Robert J. Reynolds

By Robert J. Reynolds and Steven M. Day

Outer space exploration poses unique risks to human survival. Here, we review the current literature on United States astronauts and Soviet and Russian cosmonauts and provide updated and original research findings. As in previous research, both astronauts and cosmonauts are shown to have reduced risk of death by natural causes, particularly from chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disease and cancer, compared with appropriately matched general populations. Simultaneously, space explorers are at increased risk of death by external forces, particularly accidents such as plane crashes and spacecraft accidents. In total, both astronauts and cosmonauts are at reduced risk of all-cause mortality in comparison to the general populations of the United States and Russia. However, in comparison to astronauts, cosmonauts have been at equal risk of accidental death, but increased risk of death by chronic disease. We conjecture that the lack of risk from chronic disease may be due to the excellent health and medical monitoring of space explorers coupled with the deliberate attempts to limit their radiation exposure levels below those that would be detrimental. The differences in the astronaut and cosmonaut mortality experiences are likely due to lifestyle factors and the background rates of mortality in the two nations.

Part of the book: Into Space

By Steven M. Day and Robert J. Reynolds

Cerebral palsy (CP) is a heterogenous condition, with level of disability ranging from immaterial to profound. In concert with the continuum of level of severity of disability/independent functioning, health care needs, therapies, medications, surgical interventions, costs of care, daily demands on parents and other family members, and expectations for the future in terms of education, employment, and other milestones of life all vary widely. Similarly, life expectancy in CP follows a continuum, from far lower than to potentially as high as general population life expectancy, that parallels the continuum of levels of disability. Here we review the literature documenting this, and examine the specific factors that are known to be strongly associated with mortality and longevity in CP. We also examine the evidence regarding causes of death in CP, and present some new findings related to this. Finally, we outline important methodological considerations for future research in this area.

Part of the book: Cerebral Palsy

By Robert J. Reynolds

The lunar environment contains many hazards to human health, some common to extraterrestrial locations, some unique to the Moon. Exposures of particular concern are hypobaric environments, hypogravity, space radiation, and lunar dust. This chapter provides a brief overview of these exposures, as they represent the gravest threats to human health in the lunar environment (i.e., they may affect mortality rates) and then reviews the published studies of mortality of the original twenty-four lunar astronauts who visited the Moon between 1969 and 1972. The chapter closes with a reexamination of lunar astronaut mortality using updated data, including detailed discussion of the interpretation of the results.

Part of the book: Lunar Science

By Robert J. Reynolds and Mark Shelhamer

Part of the book: Beyond LEO