\r\n\tManagement of these disorders requires good clinical evaluation, diagnostic tests, appropriate therapy and huge healthcare cost. Sometimes multiple specialties (gastroenterologists, \r\n\tgastrointestinal motility specialists, otolaryngologists, surgeons, speech therapists, medical oncologists and radiation oncologists) are involved in the management of dysphonia and dysphagia. In the recent years, there have been many updates in the management of these disorders. This book will discuss systematically the different etiologies and management of dysphonia, maxillofacial, oropharyngeal and esophageal dysphagia. This book will be a good \r\n\tguide to the practicing physicians for the management of voice and swallowing disorders.
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1. Introduction
Antenna size reduction is restricted by fundamental physical limits [1-3], in terms of trade-off between radiation performances and impedance bandwidth. Miniaturization of devices leads to the reduction of antennas which becomes one of the most important challenges [4]. Limitations in terms of bandwidth and efficiency suggest an analysis with respect to fundamental limits [5]. Although interests are often focused on the impedance bandwidth, many studies deal with the radiation quality factor Q. Some papers [6] have been concluded that the impedance bandwidth BW equals 1/Q. The minimum Q value reachable by an infinitesimal electric dipole, or similarly by the azimuthally symmetric TM10 spherical mode, has been investigated thoroughly.
Hansen and Best [7] have shown that the lower bound on Q, deriving from Chu’s analysis, is depending on the expense of efficiency as shown by the equation:
Qlb=η(1(ka)3+1ka)
\n\t\t\t
where a is the minimum radius of the sphere enclosing the antenna and k is the wave number (k=2π/λ).
The Figure 1 shows that it is very difficult to have a wide bandwidth (low Q-factor), while reaching a good efficiency for miniature antennas (k.a around 0.2). Thus, the miniaturization of antennas implies them to suffer of both limited efficiency and low bandwidth.
Figure 1.
Quality factor according to the antenna dimensions and efficiencies
Since many years the scientific literature addresses some approaches concerning miniaturization techniques. The goal is to decrease the electrical size of the radiating element. This chapter will draw up a survey of compact antennas in practical settings and the most common miniaturization techniques listed below:
The use of high dielectric constant materials or magneto-dielectric materials [17-22].
Loading the radiating element with active components [23-26].
Creation of hybrid modes with particular boundary conditions in dielectric resonator antennas. It allows choosing their resonance frequencies (for multiband or wide impedance bandwidth) [27].
We will start this chapter by detailing wire antennas. Indeed, after explaining the classical dipole antenna, we will show how to miniaturize this kind of antennas based on shape design such as bending, folding and meandering. The second part will detail planar antennas. We will see the impact of materials properties under the patch antenna hat, i.e. dielectric or magneto-dielectric materials. Then, planar miniature antennas will be shown, e.g. Planar Inverted F Antenna (PIFA) and monopolar wirepatch antenna. The third part will exhibit Dielectric Resonator Antennas and how to use this kind of antennas for low frequency band application while having compact sizes. Finally, the last part will summary all the antennas presented in this chapter, while showing their main settings.
2. Wire antennas — Miniaturization techniques
2.1. Classical wire antenna: The dipole antenna
The dipole antenna has been developed by Heinrich Rudolph Hertz around 1886 and still remains the most widely used antenna (Figure 2). It owns two identical (same length) and symmetrical metal wires, and its feeding device is connected at the center of the dipole, i.e. connected to the two adjacent wires ends. The dipole working results of a standing wave phenomenon depending on its length. The antenna fundamental mode occurs when the whole antenna is a half-wavelength long.
Figure 2.
Dipole antenna shape (a) and its 3D radiation shape (b)
The radiated field of the dipole antenna working on its fundamental mode has a linear polarization. As shown in Figure 2, its radiation pattern is maximum at right angles to the dipole and drops off to zero on the dipole\'s axis. Its maximum directivity equals 2.15dBi. The impedance bandwidth of this kind of antenna is quite wide since it is between 10% and 20% (it depends on the wire’s radius) [28].
2.2. The monopole antenna
By adding a perpendicular ground plane at the center of the dipole antenna, its length can be divided by two: that is the monopole antenna. Theoretically, this ground plane is considered as an infinite Perfect Electric Conductor (PEC) plane. In this case, the current in the reflected image [29-30] has the same direction and phase as the current in the dipole antenna. Thus the quarter-wavelength monopole and its image together form a half-wavelength dipole that radiates only in the upper half of space (see Figure 3).
Figure 3.
Monopole antenna shape (a) and its 3D radiation shape (b)
Therefore it presents a 3 dB gain higher than the dipole antenna. The radiation resistance is proportional to (h/λ)2, this latter is therefore decreasing the square of the antenna height h.
The first mobile phones were using this kind of antennas to receive the Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) (see Figure 4).
Figure 4.
Monopole antenna integrated inside a mobile phone
In practice, the finite ground plane disturbs the radiation pattern and the maximum directivity is decreasing. The monopole antenna bandwidth is quite the same as the dipole, i.e. up to 20%.
2.3. Inverted L and F antennas (ILA and IFA)
To reduce the monopole antenna global dimensions, we can bend the wire to be parallel to the ground: that is the Inverted L Antenna (ILA) [31]. Its design is depicted Figure 5, there is both a vertical and a horizontal parts. Since its electrical length is the same than the monopole, its resonance frequency is also the same. The radiation resistance is proportional to (h/λ)2, with h the length of the vertical part (see Figure 5). Actually, the horizontal part occurs as a capacitive charge and this makes the antenna difficult to match on 50Ω. Therefore, the antenna bandwidth is very low and does not exceed 1% [31-33].
Figure 5.
Inverted L Antenna (ILA) shape
Adding a ground wire on the horizontal part facilitates the ILA matching. This new antenna design is called Inverted F Antenna (IFA) (Figure 6). This wire is equivalent to a self-inductance in parallel with the capacitance of the horizontal wire. That involves a parallel resonance at low frequencies.
Figure 6.
Inverted F Antenna (IFA) shape
To fit the input impedance around 50Ω, we can adjust wire’s parameters (radius, distance with the feeding point,…). However, typical impedance bandwidths are around 2% or 3% [34-35].
2.4. The helical antenna
This kind of antenna allows reducing the physical length of an antenna (Figure 7). Basically, its fundamental mode is due to a quarter wavelength resonance. However, its bending structure can involve some capacitive and/or inductive resonances. This antenna has been widely used in mobile phone devices.
Figure 7.
Helical antenna
Global dimensions of this kind of antennas are around λ0/10 for its height with a λ0/40 diameter. Its typical impedance bandwidth is up to 8%. Thus this antenna is covering the entire GSM band [36-37].
3. Planar antennas – Miniaturization techniques
3.1. Classical planar antenna: the patch antenna
The patch antenna was introduced by John Q. Howell in 1972 [38]. This kind of antenna presents a metallic top hat mounted on a dielectric substrate. Its lower face is the ground plane and its feeding can be a coaxial probe (Figure 8), a microstrip line or a coplanar waveguide.
Figure 8.
Patch antenna
The two metal sheets together form a resonant part of a microstrip transmission line with a length equals to a half of wavelength. Thus, its higher dimension is equal to λg/2, with λg the the guided wavelength. A simple patch antenna radiates a linearly polarized wave and its radiation can be regarded as a result of the current flowing on the patch and the ground plane. Thus its maximum gain is relative to the vertical axis of the patch and can reach 7 or 8 dB. The impedance bandwidth is between 1% and 4% and depends on both the dielectric permittivity and the thickness of the substrate.
3.2. Miniaturization techniques of planar antennas
3.2.1. Use of materials
Using a material allow the reduction of the guided wavelength and thus the physical length of an antenna. Indeed, the patch antenna length is directly proportional to the refractive index of the dielectric substrate n=εr.μr. Using a dielectric material is the most common method to reduce the antenna size [39-40]. In this sub-section, we will show on one hand the antenna size reduction for a planar antenna printed on a dielectric substrate and on the other hand on a magneto-dielectric material substrate.
Using a dielectric material
We consider the patch antenna presented Figure 8 with a 4cm-length and a 3mm-thickness. To show the impact of a dielectric substrate we consider two different cases:
Substrate with low dielectric permittivity εr=1.
Substrate with higher dielectric permittivity εr=9.
The Table 1 summarizes main results for patch antennas with strictly same dimensions.
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tResonance frequency\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tMatching frequency\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\tImpedance bandwidth\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t\t
Patch antenna with εr=1
\n\t
3.7 GHz
\n\t
3.8 GHz
\n\t
4.1 %
\n
\n
\n\t
Patch antenna with εr=9
\n
1.3 GHz
\n
1.32 GHz
\n
0.98 %
\n
\n
Table 1.
Comparison between two antenna patches with same dimensions printed on different substrates
As we can see in this table, the resonance frequency is divided by three with the increase of the dielectric permittivity value. Indeed, the miniaturization factor is close to the refractive index εr.μr=9=3. However, the antenna miniaturization involves the reduction of its performances as its impedance bandwidth is divided by four.
Another solution is to use a magneto-dielectric material.
Using a magneto-dielectric material
Hansen and Burke [41] have expressed the zero-order impedance bandwidth of a patch antenna printed on a t-thick magneto-dielectric material by the following equation:
BW=96με.tλ0/2(4+17ε.μ)E1
Thus, compared to high dielectric permittivity, high permeability materials allow to reduce the size of a patch antenna without decreasing its relative impedance bandwidth. In [42], Niamien et al. investigates magneto-dielectric materials losses and provides expressions of antenna impedance bandwidth and efficiency according to both dielectric and magnetic losses for a patch antenna. They showed that both the radiation efficiency and the impedance bandwidth increase with the permeability.
Considering the previous patch antenna (with a 4cm-length and 3mm-thick) by changing the dielectric material by a magneto-dielectric material, we obtain the Table 2 results.
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
\n\t\t
Resonance frequency
\n\t\t
Matching frequency
\n\t\t
Impedance bandwidth
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
Patch antenna with εr=9 and μr=1
\n
1.3 GHz
\n
1.32 GHz
\n
0.98 %
\n
\n
\n\t
Patch antenna with εr=4 and μr=2.25
\n
1.35 GHz
\n
1.38 GHz
\n
1.87 %
\n
\n
\n\t
Patch antenna with εr=3 and μr=3
\n
1.37 GHz
\n
1.41 GHz
\n
2.82 %
\n
\n
\n\t
Patch antenna with εr=2.25 and μr=4
\n
1.38 GHz
\n
1.45 GHz
\n
3.29 %
\n
\n
\n\t
Patch antenna with εr=1 and μr=9
\n
1.31 GHz
\n
1.65 GHz
\n
4.66 %
\n
\n
Table 2.
Comparison between antenna patches with same dimensions printed on different substrates
This table compares patch antenna results with a same refractive index n=εr.μr=3. It should be noticed that all the materials are considered without any loss.
Therefore the comparison between the dielectric and magneto-dielectric materials shows that using the latter in a patch antenna allows increasing its impedance bandwidth. A patch antenna printed on a magneto-dielectric material presents the same miniaturization factor and allows the increase of its impedance bandwidth.
3.2.2. Modification of the antenna shape
Notches integration
The integration of notches on the antenna top hat is often used. It allows to artificially increase the electrical length of the radiating element by extending the current “path” on this element (Figure 9).
Figure 9.
Integration of notches on antenna’s top hat (a) Surface current lines (b)
The radiating element dimensions can be reduced up to 50% comparing with a classical patch antenna.
Meander antenna
As for the helical antenna, the meander antenna allows decreasing the physical length of a planar antenna. The advantage is that this antenna is planar and thus easy to integrate inside a mobile phone. We can present on the Figure 10 a widely used meander antenna for the GSM reception on mobile phones. It is printed on a 0.8mm-thick FR4 substrate and is matched on 1%-bandwidth around 900 MHz with λ0/3 x λ0/5 dimensions.
Figure 10.
Meander antenna integrated within a mobile phone for the GSM reception
3.2.3. Short cut insertion
Planar Inverted F Antenna
As for the dipole and the monopole, it is possible to integrate a metallic plate inside the patch antenna in order to divide its main dimension by two. Indeed, on the fundamental mode of the patch, we can integrate a short cut where the electric filed is null. To manage to match the antenna the metallic plate dimensions have to be optimised (Figure 11).
Figure 11.
Planar Inverted F Antenna (PIFA)
In [43], a Planar Inverted Antenna with λ0/6 x λ0/8 x λ0/35 dimensions at 2.45GHz is matching over a 6.5% impedance bandwidth.
Monopolar wire patch antenna
The design of a classical wire patch antenna is presented in Figure 12. It is composed by two metallizations etched on each face of a dielectric substrate. The lower metallic plate acts as ground and the upper metallic plate constitutes the antenna top hat. This kind of antenna is fed by a coaxial probe which is connected to the top hat through the ground plane and the dielectric substrate. The ground wire acts as a short-circuit to the capacitance of the antenna constituted by the top hat above the ground plane and allows achieving a new low-frequency parallel resonance. The resonance frequency is smaller than the classical antenna fundamental cavity mode [44]. It is primarily set by the size of the top hat, the height of the antenna, the permittivity of the substrate and the ground wire diameter.
The main antenna parameters to adjust the antenna impedance matching to 50Ω are:
The ground wire radius. The smaller the radius is, the higher the maximum of the input impedance real part is.
The radius of the feeding probe. The higher the radius is, the lower the input impedance imaginary part is.
The ground wire – feeding probe separation. The Q-factor is increasing when the length between the ground wire and the feeding probe core is increasing.
Figure 12.
Monopolar wire patch antenna
As presented in [45-46], the use of a closed slot into the antenna top hat involves a significant reduction of the resonant frequency (Figure 13). Indeed, the introduction of a slot in the hat of the antenna changes the equivalent capacitance of the antenna short-circuited hat by increasing its value.
Figure 13.
Monopolar wire patch antenna with a notch (a) and corresponding |S11| parameters
The longer the electrical length of the slot is, the lower the resonant frequency is. We can compare the |S11| parameters of the wire patch antenna presented in Figure 13 with and without the notch [47]. As expected, adding a notch inside the wire patch antenna top hat allows decreasing the working frequency but also the impedance bandwidth.
The design of a DRA in any geometry must satisfy various specifications including: the resonant frequency, the impedance bandwidth, the field distribution inside the resonator and also the radiated field. The intent of this part is to provide an overview of main findings of investigations on simple-shaped DRAs. Then, it will deal with the different miniaturization techniques of DRAs.
4.1. DRAs characteristics
A non-exhaustive list of main simple-shaped DRAs characteristics is described below:
The main dimension of a DRA is proportional to λ0/εr.μr where λ0 is the free-space wavelength at the resonant frequency, εr and μr are respectively the dielectric and the magnetic constant of the material. In a dielectric material case, μr=1 and the main dimension of a DRA is proportional to λ0/εr.
The radiation efficiency of the DRA is highly depending on the material losses. In case of a low-loss dielectric material, DRAs allow to achieve better efficiency than other kind of antennas because of minimal conductor losses associated with a DRA.
For a given dielectric constant, both resonant frequency and radiated Q-factor are defined according to the resonator dimensions. That allows having a great flexibility and some degrees of freedom to design such an antenna.
Another degree of freedom is the large spectrum of available dielectric materials. That allows doing the best trade-off between dimensions and impedance bandwidth according to the intended application.
A number of modes can be excited within the DRA, many of them provide dipolar-like radiation characteristics.
The most common targeted frequencies presented by the research literatures are ranging from 1GHz to 40 GHz.
For a given DRA geometry, the radiation patterns can be made to change by exciting different resonant modes.
A large number of DRA excitations are currently used, e.g. microstrip line, coaxial probe excitation, coplanar waveguide… The next subsection will deal with the most commonly used excitations.
4.2. DRAs miniaturization techniques
This subsection examines techniques to design compact DRAs. Targeted applications are mobile handsets or wireless tablet. There are several techniques to make DRAs more compact. By adding metal plates, inserting a high permittivity layer (multisegment DRA) or removing portions of the DRA, a significant size reduction can be achieved.
Addition of a metallic plate on a DRA face
The rectangular DRA shape has been studied in the first part. The perfect metallic wall implies that electric fields are normal to this conductor, while magnetic fields are tangential. E and H fields presented Figure 14 assume that a metallic plate can be inserted in the middle of the DRA according to the y-component. The principle is detailed and explained by the Figure 14. It also shows the E and H fields of the TE111 mode.
Figure 14.
Integration of a metallic plate
By applying the image theory, it is possible to insert a metal plate in the y=w/2 plane. The Table 3 extracted from [48] shows the influence of the metallic plate insertion on resonant frequency and impedance bandwidth.
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
εr\n\t\t
\n\t\t
w (cm)
\n\t\t
d (cm)
\n\t\t
h (cm)
\n\t\t
Metallization
\n\t\t
f0(GHz)
\n\t\t
Bandwidth
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
12
\n\t\t
2.75
\n\t\t
2.75
\n\t\t
2.95
\n\t\t
No
\n\t\t
1.98
\n\t\t
10%
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
12
\n\t\t
2.75
\n\t\t
2.75
\n\t\t
2.95
\n\t\t
Yes
\n\t\t
1.24
\n\t\t
5.6%
\n\t
\n
Table 3.
Influence of the metallic plate insertion on both resonant frequency and impedance bandwidth
Thus, the metal plate insertion allows dividing by two the DRA size, while reducing the resonant frequency. However, as pointed by the Table 3, the metallic plate insertion involves also the decrease of the impedance bandwidth.
Multisegment DRA
Another way to decrease the DRA size is to insert different substrate layers as illustrated Figure 15.
Figure 15.
Multisegment DRA
It allows achieving strong coupling when the first insertion has a relatively high dielectric permittivity. This technique is detailed in [48] and [49]. The Table 4 summarizes a parametrical study done in [49] for one layer inserted (Figure 15) with w=7.875 mm, d=2 mm, h=3.175 and εr=10. It is mounted on a 0.762 mm height substrate of permittivity εs=3. The TE111 mode of the DRA is excited with a 50Ω microstrip line.
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
t (mm)
\n\t\t
εi\n\t\t
\n\t\t
Measured f0(GHz)
\n\t\t
Bandwidth
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
0
\n\t\t
-
\n\t\t
15.2
\n\t\t
21%
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
0.25
\n\t\t
20
\n\t\t
14.7
\n\t\t
18%
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
0.635
\n\t\t
20
\n\t\t
14.5
\n\t\t
18%
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
1
\n\t\t
20
\n\t\t
13.9
\n\t\t
16%
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
0.25
\n\t\t
40
\n\t\t
14.7
\n\t\t
20%
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
0.635
\n\t\t
40
\n\t\t
13.7
\n\t\t
13%
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
1
\n\t\t
40
\n\t\t
12.9
\n\t\t
5%
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
0.25
\n\t\t
100
\n\t\t
14.7
\n\t\t
16%
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
0.635
\n\t\t
100
\n\t\t
13.1
\n\t\t
7%
\n\t
\n\t
\n\t\t
1
\n\t\t
100
\n\t\t
10.8
\n\t\t
5%
\n\t
\n
Table 4.
A parametrical study done in [31] for one layer inserted
Thus, a thin layer insertion allows improving the coupling of modes inside the DRA while decreasing the resonant frequency thanks to the decrease of the effective dielectric permittivity of the DRA. As the previous technique, the downside is the decrease of the impedance bandwidth.
5. Summary of compact antennas performances
In this part, as a first conclusion we can summary the main performances of the previous presented antennas.
6. Conclusion
To conclude, an overview of classical antennas with their miniaturization techniques has been presented and detailed in this chapter while mentioning a lot of literature references. Classical wire antennas as monopoles present good impedance bandwidth, but they remain too large to be integrated inside last generations of mobile devices. Planar antennas have the advantage to be generally low profiles and thus easier to be integrate. However, patch antennas or planar inverted F antennas have maximum gains relative to the vertical axis. Thus, wire patch antenna presents a good alternative since it radiates as a dipole antenna and is significantly smaller. Concerning the dielectric resonator antennas, they can be miniature and can resonate and be matched on different frequency by creating some partial boundary condition [50].
\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/47251.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/47251.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/47251",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/47251",totalDownloads:2798,totalViews:1305,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"July 1st 2014",dateReviewed:"July 7th 2014",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"September 10th 2014",readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/47251",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/47251",book:{slug:"progress-in-compact-antennas"},signatures:"L. Huitema and T. Monediere",authors:[{id:"169144",title:"Dr.",name:"Laure",middleName:null,surname:"Huitema",fullName:"Laure Huitema",slug:"laure-huitema",email:"laure.huitema@xlim.fr",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Wire antennas — Miniaturization techniques",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Classical wire antenna: The dipole antenna",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. The monopole antenna",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3. Inverted L and F antennas (ILA and IFA)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.4. The helical antenna",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"3. Planar antennas – Miniaturization techniques",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.1. Classical planar antenna: the patch antenna",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.2. Miniaturization techniques of planar antennas",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"Table 1.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"3.2.2. Modification of the antenna shape",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"3.2.3. Short cut insertion",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13",title:"4. Dielectric resonator antennas (DRAs) – Miniaturization techniques",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"4.1. DRAs characteristics",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"4.2. DRAs miniaturization techniques",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16",title:"5. 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Monediere, "Ultrawideband Dielectric Resonator Antenna for DVB-H and GSM Applications” IEEE Antennas and Wireless Propagation letter, vol. 8, pp. 1021-1027, 2009'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"L. Huitema",address:null,affiliation:'
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Valagiannopoulos",slug:"constantinos-a.-valagiannopoulos"}]},{id:"14712",title:"Cavity-Backed Cylindrical Wraparound Antennas",slug:"cavity-backed-cylindrical-wraparound-antennas",signatures:"O. M. C. Pereira-Filho, T. B. Ventura, C. G. Rego, A. F. Tinoco-S., and J. C. da S. Lacava",authors:[{id:"17182",title:"Dr.",name:"José Carlos",middleName:"Da Silva",surname:"Lacava",fullName:"José Carlos Lacava",slug:"jose-carlos-lacava"},{id:"19227",title:"PhD.",name:"Odilon",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira Filho",fullName:"Odilon Pereira Filho",slug:"odilon-pereira-filho"},{id:"19450",title:"Mr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura",fullName:"Thiago Ventura",slug:"thiago-ventura"},{id:"19451",title:"PhD.",name:"Cassio",middleName:null,surname:"Rego",fullName:"Cassio Rego",slug:"cassio-rego"},{id:"19452",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexis F.",middleName:null,surname:"Tinoco Salazar",fullName:"Alexis F. Tinoco Salazar",slug:"alexis-f.-tinoco-salazar"}]},{id:"14713",title:"Analysis into Proximity-Coupled Microstrip Antenna on Dielectric Lens",slug:"analysis-into-proximity-coupled-microstrip-antenna-on-dielectric-lens",signatures:"Lawrence Mall",authors:[{id:"18397",title:"Dr.",name:"Lawrence",middleName:null,surname:"Mall",fullName:"Lawrence Mall",slug:"lawrence-mall"}]},{id:"14714",title:"Methods to Design Microstrip Antennas for Modern Applications",slug:"methods-to-design-microstrip-antennas-for-modern-applications",signatures:"K. Siakavara",authors:[{id:"18497",title:"PhD.",name:"Katherine",middleName:null,surname:"Siakavara",fullName:"Katherine Siakavara",slug:"katherine-siakavara"}]},{id:"14715",title:"Fractal-Shaped Reconfigurable Antennas",slug:"fractal-shaped-reconfigurable-antennas",signatures:"Ali Ramadan, Mohammed Al-Husseini, Karim Y. Kabalan and Ali El-Hajj",authors:[{id:"17558",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Husseini",fullName:"Mohammed Al-Husseini",slug:"mohammed-al-husseini"},{id:"21637",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Ramadan",fullName:"Ali Ramadan",slug:"ali-ramadan"},{id:"21638",title:"Prof.",name:"Karim",middleName:null,surname:"Kabalan",fullName:"Karim Kabalan",slug:"karim-kabalan"},{id:"21639",title:"Prof.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"El-Hajj",fullName:"Ali El-Hajj",slug:"ali-el-hajj"}]},{id:"14716",title:"A Microstrip Antenna Shape Grammar",slug:"a-microstrip-antenna-shape-grammar",signatures:"Adrian Muscat and Joseph A. Zammit",authors:[{id:"19668",title:"Dr.",name:"Adrian",middleName:null,surname:"Muscat",fullName:"Adrian Muscat",slug:"adrian-muscat"},{id:"19669",title:"Dr.",name:"Joseph A.",middleName:null,surname:"Zammit",fullName:"Joseph A. Zammit",slug:"joseph-a.-zammit"}]},{id:"14717",title:"Electrically Small Microstrip Antennas Targeting Miniaturized Satellites: the CubeSat Paradigm",slug:"electrically-small-microstrip-antennas-targeting-miniaturized-satellites-the-cubesat-paradigm",signatures:"Constantine Kakoyiannis and Philip Constantinou",authors:[{id:"19252",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Constantine",middleName:"G.",surname:"Kakoyiannis",fullName:"Constantine Kakoyiannis",slug:"constantine-kakoyiannis"},{id:"21863",title:"Prof.",name:"Philip",middleName:null,surname:"Constantinou",fullName:"Philip Constantinou",slug:"philip-constantinou"}]},{id:"14718",title:"Circularly Polarized Microstrip Antennas with Proximity Coupled Feed for Circularly Polarized Synthetic Aperture Radar",slug:"circularly-polarized-microstrip-antennas-with-proximity-coupled-feed-for-circularly-polarized-synthe",signatures:"Merna Baharuddin and Josaphat Tetuko Sri Sumantyo",authors:[{id:"18521",title:"PhD.",name:"Merna",middleName:null,surname:"Baharuddin",fullName:"Merna Baharuddin",slug:"merna-baharuddin"},{id:"21582",title:"Prof.",name:"Josaphat",middleName:null,surname:"Tetuko Sri Sumantyo",fullName:"Josaphat Tetuko Sri Sumantyo",slug:"josaphat-tetuko-sri-sumantyo"}]},{id:"14719",title:"Circularly Polarized Slotted/Slit-Microstrip Patch Antennas",slug:"circularly-polarized-slotted-slit-microstrip-patch-antennas",signatures:"Nasimuddin, Zhi-Ning Chen and Xianming Qing",authors:[{id:"21459",title:"Dr.",name:"N",middleName:null,surname:"Nasimuddin",fullName:"N Nasimuddin",slug:"n-nasimuddin"}]},{id:"14720",title:"Microstrip Antenna Arrays",slug:"microstrip-antenna-arrays",signatures:"Albert Sabban",authors:[{id:"16889",title:"Dr.",name:"Albert",middleName:null,surname:"Sabban",fullName:"Albert Sabban",slug:"albert-sabban"}]},{id:"14721",title:"Microstrip Antennas for Indoor Wireless Dynamic Environments",slug:"microstrip-antennas-for-indoor-wireless-dynamic-environments",signatures:"Mohamed Elhefnawy and Widad Ismail",authors:[{id:"17004",title:"Dr.",name:"Widad",middleName:null,surname:"Ismail",fullName:"Widad Ismail",slug:"widad-ismail"},{id:"17005",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:null,surname:"Elhefnawy",fullName:"Mohamed Elhefnawy",slug:"mohamed-elhefnawy"}]},{id:"14722",title:"DBDP SAR Microstrip Array Technology",slug:"dbdp-sar-microstrip-array-technology",signatures:"Shun-Shi Zhong",authors:[{id:"4123",title:"Prof.",name:"Shun-Shi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhong",fullName:"Shun-Shi Zhong",slug:"shun-shi-zhong"}]},{id:"14723",title:"Microwave Properties of Dielectric Materials",slug:"microwave-properties-of-dielectric-materials",signatures:"JS Mandeep and Loke Ngai Kin",authors:[{id:"21035",title:"Prof.",name:"Mandeep",middleName:null,surname:"Singh Jit",fullName:"Mandeep Singh Jit",slug:"mandeep-singh-jit"},{id:"135784",title:"Prof.",name:"Ngai Kin",middleName:null,surname:"Loke",fullName:"Ngai Kin Loke",slug:"ngai-kin-loke"}]},{id:"14724",title:"Hybrid Microstrip Antennas",slug:"hybrid-microstrip-antennas",signatures:"Alexandre Perron, Tayeb A. Denidni and Abdel R. Sebak",authors:[{id:"11473",title:"Prof.",name:"Tayeb A.",middleName:null,surname:"Denidni",fullName:"Tayeb A. Denidni",slug:"tayeb-a.-denidni"},{id:"21901",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexandre",middleName:null,surname:"Perron",fullName:"Alexandre Perron",slug:"alexandre-perron"},{id:"21902",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdel R.",middleName:null,surname:"Sebak",fullName:"Abdel R. Sebak",slug:"abdel-r.-sebak"}]},{id:"14725",title:"Integration of 60-GHz Microstrip Antennas with CMOS Chip",slug:"integration-of-60-ghz-microstrip-antennas-with-cmos-chip",signatures:"Gordana Klaric Felic and Efstratios Skafidas",authors:[{id:"18389",title:"Prof.",name:"Gordana Klaric",middleName:null,surname:"Felic",fullName:"Gordana Klaric Felic",slug:"gordana-klaric-felic"},{id:"21215",title:"PhD.",name:"Efstratios",middleName:null,surname:"Skafidas",fullName:"Efstratios Skafidas",slug:"efstratios-skafidas"}]},{id:"14726",title:"A Practical Guide to 3D Electromagnetic Software Tools",slug:"a-practical-guide-to-3d-electromagnetic-software-tools",signatures:"Guy A. E. Vandenbosch and Alexander Vasylchenko",authors:[{id:"18667",title:"PhD.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Vasylchenko",fullName:"Alexander Vasylchenko",slug:"alexander-vasylchenko"},{id:"20908",title:"Prof.",name:"Guy A. E.",middleName:null,surname:"Vandenbosch",fullName:"Guy A. E. Vandenbosch",slug:"guy-a.-e.-vandenbosch"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"66606",title:"Introductory Chapter: Transcriptome Analysis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85980",slug:"introductory-chapter-transcriptome-analysis",body:'\n
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The central dogma of molecular biology describes the flow of genetic information from genes to functions of the cells and organisms. This comprises a two-step process: first, DNA, the permanent, heritable, genetic information repository, is transcribed by the RNA polymerase enzymes into RNA, a short-lasting information carrier; second, a subset of RNA, the messenger RNAs, mRNAs, are translated into protein. The transcriptome, then, is the complete set of all RNA molecules in a cell, a population of cells or in an organism.
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Importantly, not all RNAs are translated into proteins, some serve a structural function, for example, rRNAs in the assembly of ribosomes, others are transporters, e.g., tRNAs, yet others serve regulatory functions, for example, the siRNAs, short interfering RNA, or lncRNAs, long non-coding RNAs; these are not translated into proteins [1]. However, these non-coding RNAs can and often do play roles in human diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular, and neurological disorders. While transcriptomics is most commonly applied to the mRNAs, the coding transcripts, transcriptomics also provides important data regarding content of the cell noncoding RNAs, including rRNA, tRNA, lncRNA, siRNA, and others. Specific approaches address the analysis of splice variant of the same gene in different tissues.
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1. Transcriptome analysis
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Transcriptome Analysis is the study of the transcriptome, of the complete set of RNA transcripts that are produced by the genome, under specific circumstances or in a specific cell, using high-throughput methods. Transcription profiling, which follows changes in behavior of a cell in toto, not of a single gene or just a few genes, is used throughout diverse areas of biomedical research, including disease diagnosis, biomarker discovery, risk assessment of new drugs or environmental chemicals etc. Transcription profiling can be applied to loss- and gain-of-function mutants to identify the changes associated with the mutant phenotype. The transcriptomic techniques have been particularly useful in identifying the functions of genes. Transcriptomics also allows identification of pathways that respond to or ameliorate environmental stresses. RNA-Seq can also identify disease-associated gene fusions, single nucleotide polymorphisms and even allele-specific expression.
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2. Uses of transcriptome analysis
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Transcriptome Analysis is most commonly used to compare specific pairs of samples. The differences may be due to different external environmental conditions, e.g., hormonal effects or toxins. More commonly, healthy and disease states are compared. For example, in cancer, transcriptomics analyses address classification, the mechanisms of pathogenesis and even outcome prediction. Transcriptome studies can classify cancer beyond anatomical location and histopathology. Outcome predictions can establish gene-based benchmarks to predict tumor prognosis and therapy response. These approaches are already in use for personalized medicine, individualized cancer patient therapies.
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Organisms and tissues at various stages of development can be molecularly characterized. The transcriptomes of stem cells help to understand the processes of cellular differentiation or embryonic development. Because of its very broad approach transcriptome analysis is a great source for identifying targets for treatment.
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2.1 Methodologies
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The early approach to study whole transcriptomes used microarrays, a set of defined sequences arranged on a solid substrate [2]. Microarrays almost exclusively represented mRNAs, that is, genes that are translated into proteins.
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Nowadays the microarray approach is supplanted by high-throughput RNA sequencing, RNA-Seq, which detects all transcripts in a sample, including the regulatory siRNA and lncRNA transcripts [3]. In this methodology, the bulk RNA is extracted from the sample and copied into stable double-stranded copy DNA, ds-cDNA, which is then sequenced using various sequencing methods [4]. The sequences obtained are aligned to reference genome sequences, available in data banks, to identify which genes are transcribed. Quantitatively, the results provide the expression levels for the transcribed genes. Compared to microarrays, RNA-Seq can measure both the low-abundance and high-abundance RNAs over a five orders of magnitude range and, importantly, RNA-Seq requires much less starting material (nanograms vs. micrograms and even as little as 50 pg) [5]. This made possible analyses of transcriptomes in a single cell, a great advance over bulk tissue RNA analyses [6]. RNA-seq can be used to identify alternative splicing, novel transcripts, and fusion genes (Table 1).
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Table 1.
Comparison of RNA-seq methodologies.
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In principle, the assembly of RNA-Seq reads is not dependent on reference genomes and can be used for gene expression studies of poorly characterized species with limited genomic resources. It can also be used to identify novel protein coding regions in sequenced genomes. RNA-seq can be performed using many next-generation sequencing platforms, however, each platform has its own requirements of sample preparation and the instrument design.
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2.2 Data analysis, repositories and presentation
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Improved sequencing technologies necessitated improved data analysis methods to deal with the increased volume of data produced by each transcriptome experiment. Importantly, the results are deposited into transcriptome databases, essential tools for transcriptome analysis. For example Gene Expression Omnibus, www.ncbi.nml.nih.gov, contains millions of transcription profiling experiments. Such data have potential applications beyond the original aims of an experiment. Typical outputs include quantitative tables of the transcript levels. This requires specific analysis algorithms, often specific to the methodology used. There are software packages to bridge data from disparate methodologies, to identify groups of similar expressed genes, or differentially expressed functionally significant regulatory or metabolic pathways.
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The results of transcriptomic analyses are graphically often presented as heat maps, a system of color-coding that represents different levels of expression of given genes in different samples (Figure 1A). Such presentations also frequently display a clustering of samples, this helps to identify samples with similar gene expression. Another common graphical presentation uses Venn diagrams, which count the transcripts which are equivalently regulated in multiple samples (Figure 1B).
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Figure 1.
Graphic representations of transcriptome analysis data. (A) Heat map with clustering tree. (B) Venn diagrams of regulated genes.
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Transcriptome analyses have become indispensable in basic research, translational, and clinical studies. In general, transcriptome analysis is a very powerful hypothesis-generating tool, more than a theory proving one.
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3. Specific example: transcriptome analysis applied to human skin
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Easily accessible, skin was among the first targets analyzed using ‘omics’ and dermatology embraced the approaches very early [7]. A classic example of coordinated transcriptional regulation was observed in cultured fibroblasts after serum stimulation [2]. Serum addition causes not only rapid recommencement of the cell cycle but, characteristically a wound-healing response, a physiological role of fibroblasts in wound healing [8]. Transcriptional responses of epidermal keratinocytes to UV light, hormones, vitamins, infections, inflammatory and immunomodulating cytokines, toxins and allergens have been characterized, as were the changes associated with epidermal differentiation [9, 10].
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The expression signatures that define the various cell types in human skin, were used to define 20 specific gene signatures, including those for keratinocytes, melanocytes, endothelia, adipocytes, immune cells, hair follicles, sebaceous, sweat, and apocrine glands. This resource provided a resource named SkinSig, which was then used to analyze 18 skin conditions, providing in-context interpretation of, for example, influx in immune cells in inflammation or differentiation changes in disorders of cornification [11].
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In the future we can anticipate a greatly expanded usage of transcriptome analysis. Translated to the bedside, it can provide better understanding and more specific diagnoses of diseases. This, of course, requires additional advances in the technology, both in the lab-bench components reducing the costs and guaranteeing reproducibility and accuracy, as well as in the computer-based components, algorithms that enable physicians to establish diagnosis quickly and reliably. In a generation, this approach will become routine.
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\n\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/66606.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/66606.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66606",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66606",totalDownloads:502,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"March 7th 2019",dateReviewed:"March 21st 2019",datePrePublished:"April 8th 2019",datePublished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/66606",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/66606",signatures:"Miroslav Blumenberg",book:{id:"8029",title:"Transcriptome Analysis",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Transcriptome Analysis",slug:"transcriptome-analysis",publishedDate:"November 20th 2019",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8029.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",email:"miroslav.blumenberg@nyulangone.org",position:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"1. Transcriptome analysis",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"2. Uses of transcriptome analysis",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.1 Methodologies",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.2 Data analysis, repositories and presentation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"3. Specific example: transcriptome analysis applied to human skin",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Botchkareva NV. The molecular revolution in cutaneous biology: Noncoding RNAs: New molecular players in dermatology and cutaneous biology. The Journal of Investigative Dermatology. 2017;137(5):e105-e111. DOI: 10.1016/j.jid.2017.02.001. PMID: 28411840'},{id:"B2",body:'Iyer VR, Eisen MB, Ross DT, Schuler G, Moore T, Lee JC, et al. The transcriptional program in the response of human fibroblasts to serum. Science. 1999;283(5398):83-87. PMID: 9872747'},{id:"B3",body:'Bayega A, Fahiminiya S, Oikonomopoulos S, Ragoussis J. Current and future methods for mRNA analysis: A drive toward single molecule sequencing. Methods in Molecular Biology. 2018;1783:209-241. DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-7834-2_11. PMID: 29767365'},{id:"B4",body:'Zhang H, He L, Cai L. Transcriptome sequencing: RNA-Seq. Methods in Molecular Biology. 2018;1754:15-27. DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-7717-8_2. PMID: 29536435'},{id:"B5",body:'Shanker S, Paulson A, Edenberg HJ, Peak A, Perera A, Alekseyev YO, et al. Evaluation of commercially available RNA amplification kits for RNA sequencing using very low input amounts of total RNA. Journal of Biomolecular Techniques. 2015 April;26(1):4-18. DOI: 10.7171/jbt.15-2601-001. PMC 4310221. PMID 25649271'},{id:"B6",body:'Stegle O, Teichmann SA, Marioni JC. Computational and analytical challenges in single-cell transcriptomics. Nature Reviews Genetics. 2015;16(3):133-145. DOI: 10.1038/nrg3833. PMID: 25628217'},{id:"B7",body:'Mimoso C, Lee DD, Zavadil J, Tomic-Canic M, Blumenberg M. Analysis and meta-analysis of transcriptional profiling in human epidermis. Methods in Molecular Biology. 2014;1195:61-97. DOI: 10.1007/7651_2013_60'},{id:"B8",body:'Eming SA, Martin P, Tomic-Canic M. Wound repair and regeneration: Mechanisms, signaling, and translation. Science Translational Medicine. 2014;6(265):265sr6. DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.3009337. PMID: 25473038'},{id:"B9",body:'Blumenberg M. Skinomics: Past, present and future for diagnostic microarray studies in dermatology. Expert Review of Molecular Diagnostics. 2013;13(8):885-894. DOI: 10.1586/14737159.2013.846827. PMID: 24151852'},{id:"B10",body:'Santoro S, Lopez ID, Lombardi R, Zauli A, Osiceanu AM, Sorosina M, et al. Laser capture microdissection for transcriptomic profiles in human skin biopsies. BMC Molecular Biology. 2018;19(1):7. DOI: 10.1186/s12867-018-0108-5. PMID: 29921228 PMCID: PMC6009967'},{id:"B11",body:'Shih BB, Nirmal AJ, Headon DJ, Akbar AN, Mabbott NA, Freeman TC. Derivation of marker gene signatures from human skinand their use in the interpretation of the transcriptional changes associated with dermatological disorders. The Journal of Pathology. 2017;241(5):600-613. DOI: 10.1002/path.4864. Epub 2017 Feb 24. PMID: 28008606 PMCID: PMC5363360'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",address:"miroslav.blumenberg@nyulangone.org",affiliation:'
NYU School of Medicine, USA
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Openness - We communicate honestly and transparently. We are open to constructive criticism and committed to learning from it.
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