients. The same effects can be reached by the application of biochar from stalks. Cotton crops typically grow in hot regions on sandy soils, where biochar addition has been reported to enhance the soil fertility [59]. Mild conversion conditions below 600°C avoid ash melting and keep nutrients available for microorganisms and plants. With respect to the carbon storage effect, biochar from pyrolysis at >500°C shows sufficiently low O/C ratios to promise longevity in the soil [61]. Generally, slow pyrolysis is preferred for increased char yield [40]. The steady-state process simulation environment IPSEpro was used by Schaffer et al. [24] to assess a virtual pyrolysis conversion of cotton stalks, and they indicated that 52.8% of the carbon contained in the biomass accumulates in the biochar, whereas 38% of the input energy can be exported as heat energy at temperature levels suitable for electricity generation or industrial heat supply. The pyrolysis char shows a low molecular O/C ratio of 0.07 and an H/C ratio of 0.26. The expected half-lives of biochar in the soil are in the order of 1000 years for O/C ratios below 0.2. This makes the presented approach an interesting low-tech negative emission option. The predicted net negative emissions through stored carbon amount to 2.42 t CO2 per hectare and year (Figure 4). The overall CO2 emission avoidance effect can be increased if fossil fuel is substituted by the energy exported from the pyrolysis process.
\nNet carbon removal from the atmosphere through pyrolysis of cotton stalks and soil application of the pyrolysis char [24].
From Figure 5 one can see that 52.8 wt% of the total amount of carbon stored in cotton stalks is converted to char. Furthermore, the inorganic matter contained in the char, which includes important nutrients, remains in the char. The nutrients are then available for the new generation of plants if the char is used as soil additive.
\nCarbon mass flow diagram for an indirectly heated rotary kiln pyrolysis process without condensation of pyrolysis oil [24].
The remaining part of carbon in pyrolysis gas and oil can be used for energy production as shown in the energy flow diagram in Figure 6. Energy streams are assessed based on the lower heating value and sensible heat with a reference temperature (sensible heat of zero) of 273.
\nEnergy flow through an indirectly heated rotary kiln pyrolysis process without condensation of pyrolysis oil [24].
In conclusion, the use of agricultural wastes such as cotton stalks in distributed, small- to medium-scale, energy-autonomous pyrolysis plants will allow for quasi-permanent soil storage of a part of the carbon contained in the biomass without the need for CO2 storage sites. As a side-effect, it is expected that soil quality can be maintained and even improved by the application of biochar.
\nNowadays hydrothermal carbonization is mentioned as a promising technology to convert biomass into a high-quality bioproduct, namely, hydrochar, as well as process water to recover nutrients (e.g., P, N, K, Si, etc.). Carbonization depletes compounds rich in oxygen and hydrogen and thereby increases the carbon content in the coal compared to the starting material. The depleted compounds are found essentially in the so-called process water and at low levels in the resulting process gas again. The product hydrochar is more hydrophobic than the source material, and the drainage is less energy intensive than the dewatering of fresh biomass. In addition, essential reactions are exothermic, and upon carbonization, after initial energy input, heat energy is released. Due to the increased carbon content of the hydrochar, the heating value increases. The hydrothermal carbonization, e.g., of CS, kills the eggs of the pink bollworm and other pathogens. There is still a need for research in the area of reduction of impurities and in the accumulation of nutrients in the coal. The distribution of nutrients between the solid, liquid, and gaseous phase can be adjusted via the process conditions (pressure, temperature, residence time, heating rate, pH, additives, catalysts, etc.). The considered process is shown in Figure 7.
\nSystem boundaries of the considered hydrothermal carbonization process.
Al Afif et al. [62] investigate the use of HTC in the production of hydrochar from CS. They concluded that hydrothermal carbonization is a promising conversion technology to provide bioenergy from CS. And there was a strong dependence between the residence time and the char quality, as the LHV of the hydrochar from CS increased with increasing residence time, whereas the total amount of hydrochar was decreased.
\nCotton stalk, as lignocellulosic biomasses, is difficult to hydrolyze due to its complex structure and a large amount of lignin present in it. Basic steps involved in bioconversion process of lignocellulosic biomass are pretreatment (physical, chemical, biological, and their combination) for cell wall destruction for biogas production, hydrolysis (acid or enzymatic) for soluble sugar release, and fermentation (bacteria or yeast) for ethanol production. Due to recalcitrant nature of lignin and its binding with holocellulose, a pretreatment step is required for fractioning of different cell wall components. Pretreatment exposes the cellulose surface for enzymatic attack and improves enzymatic digestibility and subsequent processes. Pretreatment identifies one of the major economic costs in the biochemical conversion process [63]. Generally, both process routes as discussed in the following are technically feasible, but techno-economic assessments are missing.
\nThe six-carbon sugars, or hexoses, glucose, galactose, and mannose, can be fermented to ethanol by many naturally occurring organisms. Baker’s yeast, or Saccharomyces cerevisiae, has been traditionally used in the brewing industry to produce ethanol from hexoses. Recently, engineered yeasts have been reported to efficiently ferment xylose and arabinose, as well as mixtures of xylose and arabinose. In order to effectively utilize cotton stalk as a feedstock for ethanol production, optimal pretreatment is required to render the cellulose fibers more amenable to the action of hydrolytic enzymes. Generally, alkaline pretreatment is found to be more effective on agricultural residues and herbaceous crops such as cotton [64]. Christopher et al. [65] indicate that a hydrolytic efficiency of 80% was achieved for alkali-treated biomass using cellulase supplemented with beta-glucosidase and concluded that cotton stalks have great potential as a bioethanol feedstock.
\nAnaerobic digestion is a technology widely used for treatment of organic waste for biogas production. Biogas is a combustible gas derived from decomposing biological waste in the absence of oxygen. Biogas normally consists of 50–60% methane. It is currently captured from landfill sites, sewage treatment plants, livestock feedlots, and agricultural wastes. There were only a few studies on the subject of biogas production from cotton wastes. Isci and Demirer [23] studied the biogas production potential of cotton wastes. They indicated that cotton wastes can be digested anaerobically yielding 65–86 lN CH4 kg−1 VS (24 days)−1. A two-stage digestion technique for biogas production from co-fermentation of organic wastes (rice, maize, cotton) was also investigated [66]. This study indicated that under anaerobic conditions from the main components in CS, the cell wall carbohydrates were well preserved, while the level of soluble carbohydrate was low. Pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass is a necessary step to overcome the hindrance of lignin and to increase solubilization [67]. Al Afif et al. [22] investigated the anaerobic digestion of cotton stalk (CS) using organosolv plus supercritical (SC) carbon dioxide pretreatment of cotton stalks for methane production. Results indicated that supercritical carbon dioxide pretreatment of CS is a potential option for improving the energy output, as the pretreatment of CS samples with organosolv plus SC-CO2 increased the methane yield up to 20% compared with the untreated samples. The highest methane yield of 177 lN kg−1 VS was achieved by pretreatment with organosolv plus SC-CO2 at 100 bars and 180°C for 140 minutes. It is worth noting that the quality of biogas was good and increased with pretreatment from 50 to 60% CH4. To summarize, cotton stalks can be digested anaerobically and is a good source of biogas; nevertheless, pretreatment of cotton stalks is a necessary step to increase solubilization hence the methane production.
\nThis study contributes to enhancing our understanding of the feasibility of bioenergy recovery from cotton stalks. The findings have the potential to lead to a sustainable solution for the treatment of cotton stalks.
\nHowever, for higher bioenergy recovery, a study of the techno-economic feasibility of the integrated processes of anaerobic digestion and pyrolysis is recommended (see Figure 8).
\nThe system boundary of coupling anaerobic digestion and pyrolysis process.
It has been shown in this study that:
CS is an agricultural residue with low economic value, and there is no direct competition to food or feed provision.
CS contains lignin and carbohydrates, like cellulose and hemicelluloses, which can be converted into a variety of usable forms of energy.
CS is more appropriate for the production of energy pellets due to its woody structure; however, due to the ash content of the CS which is relatively high with 5.5 wt% db, the ash problem can be avoided by separating it into biochar through pyrolysis at low temperatures prior to combustion.
The use of pyrolysis and hydrothermal processes for CS treatment would result in the conversion of the major amount of carbon to char, which would mean a significant decrease in CO2 release, compared to the state-of-the-art treatment paths. Also using biochar in the soil will reduce the need for mineral fertilizer since nutrients return to the soil with the char.
CS can be digested anaerobically and is a good source of biogas or fermented to produce ethanol. However, pretreatment of cotton stalks is a necessary step to increase solubilization hence the methane and ethanol production.
The findings have the potential to lead to a sustainable solution for the treatment of cotton stalks. However, for higher bioenergy recovery more studies are needed to prove the effectiveness of cotton waste utilization.
\nHuman is the most intelligent creature in the planet for their brain power and neural network. The human brain is extremely complex with more than 80 billion neurons and trillion of connections [1]. Simulation scales can array from molecular and genetic expressions to compartment models of subcellular volumes and individual neurons to local networks and system models [2]. Deep Neural Network nodes are an over simplification of how brain synapses work. Signal transmission in the brain is dominated by chemical synapses, which release chemical substances and neurotransmitters to convert electrical signals via voltage-gated ion channels at the presynaptic cleft into post-synaptic activity. The type of neurotransmitter characterizes whether a synapse facilitates signal transmission (excitatory role) or prevents it (inhibitory role). Currently, there are tenths of known neurotransmitters, whereas new ones continuously emerge with varying functional roles. Furthermore, dynamic synaptic adaptations, which affect the strength of a synapse, occur in response to the frequency and magnitude of the presynaptic signal and reflect complex learning/memory functions, (Spike time dependent plasticity) [3, 4]. Recently, evidence has found that surrounding cells, such as glia cells that are primarily involved in ‘feeding’ the neurons, can also affect their function via the release of neurotransmitters. This new vision of “tripartite synapses,” composed of perisynaptic glia in addition to pre- and postsynaptic terminals certainly makes this one of the most exciting discoveries in current neurobiology [5]. The functional loss due to amputation, spinal cord injury, brachial plexus injury or traumatic brain injury resulting loss of connection from brain to extremity and those residual/weakened extremities are not able to function as of healthy/intact limb. These lost structure & functions of extremities were being replaced by fitment of prosthetics and orthotic devices or rehabilitation aids. The conventional prosthesis which is a mechanical device only provide the basic function, similarly Orthosis provides the support to weaken parts not fully with out completely mimicking the lost section. The concept of biomechatronic is a sub-discipline of mechatronics. It is related to develop mechatronics systems which assist or restore to human body gave the prosthetics and orthotics concept to a new direction. A biomechatronic system has four units: Biosensors, Mechanical Sensors, Controller, and Actuator [6]. Biosensors detect intentions of human using biological reactions coming from nervous or muscle system. The controller acts as a translator among biological and electronic structures, and also monitors the activities of the biomechatronic device. Mechanical sensors measure data about the biomechatronic device and relay to the biosensor or controller. The actuator is an artificial muscle (robot mechanism) that produces force or movement to aid or replace native human body function. The areas of use of biomechatronic are orthotics, prosthesis, exoskeleton and rehabilitation robots, and neuroprosthesis. Robots are the intelligent devices that easily fulfill the requirements of cyclic movements in rehabilitation, better control over introduced forces; accurately reproduce required forces in repetitive exercises and more precise in different situations [7].
\nThe first intelligent prosthesis developed by Chas. A. Blatchford & Sons, Ltd. in 1993 [8] and the improved version in 1995 named as Intelligent Prosthesis Plus [9] Blatchford in 1998 developed Adaptive prosthesis combining three actuation mechanisms of hydraulic, pneumatics and microprocessor. The fully microprocessor control knee developed in 1997 by Ottobock known as C-leg [10]. Rheo knee and power knee both developed by OSSUR in 2005 and 2006 subsequently uses onboard AI mechanism [11]. In late 2011 Ossur introduced the world first bionic leg with robotics mechanism known as “symbionic leg” and this time period the Genium X3 was lunched by Ottobock which allow backward walking and provide intuitive and natural motion during gait cycle [12]. On 2015 Blatchford group introduced Linx the world’s first fully integrated limb has seven sensor and four CPU throughout the body of Leg. It allows coordination and synchronization of knee and ankle joint by sensing and analyzing data on user movement, activities, environment and terrain making standing up or walking on ramp more natural. The iwalk BiOM is the world first bionic foot with calf system commercially available from 2011 developed by Dr. Hugh Herr uses robotics mechanism to replicate the function of muscle and tendon with proprietary algorithm [13, 14]. The commercially available microprocessor control foot are Meridium (OttoBock, Germany), Elan (Blatchford, UK), Pro-prio (Össur, Iceland), Triton Smart Ankle (hereinafter referred as TSA) (Otto Bock, Germany), and Raize (Fil-lauer, USA) etc. available from 2011 in the market [15].
\nThe first commercially available bionic hand lunched by Touch bionics in 2007 with individually powered digits and thumb has a choice of grip. The design again embedded with rotating thumb known as i- limb ultra and i- limb revolution designs implanted with Biosim and My i- limb app [16]. Bebionic was commercially available in the market in 2010 manufactured by RSL steeper and lunched by World congress, in 2017 it owned by Ottobock. Bebionic3 allows 14 different hold with two thumb position [17]. Michelangelo hand is the fully articulated robotic hand with electronically actuated thumb first fitted in the year 2010 developed by Ottobock [18]. The concept of brain computer interface (BCI) implemented neuroprosthesis or mind control prosthesis which can able to recognize the real time data and a gadget to get nearly normal function is the demand of the day. The EEG based mind controlled smart prosthetic arm was presented in 2016 IEEE conference but till now this concept is not commercialized [19]. Researchers are on the path of developing more complex devices that mimic the natural brain by implementing artificial intelligence to on board computer that read and reply the nerve signal that transmitted to robotic prosthesis and Orthosis which enhance the function of amputated and paralyzed part of the body.
\nMachine learning contains elements of mathematics, statistics, and computer science, which is helping to drive advances in the development of artificial intelligence. It is the study of computer algorithms which expands and develops through experiences. This is a subset of AI as shown in Figure 1. The ML algorithm methods generally categorized two types supervised and unsupervised learning [20, 21].
\nRelationship between artificial intelligence (AI), machine learning (ML) and deep learning (DL).
The method of predicting a model on a trained range of inputs learning function to maps the known output, which discover the pattern of new sets of data.
\nExample 1: To predict the model for microprocessor knee joint which is trained with numerous input or labeled data of the knee angle variation in different sub phase of gait cycle and apply on new amputee to predict the new data by the phase dependent pattern recognition approach.
\nExample 2: Intuitive myoelectric prosthesis or pattern recognition control prosthesis, FES.
\nPattern recognition is an automatically recognition of pattern applied in data analysis, signal processing etc. when the pattern of algorithm trained from labeled data that is supervised learning. When the model of algorithm is fruitfully trained, the model can be used for the prediction of a new data. The ultimate goal of this ML is to develop a successful predictor function. The models of discrete or categorical categories of dependent variables are known as classification algorithm and with continuous value known as regression algorithm. Three basic steps followed to finalize a model are training, validating and application of algorithm to new data. Algorithm used for supervised learning are support vector machines, linear regression, linear discriminant analysis (LDA) etc. This is error based learning.
\nExample: Prediction of a model to relate the patient’s energy consumption using Trans femoral prosthesis with the function of walking velocity in level surfaces.
\nThe linear regression model for the above statement is:
\n\nY = Energy consumption (dependent variable)
\n\nb = Y intercept
\n\na = Slope of the Line
\n\nX = Walking velocity (Independent variable), e = Error
\nThe Logistic regression model is used to model the probability of a certain class or event such as pass fail, win/loss, healthy/sick etc. This is fall between 0 and 1 with categorical dependent variables.
\nExample: To predict a model for the successful or failed prosthetic rehabilitation within the categories of 50 meter walk test in level surface with combatable use of any assistive devices for successful and considered as fail if they could not complete the 50 meter walk test.
\nThe model is predicted in terms of the probability (p) which are passing the 50 meter test are pass and could not cross 50 meter as fail.
\n\np = No of patient cross the level of 50 meter
\n1-p = No of patient could not able to cross
\nThe dependent variable Y (predictive) = p/(1-p)
\nIndependent Variable x = Type of prosthesis
\nThe algorithm of unsupervised learning finds a solution to unknown or unlabeled data which is not required any kind of supervision from human. It works of its own to gather information and allow performing more complex task compared to supervised learning. Cluster analysis and k means are the methods used for pattern formation for the new data.
\nExample: Intent detection algorithm with unlabeled data based on reference pattern is an unsupervised learning method used in microprocessor knee.
\nThis is concerned with how a software agent must take action in an environment to maximize the cumulative reward. The agent learns from the consequences of its actions and selects the choice from its past experiences and the new choices by the trial and error learning. This is generally output based learning. The components of the RL are agent and environment. The agent (Learner) learns about a policy (π) (strategy or approach that the agent uses to determine the next action based on the current state) by observing or interacting with the environment. All the possible steps followed by the agent during the process of learning are known as the “action” and current condition returned by the environment is “state”. The approach that the agent uses to determine the next action based on the current state is known as “policy”. The artificial intelligence gets either reward or penalties for the action the agent performs. The reward is an instant return from the environment to appraise the last action. The goal of an agent to maximize the reward based on the set of actions. The agent follows the concept of exploration and exploitation to get the optimal action value or rewards. The exploration is about exploring and capturing more information from the environment and exploitation uses the already known information to get the reward.
\nExample: Learning from demonstration (LfD) of myoelectric prosthesis. In this method the policy to determine the next action is learned by different methods i.e. demonstration provided by the Prosthetist, learned from the action of similar prosthetic user or intact limb movement of prosthetic user. During process of demonstration the sequence of state action pairs are recorded for the training of prosthetic limb. The learning process for movement of amputated side with intact limb happens simultaneously. The intact limb considered as training limb and the amputated side prosthetic limb as control limb. During training procedure the agent or learner or amputee asked to perform same motion for both the limb the information from training limb create a prosthetic policy that map the state of action of the control limb. Robotic prosthesis can use its learned and state conditional policy for user during post training use. The training arm demonstrated the desired movement, position and grasp pattern to robotic or control arm. During initial training process the opening of the prosthetic arm may not be the similar to the training limb but when the training preceded the gradual opening of the hand work as a reward to the agent to pick up the appropriate movement and position for required opening of the prosthetic hand and proportional control for graded prehension. The schematic diagram of Bento arm using reinforcement learning shown in Figure 2 [22]. Another example to understand the strategy of exploring and exploitation is to find out the exact position for placement of surface electrode in the residual limb of amputee. This is a trial and error method where surface electrodes are placed in different locations around the residual limb of the amputee to get the desired action potential to operate the prosthetic hand. The simultaneous activities of residual muscle EMG signal and operation of connected Prosthetic hand provide a visual feedback to amputee and Prosthetist. Based on the feedback the Prosthetist keeps on exploring new site of the electrode in the residual limb until optimization is achieved. This technique helps the amputee to learn about the amount of muscle contraction which operates the prosthesis. The opening and different grasping pattern in sequence acts as a reward to perform more complex activities. In some cases many old user or experienced Prosthetist use the strategy of the exploitation rather than exploring the new site for electrode placement based on their past learning and experiences. Other examples are adaptive switch control myoelectric prosthesis, Power leg Prosthesis, etc.
\nSchematic diagram of flow of information with bento arm [22].
This is a form of machine learning uses both supervised and unsupervised and subset of machine learning and AI. It uses the method of artificial neural network (ANN) with representation learning. ANN is inspired by the human brain neural network system whether human brain network is dynamic (Plastic) and analog at the same time the ANN is static and symbolic. It can learn, memorize, generalized and prompted modeling of biological neural system. ANNs are more effective to solve problems related to pattern recognition and matching, clustering and classification. The ANN consist of standard three layer input, output and hidden layer, the output layer can be the input layer for the next output the simple network of neural system shown in Figure 3 [23], if there many hidden layer are present that ANN known as Deep Neural Networks”, or briefly DNN, can be successfully expert to solve difficult problems. Deep learning models yield results more quickly than standard machine learning approaches. The propagation of function in ANN through input layer to output layer and the mathematical representation for this is:
\nLayers of ANN (artificial neural network) [23].
(s = output, x = Input, w = corresponding weight of link between input and transfer function, \n
Example: EEG based pattern recognition which uses brain computer Interface (BCI) to control prosthetic arm, Neuroprosthesis etc.
\nArtificial Intelligence is the intelligence of machine that simulates the human intelligence which programmed in such way that it thinks and act like human. It includes; reasoning, knowledge representation, planning, learning, natural language processing, perception, the ability to move and manipulate objects and many more subjects. AI has four main components Expert systems, Heuristic problem solving, Natural Language Processing (NLP) and Vision. In human the intelligent agents like eyes, ears, and other organs act as sensors, and hands, legs, mouth, and other body parts act as per instruction known as effectors similarly the robotic agent substitutes cameras and infrared range finders for the sensors and various motors for the effectors. A software agent has encoded bit strings as its precepts and actions. Similarity between human and artificial intelligence is shown in Table 1. AI can be divided into two categories as per its function as symbolic learning (SL) and machine learning (ML). SL is perform the functions like image processing through computer vision and understands the environment through robotics. ML computes the large amount of data to get a solution to the problem in terms of pattern recognition. Statistical machine learning embedded with speech recognition and natural language processing. Deep learning recognizes objects by computer vision through convolution neural network (CNN) and memorize past by recurrent neural network (RNN). The schematic diagram of AI and its functions are shown in Figure 4.
\nHuman can perform | \nAI can perform | \n
---|---|
Speak and Listen | \nSpeech recognition based on statistical learning system | \n
Write and learn | \nNatural Language processing (NLP) | \n
Eye can see | \nComputer vision or symbolic vision | \n
Recognize the scene and create image | \nImage processing by symbolic learning | \n
Understand the environment | \nRobotics | \n
Ability to recognize pattern | \nPattern recognition by Machine learning | \n
Human brain formed by the networks of neurons | \nArtificial neural networks | \n
Human memorize the past | \nRecurrent neural network (RNN) can use previous output as the input, so it remembers the data. | \n
Recognize objects | \nConvolutional neural network (CNN) recognizes the object and also differentiates from others. | \n
Similarity between human intelligence and artificial intelligence (AI).
AI and its functions.
The methods or techniques used for the AI are classifier and prediction. Classifier is an algorithm that implements classification; the classifiers are Perceptron, Naïve Bayes, Decision trees, Logistic regression, K nearest Neighbor, AANN/DL and support vector machine [24]. Perceptron is the basic building block of the neural network it breakdown the complex network to smaller and simpler pieces. The classifier used in the myoelectric prosthetic hand is LDA classifier, Quadratic discriminant classifier and Multilayer perceptron neural network with linear activation functions etc. LDA (linear discriminant classifier) is a simple one that helps to reduce the dimension of the algorithm for application of neural network model. Prediction is a method to predict a pattern an output noise free data with a model from input data in hidden layer.
\nExamples: EMG CNN based prosthetic hand, EGG based Mind controlled prosthesis with sensory feedback, robotic arm, exoskeleton Orthosis.
\nImplementation of artificial intelligence in controlling prostheses has increased drastically and thus enables the amputee to operate the prosthesis more desirably. Adaptive controlling would enable a system to perform closer to the desired output by adjusting the input with the help of a feedback system. Recently, a mind-controlled limb (type of myoelectric controlling) was introduced as the latest advancement in the artificial intelligence-aided control system. A joint project between the Pentagon and Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory (APL) has come up with a modular prosthetic limb which would be fully controlled by sensors implanted in the brain, and would even restore the sense of touch by sending electrical impulses from the limb back to the sensory cortex [25]. Chang et al. (2009) proposed a multilayer artificial neural network (ANN)-based model to discover the essential correlation between the intrinsic impaired neuromuscular activities of people with spina bifida (SB) and their extrinsic gait behaviors [26]. The application of AI in prosthetics and orthotics is divided into various subparts according to the involvement of the region that get affected i.e. Lower extremity prosthesis and Orthosis, Upper extremity Orthosis and prosthesis, and rehabilitation aids like motorized mobility devices.
\nThe artificial Intelligence in upper extremity prosthesis used as direct control and indirect control from the neural network by various signal, sensor, controller and algorithm. The control signals are coming from the human in the two form for operation of upper extremity prosthesis i.e. electromyography (EMG) and Electroencephalogram (EEG). Prior attempts at voluntary control of the elements of prosthesis have focused on the use of electromyography (EMG) signals from muscle groups that remain under voluntary control. Most of this work has centered on control systems for upper extremity prostheses. The first commercialized powered hand myoelectric prosthesis was introduced by USSR in 1960 [27]. The advancement in EMG control myoelectric prosthesis was with use of EMG pattern recognition based control strategy [28]. This approach allows the user to control the prosthesis with multiple degrees of freedom. The most advanced and developed neural machine interface technology was TMR or targeted muscle reinnervation [29].
\nThe conventional Electromyography (EMG) technique uses bipolar surface electrodes, placed over the muscle belly of the targeted group of muscles. The electrodes are noninvasive, inexpensive, and readily incorporated into the socket of the prosthesis. These surface electrode have limitations like inability to record the signal from different muscle group at a time, inconsistency in signal magnitude and frequency, due to change in skin electrode interface associated in physiological and environmental modifications and also the EMG signals may encounter noise and interference from other tissues. Apart from these limitations it is easy to use by amputee and risk free. The amplitude of the EMG signal is mostly proportional to the contraction of the remaining muscle. To enhance the quality of the signal the Myoelectric control of prosthesis or other system utilizes the electrical action potential of the residual limb’s muscles that are emitted during muscular contractions. These emissions are measurable on the skin surface at a microvolt level. The emissions are picked up by one or two electrodes and processed by band-pass filtering, rectifying, and low-pass filtering to get the envelope amplitude of EMG signal for use as control signals to the functional elements of the prosthesis. The myoelectric emissions are used only for control. In simultaneous control (muscle co contraction) and proportional control (fast and slow muscle contraction) controls the two different mode from wrist to terminal device and vice versa.
\nThe advance method over the conventional technique of EMG signal which replace the complicated mode of switching is the pattern recognition. This new control approach is stranded on the assumption that an EMG pattern contains information about the proposed movements involved in a residual limb. Using a technique of pattern classification, a variety of different intended movements can be identified by distinguishing characteristics of EMG patterns. Once a pattern has been classified, the movement is implemented through the command sent to a prosthesis controller. EMG pattern-recognition-based prosthetic control method involves performing EMG measurement (to capture reliable and consistent myoelectric signals), feature extraction (to recollect the most important discriminating information from the EMG), classification (to predict one of a subset of intentional movements), and multifunctional prosthesis control (to implement the operation of prosthesis by the predicted class of movement) [30]. EMG pattern recognition block diagram of Trans radial prosthesis shown in Figure 5.
\nProcess of EMG pattern recognition control.
In pattern recognition control for a multifunctional prosthesis, multi-channel myoelectric recordings are needed to capture enough myoelectric pattern information. The number and placement of electrodes would mainly depend on how many classes of movements are demanded in a multi-functional prosthesis and how many residual muscles of an amputee are applicable for myoelectric control. For myoelectric transradial prostheses, the EMG signals are measured from residual muscles with a number of bipolar electrodes (8-16) which are placed on the circumference of the remaining forearm in which 8 of the 12 electrodes were uniformly placed around the proximal portion of the forearm and the other 4 electrodes were positioned on the distal end. A large circular electrode was placed on the elbow of the amputated arm as a ground [31].
\nFor acquisition of EMG signal 50 Hz-60 Hz can be used to remove or reduce more low-frequency to increase the control stability of a multifunctional myoelectric prosthesis [32]. EMG feature extraction is performed on windowed EMG data, all EMG recordings channels are segmented into a series of analysis windows either with or without time overlap (WL (window length) is 100-250 ms) shown in Figure 6 [33].
\nWindowing techniques, time to process each window analysis is ‘t’ and decisions (d1, d2, d3). In adjacent windows the processing time is less and the classifier is idle most of the time but in overlapping windows increase frequency of class decision because the analysis window slides with small increment (inc), the amount of overlap is equal to processing time which help the controller to process next class decision before the previous decission has been completed [33].
Overlapping analysis windows are used to maximally utilize the continuous stream of data and to produce a decision stream, for analysis, the duration of the overlapping (e.g., 50 ms) due to data buffering is the operational delay in real-time control and 50% of overlapping is suitable for the real time embedded system. The features are categorized as time domain (TD), frequency domain (FD) and time- frequency domain (TFD). The EMG features are extracted from each analysis window as a representation of EMG signal pattern. A feature set is extracted for each analysis window and all the recording channels, producing an L-dimensional feature vector. After computing the feature sets of all the channels, the entire EMG feature matrix (L × C × W, where L, C, and W are the number of features, the number of channels, and the number of analysis windows, respectively) from the training set is provided to a classifier for training shown in Figure 7. Example: The features extracted from four channels of surface EMG in each window is 44 and the data analyzed for the three windowed length, the EMG feature matrix for this situation (L × C × W = 44 × 4 × 3 i.e. L = 44, C = 4, W = 3).
\nEMG windowing in continuous feature extraction. Size of successive window for analysis is L, the sEMG data for classification is divided into C segments for every L that is the length of integrated samples as a feature extraction and the start point is shifted every S.
The aim of pattern recognition based classifier is to discriminate the intended movements from the EMG recordings as accurately as possible. Many classification techniques have been investigated, including linear discriminate analysis, Bayesian statistical methods, artificial neural networks, and fuzzy logic [34, 35]. The LDA classifier is much simpler to implement and much faster to train without compromising the accuracy (>93%). Then the performance of a trained classifier in identifying a movement is evaluated using the testing data set and measured by the classification accuracy, which is defined as:
\nThe classification accuracies in identifying all the classes of movements are averaged to calculate the overall classification accuracy for a subject uses convolutional neural network (CNN). Block diagram for classification and regression pattern shown in the Figure 8 [36].
\na. Pattern recognition is able to classify different movement patterns, but only in sequence, which limits multifunctional control. b. Regression control is able to identify different movements at the same time, leading to more intuitive prosthetic control [36].
EMG pattern recognition based prosthesis control strategy is not suitable for people with shoulder disarticulation amputations because few muscles remain in their residual arm from which to extract myoelectric control signals. To address this challenge, a new neural machine interfacing (NMI) technology called targeted muscle reinnervation (TMR) have been proposed and developed at Rehabilitation Institute of Chicago (RIC), which has the ability to improve control performance of multifunctional myoelectric upper-limb prostheses shown in Figure 9 [37].
\nTargeted muscle reinnervation (TMR) [37].
TMR uses the remaining nerves from an amputated limb and transfers them onto substitute muscle groups that are not biomechanically functional because they are no longer attached to the missing arm. During this transfer procedure, target muscles are denervated so that they can be reinnervated by the residual arm nerves that previously traveled to the arm prior to amputation. The reinnervated muscles then assist as biological amplifiers of the amputated nerve motor commands. During the surgery subcutaneous tissue is removed that, surface EMG signals are optimized for power and focal recording.
\nAnother advanced technique to control the multifunctional limb is Virtual reality (VR) based platforms have been developed for the purposes of development and performance quantification of multifunctional myoelectric prosthesis control system These VR platforms are designed to create an efficient, flexible, and user-friendly environment for prosthetic control algorithm development in the laboratory, application in a clinical setting, and eventual use in an embedded system. The major function modules of this platform include multi-electrode EMG recording (up to 16 channels), classifier training and testing in offline, virtual and physical prosthesis control in real time to regulate performance shown in Figure 10 [38].
\nVirtual reality system (VR), subjects can operate a simulated prosthetic arm to interact with virtual objects. Multiple input modalities such as motion tracking systems and EMG/EEG electrodes provide maximum flexibility when evaluating different control approaches. Figure shows a subject operating a prosthetic arm prototype in VR (right side). Subject controls the arm via real-time motion tracking (left side), and 3-D visual feedback is provided via stereoscopic goggles for closed loop operation [38].
Apart from EMG signal the Electroencephalography (EEG) is the widely used non-invasive method by placing the electrode on the scalp for picking brain signal that has been utilized in brain machine interface (BCI/BMI) applications. It has high temporal resolution (about 1 ms) in comparison with other brainwave measurements such as electrocorticograms (ECoGs), magneto encephalograms (MEGs), functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). The advanced prostheses may best control by EEG signal with BCI, connected by ANN. The neural signals associated with arm movements as control signals of artificial neuroprosthesis collected from either the cortex of brain directly or from residual nerves. The diagram of EEG based control and EMG pattern recognition based control in utilized in upper extremity prosthesis is shown in schematic Figure 11.
\nBrain computer Interface (BCI), controlling prosthetic and orthotics devices.
Examples: Ottobock Dynamic Arm Plus is a combination of Myo Hand Vari Plus Speed terminal device and Wrist rotator with custom TMR socket which control the six DOF [39]. Mind or thought controlled prosthesis uses EEG signal and ANN.
\nJafarzadeh M (2019) uses the novel deep convolutional neural network (6 convolutional layers and 2 deep layers) and FIFO memory for operation of prosthetic hand in real time. The novel CNN was implemented in Python 3.5 using tensor flow library [40].
\nChih-Wei-Chen et al. (2009) developed BCI based hand Orthosis used cursor control interface with a simple LDA classifier, that classify the EEG signals to control the hand orthosis in to three state right, left and nil and the corresponding command as +1, −1 and 0. The four states of activities like grasp, open, holding and standby can control by these three commands. The +1 and − 1 command signifies grasp and open, command ‘0’ is for standby mode depending on the feedback signals which are grasping force (F) and angular position (Ꝋ) collected from FSR and encoder [41].
\nThe first Artificial intelligence method used in the lower extremity as Intelligence prosthesis which is a knee joint that replace the hydraulic mechanism by combination of microprocessor controlled and hydraulic or pneumatic actuator.
\nThe microprocessor as name suggests process the signal received by the first sensor known as knee angle sensor provides information about the knee’s angle of flexion and extension and velocity of lateral and angular movement, unlike the human body, the sensor determines the direction of movement because of a magnetic implant and second sensor gathers information about weight placement.
\nMicroprocessor receives the data or signals by the motion employed by the amputee and that data are analyzed and interpret to get the closer approximation to natural gait. This data provides information to the microprocessor about the device’s position and the extent of its motion, which are essentially proprioceptive sensations. The data are stored in the memory of the microprocessor for the future use like a recurrent neural network (RNN). A series of wire networks which are similar in function to the body’s nervous system. That is, it enables the sensors, microprocessor, servo motors, and hydraulic cylinder to communicate with each other. These networks connect the two sensors to the microprocessor, which transmits sensory data much like the ascending sensory pathways send information to the brain. The wires exiting the microprocessor leading to the servo motors carry “motion commands,” mimicking the descending motor pathways which instruct muscles to contract and produce a desired movement.
\nAs in the human nervous system, these wires are dedicated to specific communication circuits between the sensors, microprocessor, servo motors, and hydraulics. This computed data are used to control the resistance generated by the hydraulic cylinders through the small valve passes into and out of the cylinder which regulate extension and flexion of the knee joint in different sub phases of gait cycle. It controls knee joint motion from 0° to maximum 60-700. This mechanism helps the amputee to do various activities like stair climbing, jogging, running and walking in uneven terrain.
\nThe microprocessor knee joint uses various algorithms to achieve gait symmetry, motion analysis, stumble control and comfort. These algorithm are control logic, Intent detection algorithm, Genetic algorithm, Fuzzy logic based classifier, Expectation maximization algorithm and Impedance control algorithm [42, 43]. The operation principle of a smart leg or intelligent prosthesis is shown in block diagram (Figure 12).
\nBlock diagram of controller based intelligent prosthesis.
The Prosthetic knee joints uses this microprocessor control mechanism with machine learning Artificial Intelligence are Otto Bock’s C leg (1997), OssurRheo knee (2005), Power knee by Ossur (2006), Self-learning knee by DAW Industries, Plie knee from freedom Innovation, Intelligent Prosthesis (IP) (Blatchford, United Kingdom), Linx (Endolite, Blatchford Inc. United Kingdom), Orion 2 (Endolite, Blatchford Inc. United Kingdom), X2 prostheses (Otto Bock Orthopedic Industry, Minneapolis, MN), X3 prostheses (Otto Bock Orthopedic Industry, Minneapolis, MN) etc.
\nThe volitional EMG control robotics Transtibial prosthesis was developed in 2014 by Baojun Chen et al., which adapt the amputee to walk on slope with different angles. The combination of myoelectric and intrinsic controller reduces the fatigue of muscle and attention during walking [44]. The prototype design of prosthesis and schematic diagram of this mechanism showed in Figure 13.
\n(a) Schematic diagram of prosthesis control by integrating the proposed myoelectric controller with the intrinsic controller. (b) Strategy of extracting amputee users’ movement intention with a 200-ms window in swing phase [44].
To mimic the normal foot and ankle motion several prosthetic feet uses AI mechanism are élan Foot (Blatchford, United Kingdom), iPED (developed by Martin Bionics LLC and licensed to College Park Industries), Proprio Foot (Össur, Iceland), Power Foot BiOM (developed at MIT and licensed to iWalk) and Meridium foot (Ottobock) etc. These feet are integrated with foot and ankle sensor to sense the terrain, angle and force required in different phases to mimic the normal foot.
\nApart from EMG Control lower extremity prosthesis can be controlled by EEG signal using BCI, the example of EEG based control prosthesis is BiOM.
\nLower Extremity Orthosis is a supportive device to the patients those have lost their function due to traumatic, neurologic and congenital abnormalities. The working principle of the Orthosis for the patient like hemiplegia, paraplegia and traumatic brain injury is changed vigorously with the implementation of artificial intelligence like functional electrical stimulation, Brain computer Interface and myoelectric controller. The concept of machine learning implemented in some sensor embedded stance control Orthosis which help the paraplegic to achieve near to normal gait with some limitations. The concept of functional electrical stimulation (FES) started in the year of 1960. This is used in case of damage of brain or spinal cord, stroke, Multiple Sclerosis (MS) and cerebral palsy.
\nThe Functional electrical stimulation (FES) is the application of electrical stimulus to a paralyzed nerve or muscle to restore or achieve function. FES is most often used in neuro rehabilitation and is routinely paired with task-specific practice. Neuroprosthesis is a common example in orthotic substitution [45]. Control system can be open loop or Feed forward control, closed-loop or Feed backward control and adaptive control can be applied to both Feed forward and Feed backward controller. In open-loop controlled FES, the electrical stimulator controls the output and closed-loop FES employs joint or muscle position sensors to facilitate greater responsiveness to muscle fatigue, or to irregularities in the environment [46].
\nElectrodes act as interfaces between the electrical stimulator and the nervous system. The FES utilizes electrical current to stimulate muscle contraction so that the paralyzed muscles can start functioning again. The desired purpose is to stimulate a motor response (muscle contraction) through activation of a specific group of nerve fibers, typically using fibers of peripheral nerves. This may be achieved by the activation of motor efferent nerve fibers showed in Figure 14. FES uses Adaptive logic Network (ALN) and Inductive Learning Algorithm (IL) [47]. ALN is a type of artificial neural network for supervised learning which produces binary decision tree. This is a special type of feed forward multilayer perceptron the signal restricted to the Boolean logic. IL is a supervised learning produces decision tree in the form of IF, THEN, ELSE, etc. [48, 49].
\nControlled functional electrical stimulation [47].
AI implemented Gait Orthosis for spinal cord injury patients are powered ankle foot Orthosis (PAFO) and Exoskeletons. PAFO is incorporated with EMG controller to control the activity of soleus muscle to perform the actions of plantar flexion and inhibit the artificial dorsiflexion. Exoskeletons are uses BCI or EMG controller to control the orthotic devices [50].
\nWheel chair and walking aids is the important gadget for the disable to perform daily activities and transfer. In this robotic world the smart wheel chairs and intelligent walking aid reduced the area of work limitation. Application of artificial neural network in state of art robotics and AI technologies in smart wheels enhances the quality of life with ease in performance. The smart wheeler robotic wheelchair was developed by using Inverse Reinforcement Learning (IRL) techniques which was able to achieve maximum safety and set of tasks easily as compared to joystick control wheel chair [51]. Visual joystick control intelligent wheel chair is most advanced wheelchair prototype control by “Hand Gesture’ incorporate recurrent neural network (RNN) in joystick control makes it a smart joystick having driving flexibility to different kind of disability [52]. The schematic diagram of virtual simulation for visual joystick control showed in Figure 15.
\nVirtual simulation of visual joystick control wheelchair.
Smart cane is a boon for the visually impaired persons; it incorporated with raspberry PI 3 microcontroller, HC-SRC04 ultrasonic sensor for obstacle detection, WTV-SR IC recognition module for record and fix voice playback and GPS/GSM module to save different locations [53].
\nHuman being is the most intelligent and complex engineered structure created by almighty. It is really a tough challenge for the Prosthetist & Orthotist to replicate its lost anatomical structure and function. However with advancement in the field of AI and robotics has created a ray of hope for millions of persons with disabilities. The application of AI in the field of prosthetics and orthotics are in the initial stage and not so widely being practiced. Many projects using AI are in prototype Stage and not yet commercialized. High costs of these devices are being major limitations as many Persons with disabilities cannot afford it. Government bodies, manufacturing unit and funding agencies must come forward and invest in this field so that the highest quality and latest technology must reach to larger population of disabled in an affordable cost.
\nThe author does not have any conflict of interest.
IntechOpen publishes different types of publications
",metaTitle:"Types of publications",metaDescription:"IntechOpen publishes different types of publications",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:null,contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"IntechOpen Edited Volumes are integrated collections of chapters about particular topics that present new areas of research or novel syntheses of existing research and, as such, represent perspectives from various authors.
\\n\\nEdited Volumes can be comprised of different types of chapters:
\\n\\nRESEARCH CHAPTER – A research chapter reports the results of original research thus contributing to the body of knowledge in a particular area of study.
\\n\\nREVIEW CHAPTER – A review chapter analyzes or examines research previously published by other scientists, rather than reporting new findings thus summarizing the current state of understanding on a topic.
\\n\\nCASE STUDY – A case study involves an in-depth, and detailed examination of a particular topic.
\\n\\nPERSPECTIVE CHAPTER – A perspective chapter offers a new point of view on existing problems, fundamental concepts, or common opinions on a specific topic. Perspective chapters can propose or support new hypotheses, or discuss the significance of newly achieved innovations. Perspective chapters can focus on current advances and future directions on a topic and include both original data and personal opinion.
\\n\\nINTRODUCTORY CHAPTER – An introductory chapter states the purpose and goals of the book. The introductory chapter is written by the Academic Editor.
\\n\\nMonographs is a self-contained work on a particular subject, or an aspect of it, written by one or more authors. Monographs usually have between 130 and 500 pages.
\\n\\nTYPES OF MONOGRAPHS:
\\n\\nSingle or multiple author manuscript
\\n\\nCompacts provide a mid-length publishing format that bridges the gap between journal articles, book chapters, and monographs, and cover content across all scientific disciplines.
\\n\\nCompacts are the preferred publishing option for brief research reports on new topics, in-depth case studies, dissertations, or essays exploring new ideas, issues, or broader topics on the research subject. Compacts usually have between 50 and 130 pages.
\\n\\nCollection of papers presented at conferences, workshops, symposiums, or scientific courses, published in book format
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:"IntechOpen Edited Volumes are integrated collections of chapters about particular topics that present new areas of research or novel syntheses of existing research and, as such, represent perspectives from various authors.
\n\nEdited Volumes can be comprised of different types of chapters:
\n\nRESEARCH CHAPTER – A research chapter reports the results of original research thus contributing to the body of knowledge in a particular area of study.
\n\nREVIEW CHAPTER – A review chapter analyzes or examines research previously published by other scientists, rather than reporting new findings thus summarizing the current state of understanding on a topic.
\n\nCASE STUDY – A case study involves an in-depth, and detailed examination of a particular topic.
\n\nPERSPECTIVE CHAPTER – A perspective chapter offers a new point of view on existing problems, fundamental concepts, or common opinions on a specific topic. Perspective chapters can propose or support new hypotheses, or discuss the significance of newly achieved innovations. Perspective chapters can focus on current advances and future directions on a topic and include both original data and personal opinion.
\n\nINTRODUCTORY CHAPTER – An introductory chapter states the purpose and goals of the book. The introductory chapter is written by the Academic Editor.
\n\nMonographs is a self-contained work on a particular subject, or an aspect of it, written by one or more authors. Monographs usually have between 130 and 500 pages.
\n\nTYPES OF MONOGRAPHS:
\n\nSingle or multiple author manuscript
\n\nCompacts provide a mid-length publishing format that bridges the gap between journal articles, book chapters, and monographs, and cover content across all scientific disciplines.
\n\nCompacts are the preferred publishing option for brief research reports on new topics, in-depth case studies, dissertations, or essays exploring new ideas, issues, or broader topics on the research subject. Compacts usually have between 50 and 130 pages.
\n\nCollection of papers presented at conferences, workshops, symposiums, or scientific courses, published in book format
\n"}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5774},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5240},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1721},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10411},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:897},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15812}],offset:12,limit:12,total:118381},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{hasNoEditors:"0",sort:"dateEndThirdStepPublish",topicId:"6,5"},books:[{type:"book",id:"9662",title:"Vegetation Index and Dynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"0abf2a59ee63fc1ba4fb64d77c9b1be7",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Eusebio Cano Carmona, Dr. Ricardo Quinto Canas, Dr. Ana Cano Ortiz and Dr. Carmelo Maria Musarella",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9662.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"87846",title:"Dr.",name:"Eusebio",surname:"Cano Carmona",slug:"eusebio-cano-carmona",fullName:"Eusebio Cano Carmona"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9659",title:"Fibroblasts - Advances in Cancer, Autoimmunity and Inflammation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"926fa6446f6befbd363fc74971a56de2",slug:null,bookSignature:"Ph.D. Mojca Frank Bertoncelj and Ms. Katja Lakota",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9659.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"328755",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mojca",surname:"Frank Bertoncelj",slug:"mojca-frank-bertoncelj",fullName:"Mojca Frank Bertoncelj"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8977",title:"Protein Kinase - New Opportunities, Challenges and Future Perspectives",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"6d200cc031706a565b554fdb1c478901",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Rajesh Kumar Singh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8977.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-singh",fullName:"Rajesh Singh"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10557",title:"Elaeis guineensis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"79500ab1930271876b4e0575e2ed3966",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Hesam Kamyab",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10557.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"225957",title:"Dr.",name:"Hesam",surname:"Kamyab",slug:"hesam-kamyab",fullName:"Hesam Kamyab"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10218",title:"Flagellar Motility in Cells",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"5fcc15570365a82d9f2c4816f4e0ee2e",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Yusuf Bozkurt",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10218.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"90846",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",surname:"Bozkurt",slug:"yusuf-bozkurt",fullName:"Yusuf Bozkurt"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10750",title:"Solanum tuberosum - a Promising Crop for Starvation Problem",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"516eb729eadf0d1a9d1d2e6bf31e8e9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Mustafa Yildiz and Dr. Yasin Ozgen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10750.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"141637",title:"Prof.",name:"Mustafa",surname:"Yildiz",slug:"mustafa-yildiz",fullName:"Mustafa Yildiz"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10797",title:"Cell Culture",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"2c628f4757f9639a4450728d839a7842",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Xianquan Zhan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10797.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10772",title:"Parasitic Plants",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"31abd439b5674c91d18ad77dbc52500f",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Ana Maria Gonzalez and Dr. Hector Sato",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10772.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"281854",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Maria",surname:"Gonzalez",slug:"ana-maria-gonzalez",fullName:"Ana Maria Gonzalez"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10737",title:"Equus",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"258ffafc92a7c9550bb85f004d7402e7",slug:null,bookSignature:"Associate Prof. Adriana Pires Neves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10737.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"188768",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Adriana",surname:"Pires Neves",slug:"adriana-pires-neves",fullName:"Adriana Pires Neves"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10777",title:"Plant Reproductive Ecology - Recent Advances",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"3fbf391f2093649bcf3bd674f7e32189",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Balkrishna Ghimire",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10777.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"206647",title:"Dr.",name:"Balkrishna",surname:"Ghimire",slug:"balkrishna-ghimire",fullName:"Balkrishna Ghimire"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10749",title:"Legumes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"49d3123cde96adbe706adadebebc5ebb",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Jose Carlos Jimenez-Lopez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10749.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"33993",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Carlos",surname:"Jimenez-Lopez",slug:"jose-carlos-jimenez-lopez",fullName:"Jose Carlos Jimenez-Lopez"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10751",title:"Bovine Science",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"9e3eb325f9fce20e6cefbce1c26d647a",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Muhammad Abubakar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10751.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"112070",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Abubakar",slug:"muhammad-abubakar",fullName:"Muhammad Abubakar"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:19},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:21},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:25},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:1}],offset:12,limit:12,total:24},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30949e78832e1afba5606634b52056ab",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",biography:"Dr. Erin Lim is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and is affiliated as an Associate Professor to Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Selangor, Malaysia. She obtained her Ph.D. from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2010 with a National Science Fellowship awarded from the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia and has been actively involved in research ever since. Her main research interests include analysis of carriage and transmission of multidrug resistant bacteria in non-conventional settings, besides an interest in natural products for antimicrobial testing. She is heavily involved in the elucidation of mechanisms of reversal of resistance in bacteria in addition to investigating the immunological analyses of diseases, development of vaccination and treatment models in animals. She hopes her work will support the discovery of therapeutics in the clinical setting and assist in the combat against the burden of antibiotic resistance.",institutionString:"Abu Dhabi Women’s College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Lai Kok Song is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan in 2012. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Lai worked as a Senior Scientist at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia. His current research areas include antimicrobial resistance and plant-pathogen interaction. His particular interest lies in the study of the antimicrobial mechanism via membrane disruption of essential oils against multi-drug resistance bacteria through various biochemical, molecular and proteomic approaches. Ultimately, he hopes to uncover and determine novel biomarkers related to antibiotic resistance that can be developed into new therapeutic strategies.",institutionString:"Higher Colleges of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10020",title:"Operations Management",subtitle:"Emerging Trend in the Digital Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"526f0dbdc7e4d85b82ce8383ab894b4c",slug:"operations-management-emerging-trend-in-the-digital-era",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Germano Lambert-Torres and Erik Bonaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10020.jpg",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58f740bc17807d5d88d647c525857b11",slug:"creativity-a-force-to-innovation",bookSignature:"Pooja Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9560.jpg",editors:[{id:"316765",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"pooja-jain",fullName:"Pooja Jain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9243",title:"Coastal Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e05e5f631e935eef366980f2e28295d",slug:"coastal-environments",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang and X. San Liang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9243.jpg",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7847",title:"Medical Toxicology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db9b65bea093de17a0855a1b27046247",slug:"medical-toxicology",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoglu and Tomohisa Ogawa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7847.jpg",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoglu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8558",title:"Aerodynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db7263fc198dfb539073ba0260a7f1aa",slug:"aerodynamics",bookSignature:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy and Aly-Mousaad Aly",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8558.jpg",editors:[{id:"35542",title:"Prof.",name:"Mofid",middleName:null,surname:"Gorji-Bandpy",slug:"mofid-gorji-bandpy",fullName:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5252},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30949e78832e1afba5606634b52056ab",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",biography:"Dr. Erin Lim is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and is affiliated as an Associate Professor to Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Selangor, Malaysia. She obtained her Ph.D. from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2010 with a National Science Fellowship awarded from the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia and has been actively involved in research ever since. Her main research interests include analysis of carriage and transmission of multidrug resistant bacteria in non-conventional settings, besides an interest in natural products for antimicrobial testing. She is heavily involved in the elucidation of mechanisms of reversal of resistance in bacteria in addition to investigating the immunological analyses of diseases, development of vaccination and treatment models in animals. She hopes her work will support the discovery of therapeutics in the clinical setting and assist in the combat against the burden of antibiotic resistance.",institutionString:"Abu Dhabi Women’s College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Lai Kok Song is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan in 2012. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Lai worked as a Senior Scientist at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia. His current research areas include antimicrobial resistance and plant-pathogen interaction. His particular interest lies in the study of the antimicrobial mechanism via membrane disruption of essential oils against multi-drug resistance bacteria through various biochemical, molecular and proteomic approaches. Ultimately, he hopes to uncover and determine novel biomarkers related to antibiotic resistance that can be developed into new therapeutic strategies.",institutionString:"Higher Colleges of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10020",title:"Operations Management",subtitle:"Emerging Trend in the Digital Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"526f0dbdc7e4d85b82ce8383ab894b4c",slug:"operations-management-emerging-trend-in-the-digital-era",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Germano Lambert-Torres and Erik Bonaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10020.jpg",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58f740bc17807d5d88d647c525857b11",slug:"creativity-a-force-to-innovation",bookSignature:"Pooja Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9560.jpg",editors:[{id:"316765",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"pooja-jain",fullName:"Pooja Jain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9243",title:"Coastal Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e05e5f631e935eef366980f2e28295d",slug:"coastal-environments",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang and X. San Liang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9243.jpg",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7847",title:"Medical Toxicology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db9b65bea093de17a0855a1b27046247",slug:"medical-toxicology",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoglu and Tomohisa Ogawa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7847.jpg",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoglu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9243",title:"Coastal Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e05e5f631e935eef366980f2e28295d",slug:"coastal-environments",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang and X. San Liang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9243.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10020",title:"Operations Management",subtitle:"Emerging Trend in the Digital Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"526f0dbdc7e4d85b82ce8383ab894b4c",slug:"operations-management-emerging-trend-in-the-digital-era",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Germano Lambert-Torres and Erik Bonaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10020.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30949e78832e1afba5606634b52056ab",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",biography:"Dr. Erin Lim is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and is affiliated as an Associate Professor to Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Selangor, Malaysia. She obtained her Ph.D. from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2010 with a National Science Fellowship awarded from the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia and has been actively involved in research ever since. Her main research interests include analysis of carriage and transmission of multidrug resistant bacteria in non-conventional settings, besides an interest in natural products for antimicrobial testing. She is heavily involved in the elucidation of mechanisms of reversal of resistance in bacteria in addition to investigating the immunological analyses of diseases, development of vaccination and treatment models in animals. She hopes her work will support the discovery of therapeutics in the clinical setting and assist in the combat against the burden of antibiotic resistance.",institutionString:"Abu Dhabi Women’s College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Lai Kok Song is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan in 2012. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Lai worked as a Senior Scientist at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia. His current research areas include antimicrobial resistance and plant-pathogen interaction. His particular interest lies in the study of the antimicrobial mechanism via membrane disruption of essential oils against multi-drug resistance bacteria through various biochemical, molecular and proteomic approaches. Ultimately, he hopes to uncover and determine novel biomarkers related to antibiotic resistance that can be developed into new therapeutic strategies.",institutionString:"Higher Colleges of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58f740bc17807d5d88d647c525857b11",slug:"creativity-a-force-to-innovation",bookSignature:"Pooja Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9560.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"316765",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"pooja-jain",fullName:"Pooja Jain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9669",title:"Recent Advances in Rice Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"12b06cc73e89af1e104399321cc16a75",slug:"recent-advances-in-rice-research",bookSignature:"Mahmood-ur- Rahman Ansari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9669.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"185476",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmood-Ur-",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman Ansari",slug:"mahmood-ur-rahman-ansari",fullName:"Mahmood-Ur- Rahman Ansari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine",parent:{title:"Health Sciences",slug:"health-sciences"},numberOfBooks:1511,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:39573,numberOfWosCitations:21767,numberOfCrossrefCitations:11544,numberOfDimensionsCitations:29307,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"medicine",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9406",title:"Clinical Implementation of Bone Regeneration and Maintenance",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"875a140c01518fa7a9bceebd688b0147",slug:"clinical-implementation-of-bone-regeneration-and-maintenance",bookSignature:"Mike Barbeck, Nahum Rosenberg, Patrick Rider, Željka Perić Kačarević and Ole Jung",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9406.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"204918",title:"Dr.",name:"Mike",middleName:null,surname:"Barbeck",slug:"mike-barbeck",fullName:"Mike Barbeck"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9122",title:"Cosmetic Surgery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"207026ca4a4125e17038e770d00ee152",slug:"cosmetic-surgery",bookSignature:"Yueh-Bih Tang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9122.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"202122",title:"Prof.",name:"Yueh-Bih",middleName:null,surname:"Tang",slug:"yueh-bih-tang",fullName:"Yueh-Bih Tang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9134",title:"Recent Advances in Digital System Diagnosis and Management of Healthcare",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ff00a5718f23cb880b7337b1c36b5434",slug:"recent-advances-in-digital-system-diagnosis-and-management-of-healthcare",bookSignature:"Kamran Sartipi and Thierry Edoh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9134.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"29601",title:"Dr.",name:"Kamran",middleName:null,surname:"Sartipi",slug:"kamran-sartipi",fullName:"Kamran Sartipi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9569",title:"Methods in Molecular Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"691d3f3c4ac25a8093414e9b270d2843",slug:"methods-in-molecular-medicine",bookSignature:"Yusuf Tutar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9569.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9157",title:"Neurodegenerative Diseases",subtitle:"Molecular Mechanisms and Current Therapeutic Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bc8be577966ef88735677d7e1e92ed28",slug:"neurodegenerative-diseases-molecular-mechanisms-and-current-therapeutic-approaches",bookSignature:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunalı",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9157.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82778",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Nagehan",middleName:null,surname:"Ersoy Tunalı",slug:"nagehan-ersoy-tunali",fullName:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunalı"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9839",title:"Outdoor Recreation",subtitle:"Physiological and Psychological Effects on Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5f5a0d64267e32567daffa5b0c6a6972",slug:"outdoor-recreation-physiological-and-psychological-effects-on-health",bookSignature:"Hilde G. Nielsen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9839.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"158692",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Hilde G.",middleName:null,surname:"Nielsen",slug:"hilde-g.-nielsen",fullName:"Hilde G. Nielsen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9139",title:"Topics in Primary Care Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea774a4d4c1179da92a782e0ae9cde92",slug:"topics-in-primary-care-medicine",bookSignature:"Thomas F. Heston",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9139.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"217926",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas F.",middleName:null,surname:"Heston",slug:"thomas-f.-heston",fullName:"Thomas F. Heston"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9785",title:"Endometriosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f457ca61f29cf7e8bc191732c50bb0ce",slug:"endometriosis",bookSignature:"Courtney Marsh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9785.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"255491",title:"Dr.",name:"Courtney",middleName:null,surname:"Marsh",slug:"courtney-marsh",fullName:"Courtney Marsh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9018",title:"Some RNA Viruses",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a5cae846dbe3692495fc4add2f60fd84",slug:"some-rna-viruses",bookSignature:"Yogendra Shah and Eltayb Abuelzein",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9018.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"278914",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Yogendra",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"yogendra-shah",fullName:"Yogendra Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9523",title:"Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5eb6ec2db961a6c8965d11180a58d5c1",slug:"oral-and-maxillofacial-surgery",bookSignature:"Gokul Sridharan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9523.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82453",title:"Dr.",name:"Gokul",middleName:null,surname:"Sridharan",slug:"gokul-sridharan",fullName:"Gokul Sridharan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:1511,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"19013",doi:"10.5772/21983",title:"Cell Responses to Surface and Architecture of Tissue Engineering Scaffolds",slug:"cell-responses-to-surface-and-architecture-of-tissue-engineering-scaffolds",totalDownloads:9697,totalCrossrefCites:109,totalDimensionsCites:230,book:{slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",fullTitle:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering - Cells and Biomaterials"},signatures:"Hsin-I Chang and Yiwei Wang",authors:[{id:"45747",title:"Dr.",name:"Hsin-I",middleName:null,surname:"Chang",slug:"hsin-i-chang",fullName:"Hsin-I Chang"},{id:"53659",title:"Ms.",name:"Yiwei",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"yiwei-wang",fullName:"Yiwei Wang"}]},{id:"46479",doi:"10.5772/57353",title:"Floating Drug Delivery Systems for Eradication of Helicobacter pylori in Treatment of Peptic Ulcer Disease",slug:"floating-drug-delivery-systems-for-eradication-of-helicobacter-pylori-in-treatment-of-peptic-ulcer-d",totalDownloads:1995,totalCrossrefCites:79,totalDimensionsCites:180,book:{slug:"trends-in-helicobacter-pylori-infection",title:"Trends in Helicobacter pylori Infection",fullTitle:"Trends in Helicobacter pylori Infection"},signatures:"Yousef Javadzadeh and Sanaz Hamedeyazdan",authors:[{id:"94276",title:"Prof.",name:"Yousef",middleName:null,surname:"Javadzadeh",slug:"yousef-javadzadeh",fullName:"Yousef Javadzadeh"},{id:"98229",title:"Dr.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Hamedeyazdan",slug:"sanaz-hamedeyazdan",fullName:"Sanaz Hamedeyazdan"}]},{id:"25512",doi:"10.5772/30872",title:"Epidemiology of Psychological Distress",slug:"epidemiology-of-psychological-distress",totalDownloads:8066,totalCrossrefCites:57,totalDimensionsCites:145,book:{slug:"mental-illnesses-understanding-prediction-and-control",title:"Mental Illnesses",fullTitle:"Mental Illnesses - Understanding, Prediction and Control"},signatures:"Aline Drapeau, Alain Marchand and Dominic Beaulieu-Prévost",authors:[{id:"84582",title:"Dr.",name:"Aline",middleName:null,surname:"Drapeau",slug:"aline-drapeau",fullName:"Aline Drapeau"},{id:"84605",title:"Dr.",name:"Alain",middleName:null,surname:"Marchand",slug:"alain-marchand",fullName:"Alain Marchand"},{id:"84606",title:"Dr.",name:"Dominic",middleName:null,surname:"Beaulieu-Prévost",slug:"dominic-beaulieu-prevost",fullName:"Dominic Beaulieu-Prévost"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"43758",title:"Anxiety Disorders in Pregnancy and the Postpartum Period",slug:"anxiety-disorders-in-pregnancy-and-the-postpartum-period",totalDownloads:39763,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:20,book:{slug:"new-insights-into-anxiety-disorders",title:"New Insights into Anxiety Disorders",fullTitle:"New Insights into Anxiety Disorders"},signatures:"Roberta Anniverno, Alessandra Bramante, Claudio Mencacci and Federico Durbano",authors:[{id:"157077",title:"Dr.",name:"Federico",middleName:null,surname:"Durbano",slug:"federico-durbano",fullName:"Federico Durbano"},{id:"166382",title:"Dr.",name:"Roberta",middleName:null,surname:"Anniverno",slug:"roberta-anniverno",fullName:"Roberta Anniverno"}]},{id:"70711",title:"Fetal Growth Restriction",slug:"fetal-growth-restriction",totalDownloads:1706,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"growth-disorders-and-acromegaly",title:"Growth Disorders and Acromegaly",fullTitle:"Growth Disorders and Acromegaly"},signatures:"Edurne Mazarico Gallego, Ariadna Torrecillas Pujol, Alex Joan Cahuana Bartra and Maria Dolores Gómez Roig",authors:[{id:"202446",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Maria Dolores",middleName:null,surname:"Gómez Roig",slug:"maria-dolores-gomez-roig",fullName:"Maria Dolores Gómez Roig"},{id:"311835",title:"Dr.",name:"Edurne",middleName:null,surname:"Mazarico",slug:"edurne-mazarico",fullName:"Edurne Mazarico"}]},{id:"70405",title:"Hemostasis in Cardiac Surgery: How We Do it with Limited Resources",slug:"hemostasis-in-cardiac-surgery-how-we-do-it-with-limited-resources",totalDownloads:2694,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:null,title:"Contemporary Applications of Biologic Hemostatic Agents across Surgical Specialties - Volume 1",fullTitle:"Contemporary Applications of Biologic Hemostatic Agents across Surgical Specialties - Volume 1"},signatures:"Fevzi Sarper Türker",authors:null},{id:"64851",title:"Herbal Medicines in African Traditional Medicine",slug:"herbal-medicines-in-african-traditional-medicine",totalDownloads:9954,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:17,book:{slug:"herbal-medicine",title:"Herbal Medicine",fullTitle:"Herbal Medicine"},signatures:"Ezekwesili-Ofili Josephine Ozioma and Okaka Antoinette Nwamaka\nChinwe",authors:[{id:"191264",title:"Prof.",name:"Josephine",middleName:"Ozioma",surname:"Ezekwesili-Ofili",slug:"josephine-ezekwesili-ofili",fullName:"Josephine Ezekwesili-Ofili"},{id:"211585",title:"Prof.",name:"Antoinette",middleName:null,surname:"Okaka",slug:"antoinette-okaka",fullName:"Antoinette Okaka"}]},{id:"59779",title:"Effective Communication in Nursing",slug:"effective-communication-in-nursing",totalDownloads:6504,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,book:{slug:"nursing",title:"Nursing",fullTitle:"Nursing"},signatures:"Maureen Nokuthula Sibiya",authors:[{id:"73330",title:"Dr.",name:"Nokuthula",middleName:null,surname:"Sibiya",slug:"nokuthula-sibiya",fullName:"Nokuthula Sibiya"}]},{id:"64858",title:"The Neurobiology of Anorexia Nervosa",slug:"the-neurobiology-of-anorexia-nervosa",totalDownloads:892,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"anorexia-and-bulimia-nervosa",title:"Anorexia and Bulimia Nervosa",fullTitle:"Anorexia and Bulimia Nervosa"},signatures:"Ashley Higgins",authors:null},{id:"63771",title:"The Role of Catheter Reshaping at the Angiographic Success",slug:"the-role-of-catheter-reshaping-at-the-angiographic-success",totalDownloads:536,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"angiography",title:"Angiography",fullTitle:"Angiography"},signatures:"Yakup Balaban",authors:[{id:"252647",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Yakup",middleName:null,surname:"Balaban",slug:"yakup-balaban",fullName:"Yakup Balaban"}]},{id:"61866",title:"Plants Secondary Metabolites: The Key Drivers of the Pharmacological Actions of Medicinal Plants",slug:"plants-secondary-metabolites-the-key-drivers-of-the-pharmacological-actions-of-medicinal-plants",totalDownloads:5564,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:32,book:{slug:"herbal-medicine",title:"Herbal Medicine",fullTitle:"Herbal Medicine"},signatures:"Rehab A. Hussein and Amira A. El-Anssary",authors:[{id:"212117",title:"Dr.",name:"Rehab",middleName:null,surname:"Hussein",slug:"rehab-hussein",fullName:"Rehab Hussein"},{id:"221140",title:"Dr.",name:"Amira",middleName:null,surname:"El-Anssary",slug:"amira-el-anssary",fullName:"Amira El-Anssary"}]},{id:"17956",title:"Sexual and Reproductive Function in Chronic Kidney Disease and Effect of Kidney Transplantation",slug:"sexual-and-reproductive-function-in-chronic-kidney-disease-and-effect-of-kidney-transplantation",totalDownloads:11790,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"after-the-kidney-transplant-the-patients-and-their-allograft",title:"After the Kidney Transplant",fullTitle:"After the Kidney Transplant - The Patients and Their Allograft"},signatures:"Mahboob Lessan-Pezeshki and Shirin Ghazizadeh",authors:[{id:"26564",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahboob",middleName:null,surname:"Lessan Pezeshki",slug:"mahboob-lessan-pezeshki",fullName:"Mahboob Lessan Pezeshki"},{id:"26571",title:"Prof.",name:"Shirin",middleName:null,surname:"Ghazizadeh",slug:"shirin-ghazizadeh",fullName:"Shirin Ghazizadeh"}]},{id:"64747",title:"Bone Development and Growth",slug:"bone-development-and-growth",totalDownloads:3711,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:9,book:{slug:"osteogenesis-and-bone-regeneration",title:"Osteogenesis and Bone Regeneration",fullTitle:"Osteogenesis and Bone Regeneration"},signatures:"Rosy Setiawati and Paulus Rahardjo",authors:null}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"medicine",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"75604",title:"Normal Puerperium",slug:"normal-puerperium",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96348",book:{title:"Midwifery"},signatures:"Subrat Panda, Ananya Das, Arindam Mallik and Surajit Ray Baruah"},{id:"75596",title:"The Use of a Dynamic Elastomeric Fabric Orthotic Intervention in Adolescents and Adults with Scoliosis",slug:"the-use-of-a-dynamic-elastomeric-fabric-orthotic-intervention-in-adolescents-and-adults-with-scolios",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96391",book:{title:"Spinal Deformities in Adolescents, Adults and Older Adults"},signatures:"Martin Matthews and James Wynne"},{id:"75582",title:"Elimination of Plasmodium vivax Malaria: Problems and Solutions",slug:"elimination-of-plasmodium-vivax-malaria-problems-and-solutions",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.96604",book:{title:"Current Topics and Emerging Issues in Malaria Elimination"},signatures:"Liwang Cui, Awtum Brashear, Lynette Menezes and John Adams"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:652},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/221575/assefa-dereje",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"221575",slug:"assefa-dereje"},fullPath:"/profiles/221575/assefa-dereje",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()