\r\n\tIt has been established that energy/nutrient depletion, calcium flux injury, or oxidative stress disrupt endoplasmic reticulum homeostasis and even induce accumulation of misfolded/unfolded proteins leading to endoplasmic reticulum stress. Under endoplasmic reticulum stress conditions, an adaptive mechanism of coordinated signaling pathways, defined unfolded protein response (UPR), is activated to return the endoplasmic reticulum to its healthy functioning state. The aging causes a decrease of the protective adaptive response of the UPR and an increase of the pro-apoptotic pathway together with endoplasmic reticulum ultrastructural injury. Controlling endoplasmic reticulum stress response, maintaining the appropriate endoplasmic reticulum ultrastructure and homeostasis, and retaining mitochondria interplay are crucial aspects for cellular health.
\r\n
\r\n\tThis book presents a comprehensive overview of endoplasmic reticulum, including, but not limited to, endoplasmic reticulum ultrastructural anatomy, MAMs, endoplasmic reticulum stress, and their implication in health and diseases. Additionally, identifying perturbations in the endoplasmic reticulum stress response could lead to early detection of age-related disease and may help develop therapeutic approaches.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-228-5",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-227-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-229-2",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"5d7d49bd80f53dad3761f78de4a862c6",bookSignature:"Dr. Gaia Favero",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11674.jpg",keywords:"Metabolism, Aging, Neurodegenerative Diseases, Endoplasmic Reticulum, Microscopy, Metabolic Stress, Ultrastructural Anatomy, Cellular Stress, Contactology, Mitochondria, Cellular Stress, Endoplasmic Reticulum Response",numberOfDownloads:61,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 9th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 6th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 5th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 23rd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 22nd 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Human anatomy researcher involved in crucial topics on morphology, anatomy, and molecular medicine - working on innovative approaches to aging-related pathopsychological processes at the University of Brescia.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"238047",title:"Dr.",name:"Gaia",middleName:null,surname:"Favero",slug:"gaia-favero",fullName:"Gaia Favero",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238047/images/system/238047.jpg",biography:'Dr. Gaia Favero is a prominent scientist in the field of life sciences. She is currently engaged as a researcher for the Scientific-Disciplinary Sector BIO/16 Human Anatomy at the Anatomy and Pathophysiology Division, Department of Clinical and Experimental Sciences, University of Brescia (Italy).\r\nDr. Favero focuses on aging-related morphological dysfunctions as the prelude to various pathophysiological processes in her research programs. The central hypothesis is that natural antioxidants and, in particular, melatonin may act as molecular "switches" that modulate cells and tissues by suppressing, at various levels, oxidative stress and inflammatory signalling cascades. These research approaches represent powerful tools for developing innovative preventive strategies and identifying novel prognostic biomarkers for several diseases. The above-reported research activity determined more than 120 scientific publications and an h-index of 25.',institutionString:"University of Brescia",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Brescia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"6",title:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",slug:"biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology"}],chapters:[{id:"82751",title:"Mitochondria-Endoplasmic Reticulum Interaction in Central Neurons",slug:"mitochondria-endoplasmic-reticulum-interaction-in-central-neurons",totalDownloads:13,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"83041",title:"Responses of Endoplasmic Reticulum to Plant Stress",slug:"responses-of-endoplasmic-reticulum-to-plant-stress",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"82716",title:"Advanced glycation end product induced endothelial dysfunction through ER stress: Unravelling the role of Paraoxonase 2",slug:"advanced-glycation-end-product-induced-endothelial-dysfunction-through-er-stress-unravelling-the-rol",totalDownloads:15,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"82103",title:"The Role of Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and Its Regulation in the Progression of Neurological and Infectious Diseases",slug:"the-role-of-endoplasmic-reticulum-stress-and-its-regulation-in-the-progression-of-neurological-and-i",totalDownloads:15,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"82195",title:"Endoplasmic Reticulum: A Hub in Lipid Homeostasis",slug:"endoplasmic-reticulum-a-hub-in-lipid-homeostasis",totalDownloads:17,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"278926",firstName:"Ivana",lastName:"Barac",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/278926/images/8058_n.jpg",email:"ivana.b@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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1. Introduction
1.1. Feature of metallurgical coke and the role in blast furnace
Metallurgical coke is made from coal that is an organic compound, but is inorganic material composed of graphite. Metallurgical coke is porous media that contains pore of 50% in porosity. The size of metallurgical coke lump is from 25 mm to 50 mm (Fig. 1). In modern iron making process, coke has very important roles in iron making process because coke is, at the same time, used as reducing agent of ore, heat source of blast furnace, carburizing source of pig iron and spacer of gas and liquid transport through blast furnace. Metallurgical coke is charged from the top of blast furnace at first and moves to the bottom part. Reducing agents derived from coke are generated by following two reactions: (i) coke reacts with oxygen at the bottom part of blast furnace, and one carbon monoxide molecule is generated, (ii) coke reacts with carbon dioxide at middle part of blast furnace, and two carbon monoxide molecules is generated. Former reaction is combustion and latter reaction is named carbon (or coke) solution-loss reaction. Firstly, carbon monoxide generated from combustion reaction reduces ore (FeOx) and becomes carbon dioxide. Then, carbon dioxide reacts with coke and two carbon monoxide molecules is generated.
1.2. Social background
Blast furnace operation consumes huge amount of carbon that finally becomes carbon dioxide. In recent years, worldwide, iron making materials (i.e. coal) are draining and soaring. So, improvement of carbon use efficiency to curtail carbon consumption is increasingly important issue from the viewpoint of material, energy resource and cost.
Combustion of coke takes the role of primary carbon monoxide generation. So, this gasification reaction is carbon consumption reaction. Carbon solution-loss reaction, also, consumes carbon, but is, on the other hand, gasified carbon recycle reaction (from carbon dioxide to carbon monoxide). Reactivity of these gasification reactions directly affects carbon use efficiency of iron making process. Gasified carbon produced by combustion reaction is finally emitted as carbon dioxide due to oxidization reaction of ore. Thus, control of coke solution-loss reactivity is important in order to improve of the carbon use efficiency. Both practical approaches and fundamental investigation are desired to this.
Figure 1.
Photographs of (a) coke lump and (b) cross-sectional image of coke microstructure
1.3. Purpose and outline of this chapter
As above, promoting and controlling solution-reactivity of metallurgical coke is very important in order to improve the carbon use efficiency. To realize the blast furnace operation in high carbon use efficiency, making of the coke which is satisfying four roles described in 1.1 and is solution-loss reactivity-promoted is required.
The practical purpose of the chapter is to propose the design guide of solution-loss reactivity-promoted (so-called “highly reactive”) coke from the viewpoint of use in blast furnace. There are many conditions (e.g. thermal, chemical or mechanical condition) which affect descending and reacting metallurgical coke in blast furnace. For this, the proper metallurgical coke should be made with considering the effects of these conditions. The chapter, hence, focuses on the fundamental knowledge and research about metallurgical coke gasification in the effect of thermal, chemical and mechanical condition. At first, the situation in blast furnace and the role of coke gasification reactions in blast furnace are introduced in\n\t\t\t\t\tsection 2. The effect of catalyst, as useful way to promote the solution-loss reactivity, on solution-loss reactivity is discussed in section 3. Then, in section 4, the problem from the viewpoint of the strength caused by promotion of solution-loss reactivity is noted, and the phenomena of highly reactive and normal coke are investigated in order to provide the solution of the issue. To discuss about both of the reactivity and the strength of highly reactive coke, the reaction mechanism and phenomena of highly reactive coke before and after the gasification reaction is investigated in this section. Furthermore, we propose a proper method to make highly reactive coke catalyzed by metals.
2. Situation in blast furnace and role of metallurgical coke gasification
Situation in blast furnace and role of coke gasification can be discussed from two viewpoints. One is chemical reaction and thermodynamic equilibrium state. Metallurgical coke is gasified with oxidation product such as carbon dioxide, and reductive gas such as carbon monoxide is generated. In blast furnace, any fraction of the components is governed by thermodynamic equilibrium state in C-O-Fe system and reaction kinetics caused by the difference between actual and equilibrium state. The other is the effect of coke solution-loss reactivity on carbon use efficiency in blast furnace. Using coke with high solution-loss reactivity, equilibrium state changes because solution-loss reaction is endothermic and the temperature at TRZ decreases. As a result, necessary quantity of carbon (coke) decreases.
2.1. Chemical reaction and the thermodynamic equilibrium state in C-O-Fe system (Bannya, 2000)
2.1.1. Combustion (reducing gas generation)
In blast furnace, carbon atom of coke reacts with oxygen molecule from tuyere
where ΔH298° is standard enthalpy change of formation, ΔG298°is standard free energy and T is absolute temperature. Generated carbon dioxide by reaction of Eq. (1) reacts because there is much solid carbon as coke,
Reaction of Eq. (3) is called combustion of coke. Two molecules in carbon monoxide as reducing gas and 221.1 kJ in thermal energy is generated by reaction of Eq. (3) with one molecule in O2. Temperature near the tuyere of blast furnace is 2570 K that is similar to adiabatic flame temperature of reaction of Eq. (3).
2.1.2. Iron oxide reduction
Reducing reaction of iron ore (oxide) in blast furnace is classified into two kind of reaction. One is indirect reducing reaction with carbon monoxide. The other is direct reducing reaction with solid carbon. “Direct” or “idirect” is called whether solid coke is directly gasified. Indirect reaction occurs at the top or middle part of blast furnace and direct reaction progresses at the bottom part. Indirect reducing reaction is written in
FeOm(s) + CO(g) → FeOm−x+ CO2(g)E4
.
This successive reaction is a desirable reaction from the viewpoint of the thermal balance in blast furnace because the reaction is an exothermic except reducing reaction from magnetite to wustite. Direct reducing reaction, on the other hand, is written as follows:
FeOm(s) + mC(s) → Fe + mCO(g)E5
.
Reaction of Eq. (5) progresses at the bottom part of blast furnace where combustion of coke occurs and is endothermic. It negatively affects the amount of energy consumption that reaction of Eq. (5) mainly occurs. To improve carbon use efficiency (thermal efficiency), it is important to enhance indirect reducing reaction because reducing ratio of iron ore by indirect reducing reaction should be lifted rather than that of direct reducing reaction.
2.1.3. Coke solution-loss reaction
Reaction of Eq. (2) can be also expressed as equilibrium reaction.
where Kp is equilibrium constant. Equilibrium of Eq. (6) is called Boudouard equilibrium. The composition of this equilibrium relates with reaction of Eqs. (1)-(5), and dominates state of C-O-Fe system (e.g. composition of Fe2O3, Fe3O4, FeO, Fe, CO2, CO, C and so on) in blast furnace. The reaction toward right hand of Eq. (6) is endothermic and is promoted with high temperature. At the bottom part of blast furnace where the temperature indicates 2570 K, ratio of CO/(CO+CO2) is almost 1.0. At the middle part of blast furnace, the ratio is about 0.9. This reaction at the middle part of blast furnace is, in particular, called carbon solution-loss reaction.
2.2. The effect of coke solution-loss reactivity on carbon use efficiency
2.2.1. Thermal reserve zone
Figure 2 shows conceptual diagram of temperature distribution along the height direction in blast furnace. TRZ (Thermal Reserve Zone) is where temperature slightly changes over the cohesive zone. In TRZ, indirect reducing reaction actively progress rather than direct one. The degree of progress of indirect reducing is affected by TRZ temperature because the temperature governs state of C-O-Fe equilibrium system in TRZ. Coke solution-loss reaction, also, occurs in TRZ and its reactivity strongly affects TRZ temperature. TRZ temperature decreases when solution-loss reactivity of charged coke is enhanced due to endothermic reaction. Therefore, coke with high solution-loss reactivity is used in blast furnace, and TRZ temperature decreases and the equilibrium point moves. However, Final conversion of coke gasification (ratio of weight loss based on carbon) is constantly 20 mass% regardless of gasification reactivity.
Figure 2.
A conceptual diagram of temperature distribution along height direction of blast furnace
2.2.2. Rist diagram
Rist et al. proposed the model that represents a state of blast furnace operation based on thermal and chemical equilibrium state (Rist & Bonnivard, 1962; Rist & Meyerson, 1967). The both equilibrium states at temperature of TRZ and tuyere are plotted (Rist diagram), and the state of the operation (e.g. carbon use efficiency C/Fe that is amount of carbon use per unit reduced iron) can be estimated. Rist diagram is convenient tool to describe the effect of coke solution-loss reactivity on carbon use efficiency. Figure 3 shows an example of Rist diagram with the operation line. Horizontal and vertical axes show O/C and O/Fe, respectively. State of C-O-Fe equilibrium system can be understood in blast furnace. Gas equilibrium in C-O system at tuyere is shown in the lower left part of cut Rist diagram into quarters, state of C-O-Fe equilibrium system in TRZ is represented in the upper right part of the cut diagram, and state of iron oxide in O-Fe system is indicated in the lower right part of the cut diagram. Gradient of the line in Rist diagram means carbon use efficiency C/Fe = (O/C)/(O/Fe). The “W” point shows ideal operation state that is in equilibrium state in TRZ. If TRZ temperature decreases with enhancement of coke reactivity, gas equilibrium of C-O-Fe system is shifted to oxidation state (a decrease in ratio of CO/CO2 in equilibrium). Then, the new “W’ ” point is plotted in Rist diagram. Indirect reaction of Eq. (4) is promoted because carbon dioxide generation is promoted due to the new equilibrium that indicates oxidation atmosphere. As a result, the carbon consumption for thermal conservation at the bottom part of blast furnace is curtailed because the amount of reducing iron caused by direct reducing that adsorbs the heat decreases (Ariyama et al., 2005; Ariyama, 2009; Naito et al., 2001). It means that carbon use efficiency C/Fe can be improved. There is some actual proof of this improvement using BIS (blast furnace inner-reaction simulator) (Naito et al., 2001) and commercial blast furnace (Nomura et al., 2005).
Figure 3.
An example of Rist diagram with the operation line
3. The effect of catalyst on solution-loss reactivity
Reaction gas of coke solution-loss reaction (carbon dioxide) adsorbs and/or chemisorbs on the site of graphite structure. It is expected to be able to enhance the reactivity by a change of the site state. It is, however, difficult to change the site state by a change of only coke making process. Another idea is addition of metallic catalyst. This section will discuss about the element that indicates the catalyst activity, the effect of element and state of catalyst on solution-loss reactivity, and additional method.
In metallurgical coke, on the other hand, there is mineral that is derived from coal ash and has catalyst activity. In addition, coke-matrix is not perfect graphite structure and amorphous structure coexists with crystalline structure. Therefore, it is necessary to consider the effect of the catalyst on solution-loss reactivity of metallurgical coke. Nomura et al. have compared catalyst activity among different element and compound (Nomura et al., 2005). Strontium, calcium and magnesium were selected. Figure 5 shows the relationship between the addition ratio of the alkaline earth metal and the JIS coke reactivity index. Rank of catalytic activity is Sr > Ca >> Mg. However, in this examination, they selected calcium as catalyst from these candidate materials because of cost performance of each material. In addition, he has reported that there is little difference between oxidation metal and carbonate. Grigore et al. have reported that not all iron, calcium, potassium and sodium crystalline mineral phases present in the coke catalyse the gasification reaction (Grigore et al., 2006). Coke reactivity increased with increasing total amount of catalysts in the crystalline phases. They concluded that the most likely materials responsible for the variation in coke reactivity are metallic iron and iron sulfides with a possible contribution by iron oxides and calcium sulfide. Kashiwaya et al. have particularly examined the reaction mechanism of solution-loss reaction with iron catalyst (Kashiwaya et al., 1991). Metallurgical coke, graphite and these materials with iron catalyst were gasified. The effect of iron addition to graphite is stronger than that to coke because of original mineral in raw coal. There are two ad- and/or chemisorption site on coke. First one is adsorbed by carbon dioxide and second one is adsorbed by carbon monoxide. If latter one increases with addition of iron catalyst, carbon dioxide adsorption is competitively inhibited and gasification rate decreases rapidly. It seems that adding iron to coke, latter site decreases and gasification is catalyzed.
Figure 4.
The catalyst activities in each element (Lahaye & Ehrburger, 1991)
Figure 5.
The relationship between the addition ratio of the alkaline earth metal and the JIS coke reactivity index (Nomura et al., 2005)
Figure 6.
Conceptual diagrams of two methods of catalyst addition (Nomura et al., 2005)
As above, it seems that iron is the most useful source of catalyst because of cost, catalyst activity and source of pig-iron. Useful source of catalyst second to iron seems calcium, also, is very economical material but melt in by-product as slag.
4. Reaction type of metallurgical coke lump during solution-loss reaction with and without catalyst – The phenomena of coke-matrix state and controlling process in the lump
4.1. Introduction
4.1.1. The strength after gasification reaction and the spatial distribution of local porosity in coke lump
For the improvement of the carbon use efficiency, the important factors of highly reactive coke are not only the gasification reactivity of metallurgical coke but also the strength of one because metallurgical coke supports gas and liquid permeability in blast furnace. The issues on the strength of highly reactive coke are principally caused by catalyst addition. The issues can be divided into two main classes.
As the first one, at the time of before changing into blast furnace, coke strength changes (or mostly decreases) with catalyst addition regardless of adding method. Studies of coke strength degradation with catalyst addition have been performed (Nomura et al., 2005; Nomura et al., 2009; Fujimoto & Sato, 2010; Yamazaki et al., 2010). There are studies and knowledge in order to clarify mechanism of strength development or strength degradation as well as reports for practical and commercial making method. The cause of the strength degradation is the inhibition coal particle swelling and adhesion each other. A certain level of knowledge and technology is developed, and the coke that has appropriate strength before charging into blast furnace can be made now.
As another one, after charging into blast furnace and after gasification reaction, coke strength of highly reactive coke changes from that of non-reactivity-promoted coke. It is considered that coke pulverization and coke breeze generation are promoted after the gasification reaction because coke-matrix is more vanished and embrittled when the gasification reaction is catalyzed. Porosity or local porosity of porous media (rather than matrix strength of porous media strongly) affects its strength; hence a change of porosity or local porosity due to the coke-matrix vanishing. As practical knowledge, spatial distribution of local porosity of coke lump after gasification reaction strongly affects the strength of gasified coke (Kamijo et al., 1987). Nishi et al. have reported that coke after gasification has high pulverization resistance when there is unreacted-core observed as spatial distribution of local porosity of coke lump (Nishi et al., 1984; Nishi et al., 1987). Watakabe et al. have reported that the coke whose spatial gradient of gasification ratio (local porosity) near the outer region of coke lump is sharp has high pulverization and fracture resistance (Watakabe et al., 2001).
There are few fundamental (i.e. phenomenon analysing based) studies of a change of coke strength after gasification reaction (e.g. causal correlation between gasification reaction and the strength from the viewpoint of transport phenomena and reaction mechanism) although there are some reports in practical test. Meanwhile, it is certain that the coke has high pulverization resistance, if there is “unreacted-core” in spatial distribution of local porosity from empirical fact. It is because that the coke is planed from outer region with marked embrittlement, but fracture hardly occurs due to strength-reserved core. Hence, the fundamental studies should be used to develop the “unreacted-core” in spatial distribution of local porosity.
4.1.2. Reaction type of coke lump (resistance of reaction gas consumption in the lump and resistance of reaction gas diffusion into coke lump of as reaction-controlling process of coke lump) – a factor of the spatial distribution–
The spatial distribution of local porosity of coke lump is as a result of (1) reaction gas diffusion into coke lump, (2) reaction gas diffusion in coke lump, and (3) gasification reaction of carbon(coke)-matrix. In other words, the resistance of (1), (2), and (3) dominate the spatial distribution. Resistance of (2) and (3) govern resistance of reaction gas consumption in the lump and resistance of (1) governs resistance of reaction gas diffusion into coke lump. Reaction type of coke lump, which is represented as homogeneous reaction model or unreacted-core model discussed in reaction engineering, seems to be a result of balance of both the resistances (reaction gas consumption in the lump and reaction gas diffusion into coke lump). If diffusivity of reaction gas into inner region of the lump is more dominant than gasification reaction of carbon material, homogeneous reaction may be observed (resistance of gas diffusion into the lump >> resistance of gas consumption in the lump). Meanwhile, if the gasification is more dominant than the diffusivity, unreacted-core remains and embrittlement may be selectively observed from outer region of coke lump (resistance of gas consumption in the lump >> resistance of gas diffusion into the lump).
4.1.3. Coke-matrix state – another factor of the spatial distribution
However, metallurgical coke is porous media that contains pore of 50% in porosity. The size of metallurgical coke lump is from 25 mm to 50 mm. Hence, the important factors that dominate the spatial distribution are not only the reaction type of coke lump but also coke-matrix state as a result of above processes (2) and (3). Although resistance of (1) overcomes other resistances in whole process, the each rate of the processes (2) and (3) is finite after reaction gas diffusion into coke lump.
As a result of these phenomena, coke-matrix state, after gasification reaction, changes of coke microstructure in mm-scale have been observed as follows: (i) Coke-matrix (solid) is visually vanished (Watakabe & Takeda, 2001; Hayashizaki et al., 2009) and is as change of local porosity, and (ii) Elastic modulus of coke-matrix decreases (Hayashizaki et al., 2009). In former phenomenon (i), carbon dioxide diffuses into coke-matrix insufficiently, and coke-matrix on the surface reacts. In latter phenomenon (ii), a decrease of elastic modulus of coke-matrix is, on the other hand, correlated with nm-order micro pore volume. Hayashizaki et al reported the relationship between a decrease in the elastic modulus and an increase in nm-order pore volume during chemical reaction-controlling condition in which gasification rate of coke lump is not affected by reaction gas diffusion around the coke lump (Fig. 7, Hayashizaki et al., 2009). It has been known that volume of nm-order micro pore inside coke-matrix increases with progress of gasification (Kawakami et al., 2004) because carbon dioxide diffuses well into carbon-matrix.
Figure 7.
Change in micro pore size distribution of metallurgical coke with conversion correlated with elastic modulus by gas adsorption (Hayashizaki et al., 2009)
4.1.4. Purpose
If highly reactive coke reaction-promoted by catalyst is gasified, resistance of (3) decreases when both reaction temperature of highly reactive coke and ordinary coke is the same; hence the spatial distribution should become “unreacted-core”. Actually, reaction temperature (i.e. TRZ temperature), however, decreases with use of highly reactive coke described as section 2.2.2. Additionally, Gasification reaction may be promoted on surface of the catalyst particle and coke-matrix. By existence of catalyst particle in coke lump, highly reactive coke will show different reaction type of coke lump and coke-matrix state from non-reactivity-promoted coke.
For this, as fundamental study, we have investigated the reaction mechanism and phenomena of coke before and after the gasification reaction. In section 4, we detail and discuss about these. The section is based on the research about these (Yamazaki et al., 2010; Yamazaki et al., 2011). Figure 8 shows position of the study in this section and whole picture of causal correlation between "coke gasification reaction" and "strength after gasification" with condition, phenomena and mechanism. At first, actual spatial distribution of local porosity of highly reactive coke in the TRZ condition when highly reactive coke is used in blast furnace is examined. Next, the factors that govern the spatial distribution (reaction type of coke lump and coke-matrix state) are estimated. Reaction mechanism estimation method is used to estimate the controlling process. Nano indentation method is used to measure the elastic modulus of coke-matrix. The elastic modulus is correlated with nm-order micro pore volume (Hayashizaki et al., 2009) that increases with progress of gasification (Kawakami et al., 2004).
Then, we propose a proper method to make highly reactive coke catalyzed by metals.
Figure 8.
Position of the study in section 4 and whole picture of causal correlation between "coke gasification reaction" and "strength after gasification" with condition, phenomena and mechanism
4.2. Sample
4.2.1. Making
Coke lumps with and without iron-particles were made. Both cokes are called ferrous coke and formed coke, respectively. Slightly-caking coal and non-caking coal were used. Table 1 shows proximate and ultimate analysis of coals. Iron ore is, also, used as the source of iron catalyst. Table 2 shows major component of iron ore. Blending ratio of slightly-caking and non-caking coals whose diameter was less than 3 mm was 70/30 based on mass. Both coals were mixed well. In making of ferrous coke, mixed coal was also mixed with 30 mass % of iron ore whose diameter was under 250 μm. Mixed material was pressed into 6 mL of briquette at 296 MPa and was carbonized at 1273 K for 6h. After carbonization, the blending iron ore was completely reduced to metallic iron and was distributed uniformly. A representative photograph of sample after carbonization is shown in Fig. 13. In appearance, there is little difference for formed and ferrous coke. Form of sample is briquette whose size is 29 mm x 24 mm x 21 mm. Above mixing, pressing and carbonization process is the same as previous studies (Fujimoto & Sato, 2010; Yamazaki
Brand
Ash [db. %]
VM [db. %]
Fixed C [db. %]
Ultimate analysis [daf. %]
C
H
N
S
O
Slightly-caking coal
8.4
36.1
55.5
82.3
5.8
1.9
0.88
9.1
Non-caking coal
8.6
11.2
80.2
80.4
3.5
1.5
0.40
2.8
Table 1.
Proximate and ultimate analysis of coals
T-Fe
FeO
SiO2
CaO
Al2O3
MgO
P
67.5
0.21
1.31
0.01
0.73
0.01
0.033
S
Na
K
TiO2
Mn
Zn
0.010
0.01
0.01
0.07
0.11
0.003
Table 2.
Major component of iron ore [mass %]
Table 3.
Experimental conditions of CO2 gasification reaction
4.2.2. Determination of loading mass% iron ore as Fe catalyst source
There are two purposes of Fe addition to metallurgical coke in iron/steel making process. First one is to decrease the amount of iron ore which must be reduced in blast furnace. Iron ore in briquetted material before carbonization (mixed-coal/ore = 70/30) is almost reduced during carbonization (reducing ratio is ca. 95%, Fujimoto & Sato, 2010). This fact shows that the required reducing gas that corresponds to carbon consumption to reduce iron ore can be decreased with the higher blending ratio of iron ore. Second one is to improve carbon use efficiency as described in section 2.2. Figure 9 shows that the initiation temperature of the gasification reaction decreases with an increase in the blending ratio of iron ore. The initiation temperature strongly correlates with TRZ temperature described in section 2.2. The initiation temperature saturated at 30 mass% in the blending ratio. From these viewpoints, the higher blending ratio of iron ore is better. In fact, TRZ temperature satisfactorily decreases by using ferrous coke that includes 30 mass% in the blending ratio shown in Fig. 10 (No. 1 and No. 6 shows traditional metallurgical coke and ferrous coke, respectively, Nomura et al., 2009).
Figure 9.
The effect of blending ratio of iron ore on the initiation temperature of the gasification reaction (Fujimoto & Sato, 2010)
Figure 10.
Temperature and reduction degree as a function of BIS descent distance (in the figure, No. 1 and No. 6 represent coke made by conventional coke and ferrous coke, respectively) (Nomura et al., 2009)
From the viewpoint of coke strength, the blending ratio of iron ore should be, on the other hand, limited. Figure 11 shows the relationship between the blending ratio of iron ore and tensile strength. Figure 12, also, shows relationship between the blending ratio of iron ore and agglomerated coal strength (the I-shaped drum index) that indicates pulverization resistance in blast furnace. By 30 mass% in the blending ratio, tensile strength and I-shaped drum index (ID600/10) are reserved, respectively. Both results suggest the same conclusion that the blending ratio of iron ore should be limited by 30 mass%. In Fig. 9, the effect of iron ore addition on TRZ temperature is satisfied at 30 mass% in the blending ratio. From the both viewpoint of the carbon use improvement and the strength (Figs. 11 and 12), 30 mass% in the blending ratio is proper in practical use.
Adding 30 mass% of iron ore is, hence, proper in practical use.
Figure 11.
Relationship between tensile strength and blending ratio of iron ore (Yamazaki et al., 2010)
Figure 12.
The effect of blending ratio of iron ore on agglomerated coal strength (I-shaped drum index, ID600/10) (Fujimoto & Sato, 2010)
4.3. Gasification (solution-loss reaction)
4.3.1. Experiment
Ferrous coke lump and formed coke lump were gasified by carbon dioxide – carbon monoxide mixture gas. Schematic diagram of experimental apparatus is shown in Fig. 14. A coke sample was hanged from the weighing scale to alumina reaction tube filled with alumina ball for heat transfer to gas. Reaction tube was heated by electric furnace. Reaction gases were led into the reaction tube from the bottom. The gases after gasification were cooled by water-cooling tube, and were then ejected outside. Weight loss with the gasification reaction was measured by weighing scale. Experimental conditions are shown in Table 3. Reaction temperature was set at 1173 K. Reaction gas compositions were set at 100/0 (Yamazaki et al., 2010) and 50/50 (Yamazaki et al., 2011) in ratio of CO2/CO. Final conversion (ratio of weight loss based on carbon) xB was 20 mass%.
Figure 13.
A photograph of a sample after carbonization (in appearance, there is no difference for formed and ferrous coke) (Yamazaki et al., 2011)
Figure 14.
Schematic diagram of experimental apparatus (Yamazaki et al., 2011)
4.3.2. Determination of reaction gas composition in this study compared with actual gas composition at TRZ
Main component of the actual gas at TRZ is N2 besides CO and CO2. The actual gas composition N2/CO/CO2 is ca. 60/20/20. N2 is from air origin and is, however, inactive for the gasification reaction. In case of gasification reaction by the mixture CO/CO2, the reaction rate is governed by pCO/pCO2 when the reaction gas contains above 10% of CO, and the ratio of N2 does not affect the gasification rate although the actual gas contains a massive amount of nitrogen. The reasons are as follows:
In the gasification reaction of solid-carbon by the mixture CO/CO2, the reactions in series are analogous to the resistance in series. The reaction rate is controlled by the reaction step which exerts most of the resistance to the overall reaction. There are two rate-controlling mechanisms during the gasification reaction in series: (1) dissociation of CO2 on the surface of carbon, and (2) formation of CO on the surface of carbon. Carbon monoxide has a two-fold poisoning effect: (a) covering of the surface site due to strong adsorption, and (b) increasing the activity coefficient of the activated complex for the dissociation of CO2; hence CO changes the rate-controlling mechanism. In the gasification of carbon material (e.g. charcoal, graphite and metallurgical coke), at CO contents above 10%, restance of (1) >> resistance of (2), and at low CO contents, resistance of (2) >> resistance of (1) (Turkdogan and Vinters, 1970).
In CO/CO2 = 50/50, resistance (1) overcomes resistance (2). In this situation, the gasification rate is proportional to the difference of the partial pressure of actual gas CO2 and the one governed by 2CO = C + CO2 equilibrium. The equilibrium is determined as pCO/pCO2; thus the reaction rate is governed by actual gas pCO/pCO2 and equilibrium one. The actual gas composition indicated in the ratio of CO/CO2 at TRZ is 50/50 (Nomura et al., 2006 and Nomura et at., 2009). So, the composition in the section, CO/CO2 = 50/50, can represents the actual blast furnace condition, especially so-called at TRZ. Therefore, the results for the actual blast furnace gas composition like CO2 18-20% and N2 60% is expected to be similar to the result in this section.
In CO/CO2 = 0/100, the gas composition is not actual. However, we investigate the behavior and phenomena as the model case in pure CO2 condition due to gasification agent.
4.4. Spatial distribution of porosity
Cross-sectional digital images were taken by optical microscope (LV-100-POL, Nikon). Spatial distribution of porosity after gasification reaction was measured by image analysis (Winroof 5.01, Mitani Corporation). Conceptual diagram of the taking procedure of digital image is shown in Fig. 15. Coke samples were buried into resin, cut and polished. From end to end of coke samples, digital images were three times taken in each sample. Taking area of digital images (3.14 mm x 2.35 mm, 2.45 μm/pixel) was slid aside in half length of image size.
Figure 15.
A conceptual diagram of the taking procedure of digital image (Yamazaki et al., 2011)
4.5. Reaction mechanism estimation of coke lump
In case of CO2/CO = 100/0, unreacted-core model was used to estimate the gasification reaction mechanism of coke lump. Using time change of conversion xB, dominant reaction mechanism of coke lump gasification can be estimated. Relationships between dimensionless reaction time t/t* and conversion xB when reaction controlling process is diffusion in boundary film, diffusion in product layer or reaction on the lump surface are expressed in Eqs. (7)-(9), respectively.
Diffusion in boundary film:
t/t*=xB≡f(xB)E7
.
Diffusion in product layer:
t/t*=1−3(1−xB)2/3+2(1−xB)≡f(xB)E8
.
Reaction on or in the lump surface:
t/t*=1−(1−xB)1/3≡f(xB)E9
.
Relationship between t/t* and f(xB) of the dominant mechanism shows linear plot.
In case of CO2/CO = 50/50, homogeneous reaction model was used. Time change of weight loss can be represented by this model when chemical reaction progress uniformly in whole lump. Mass balance is expressed as equation connected with chemical reaction rate and time derivative of mass. If reaction gas concentration is constant while reaction of lump progresses, chemical reaction rate is proportional to ratio of residual solid. Mass balance is written as
dxB/dt=k(1−xB)E10
.
Integrated with initial conditions t = t0 and xB = xB0, this can be written as
xB=1−(1−xB0)exp{−k(t−t0)}E11
\n\t\t\t\t
If initial conditions t0 and xB0 are equal to zero, the curve of Eq. (11) is through the origin. Weight loss curve is equal to Eq. (11) when lump reaction is controlled by chemical reaction.
4.6. Elastic modulus of coke-matrix
Elastic modulus of coke-matrix was measured by nano-indentation method. Load cycle indentation using sub-micron (or nano) indentation instruments is now a means of determining the deformation properties such as hardness and elastic modulus. A diamond tipped indenter with a precise geometry is pressed into a specimen with an increasing load up to a predetermined limit, and is then removed. The deformation properties can be determined using the load and displacement data obtained during the loading-unloading sequence. In this study, calculating method of elastic modulus was based on the method proposed by Oliver et al. When Berkovich triangular indenter which has 115-degree in angle is used, elastic modulus Eeff can be calculated by following formula:
hs=0.75PmaxSE12
\n\t\t\t\t
hc=hmax−hsE13
\n\t\t\t\t
A≈23.97hc2E14
\n\t\t\t\t
S=dPdh=2πEeffAE15
\n\t\t\t\t
1Eeff=1−ν2E+1−νi2EiE16
\n\t\t\t\t
Resin-mounted specimens which are the same as ones mentioned in 4.2.4 were used again. Measurement parts of test specimen were outer region (vicinity of surface) and inner region (vicinity of center). Measurement conditions are shown in Table 4. The number of measuring points was 50 by each sample and gas composition.
Indenter
Berkovich triangular pyramid
Loading/unloading velocity
[mN/s]
3
Maximum load
[mN]
100
Holding time in maximum load
[s]
2
The number of measurements
50
Table 4.
Measurement condition of nano-indentation method
4.7. Results and discussion
4.7.1. CO2/CO = 100/0
Spatial distribution of porosity after the gasification reaction
Figure 16 shows spatial distributions of porosity before and after gasification. Plots are denoted as average value. In formed coke, porosity was distributed uniformly along the radial direction. In ferrous coke, in outer region, porosity was significantly large. Relationships between porosity of each part and conversion based on carbon mass of ferrous coke lump are shown in Fig. 17. Plots and error bars are denoted as average value and standard deviation, respectively. In outer region, porosity increased with an increase in progress of gasification. On the other hand, in inner region, porosity hardly changed. Figures 16 (b) and 17(a) show that there is “unreacted-core” in local porosity distribution in ferrous coke after gasification reaction (CO2/CO =100/0). It is suggested that chemical reactivity of gasification is advanced by the presence of iron-particles, and gasification in outer the coke lump is selectively progressed.
Figure 16.
Spatial distributions of porosity before and after gasification (CO2/CO = 100/0) of (a) formed coke and (b) ferrous coke (Yamazaki et al., 2010)
Figure 17.
Relationships between porosity of (a) outer region and (b) inner region and conversion based on carbon mass of coke lump in ferrous coke lump at CO2/CO = 100/0 (Yamazaki et al., 2011)
Cross-sectional images of formed coke and ferrous coke at 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4 and 0.5 in dimensionless radius before and after reaction under CO2/CO = 100/0 gas atmosphere is shown in Fig. 18. In formed coke after gasification ((b) in Fig. 18), coke-matrix between the two pores (pore-wall) is thinning compared with before gasification reaction ((a) in Fig. 18). Microstructure at any dimensionless radius has the similar trend. An increase in local porosity shown in Fig. 16 should be due to the pore-wall thinning. There results show that whole coke lump uniformly embrittles. It is a matter of odds at where fracture origin is generated. Lump size may dramatically decrease due to lump fracture as split in fragments depends on the part of fracture origin. From the viewpoint of securing gas and liquid permeability in blast furnace, the increasing local porosity should be, therefore, avoided. In ferrous coke after gasification ((d) in Fig. 18), pore-wall in the region of 0.5 in dimensionless radius is dramatically thinning. Additionally, although most coke-matrix is continuing in other region, coke-matrix continuity is broken down in the region of 0.5 in dimensionless radius. These results indicate that the embrittlement occurs in the outer region of coke lump selectively; hence strength of whole coke lump can be maintained.
Figure 18.
Cross-sectional images of (a, b) formed coke and (c, d) ferrous coke at 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4 and 0.5 in dimensionless radius, respectively, before and after reaction under CO2/CO = 100/0 gas atmosphere; Taking area of each picture is 3.14 mm x 2.35 mm.
Reaction-controlling process of ferrous coke lump and formed coke lump are estimated. Figure 19 shows relationship between reaction time and conversion. In formed coke, weight loss behavior is not homogeneous reaction behavior despite uniform porosity distribution. In ferrous coke, at start of gasification, lump weight apparently increased due to oxidation of iron-particles by CO2. Then lump weight decreased. Gasification reaction was terminated at 0.2 minus minimum value of conversion. Reaction time from minimum conversion to termination conversion was similar to reaction time of formed coke. Figure 20 shows results of the reaction controlling process estimation for formed and ferrous coke. Equations (7)-(9) are plotted, respectively. The lines in Fig. 20 are regression line using least squares method. The largest R2 (correlation coefficient) is focused since the dominant mechanism shows linear plot. Both dominant mechanism of ferrous coke and formed coke are diffusion in boundary film-controlling. Despite not the same spatial distribution of porosity (Fig. 16 (a) and (b)), each reaction controlling process is the same.
Reaction gas diffuses into inner region of coke lump after passing through the boundary film around coke lump. The fact shown in Fig. 16 suggests that there are different behaviors in the inner region after the reaction gas diffusion through boundary film although the each dominant mechanism is the same. Figures 16 and 17 suggest that the rate-controlling process of whole lump reaction is “diffusion in boundary film around the lump” in both formed and ferrous coke in pure CO2 condition. In the whole gasification process, resistance of “diffusion in boundary film” overcomes resistance of other process; hence the rate of other process can be assumed infinite. In local process after diffusion into the coke lump, on the other hand, the both processes of formed and ferrous coke (i.e. chemical reactivity and its topology) should be compared as the process which has finite rate to tell the difference of not the same spatial distribution of porosity. In ferrous coke, the chemical reactivity is catalyzed by metal iron catalyst. It is supposed that reaction gas gasifies coke-matrix and consumes rapidly soon after diffusing into the lump due to iron catalysis. Hence, gasification in outer region of lump progresses selectively. On the other hand, in formed coke, chemical reactivity is not catalyzed; hence chemical reaction rate (not whole weight loss rate since reaction–controlling process is gas diffusion through the boundary film) should be slower than ferrous coke. In other words, formed coke shows the chemical reaction on or in coke-matrix slower than diffusion in the lump. The gas is, in addition, easier to diffuse into inner coke lump due to 50 vol. % in porosity. As a result, there is no the “unreacted-core” in spatial distribution of porosity.
Figure 19.
Relationships between reaction time and conversion of (a)formed coke and (b) ferrous coke lump in CO2/CO = 100/0 (Yamazaki et al., 2010)
Figure 20.
Results of the reaction controlling process estimation for (a) formed coke and (b) ferrous coke lump in CO2/CO = 100/0 (Yamazaki et al., 2010)
Elastic modulus of coke-matrix
Elastic moduli of formed and ferrous coke-matrix before and after gasification are shown in Fig. 21 ( (a) Outer region, formed coke, (b) Inner region, formed coke, (c) Outer region, ferrous coke and (d) Inner region, ferrous coke ).
In inner region, both cokes, elastic moduli were not significantly changed. In formed coke, despite spatial distribution of porosity after gasification reaction was uniform, elastic moduli between before and after reaction is not significantly different. Coke-matrix vanishing occurred at surface between coke-matrix and mm-order pore. Meanwhile, for a decrease in elastic modulus, gas must diffuse into nm-order pore. Therefore, it seems that there is the difference between gasification rate of the vanishing and a decrease in elastic modulus. In ferrous coke, the inner region is unreacted-core.
In outer region, significant difference of elastic moduli is shown between formed and ferrous coke. In formed coke, elastic modulus of coke-matrix significantly decreased. It is suggested that the gas sufficiently diffuses into nm-order pore in outer region, and nm-order pore increased. However, in ferrous coke, the elastic modulus did not decrease with gasification reaction. In outer region, also, it is suggested that coke-matrix vanishing is more rapid than the gas diffusion into the nm-scale pores. In other words, it is suggested that weight loss of whole ferrous coke lump is caused not by an increase in nm-order pore but by the coke-matrix vanishing. Microstructures of ferrous coke before and after gasification in outer region are shown in Fig. 22. Before gasification, iron-particles were completely surrounded by coke-matrix. After gasification, coke matrix surrounding iron-particles did not exist. Iron particle contacts with coke-matrix. Therefore, only coke-matrix vanishing may be promoted.
Figure 21.
The difference of elastic modulus of coke matrix with gasification reaction. (a) Outer region, formed coke, (b) Inner region, formed coke, (c) Outer region, ferrous coke and (d) Inner region, ferrous coke.
4.7.2. CO2/CO = 50/50
Spatial distribution of porosity after the gasification reaction
Figure 23 shows spatial distributions of porosity before and after gasification. In both ferrous coke and formed coke, porosity was distributed uniformly along the radial direction. In ferrous coke, also, there was no unreacted-core. Figure 24 shows relationships between reaction time and conversion and results of the reaction controlling process estimation using Eq. (8). In ferrous coke, lump weight apparently increased due to oxidation of iron-particles by CO2 the same as Fig. 19 (b). In order to estimate only the controlling process of gasification reaction, the results after weight increase are plotted. Both ferrous coke and formed coke, weight loss behavior of gasification was similar. In addition, the conversion curves are very closely followed by the estimation results. Lump reaction mechanisms are described by homogeneous reaction model. Solution-loss reaction is inhibited when CO is contained with reaction gas since CO adsorbs competitively with CO2 to active site on coke-matrix. Thus, the chemical reactivity in CO2/CO = 50/50 is smaller than that in CO2/CO = 100/0. So there is no unreacted-core since reaction gas CO2 can diffuse enough into inner region of lump.
Figure 22.
Microstructure of ferrous coke (a) before and (b) after gasification in outer region of coke lump in CO2/CO = 100/0 (Yamazaki et al., 2010)
Cross-sectional images of formed coke and ferrous coke at 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4 and 0.5 in dimensionless radius before and after reaction under CO2/CO = 50/50 gas atmosphere is shown in Fig. 25.After gasification ((b) in Fig. 25), both cokes have thinner pore-wall than cokes before gasification ((a) in Fig. 25). In ferrous coke, coke-matrix around iron particle, however, vanishes selectively, and continuity of coke-matrix is broken down; hence the strength degradation of ferrous coke seems to be more significant than that of formed coke.
Elastic modulus of coke-matrix
Elastic moduli of formed and ferrous coke-matrix before and after gasification are shown in Fig. 21 ( (a) Outer region, formed coke, (b) Inner region, formed coke, (c) Outer region, ferrous coke and (d) Inner region, ferrous coke ). In both cokes, elastic modulus in outer region decreases with gasification reaction. It is suggested that nm-order pore increases with gasification. However, a decrease in elastic modulus of ferrous coke-matrix (3.8 GPa) is smaller than that of formed coke (6.6 GPa). It seems that nm-order pore increment in volume of ferrous coke is smaller than that of formed coke.
Microstructures of ferrous coke before and after gasification are shown in Fig. 26. After gasification, coke matrix surrounding iron-particles did also not exist. Iron particles promote coke-matrix vanishing, but inhibit a decrease in elastic modulus. Coke-matrix is vanished selectively around iron particles. This phenomenon indicates that gasification reaction part in coke lump can be controlled by addition of iron particle.
Figure 23.
Spatial distributions of porosity before and after gasification (CO2/CO = 50/50) of (a) formed coke, (b) ferrous coke (Yamazaki et al., 2011)
Figure 24.
Results of the reaction controlling process estimation and relationship between reaction time and conversion based on carbon mass, (a) formed coke, (b) ferrous coke (Yamazaki et al., 2011)
Figure 25.
Cross-sectional images of (a, b) formed coke and (c, d) ferrous coke at 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4 and 0.5 in dimensionless radius, respectively, before and after reaction under CO2/CO = 50/50 gas atmosphere; Taking area of each picture is 3.14 mm x 2.35 mm.
Figure 26.
Microstructure of ferrous coke (a) before and (b) after gasification in outer region of the lump in CO2/CO = 50/50 (Yamazaki et al., 2011)
4.7.3. Discussion about the difference between CO2/CO = 100/0 and 50/50 from the viewpoint of the reaction type of coke lump (reaction-controlling process) and coke-matrix state
Reaction-controlling mechanism of coke lump
The rate constant of graphite or metallurgical coke in the case of CO2/CO = 50/50 is 10 times smaller than that in the case of CO2/CO = 100/0 (Miyasaka & Kondo, 1968; Turkdogan & Vinters, 1970). The reaction-controlling mechanism of coke lump changes from diffusion in boundary film to reaction on or in the lump surface due to the difference of chemical reactivity between each case of reaction gas composition.
In the case of CO2/CO = 100/0, both of formed coke and ferrous coke show similar weight loss curve due to the same reaction-controlling mechanism. The same rate of whole weight loss is, hence, shown by the both cokes (Fig. 19). However, in the case of CO2/CO = 50/50, both formed coke and ferrous coke show much different rate of weight loss each other due to chemical reaction-limited process of coke lump gasification. Ferrous coke shows the gasification rate about five times larger than the rate of formed coke. In comparison between the case of CO2/CO = 50/50 and 100/0, ferrous coke and formed coke show the rate difference of weight loss about three and seven times, respectively. Weight loss rate can be assumed to be similarly equal to chemical reaction rate in this condition. Thus, the difference of weight loss rate should be considered as the difference of chemical reactivity. Due to these differences, there are the changes of the state of coke-matrix in coke lump after gasification reaction.
Coke-matrix vanishing
Formed coke:\n\t\t\t\t\t
As shown in Figs. 16(a) and 23(a), local porosity uniformly increases due to gasification reaction in both gas compositions CO2/CO = 50/50 and 100/0. The porosity changes from about 50% to about 60 - 65% and each change shows a similar increase. Although there is the difference of elastic modulus between both gas compositions as shown in Fig. 21(a), the uniform change value of local porosity corresponds to 20% in the amount of weight loss based on the carbon weight before gasification reaction. To summarize above facts, both gas compositions CO2/CO = 50/50 and 100/0 have some gasification behaviors of coke lump in common as follows: (1) After gas diffusion into coke lump, reaction gas diffuses over a range of whole lump through the mm-order (macroscopic) pore, (2) In outer region of coke lump, a decrease in the elastic modulus is observed due to an increase in nm-order pore in coke-matrix; however, amount of a decrease in the elastic modulus slightly affects amount of coke-matrix vanishing, (3) In TRZ temperature during using highly reactive coke, not-catalyzed coke shows uniform spatial distribution of local porosity regardless of reaction gas composition.
Ferrous coke:\n\t\t\t\t\t
In gas composition CO2/CO = 100/0, coke-matrix in outer region of coke-lump is significantly vanished as shown in Figs. 16(b) and 17. Coke-matrix around the iron particle is more vanished than the matrix not around the iron particle. In inner region, on the other hand, there is scarcely any change of coke-matrix. In addition, there is scarcely any change of the elastic modulus as shown in Fig. 21; hence coke gasification reaction in inner region hardly occurred. Reaction gas gasifies coke-matrix around the iron particle soon after diffusion into coke-lump from the outside and consumes. Hence, as a result, reaction gas hardly diffuses into inner region.
In gas composition CO2/CO = 50/50, the behavior of coke-matrix vanishing is different from the case of CO2/CO = 100/0. The vanishing occurs uniformly in whole ferrous coke lump as shown in Fig. 23(b). Although the iron particle vanishes coke-matrix surrounding it as the same for the condition of CO2/CO = 100/0, spatial distribution of local porosity is uniform over a range of whole lump after gasification reaction. The uniform change value of local porosity of formed coke is the same as that of formed coke.
Formation of unreacted-core in local porosity:\n\t\t\t\t\t
Due to addition of iron catalyst, the unreacted-core is formed in the condition (1173K, CO2/CO = 100/0) in which formed coke forms no unreacted-core. On the other hand, in the condition (1173K, CO2/CO = 50/50), there is no unreacted-core after reaction. However, the behavior is observed that the coke-matrix around the iron particle is preferentially vanished. This fact suggests that it is possible to form arbitrary spatial distribution of local porosity by location of iron particle in coke lump due to the effect of preferential vanishing of coke-matrix.
Elastic modulus of coke-matrix
Inner region:\n\t\t\t\t\t
Both gas compositions CO2/CO = 50/50 and 100/0 show no difference of elastic modulus before and after gasification reaction whether or not formed coke or ferrous coke is gasified. Reaction gas diffusion seems to be difficult to occur into the bulk of coke-matrix because coke-matrix vanishing at surface of the matrix and mm-order pore is easier to occur than the diffusion into the bulk.
Outer region:\n\t\t\t\t\t
A decrease in elastic modulus occurs only in the outer region in both formed coke and ferrous coke. Each coke shows the different behavior of the decrease.
In formed coke, a decrease in elastic modulus significantly (p < 0.05) occurs before and after gasification reaction in both gas compositions CO2/CO = 50/50 and 100/0. Outer region of coke lump seems the part where reaction gas concentration is higher and reaction gas-exposed duration is also longer than inner region of the lump; hence reaction gas diffuses into bulk of coke-matrix, and nm-order pore volume increases.
In ferrous coke, no significant decrease in elastic modulus is observed in the case of CO2/CO = 100/0. Coke-matrix around the iron particle is vanished in outer region, and the conversion of whole lump weight loss reaches 20mass% before occurring of coke-matrix embrittlement. On the other hand, in the case of CO2/CO = 50/50, elastic modulus significantly (p < 0.10) decreases. As discussed previously, in comparison between the case of CO2/CO = 50/50 and 100/0, ferrous coke shows the rate difference of weight loss about three times. The longer time causes reaction gas diffusion into bulk of coke-matrix, and nm-order pore volume increases.
4.7.4. Concluding remarks and proposal
The results in section 4 are concluded as follows:
Gasification of metallurgical coke lump was principally observed as microscopic vanishing of coke-matrix in mm scale.
A decrease in elastic modulus involved with an increase in volume of nm-order pore in bulk of coke-matrix was hardly observed.
Iron particle in coke lump plays the role of the catalyst of not so much the degradation but the vanishing of coke-matrix
Regardless of the reaction-controlling process difference of coke lump gasification, the chemical reactivity of coke-matrix which includes the effect of iron catalyst affects the spatial distribution of local porosity after gasification reaction. Therefore, controlling of iron particle alignment permits to control spatial distribution of local porosity and to form unreacted-core.
The study in this section shows relationship between gasification condition (temperature, gas composition and so on) and the formed spatial distribution of local porosity that affects the coke strength after gasification reaction. Particularly, the distinctive characteristic of coke-lump gasification which differs from gasification of other carbon material (i.e. electrode graphite and charcoal) is observed. Generally, a phenomenon of carbon material gasification in fine granule is observed as opened microscopic- or mesoscopic-pore increasing in carbon material, but a phenomenon of gasification of metallurgical coke lump is mostly observed as coke-matrix vanishing. Although coke-matrix degradation observed as a decrease in elastic modulus is also shown, the effect of the degradation on the relationship between coke-matrix vanishing and weight loss of whole lump is limited.
In previous study, it is noted that mm-pore structure in coke-lump affects the rate of weight loss of whole lump or pore structure after gasification in TRZ condition (temperature and reaction gas composition). In other words, gasification rate of whole lump is affected by reaction gas diffusion into inner region of lump rather than the gas diffusion into bulk of coke-matrix. Reaction gas diffuses into inner region of lump through the mm-pore of coke lump, and the gasification reaction mainly progresses on the surface between mm-pore and coke-matrix. The above mean that coke-matrix vanishing preferentially occurs than an increase in nm-pore volume and a decrease in elastic modulus and correspond to the results in this section.
In ferrous coke, the iron particle promotes vanishing of coke-matrix surrounding it rather than a decrease in elastic modulus. As discussed previously, degradation of coke-matrix is only limited, and the part where local porosity does not change seems to be never damaged. These facts suggest that spatial distribution of local porosity (in other words, formation of unreacted-core) can be controlled by alignment of iron particle.
The pre-addition method which is used in this section disperses catalyst iron particle in whole coke lump. Hence, coke-matrix in inner region of coke-lump is catalyzed as well as that in outer region. On the other hand, the post-addition method can disperse the catalyst particle locally. In addition, if catalyst particle is supported only in outer region of the lump, catalyst particle can remain in coke lump after gasification reaction (Yamamoto et al, 2010). To form unreacted-core that is not damaged, catalyst addition to only outer region seems to be useful. For the future, the method to control the spatial distribution of local pore or to form unreacted-core should be investigated as well as pre-addition method.
5. Conclusion
To realize the blast furnace operation in high carbon use efficiency, making of the coke which is satisfying high solution-loss reactivity and high strength is required. In order to make the coke which satisfies both the high solution-loss reactivity and the high strength, spatial distribution of local porosity of coke lump should be controlled as well as gasification reactivity of whole lump. In section 2, at first, the background of this issue was discussed. In section 3, the method to enhance coke solution-loss reactivity was briefly discussed. In section 4, the fundamental investigation and the proposal to support the reactivity and the strength at the same time was carried out. The essences discussed in these sections are summarized as follows:
Section 2:\n\t\t\t
There are two iron reducing reactions (direct and indirect reaction).
The direct reaction consumes solid carbon which is mainly metallurgical coke and is endothermic. In addition, the direct one occurs in the bottom part of blast furnace and affects the thermal balance in blast furnace and gas and liquid permeability, respectively; hence the ratio of direct reaction compared with that of indirect one should be decreased.
The indirect reaction can be enhanced by change of C-O-Fe equilibrium state. The useful method for the change of equilibrium state is a decrease in TRZ temperature. The decrease can be achieved using highly-reactive coke.
Section 3:\n\t\t\t
There are many elements which have catalyst activity of carbon gasification reacted by carbon dioxide (solution-loss reaction).
Although there are the many kinds of catalyst that have good activity, calcium and iron are better element due to cost performance. Particularly, if Fe addition is used, iron ore as iron/steel making material is useful as the source of catalyst. In addition, iron ore in briquetted material before carbonization (mixed-coal/ore = 70/30) is almost reduced during carbonization (reducing ratio is ca. 95%). Hence, iron ore is available to use as catalyst source of highly-reactive coke. Therefore, iron seems the best material for highly-reactive coke in iron making process.
There are two catalyst addition methods (post- and pre-addition).
Section 4:\n\t\t\t
To maintain the strength after gasification, controlling of spatial distribution of coke lump is required.
Gasification of metallurgical coke lump was principally observed as microscopic vanishing of coke-matrix in mm scale.
A decrease in elastic modulus involved with an increase in volume of nm-order pore in bulk of coke-matrix was hardly observed.
Iron particle in coke lump plays the role of the catalyst of not so much the degradation but the vanishing of coke-matrix
Regardless of the reaction-controlling process difference of coke lump gasification, the chemical reactivity of coke-matrix which includes the effect of iron catalyst affects the spatial distribution of local porosity after gasification reaction. Therefore, controlling of iron particle alignment permits to control spatial distribution of local porosity and to form unreacted-core.
To obtain useful knowledge, all we only need to know is the relationship between the quality of practical use and the history during falling to the bottom part of blast furnace or the coke making condition (procedure and material). However, to propose design and making guideline of metallurgical coke considering condition surrounding coke, investing the phenomena of gasification of whole coke lump is very important. For understanding the phenomena, both of macroscopic (reaction type of coke lump or coke-matrix state discussed in section 4) and microscopic understanding and relationship between both are needed (cf. Fig. 8).
Microscopic investigations for metallurgical coke gasification have been performed based on chemical approach (e.g. reaction mechanism analysis (Turkdogan & Vinters, 1970), gaseous adsorption property (Turkdogan et al, 1970; Kashiwaya et al, 2003; Kawakami et al, 2004), crystal structure analysis (Kashiwaya & Ishii, 1990) and so on) since the middle in 20th century. These investigations are fundamental and test specimen finely crushed, but coke is used as lump. The knowledge from the investigations is very important but is indirectly linked to the quality of practical use (e.g. strength before and after gasification and whole lump reactivity). In this chapter, the macroscopic phenomena were discussed.
In the future, it is expected that the model which combines microscopic phenomena and transport phenomena in coke lump during gasification and derives macroscopic phenomena will be developed. This helps to understand the gasification phenomena inclusively. In addition, it will be able to propose the proper guideline of design and making aggressively.
Acknowledgement
The author gratefully acknowledge the key contributions of principal researchers Takatoshi Miura, Hideyuki Aoki, Yohsuke Matsushita, Masakazu Shoji, Yasuhiro Saito, Seiji Nomura, Takashi Arima and Hidekazu Fujimoto and the valued contributions of numerous student researchers, including Kenta Ueoka, Hideyuki Hayashizaki and Tetsuya Kanai. In addition, Section 4 in this chapter partly includes findings in the study carried as a part of the research activities "Fundamental Studies on Next Innovative Iron Making Process" programmed for the project "Strategic Development of Energy Conservation Technology Project". The financial support from New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization (NEDO) is gratefully acknowledged.
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Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_1_2",title:"1.1. Feature of metallurgical coke and the role in blast furnace",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"1.2. Social background",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"1.3. Purpose and outline of this chapter",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"2. Situation in blast furnace and role of metallurgical coke gasification",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.1. Chemical reaction and the thermodynamic equilibrium state in C-O-Fe system (Bannya, 2000)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"2.1.1. Combustion (reducing gas generation)",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"2.1.2. Iron oxide reduction",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"2.1.3. Coke solution-loss reaction",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"2.2. The effect of coke solution-loss reactivity on carbon use efficiency",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"2.2.1. Thermal reserve zone",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"2.2.2. Rist diagram",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13",title:"3. The effect of catalyst on solution-loss reactivity",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"4. Reaction type of metallurgical coke lump during solution-loss reaction with and without catalyst – The phenomena of coke-matrix state and controlling process in the lump",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"4.1. Introduction",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"4.1.1. The strength after gasification reaction and the spatial distribution of local porosity in coke lump",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15_3",title:"4.1.2. Reaction type of coke lump (resistance of reaction gas consumption in the lump and resistance of reaction gas diffusion into coke lump of as reaction-controlling process of coke lump) – a factor of the spatial distribution–",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16_3",title:"4.1.3. Coke-matrix state – another factor of the spatial distribution",level:"3"},{id:"sec_17_3",title:"4.1.4. Purpose",level:"3"},{id:"sec_19_2",title:"4.2. Sample ",level:"2"},{id:"sec_19_3",title:"Table 1.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_20_3",title:"4.2.2. Determination of loading mass% iron ore as Fe catalyst source",level:"3"},{id:"sec_22_2",title:"4.3. Gasification (solution-loss reaction)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_22_3",title:"4.3.1. Experiment",level:"3"},{id:"sec_23_3",title:"4.3.2. Determination of reaction gas composition in this study compared with actual gas composition at TRZ",level:"3"},{id:"sec_25_2",title:"4.4. Spatial distribution of porosity",level:"2"},{id:"sec_26_2",title:"4.5. Reaction mechanism estimation of coke lump",level:"2"},{id:"sec_27_2",title:"4.6. Elastic modulus of coke-matrix",level:"2"},{id:"sec_28_2",title:"4.7. Results and discussion",level:"2"},{id:"sec_28_3",title:"4.7.1. CO2/CO = 100/0",level:"3"},{id:"sec_29_3",title:"4.7.2. CO2/CO = 50/50",level:"3"},{id:"sec_30_3",title:"4.7.3. Discussion about the difference between CO2/CO = 100/0 and 50/50 from the viewpoint of the reaction type of coke lump (reaction-controlling process) and coke-matrix state",level:"3"},{id:"sec_31_3",title:"4.7.4. Concluding remarks and proposal",level:"3"},{id:"sec_34",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_34_2",title:"Acknowledgement",level:"2"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'AriyamaT.2009Ferrum (bulletin of ISIJ), 14781\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B2",body:'AriyamaT.MuraiR.IshiiJ.SatoM.2005ISIJ International, 451371\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B3",body:'BannyaS.2000Ferrous Process Metallurgy, The Japan Institute of Metals, 4-88903-013-1Japan'},{id:"B4",body:'Carzorla-AmorosD.Linares-SolanoA.Salinas-Martinez deLecea. C.1992Carbon, 30995\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B5",body:'FujimotoH.SatoM.2010J. Jpn. Inst. Energ., 8921\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B6",body:'GrigoreM.SakurovsR.FrenchD.SahajwallaV.2006ISIJ International, 46503\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B7",body:'HayashizakiH.UeokaK.KajiyamaM.YamazakiY.HirakiK.MatsushitaY.AokiH.MiurataT.FukudaK.MatsudairaK.2009Tetsu-to-Hagané, 95593\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B8",body:'HayashizakiH.UeokaK.OgataT.YamazakiY.MatsushitaY.AokiH.MiuraT.FukudaK.MatsudairaK.2009Tetsu-to-Hagané, 95460\n\t\t\t'},{id:"B9",body:'JaranB. 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1. Introduction
Infectious diseases are caused by microbes such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasite, which often affect human and animal health. The mode of transmission can be direct, such as spread from person to person, or indirect contact via insect bites, food and water contaminations, among others [1].
Africa with the fastest growing population in the world, is now catching up with Asia as infectious diseases hotspot [2]. Infectious diseases have accounted for about one-quarter of deaths, and are globally responsible for at least ten million deaths annually, especially in tropical countries at the beginning of the 21st century. Some of the infectious diseases are emerging while some are re-emerging in nature. Examples of these diseases reported in Africa include meningococcal meningitis, hepatitis B, C, and E viruses, tuberculosis, Dengue fever, Lassa fever, yellow fever, Ebola virus, COVID-19, measles, HIV/AIDS, plague, avian influenza, chikungunya, syphilis and poliomyelitis, monkey pox, Marburg virus, Zika virus, rift valley fever, malaria, cholera, rickettsia, among others (Table 1).
Disease
Type
Countries
Covid-19
Emerging
Nigeria, among other African countries
Lassa fever
Emerging
Nigeria, Liberia, Benin Republic
Ebola virus
Emerging
Sierra Leone, Liberia, Guinea, Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Uganda, Senegal
HIV/AIDS
Emerging
All African Countries
Hepatitis B, C, E
Emerging
Nigeria, Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda, most African countries
Typhoid fever
Emerging
Nigeria, Ghana, Madagascar, Senegal, Ethiopia, Burkina Faso, Kenya, Guinea Bissau, South Africa, Sudan, and Tanzania
Dengue fever
Emerging
Burkina Faso, Cote d’ivoire, Egypt, Cape Verde
Monkey pox
Emerging
Nigeria, Cameroon, Central Africa Republic (CAR)
Chikungunya
Emerging
Congo, Sudan, Kenya, Senegal
Zika virus
Emerging
Cape Verde
Malaria
Emerging/ Re-emerging
Nigeria, Tanzania, Mozambique, DRC
Measles
Re-emerging
Nigeria, DRC, Zambia, Ethiopia
Cholera
Re-emerging
Nigeria, Guinea Bissau, Zimbabwe, Niger, Chad, Cameroon, DRC, Sierra Leone, South Sudan, Zambia, Kenya, Somalia and Mozambique
Tanzania, Zimbabwe, Botswana, Uganda, Namibia, Chad
Table 1.
Some emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases reported in Africa [3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13].
The burden of infectious diseases in Africa is huge, and it has topped the list of diseases that frequently require consultation, hospitalization and also remain a major cause of morbidity and mortality. Antimicrobials play important roles in their treatment, emergence of resistance, persistence, and transmission. They have also saved hundreds of millions from infectious agents. However, antimicrobial resistant (AMR) organisms are increasing globally, threatening to render existing treatments ineffective. They prolong illness, increase case fatality, facilitate transmission, and increase treatment costs.
Antimicrobial resistance caused by bacteria and viruses are of greater public health significance. This is because they account for a large share of clinical infections observed. Their emergence has compromised the effectiveness of antimicrobials [14]. The use of antibiotics makes them serve as reservoirs of resistant genes with the propensity to spread via ecological niche through the human, animal, and environmental interactions [15, 16].
Some factors associated with antimicrobial resistance include microbial adaptation and change, human susceptibility to infection, poor environmental practices, human demographics and behavior, international travel and commerce, technology and industry, breakdown of public health measures, poverty and social inequality, war, and famine and lack of political will [3].
2. Antimicrobials and antimicrobial resistance
Antimicrobials are global public good that has improved health care, saved lives, and enhanced economic gains [17]; and they are the cornerstone on which the health system is standing on [18]. Antimicrobial resistance is the alteration of microbes when exposed to the antimicrobial making them not sensitive. These drugs become ineffective and infections persist in the body, increasing the risk of spread to others.
Antimicrobial resistance is the development of resistance in a microorganism to an antimicrobial agent to which it was previously sensitive [19]; and it is a multifaceted ecosystem problem that threatens the interdependent humans, animals, and environmental health [15, 20]. In view of this importance, the World Health Organization theme for 2011 was tagged “antimicrobial resistance: no action taken, no cure tomorrow”.
3. Magnitude of the problem of antimicrobial resistance
The World Health Organization (WHO) has declared that antimicrobial resistance is one of the top ten global public health threats the world is battling with [4]. Antimicrobials such as antibacterial, antivirals, antifungals, and antiparasitics are used to prevent and treat infections in human, animals and plants [4].
United Nations General Assembly, World leaders of G7 and G20, and WHO declared AMR as a global health security challenge today. It is a transboundary problem that concerns every country irrespective of its level of income and development, where the organisms require no international passports [15, 20]. Antimicrobial resistance is a global crisis that risks reversing a century of progress in health [21]. Alarming levels of resistance have been reported in both developing and developed countries, with the result that common diseases are becoming untreatable, and lifesaving medical procedures more at risk to perform [21].
Antimicrobial resistance is also an ecosystem problem threatening the interrelated human-animal-environment health under the “One Health” framework. Resistant bacteria arising in one geographical area can spread via cross-reservoir transmission to other areas worldwide either by direct exposure or through the food chain and the environment [22, 23]. Sixty percent of pathogens harmful to humans are of animal origin; humans and animals share the same bacteria [17].
The economic burden of AMR is difficult to calculate due to insufficient data and the need to account for externalities, especially in Africa [24]. Globally, drug-resistant microbes account for at least 700,000 yearly deaths and 230,000 deaths from resistant mycobacteria are projected to increase to 10 million deaths globally by 2050 in no action is taken. Around 2.4 million people could die in high-income countries between 2015 and 2050 without a sustained effort to contain antimicrobial resistance [21]. Estimates of the impact of AMR on the US economy are exceedingly high, including $20 billion in direct health care costs with additional indirect costs as high as $25 billion, 2 million illnesses, and 23000 deaths per year [25].
The World Bank projected that 24 million people could fall into extreme poverty by 2030 because of AMR and most would come from low- and middle-income countries [15]. Globally, AMR will cost over US$100 trillion in lost output by 2050 [23] and about 4,150,000 deaths in Africa by 2050 [19, 23]. The problem of AMR is global but is particularly more serious in sub-Saharan Africa, second only to that of Asia.
The increase in AMR could lead to a reduction in options available to treat infectious diseases, support chemotherapy, and surgery, and this will have a significant impact on the Health System and economies [19]. Infections with resistant organisms have been associated with an increased hospital stay, increased morbidity and mortality, use of additional drugs, laboratory tests, and increased treatment cost [26, 27]. This has financial implications for the individuals, families, communities, and the health system (HS) [19]. This has increased poverty as it has been documented that millions of Africans fall into poverty due to high out-of-pocket health payments [28]. Antimicrobial resistance could lead to loss of productivity from the spread of diseases to other animals and death of the animals, thereby threatening the sustainability and security of food production and the livelihood of farmers. The proportion of antimicrobials resistance has at least doubled in chickens and in pigs in the past two decades [25].
Reports have identified significant gaps in surveillance, standard methodologies, and data sharing related to AMR; and Africa and South East Asia as regions without established AMR surveillance systems [29]. This results in a lack of quality data leading to treatment guidelines that are not adequate for the local situation. Consequently, the rise and spread of AMR threaten the effective control and treatment of various bacterial diseases world wide [15, 20]. In addition, the lack of consistency in the measurement and reporting of susceptibility data makes it difficult to compare findings among different countries and laboratories, sometimes even within one country [30].
Infections caused by antimicrobial resistance are now alarming globally, and the increasing rates of antimicrobial resistance are resulting in fewer treatment options [31]. The world’s known antimicrobials are becoming increasingly ineffective as drug resistance spreads globally leading to more difficult to treat infections and deaths [4]. The problem is further compounded by the fact that very few new antibiotics have been developed within the last thirty years. We effectively do not have any new weapon in the fight against AMR. Therefore, new antimicrobials are urgently needed to treat especially carbapenem-resistant gram-negative bacterial infections as identified by the WHO priority pathogen list [4].
Without effective tools for the prevention and adequate treatment of drug-resistant infections, the maternal number of death due to drugs resistant infections will increase, and medical procedures such as surgery, including cesarean sections, hip replacements, cancer chemotherapy, and organ transplantation will become riskier [4].
Statistics indicated that malaria claims more than one million lives yearly, and African countries bear the brunt of malaria accounting for more than 90% of all cases occurring worldwide [32]. In Africa, malaria has devastating consequences on agricultural households. It is estimated that malaria cost Africa more than twelve billion United State dollar per year slowing its economic growth by 1.3% annually [33]. Tuberculosis is one of the top leading causes of mortality globally and the highest incidence rates are found in Africa and south-east Asia [34].
HIV/AIDS kills and disable adults in the productive part of their lives affecting businesses, investments, industries, agricultural sustainability, and African agricultural labor force in particular affected [35]. It is worth noting, that bacterial diarrhea, malaria, tuberculosis, and HIV infections, responsible for high mortality rates in sub-Saharan Africa, are also showing increased resistance to hitherto effective antimicrobials. Candida auris has shown increased resistance to antifungal drugs such as fluconazole, amphotericin B, Voriconazole, among others [4]. In Nigeria, there is a widespread antimicrobial resistance among enteric Escherichia coli, particularly to penicillins, aminoglycosides, cephaloporins, chloramphenicol, tetracycline, and cotrimoxazole [36].
4. Drivers of antimicrobial resistance transmission
Antimicrobial resistance is complex, multi-sectoral and a cross-boundary challenge being driven by clinical, biological, social-political, economical, and environmental drivers and exerts effect not only on humans, but also animals and the ecosystem. However, the key drivers of antimicrobial resistance include poverty, lack of access to clean water, sanitation, and hygiene for both human and animals; poor infections and diseases prevention and control in healthcare facilities and farms; changing population density; poor management of pharmaceutical and hospital wastes; antibiotic misuse and overuse; poor access to quality and affordable medicines, vaccines, and diagnostics; poor public knowledge about antimicrobials and its resistance; lack of enforcement of legislation; lack of surveillance systems; lack of food safety and control measures; poor environmental practices, poor documentation of AMR in animals, poor evidence-based data on the magnitude and economic burden of AMR in humans; poor rules and regulations to control counterfeit drugs in the market and unique transmission properties of antimicrobial resistant organism, chemical stressors in an environment, among others [37].
Bacteria usually adopt some mechanisms to resist antibiotic action against them. These mechanisms include the inactivation of the antibiotic through enzymatic degradation, or modification of the antibiotic targets, alteration of the permeability of the cell membrane, and the expression of efflux pumps to keep intracellular of antibiotic below inhibitory level [37].
Several unique properties of antimicrobial resistant bacteria enable their development and propagation in the environment. Autochthonous bacteria constitute environmental reservoirs of antibiotic resistance genes or “resistomes” that can subsequently be transferred to pathogens via horizontal gene transfer (HGT) [37, 38]. This HGT can occur through conjugation, transduction or transformation. However, the key global concern is the development of resistance of last resort, such as the cephalosporins, carbapenems, and polymyximises [39]. Resistance to third-generation cephalosporins has increased worldwide to bacterial acquisition of the ability to produce extended-spectrum beta-lactamase enzymes (ESBL) that mediate resistance to most beta – lactams [40]. Bacteria and mobile genetic elements conferring resistance linger on animal skin and in feces and by various means can be transferred between bacteria, and these organisms can make their way to human beings [41]. Evidence of transmission from livestock to human beings ESBL and AmpC – B – Lactamase genes on plasmids and Escherichia coli clones, most likely through the food chain have been reported [41].
4.1 Environmental and related factors
In developing countries with scarce resources, poor sanitation, poor food safety measures, sales of antimicrobial over the counter, overcrowding, use of antimicrobials in animal and fish farming, and weak government regulations are some of the leading causes of antimicrobial resistance [42, 43]. There has been documentation of antibiotics being added directly to dairy products by vendors in order to increase shelf-life in Ethiopia [44]. Others showed high antimicrobial residues in eggs and meat in Nigeria [45], Ghana [46], Senegal [47], Kenya [48], and Tanzania [49].
4.2 Changing of population density
Movement of people from rural to urban areas (urbanization) brings considerable negative and positive changes in their living and working conditions. In the urban areas, housing density increases, there is overcrowding, animals and humans may share dwelling places and drinking water, among others with resultant negative health consequences. One of the problems associated with rural-urban migration of people includes AMR infection transmission, which has been documented [50].
4.3 Use of antimicrobials in human and veterinary medicine
Antimicrobial are among the most commonly prescribed drugs in human and veterinary medicine but about 50% of these are considered unnecessary [51]. This is associated with misuse, overuse, and underuse especially in low, middle, and high-income countries (LMIC) [52, 53]. These consumptions could be a major driver of AMR. When antibiotics are used, either for medicinal purposes or for food animal production, they inevitably make their way into the environment [40].
Antibiotics have been in use in livestock, cattle, and aquaculture, among others to enhance production and growth for human consumption. A study showed that among different countries using veterinary antibiotics, Myanmar, Indonesia, Nigeria, Peru, and Vietnam have been projected to have the greatest increase by 2030 in that descending order [54].
Treatment of ailing fish with antibiotics used for human medicine and then dumping these treatments directly into the water or via fish food is one of the leading causes of bacterial resistance in the aquatic environment. Substantial evidence supports the link between antibiotic resistance in livestock and the emergence of bacterial resistance in humans [55, 56].
4.4 Counterfeit antibiotics
Counterfeit antibiotics are a type of substandard drug and the influx into the global pharmaceutical market is estimated at 5% [57]. The majority of these products originating from south-East-Asia and Africa, are destined mainly for emerging countries including South-East –Asia, sub-Saharan Africa, Europe, and North America [57]. Even though it is a worldwide problem, it is still not eradicated and it continues to exert a devastating negative impact mainly because of poverty, globalization, ease of international trade, the lack of regulations, and law enforcement, among others.
4.5 Non-prescription antibiotics
Globally, antibiotics are becoming more and more available over-the-counter or via unregulated supply chains [58, 59], which is a problem in both developing and developed countries [60]. This results from weak law enforcement or even the absence of policies and regulations [61]. In developing countries mainly Africa, the community is providing different unauthorized services like consulting, diagnosing, prescribing, and dispensing medications [62]. These illegal practices if no care is taken can increase selection pressure and consequently AMR.
5. Overview antimicrobial and hospital antimicrobial stewardship
Antimicrobial stewardship is the effort to measure and improve how antimicrobials are prescribed by clinicians and used by patients. Improving antimicrobials prescribing and use is critical to effectively treat infections, protect patients from harms caused by unnecessary antimicrobial use, and combat antimicrobial resistance. (www.cdc.gov/antibiotic-use/core-elements/index.html).
CDC’s Core Elements of Antibiotic Stewardship offers providers and facilities a set of key principles to guide efforts to improve antibiotic use and, therefore, advance patient safety and improve outcomes. These frameworks complement existing guidelines and standards from key healthcare partner organizations, including the Infectious Diseases Society of America, Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America, American Society of Health System Pharmacists, Society of Infectious Diseases Pharmacists, and The Joint Commission (CDC www.cdc.gov/antibiotic-use/core-elements/index.html).
It is the use of standard antibiotic regimens for the treatment of infections thus optimization of antibiotic use. This program has been implemented in some countries with impressive results [48], leading to a reduction in the use of antibiotics especially broad-spectrum antibiotics in addition to a decrease in healthcare costs and the improvement of patient outcomes and AMR containment [63, 64]. Similar programs in South Africa, a lower-middle-income country, in both the private and public hospital sectors, have shown reductions in inappropriate antibiotic use, among others [65].
The Core Elements of Hospital Antibiotic Stewardship Programmes [66] include:
Hospital Leadership Commitment which dedicates necessary human, financial, and information technology resources.
Accountability appoints a leader or co-leaders, such as a physician and pharmacist, responsible for program management and outcomes.
Pharmacy Expertise (previously Drug Expertise) which appoints a pharmacist, ideally as the co-leader of the stewardship program, to help lead implementation efforts to improve antibiotic use.
Action that implements interventions, such as prospective audit and feedback or preauthorization, to improve antibiotic use.
Tracking which monitors antibiotic prescribing, impact of interventions, and other important outcomes, like Clostridium difficile infections and resistance patterns.
Regularly reporting information on antibiotic use and resistance to prescribers, pharmacists, nurses, and hospital leadership.
Education of prescribers, pharmacists, nurses, and patients about adverse reactions from antibiotics, antibiotic resistance, and optimal prescribing.
6. Deficiencies in the hospital antimicrobial stewardship program
Because the drivers of antimicrobial resistance lie in humans, animals, plants, food, and the environment (i.e., beyond the hospital), a sustained One Health response is essential to engage and unite all stakeholders around a shared vision and goals.
Human resources for health (HRH) are key in the hospital antimicrobial resistance containment. However, inadequate and inequity in the distribution of health workers is a huge problem, especially in Africa, and Nigeria [67]. The maldistribution of health workforces is central to the existing inequalities in health service coverage and the burden of disease for populations in need.
Weak health system: Although the battle of AMR is a global one, Africa is currently at a disadvantage in the fight because of weak healthcare systems and other factors that are slowing the continent’s efforts in the fight. This will have serious negative human, social, economic, and developmental consequences in the region [15]. Africa is a continent bellied with challenges such as widespread poverty, armed conflicts, high level of illiteracy, poverty, and very weak medical and veterinary health institutions [68], that have made the continent poorly prepared to effectively fight this public health threat.
7. The role of One Health
One Health is an approach of multiple disciplines working locally, nationally, and globally to obtain better health for people, animals, and the environment. It has the potential to mitigate the negative externality of AMR [69].
Studies have shown that implementing one health, especially in low-income countries will save lots of money for the veterinary and medical health systems [44, 68]. This money can be used to enhance surveillance and improve capacities in medical and veterinary HS. Surveillance systems are the foundation for a better understanding of the epidemiology of AMR and the key for tackling this public health threat [46].
7.1 The benefits of One Health in tackling antimicrobial resistance
Tackling antimicrobial resistance from the “One Health” perspective is emaced by the WHO/FAO/OIE Tripartite, the Declaration from the 2016 high-level meeting on antimicrobial resistance at the United Nations General Assembly, and is supported by the World Bank [20, 70, 71]. This model engenders broad effectiveness and efficiency outcomes generating savings in operating costs. It is based on building veterinary/human public-health capacity and enhancing awareness in order to reach effective global governance. Capitalizing on these capacities or reducing the vulnerabilities, especially in low-income countries will prevent or mitigate the leading causes of antimicrobial resistance and infectious pandemic.
The adoption and implementation of laboratory-based surveillance and monitoring system in the African WHO regional office is poor. In LMICs, the challenges are enormous due to weak laboratory and communications infrastructure, lack of trained and qualified staff, and higher incidence of counterfeit antibiotics [72]. Current surveillance capabilities are variable across the world. Europe and the USA have the best surveillance coverage while Sub-Saharan Africa, South and Southeast Asia have the least developed [51]. Therefore, there is need for global public health awareness on the importance of rational antibiotic use and emergence of resistance.
8. Conclusion
The importance of antimicrobial resistance cannot be neglected in view of its consequences globally, regionally, nationally, and locally. It is a hazard that must be prevented and/or mitigated. Health Education of the general population and clinicians on wrong antibiotic choice, wrong dose, wrong dose interval, wrong route, wrong duration, and delayed administration could be helpful.
Multimodal strategies for the control of AMR, Research and Development, environmental control, market control, and manufacturing should be explored.
Establishment of laboratory for human and animal diseases research: Adequate funding is critical; however, the sources of funding can be from governmental and non-governmental entities.
Surveillance of antibiotic consumption in medical and veterinary medicine is fundamental; and a massive global public awareness is important to enhance knowledge about AMR in general and antibiotic uses and resistance in particular. Surveillance systems are the foundation for a better understanding of the epidemiology of AMR and the key for tackling this public health threat.
Medical prescriptions should be based on the local antibiogram. There is a need to explore alternatives to antimicrobials, such as phages and probiotics, among others.
Acknowledgments
I sincerely acknowledge my teachers, namely Professors JKP Kwaga, Junaidu Kabir, TO Aken’Ova, Clara Ladi Ejembi, Kabir Sabitu, Mohammed Bello, and Dr FJ Giwa of Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria.
Others are Late Professors Andrew Nok, James Adagadzu Kagbu and Stephen Nkom, Late Dr TT Gbem and Late Colonel (Dr) Chinedu John Camillus Igboanusi, Yahuza Suleiman, Bawa Egga, Eunice Azimheye Mamedu, and Esther Jonah.
I also acknowledge Mrs Wazi Istifanus, Ovye Istifanus, Ahogbresha Istifanus, Ashe-ulu Istifanus, and Abesla Istifanus for all their support.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"antimicrobials, antimicrobial resistance, Hospital antimicrobial stewardship, infections, one health",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/82178.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/82178.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/82178",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/82178",totalDownloads:16,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"February 17th 2022",dateReviewed:"March 2nd 2022",datePrePublished:"June 13th 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"June 9th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Infections caused by micro-organisms affect the health of people and animals, causing morbidity and mortality, with Asia and Africa as the epicenters. Some of the infectious diseases are emerging and re-emerging in nature. Examples include viral hepatitis, Lassa fever, Ebola, yellow fever, tuberculosis, covid-19, measles, and malaria, among others. Antimicrobials have been playing an important role in the treatment of infections by these microbes. However, there has been a development of resistance to these antimicrobials as a result of many drivers. This write-up used secondary data to explore the management of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) beyond the hospital antimicrobial resistance steward using the one health concept. The findings showed AMR to be a transboundary, multifaceted ecosystem problem affecting both the developed and developing countries. It is also one of the top ten global public health threats facing mankind. Globally, AMR will cost over US$100 trillion in output loss by 2050, about 700,000 deaths a year, and 4,150,000 deaths in Africa by 2050. About 2.4 million people could die in high-income countries between 2015 and 2050 without a sustained effort to contain AMR. The drivers of AMR are beyond the hospital and hospital AMR stewardship. Therefore, the need for one health concept to manage it.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/82178",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/82178",signatures:"Istifanus Anekoson Joshua, Mathew Bobai and Clement Sokfa Woje",book:{id:"11373",type:"book",title:"The Global Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemic - Innovative Approaches and Cutting-Edge Solutions",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"The Global Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemic - Innovative Approaches and Cutting-Edge Solutions",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Guillermo Téllez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11373.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80356-042-7",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-041-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-043-4",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"73465",title:"Dr.",name:"Guillermo",middleName:null,surname:"Téllez",slug:"guillermo-tellez",fullName:"Guillermo Téllez"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Antimicrobials and antimicrobial resistance",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Magnitude of the problem of antimicrobial resistance",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Drivers of antimicrobial resistance transmission",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"4.1 Environmental and related factors",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"4.2 Changing of population density",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"4.3 Use of antimicrobials in human and veterinary medicine",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.4 Counterfeit antibiotics",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.5 Non-prescription antibiotics",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10",title:"5. Overview antimicrobial and hospital antimicrobial stewardship",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"6. Deficiencies in the hospital antimicrobial stewardship program",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"7. The role of One Health",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"7.1 The benefits of One Health in tackling antimicrobial resistance",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14",title:"8. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_18",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Gerald LM, John EB, Raphael D, Mandell D. Bennett Principle and Practice of Infectious Diseases. 7th Edition. Philadelphia, USA: Churchill Living Stone, Elsevier Limited. 2010'},{id:"B2",body:'Bornard B, Delia R, John M. Africa’s Growing Risk of Diseases that Spread from Animals to People, 2020. IFFRI blogi - issue. Available at: https//www.iffri.org/blogi/africas-growing-risk-disease-spread-animals-people [Accessed on 26 January, 2022]'},{id:"B3",body:'Fenollar F, Mediannikov O. Emerging Infectious Diseases in Africa in the 21st century. Philadelphia, USA: Elsevier Ltd. 2018'},{id:"B4",body:'WHO. Antimicrobial Resistance. 2021. 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Human migration activities drive the fluctuations of ARGs: Case study of Landfills in Nanjing, Eastern China. Journal of Hazard Materials. 2016;315:93-101'},{id:"B51",body:'World Bank. Drug-Resistant Infections: A Threat to Our Economic Future. Washington, DC: World Bank; 2017'},{id:"B52",body:'Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Antibiotic Resistance Threats in the United States. Atlanta: CDC; 2013'},{id:"B53",body:'World Health Organization. The Evolving Threat of Antimicrobial Resistance: Options for Action. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 2012'},{id:"B54",body:'Van Boeckel TP, Pires J, Silvester R, Zhao C, Song J, Criscuolo NG, et al. Global trends in antimicrobial resistance in animals in low-and middle-income countries. Science. 2019;365:eaaw1944'},{id:"B55",body:'Chatterjee A, Modarai M, Naylor NR, Boyd SE, Atun R, Barlow J, et al. Quantifying drivers of antibiotic resistance in humans: A systematic review. 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Antimicrobial resistance in developing countries and responsible risk factors. International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents. 2004;24:105-110'},{id:"B60",body:'Guinovart MC, Figueras A, Llor C. Selling antimicrobials without prescription_ far beyond an administrative problem. Enfermedades Infecciosas Y Microbiologia Clinica (Engl. Ed.). 2018;36:290-292'},{id:"B61",body:'Auta A, Hadi MA, Oga E, Adewuyi EO, Abdu-Aguye SN, Adeloye D, et al. Global access to antibiotics without prescription in community pharmacies: A systematic review and meta-analysis. The Journal of Infection. 2019;78:8-18'},{id:"B62",body:'Kwena Z, Sharma A, Wamae N, Muga C, Bukusi E. Provider characteristics among staff providing care to sexually transmitted infection self-medicating patients in retail pharmacies in Kibera slum, Nairobi, Kenya. Sexually Transmitted Diseases. 2008;35:480-483'},{id:"B63",body:'Fleming-Dutra KE, Hersh AL, Shapiro DJ, Bartoces M, Enns EA, File TM, et al. Prevalence of inappropriate antibiotic prescriptions among US ambulatory care visits, 2010-2011. JAMA. 2016;315:1864-1873'},{id:"B64",body:'Brink AJ, Messina AP, Feldman C, Richards GA, Becker PJ, Go DA, et al. Antimicrobial stewardship across 47 South African hospitals: An implementation study. The Lancet Infectious Diseases. 2016;16:1017-1025'},{id:"B65",body:'Brink AJ, Messina AP, Feldman C, Richards GA, van den Bergh D. Netcare Antimicrobial Stewardship Study Alliance. From guidelines to practice: A pharmacist-driven prospective audit and feedback improvement model for peri-operative antibiotic prophylaxis in 34 South African hospitals. The Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. 2017;72:1227-1234'},{id:"B66",body:'Elements of Hosp AMS- Centres for Disease Control and Prevention. Core Elements of Hospital Antibiotic Stewardship Programs; US Department of Health and Human Services. Atlanta, GA, USA: CDC; 2014'},{id:"B67",body:'World Health Statistics. Monitoring Health for Sustainable Development. World Health Oganisation. Geneva, Switzerland. 2021'},{id:"B68",body:'Joshua IA, Bauche J, Abdulla S. Managing Antimicrobial Resistance from Medical and Veterinary Health Systems Perspectives to Achieving Universal Health Coverage in the African Region (Review Article). SEEJPH 2021, posted: 18 May 2021. DOI: 10.11576/seejph-4446'},{id:"B69",body:'Laxminarayan R, Chaudhury RR. Antibiotic resistance in India: Drivers and opportunities for action. PLoS Medicine. 2016;13:e1001974'},{id:"B70",body:'Aidara-Kane A, Angulo FJ, Conly JM, Minato Y, Silbergeld EK, McEwen SA, et al. World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines on use of medically important antimicrobials in food-producing animals. Antimicrobial Resistance and Infection Control. 2018;7:7'},{id:"B71",body:'World Health Organization. Ten Threats to Global Health in 2019. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 2019'},{id:"B72",body:'Coulter S, Merollini K, Roberts JA, Graves N, Halton K. The need for cost-effectiveness analyses of antimicrobial stewardship programmes: A structured review. International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents. 2015;46:140-149'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Istifanus Anekoson Joshua",address:"dristifanus@yahoo.com",affiliation:'
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Tiefenbacher"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:5,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"42656",doi:"10.5772/55538",title:"Conceptual Frameworks of Vulnerability Assessments for Natural Disasters Reduction",slug:"conceptual-frameworks-of-vulnerability-assessments-for-natural-disasters-reduction",totalDownloads:10058,totalCrossrefCites:18,totalDimensionsCites:75,abstract:null,book:{id:"3054",slug:"approaches-to-disaster-management-examining-the-implications-of-hazards-emergencies-and-disasters",title:"Approaches to Disaster Management",fullTitle:"Approaches to Disaster Management - Examining the Implications of Hazards, Emergencies and Disasters"},signatures:"Roxana L. Ciurean, Dagmar Schröter and Thomas Glade",authors:[{id:"163703",title:"Prof.",name:"Thomas",middleName:null,surname:"Glade",slug:"thomas-glade",fullName:"Thomas Glade"},{id:"164141",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Roxana",middleName:"Liliana",surname:"Ciurean",slug:"roxana-ciurean",fullName:"Roxana Ciurean"},{id:"164142",title:"Dr.",name:"Dagmar",middleName:null,surname:"Schroeter",slug:"dagmar-schroeter",fullName:"Dagmar Schroeter"}]},{id:"44219",doi:"10.5772/54973",title:"Disaster Management Discourse in Bangladesh: A Shift from Post-Event Response to the Preparedness and Mitigation Approach Through Institutional Partnerships",slug:"disaster-management-discourse-in-bangladesh-a-shift-from-post-event-response-to-the-preparedness-and",totalDownloads:4131,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:null,book:{id:"3054",slug:"approaches-to-disaster-management-examining-the-implications-of-hazards-emergencies-and-disasters",title:"Approaches to Disaster Management",fullTitle:"Approaches to Disaster Management - Examining the Implications of Hazards, Emergencies and Disasters"},signatures:"C. Emdad Haque and M. Salim Uddin",authors:[{id:"163390",title:"Dr.",name:"C. Emdad",middleName:null,surname:"Haque",slug:"c.-emdad-haque",fullName:"C. Emdad Haque"},{id:"168399",title:"Mr.",name:"Mohammed S",middleName:null,surname:"Uddin",slug:"mohammed-s-uddin",fullName:"Mohammed S Uddin"}]},{id:"60813",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.76198",title:"Crisis Management: A Historical and Conceptual Approach for a Better Understanding of Today’s Crises",slug:"crisis-management-a-historical-and-conceptual-approach-for-a-better-understanding-of-today-s-crises",totalDownloads:4730,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"We argue that the basic and contemporary concepts related to crisis management, especially in the communication field, share some similarities with what was practiced in ancient civilizations such as the importance of direct contact between the leadership and the public. Other similarities include the accurate diagnosis of the real causes of the crisis, the forbiddance of the dissemination of false news and the reassurance of the public opinion that there is a solution to the crisis, a sound management decision, and a good plan for its implementation. We link the past time crises to the contemporary era, providing a comparison framework. The history of crisis tends to show us that the study of crisis management cannot be linked to a specific civilization or era, especially when humanity had witnessed multiple and complex environmental, political, economic, and military crisis. Moreover, some of the problems and complex issues in the modern era are rooted in history. Thus, many geopolitical crises nowadays are the result of old causes. The study of crisis management from an academic point of view should be a multifaceted analysis, including a historical, a cultural, and an anthropological one, which determines the course of evolution and consequences of the crisis.",book:{id:"6620",slug:"crisis-management-theory-and-practice",title:"Crisis Management",fullTitle:"Crisis Management - Theory and Practice"},signatures:"Khaled Zamoum and Tevhide Serra Gorpe",authors:[{id:"230918",title:"Prof.",name:"T. Serra",middleName:null,surname:"Gorpe",slug:"t.-serra-gorpe",fullName:"T. Serra Gorpe"},{id:"230920",title:"Dr.",name:"Khaled",middleName:null,surname:"Zamoum",slug:"khaled-zamoum",fullName:"Khaled Zamoum"}]},{id:"73800",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94274",title:"Evaluation of Liquefaction-Induced Settlement Using Random Forest and REP Tree Models: Taking Pohang Earthquake as a Case of Illustration",slug:"evaluation-of-liquefaction-induced-settlement-using-random-forest-and-rep-tree-models-taking-pohang-",totalDownloads:277,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"A liquefaction-induced settlement assessment is considered one of the major challenges in geotechnical earthquake engineering. This paper presents random forest (RF) and reduced error pruning tree (REP Tree) models for predicting settlement caused by liquefaction. Standard penetration test (SPT) data were obtained for five separate borehole sites near the Pohang Earthquake epicenter. The data used in this study comprise of four features, namely depth, unit weight, corrected SPT blow count and cyclic stress ratio. The available data is divided into two parts: training set (80%) and test set (20%). The output of the RF and REP Tree models is evaluated using statistical parameters including coefficient of correlation (r), mean absolute error (MAE), and root mean squared error (RMSE). The applications for the aforementioned approach for predicting the liquefaction-induced settlement are compared and discussed. The analysis of statistical metrics for the evaluating liquefaction-induced settlement dataset demonstrates that the RF achieved comparatively better and reliable results.",book:{id:"7712",slug:"natural-hazards-impacts-adjustments-and-resilience",title:"Natural Hazards",fullTitle:"Natural Hazards - Impacts, Adjustments and Resilience"},signatures:"Mahmood Ahmad, Xiaowei Tang and Feezan Ahmad",authors:[{id:"298331",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmood",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"mahmood-ahmad",fullName:"Mahmood Ahmad"},{id:"329439",title:"Prof.",name:"Xiaowei",middleName:null,surname:"Tang",slug:"xiaowei-tang",fullName:"Xiaowei Tang"},{id:"333211",title:"Mr.",name:"Feezan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"feezan-ahmad",fullName:"Feezan Ahmad"}]},{id:"60027",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74964",title:"Corporate Governance in Downturn Times: Detection and Alert – The New Italian Insolvency and Crisis Code",slug:"corporate-governance-in-downturn-times-detection-and-alert-the-new-italian-insolvency-and-crisis-cod",totalDownloads:1223,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"In its life cycle, an enterprise may experience periods of crisis. If the crisis is monitored promptly and appropriate measures are taken, not only may the enterprise continue to operate but it may also be able to seize opportunities for growth. The Italian legislator is introducing a procedure aimed at supporting companies to detect the very first warning signs of a crisis. The supervisory board of auditors, the audit firm, and certain qualified creditors will have the right and duty to start the early warning procedure (“allerta”). The board of statutory auditors (Collegio Sindacale) plays a fundamental role: its ex-ante supervisory and control activities over management allow it to effectively play an important role as main recipient of any crisis warning signs. The new regulatory framework lays down certain indicators and critical thresholds, which may trigger the alert process. Initially, the Delegated Legislation (Bill No.3671-bis) sets forth certain specific financial indicators. The new bill (Crisis and Insolvency Code) on the contrary refers to a more complex and sector-specific system of indicators. The findings of an empirical research conducted by analysing a sample of more than 600 enterprises and testing the discriminating capacity of the indicators initially considered are presented herein.",book:{id:"6620",slug:"crisis-management-theory-and-practice",title:"Crisis Management",fullTitle:"Crisis Management - Theory and Practice"},signatures:"Patrizia Riva, Alessandro Danovi, Maurizio Comoli and Ambra\nGarelli",authors:[{id:"230543",title:"Prof.",name:"Patrizia",middleName:null,surname:"Riva",slug:"patrizia-riva",fullName:"Patrizia Riva"},{id:"245409",title:"Prof.",name:"Alessandro",middleName:null,surname:"Danovi",slug:"alessandro-danovi",fullName:"Alessandro Danovi"},{id:"245410",title:"Prof.",name:"Maurizio",middleName:null,surname:"comoli",slug:"maurizio-comoli",fullName:"Maurizio comoli"},{id:"245411",title:"Dr.",name:"Ambra",middleName:null,surname:"Garelli",slug:"ambra-garelli",fullName:"Ambra Garelli"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"60813",title:"Crisis Management: A Historical and Conceptual Approach for a Better Understanding of Today’s Crises",slug:"crisis-management-a-historical-and-conceptual-approach-for-a-better-understanding-of-today-s-crises",totalDownloads:4725,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:"We argue that the basic and contemporary concepts related to crisis management, especially in the communication field, share some similarities with what was practiced in ancient civilizations such as the importance of direct contact between the leadership and the public. Other similarities include the accurate diagnosis of the real causes of the crisis, the forbiddance of the dissemination of false news and the reassurance of the public opinion that there is a solution to the crisis, a sound management decision, and a good plan for its implementation. We link the past time crises to the contemporary era, providing a comparison framework. The history of crisis tends to show us that the study of crisis management cannot be linked to a specific civilization or era, especially when humanity had witnessed multiple and complex environmental, political, economic, and military crisis. Moreover, some of the problems and complex issues in the modern era are rooted in history. Thus, many geopolitical crises nowadays are the result of old causes. The study of crisis management from an academic point of view should be a multifaceted analysis, including a historical, a cultural, and an anthropological one, which determines the course of evolution and consequences of the crisis.",book:{id:"6620",slug:"crisis-management-theory-and-practice",title:"Crisis Management",fullTitle:"Crisis Management - Theory and Practice"},signatures:"Khaled Zamoum and Tevhide Serra Gorpe",authors:[{id:"230918",title:"Prof.",name:"T. Serra",middleName:null,surname:"Gorpe",slug:"t.-serra-gorpe",fullName:"T. Serra Gorpe"},{id:"230920",title:"Dr.",name:"Khaled",middleName:null,surname:"Zamoum",slug:"khaled-zamoum",fullName:"Khaled Zamoum"}]},{id:"44219",title:"Disaster Management Discourse in Bangladesh: A Shift from Post-Event Response to the Preparedness and Mitigation Approach Through Institutional Partnerships",slug:"disaster-management-discourse-in-bangladesh-a-shift-from-post-event-response-to-the-preparedness-and",totalDownloads:4128,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:null,book:{id:"3054",slug:"approaches-to-disaster-management-examining-the-implications-of-hazards-emergencies-and-disasters",title:"Approaches to Disaster Management",fullTitle:"Approaches to Disaster Management - Examining the Implications of Hazards, Emergencies and Disasters"},signatures:"C. Emdad Haque and M. Salim Uddin",authors:[{id:"163390",title:"Dr.",name:"C. Emdad",middleName:null,surname:"Haque",slug:"c.-emdad-haque",fullName:"C. Emdad Haque"},{id:"168399",title:"Mr.",name:"Mohammed S",middleName:null,surname:"Uddin",slug:"mohammed-s-uddin",fullName:"Mohammed S Uddin"}]},{id:"74444",title:"Flood Disaster Hazards; Causes, Impacts and Management: A State-of-the-Art Review",slug:"flood-disaster-hazards-causes-impacts-and-management-a-state-of-the-art-review",totalDownloads:793,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Floods are among disasters that cause widespread destruction to human lives, properties and the environment every year and occur at different places with varied scales across the globe. Flood disasters are caused by natural phenomena, but their occurrences and impacts have been intensified through human actions and inactions. The practice of flood disaster management have evolved over the years from traditional approaches of ad-hoc response measures to integrated approaches involving technologically advanced tools in flood disaster awareness, preparedness and response measures. This chapter proffers understanding into flood disaster awareness, preparedness and management, mitigation and adaptation strategies. Most importantly, the chapter presents a review on the relevance of modern technological tools namely Geographic Information System, Remote Sensing, Internet of Things and Big Data, that are available to flood managers, in the creation of efficient early warnings and Flood decision support systems that elevates the resilience of societies to flood disasters.",book:{id:"7712",slug:"natural-hazards-impacts-adjustments-and-resilience",title:"Natural Hazards",fullTitle:"Natural Hazards - Impacts, Adjustments and Resilience"},signatures:"Frank Jerome Glago",authors:[{id:"325046",title:"M.A.",name:"Frank Jerome",middleName:null,surname:"Glago",slug:"frank-jerome-glago",fullName:"Frank Jerome Glago"}]},{id:"64604",title:"Evidence-Based Contingency Planning to Enhance Local Resilience to Flood Disasters",slug:"evidence-based-contingency-planning-to-enhance-local-resilience-to-flood-disasters",totalDownloads:1510,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015–2030 addresses the importance of “Enhancing disaster preparedness for effective response and to ‘Build Back Better’ in recovery, rehabilitation and reconstruction” as the fourth priority action. One of the practical tools to achieve effective preparedness for flood disaster response is evidence-based contingency planning, which is based on scientific approaches such as flood simulation and quantitative risk assessment. This method, however, is not always feasible to disaster-prone areas in Asia due to the lack of data on natural and social conditions. This chapter proposes a method with six steps for local communities to conduct contingency planning by assuming the dynamic change of inundation using flood simulation, assessing flood risk with key indicators, deciding response strategies against the identified flood risk and developing a contingency plan beforehand. This method was first applied to one of the Asian flood-prone areas, Calumpit Municipality in the Pampanga River basin of the Philippines, to verify its effectiveness in areas where the availability of natural and socio-economic data is limited.",book:{id:"8375",slug:"recent-advances-in-flood-risk-management",title:"Recent Advances in Flood Risk Management",fullTitle:"Recent Advances in Flood Risk Management"},signatures:"Miho Ohara, Naoko Nagumo, Badri Bhakta Shrestha and Hisaya Sawano",authors:[{id:"261112",title:"Dr.",name:"Miho",middleName:null,surname:"Ohara",slug:"miho-ohara",fullName:"Miho Ohara"},{id:"264405",title:"Dr.",name:"Badri",middleName:"Bhakta",surname:"Shrestha",slug:"badri-shrestha",fullName:"Badri Shrestha"},{id:"270525",title:"Mr.",name:"Hisaya",middleName:null,surname:"Sawano",slug:"hisaya-sawano",fullName:"Hisaya Sawano"},{id:"272127",title:"Dr.",name:"Naoko",middleName:null,surname:"Nagumo",slug:"naoko-nagumo",fullName:"Naoko Nagumo"}]},{id:"42656",title:"Conceptual Frameworks of Vulnerability Assessments for Natural Disasters Reduction",slug:"conceptual-frameworks-of-vulnerability-assessments-for-natural-disasters-reduction",totalDownloads:10055,totalCrossrefCites:18,totalDimensionsCites:75,abstract:null,book:{id:"3054",slug:"approaches-to-disaster-management-examining-the-implications-of-hazards-emergencies-and-disasters",title:"Approaches to Disaster Management",fullTitle:"Approaches to Disaster Management - Examining the Implications of Hazards, Emergencies and Disasters"},signatures:"Roxana L. 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The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:"2753-6580",scope:"
\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
\r\n
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\r\n
\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
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\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
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\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
\r\n
\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
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\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
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She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. 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\r\n\tThe era of antibiotics led us to the illusion that the problem of bacterial infection is over. However, bacterial flexibility and adaptation mechanisms allow them to survive and grow in extreme conditions. The best example is the formation of a sophisticated society of bacteria defined as a biofilm. Understanding the mechanism of bacterial biofilm formation has changed our perception of the development of bacterial infection but successfully eradicating biofilm remains a challenge. Considering the above, it is not surprising that bacteria remain a major public health threat despite the development of many groups of antibiotics. Additionally, increasing prevalence of acquired antibiotic resistance forces us to realize that we are far from controlling the development of bacterial infections. On the other hand, many infections are endogenous and result from an unbalanced relationship between the host and the microorganism. The increasing use of immunosuppressants, such as chemotherapy or organ transplantation, increases the incidence of patients highly susceptible to bacterial infections in the population.
\r\n
\r\n\tThis topic will focus on the current challenges and advantages in the diagnosis and treatment of bacterial infections. We will discuss the host-microbiota relationship, the treatment of chronic infections due to biofilm formation, and the development of new diagnostic tools to rapidly distinguish between colonization and probable infection.
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The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. It will provide significant opportunities and support for scientists, clinical doctors, mycologists, antifungal drug researchers, public health practitioners, and epidemiologists from all over the world to share new research, ideas and solutions to promote the development and progress of medical mycology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment"},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",scope:"Parasitic diseases have evolved alongside their human hosts. In many cases, these diseases have adapted so well that they have developed efficient resilience methods in the human host and can live in the host for years. Others, particularly some blood parasites, can cause very acute diseases and are responsible for millions of deaths yearly. Many parasitic diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases because they have received minimal funding over recent years and, in many cases, are under-reported despite the critical role they play in morbidity and mortality among human and animal hosts. The current topic, Parasitic Infectious Diseases, in the Infectious Diseases Series aims to publish studies on the systematics, epidemiology, molecular biology, genomics, pathogenesis, genetics, and clinical significance of parasitic diseases from blood borne to intestinal parasites as well as zoonotic parasites. We hope to cover all aspects of parasitic diseases to provide current and relevant research data on these very important diseases. In the current atmosphere of the Coronavirus pandemic, communities around the world, particularly those in different underdeveloped areas, are faced with the growing challenges of the high burden of parasitic diseases. At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. Therefore, it is important to conduct studies that examine parasitic infections in the context of the coronavirus pandemic for the benefit of all communities to help foster more informed decisions for the betterment of human and animal health.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",keywords:"Blood Borne Parasites, Intestinal Parasites, Protozoa, Helminths, Arthropods, Water Born Parasites, Epidemiology, Molecular Biology, Systematics, Genomics, Proteomics, Ecology"},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",scope:"The Viral Infectious Diseases Book Series aims to provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends and discoveries in various viral infectious diseases emerging around the globe. The emergence of any viral disease is hard to anticipate, which often contributes to death. A viral disease can be defined as an infectious disease that has recently appeared within a population or exists in nature with the rapid expansion of incident or geographic range. 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Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). 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In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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