Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
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We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
Throughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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Chapters cover topics ranging from pollutants removal to new processes in materials science. Written for interested readers with strong scientific and technological backgrounds, this book will appeal to scientific advisors at private companies, academics, and graduate students.",isbn:"978-1-78984-587-7",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-586-0",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-442-5",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82334",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"carbon-based-material-for-environmental-protection-and-remediation",numberOfPages:188,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"19da699b370f320eca63ef2ba02f745d",bookSignature:"Mattia Bartoli, Marco Frediani and Luca Rosi",publishedDate:"August 19th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8903.jpg",numberOfDownloads:5145,numberOfWosCitations:18,numberOfCrossrefCitations:14,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:18,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:1,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:50,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 15th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 1st 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 31st 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"June 25th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"August 24th 2020",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!0,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"188999",title:"Dr.",name:"Mattia",middleName:null,surname:"Bartoli",slug:"mattia-bartoli",fullName:"Mattia Bartoli",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188999/images/system/188999.png",biography:"Dr. Mattia Bartoli has always performed at the highest levels throughout his education and training, as proved by research outputs with several published peer-reviewed papers in top international journals. After obtaining his Ph.D., Dr. Bartoli moved to the Biorefinery Conversion Network, University of Alberta, Canada, where he contributed to developing new materials and new technologies. In 2018, he joined the Carbon Group, Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy, where he studied both the production and use of carbon from thermochemical conversion of waste streams for material science applications. Since 2021, Dr. Bartoli has been working on CO2 electrochemical and thermochemical conversion at the Center for Sustainable Future Technologies (CSFT@POLITO). He is also a member of several journal editorial boards and international societies.",institutionString:"Polytechnic University of Turin",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Turin",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"53209",title:"Prof.",name:"Marco",middleName:null,surname:"Frediani",slug:"marco-frediani",fullName:"Marco Frediani",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/53209/images/system/53209.jpg",biography:"Marco Frediani is Professor of Industrial Chemistry at the University of Florence, Department of Chemistry “Ugo Schiff,” Italy. He obtained his PhD under the supervision of both Dr. Claudio Bianchini, I.C.C.O.M., CNR, Florence, Italy and Prof. Dr. Walter Kaminsky, Insitute of Technical and Macromolecular Chemistry, University of Hamburg, Germany. His scientific interest focuses on catalysis for organic reactions of industrial relevance, polymer chemistry, and reuse of materials at the end of their life cycle by pyrolysis. He has presented at many international conferences, published more than seventy papers in international scientific journals, edited numerous books, and written more than fifteen book chapters. He also holds four patents.",institutionString:"University of Florence",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Florence",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"53215",title:"Dr.",name:"Luca",middleName:null,surname:"Rosi",slug:"luca-rosi",fullName:"Luca Rosi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/53215/images/10495_n.jpg",biography:'Luca Rosi is Associate Professor of Industrial Chemistry at the \\"Ugo Schiff\\" Chemistry Department of the University of Florence. His scientific activity focuses mainly on the field of \\"homogeneous catalysis,\\" basically on the reactivity of the group VIII metal complexes (Ru, Co, Pd). He also deals with pyrolytic processes that adopt microwaves for the treatment of end-of-life polymeric materials (e.g., tires, post-consumer plastics, solid plastic waste, shredded mixtures, and waste electrical and electronic equipment) and/or biomass in order to convert them to useful products or fuels.',institutionString:"University of Florence",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Florence",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"136",title:"Environmental Sustainability",slug:"environmental-sciences-environmental-sustainability"}],chapters:[{id:"71450",title:"Microwave Carbonation of Thermal Power Plant Flue Gas/CO2 by Fly Ash/Coal Char for Soil Remediation and Ground Stabilization",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91342",slug:"microwave-carbonation-of-thermal-power-plant-flue-gas-co-sub-2-sub-by-fly-ash-coal-char-for-soil-rem",totalDownloads:397,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this research, the cementing filler material production by microwave carbonation of flue gas of coal combusting thermal power station of Silopi in Şırnak by fly ash/coal char, Şırnak asphaltite char, in molten alkali salts will be investigated. The optimum carbonation was managed in order to provide an overview of stabilization of foundation grounds. In this study, the effect of microwave energy managed the carbonation by salt slurries with flue gas contents in the reactor. By the slurry character of salts in the furnace during that process, the flue gas of Şırnak thermal power plant, salt type and flue content were investigated for carbonation with weight and slurry performances. In this study, the toxic emitted contents were also determined in salt slurry, regarding the amounts and type of salt contents as sorbent agents. As a result, a significant positive effect of microwave energy on the carbonation products was determined at lower gas flow rate and steam rates. Finally, 23% CO2 carbonation could be provided. The oil content in flue gas decreased carbonation fractions. The salt slurry content was primarily settled and coal humus char as by-product was also recovered as solid with a 38.7% recovery rate in microwave carbonation in slurry salt with 20% solid/water rate. The strengths of the ground blocks were dispersed to 0.8–1.2 MPa in shear strength and 3.7–9.4 MPa in compression strength. Thus, with the ideal packing, the strength of the mixed cemented blocks produced from these fine fillers and waste mixtures can also reach 11.2 MPa in compression strength and 3.9 MPa in shear strength.",signatures:"Yıldırım İsmail Tosun",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71450",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71450",authors:[{id:"200229",title:"Dr.",name:"Yıldırım",surname:"İsmail Tosun",slug:"yildirim-ismail-tosun",fullName:"Yıldırım İsmail Tosun"}],corrections:null},{id:"70741",title:"Carbon-Based Materials for De-Fluoridation of Water: Current Status and Challenges",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90879",slug:"carbon-based-materials-for-de-fluoridation-of-water-current-status-and-challenges",totalDownloads:511,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"World is facing scarcity of pure and safe drinkable water and third world war would be based on this issue. Recently ground water is excessively used to meet drinking water needs. Water is the principal source of fluoride in daily intake. Excessive fluoride content in ground water due to leaching from fluoride bearing rocks, pose a serious threat worldwide. Concentration of fluoride in drinking water beyond the recommended standards may lead to serious health problems such as skeletal problems, restricted movement, severe anemia and fluorosis. De-fluoridation of water is quite difficult and expensive. Various materials and technologies have been developed to solve this world wide problem. Ion-exchange, precipitation, electro-chemical, reverse osmosis and adsorption are most widely applied methods for de-fluoridation of water. The main highlight of this chapter is to identify and compare carbon-based materials for de-fluoridation of water on the basis of their efficiency, cost and availability. Challenges associated with the development and use of cost effective and environmental friendly materials for de-fluoridation of water have also been discussed.",signatures:"Rajeev Kumar and Jyoti Chawla",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70741",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70741",authors:[{id:"295881",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajeev",surname:"Kumar",slug:"rajeev-kumar",fullName:"Rajeev Kumar"},{id:"296624",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyoti",surname:"Chawla",slug:"jyoti-chawla",fullName:"Jyoti Chawla"}],corrections:null},{id:"72537",title:"Graphene- and Graphene Oxide-Bounded Metal Nanocomposite for Remediation of Organic Pollutants",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92992",slug:"graphene-and-graphene-oxide-bounded-metal-nanocomposite-for-remediation-of-organic-pollutants",totalDownloads:658,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Nanotechnology is one of the most interesting areas concerned with consumer products including cosmetics, household appliances, electronics, textiles, and food production as well as in medical products. Environmentally benign, economical, practical, and efficient processes for the synthesis of graphene (rGO)-/graphene oxide (GO)-bounded metal nanoparticles and their use for the remediation of organic pollutants (dyes, pharmaceutical wastes, pesticides, etc.) have been increasingly important goals in the chemical community from economic, safety, and environmental points of view. In this chapter, various strategies have successfully demonstrated the synthesis of graphene-/graphene oxide-bounded metal nanoparticles using various natural sources (plant extracts, biomolecules, polysaccharide, alcohols, etc.) and their applications in environmental remediation.",signatures:"Brajesh Kumar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72537",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72537",authors:[{id:"176093",title:"Dr.",name:"Brajesh",surname:"Kumar",slug:"brajesh-kumar",fullName:"Brajesh Kumar"}],corrections:null},{id:"71244",title:"Versatile and Scalable Approaches to Tune Carbon Black Characteristics for Boosting Adsorption and VOC Sensing Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91445",slug:"versatile-and-scalable-approaches-to-tune-carbon-black-characteristics-for-boosting-adsorption-and-v",totalDownloads:368,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter explores the potential use of carbon black (CB) as point of departure to design a highly varied array of materials with practical applications in energetics, remediation, and sensoristics. Thanks to its graphenic moieties embedded in a nanostructured backbone, CB is prone to be structurally and chemically modified exploiting quite mild chemical conditions. The proposed approaches, implying an easy tuning of the chemo-physical properties to the specific needs, are thought up to meet urgent sustainability needs: low costs, scalability, and flexibility. In this chapter, we will describe the modification of CB at the surface (i.e., introduction of oxygen functional group, functionalization, coating with active phases) and a highly CB destructuration to produce graphene-related materials (GRMs) suitable for film production and for the designing of new hybrid materials. CB is converted into highly homogenous CB-modified nanoparticles (around 160 nm) with adjustable surface properties (hydrophilicity, type and surface charge density, pore size distribution) and in highly versatile GRMs for the production of structured electrical conductive ultrathin films for trace alcohol sensing and a wide array of hybrid materials, including photocatalysts (carbon-iron oxide, silica-carbon, carbon-titanium oxide hybrids) for adsorption applications (CO2 capture, heavy metal capture).",signatures:"Michela Alfè and Valentina Gargiulo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71244",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71244",authors:[{id:"297393",title:"Dr.",name:"Michela",surname:"Alfe",slug:"michela-alfe",fullName:"Michela Alfe"},{id:"297775",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",surname:"Gargiulo",slug:"valentina-gargiulo",fullName:"Valentina Gargiulo"}],corrections:null},{id:"71636",title:"An Overview of Carbon-Based Materials for the Removal of Pharmaceutical Active Compounds",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91934",slug:"an-overview-of-carbon-based-materials-for-the-removal-of-pharmaceutical-active-compounds",totalDownloads:644,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Carbon-based materials, namely activated carbon, carbon nanotube and graphene, are considered as one of the most effective adsorbents for pollutant removal and wastewater treatment. Due to their high surface area and distinct chemical and physical properties of the carbon-based materials, particularly activated carbon and carbon nanotube are rapidly emerging as one of the most effective adsorbents for wastewater treatment. Various studies have reported the applications of activated carbon, carbon nanotubes and graphene as promising adsorbents for removing organic and inorganic pollutants. In this chapter, an introduction about the activated carbon, carbon nanotubes and graphene and their production, prosperities and usage for the removal of pharmaceutical active materials from aqueous media are highlighted and summarized. Challenges and future opportunities for application of these carbon-based materials as adsorbents in wastewater treatment are also addressed in this chapter.",signatures:"Mazen K. Nazal",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71636",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71636",authors:[{id:"214815",title:"Dr.",name:"Mazen",surname:"Nazal",slug:"mazen-nazal",fullName:"Mazen Nazal"}],corrections:null},{id:"71482",title:"Carbon-Based Materials (CBMs) for Determination and Remediation of Antimicrobials in Different Substrates: Wastewater and Infant Foods as Examples",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91750",slug:"carbon-based-materials-cbms-for-determination-and-remediation-of-antimicrobials-in-different-substra",totalDownloads:639,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The widespread use of antimicrobials within either a therapeutic or a veterinary rehearsal has resulted in a crisis on the long run. New strains of antimicrobial-resistant microorganisms have appeared. Contamination of water with pharmaceutically active materials is becoming a fact! and efficacy of wastewater treatment plants is a question. Adsorption is a promising technique for wastewater treatment. Carbon-based materials are among the most commonly used adsorbents for remediation purposes. Food production and commercialization are posing rigorous regulations. In this concern, almost all authoritarian societies are setting up standards for the maximum residue levels permissible in raw and processed food. Among these products is infant foods. The current trend is to use carbon-based and recycled from agricultural wastes, which can selectively remove target antimicrobials. Nanoparticles are among the most commonly used materials. With the enormous amount of data generated from an analytical process, there is a need for a powerful data processing technique. Factorial designs play an important role in not only minimalizing the number of experimental runs, and hence saving chemicals, resources, and reducing waste but also, they serve to improve the sensitivity and selectivity, the most important analytical outcomes.",signatures:"Ahmed El-Gendy, Ahmed S. El-Shafie, Ahmed Issa, Saeed Al-Meer, Khalid Al-Saad and Marwa El-Azazy",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71482",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71482",authors:[{id:"198210",title:"Dr.",name:"Marwa",surname:"El-Azazy",slug:"marwa-el-azazy",fullName:"Marwa El-Azazy"},{id:"231751",title:"Dr.",name:"Saeed",surname:"Almeer",slug:"saeed-almeer",fullName:"Saeed Almeer"},{id:"256716",title:"Dr.",name:"Khalid",surname:"Al-Saad",slug:"khalid-al-saad",fullName:"Khalid Al-Saad"},{id:"256946",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",surname:"El-Shafie",slug:"ahmed-el-shafie",fullName:"Ahmed El-Shafie"},{id:"313824",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",surname:"Issa",slug:"ahmed-issa",fullName:"Ahmed Issa"},{id:"313825",title:"Mr.",name:"Ahmed",surname:"El-Gendy",slug:"ahmed-el-gendy",fullName:"Ahmed El-Gendy"}],corrections:null},{id:"71211",title:"Nanoporous Carbon Composites for Water Remediation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91355",slug:"nanoporous-carbon-composites-for-water-remediation",totalDownloads:369,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) are known for their superior surface properties such as surface area and porosity. Thermal decomposition of MOFs may lead to nanoporous carbon composites. These composites can be further used in various application areas. Environmental remediation is one of the most popular areas for using these composites. Nowadays, nanoporous carbon composites are used generally in supercapacitors, lithium-ion batteries, and sensors. Besides the aforementioned application areas, these materials can be used as adsorbents, photocatalysts, and nanomotors. In this review, the preparation methods of nanoporous carbon materials will be explained and their use in environmental remediation will be summarized. The future perspectives of nanoporous carbon composites will be also discussed.",signatures:"Benoît Cagnon, Marius Sebastian Secula and Şahika Sena Bayazit",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71211",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71211",authors:[{id:"293460",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Şahika",surname:"Bayazit",slug:"sahika-bayazit",fullName:"Şahika Bayazit"},{id:"317696",title:"Dr.",name:"Benoit",surname:"Cagnon",slug:"benoit-cagnon",fullName:"Benoit Cagnon"},{id:"317697",title:"Dr.",name:"Marius",surname:"Secula",slug:"marius-secula",fullName:"Marius Secula"}],corrections:null},{id:"69209",title:"Eco-Friendly Fluorescent Carbon Nanodots: Characteristics and Potential Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89474",slug:"eco-friendly-fluorescent-carbon-nanodots-characteristics-and-potential-applications",totalDownloads:553,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Carbon nanodots are zero-dimensional tiny particles of carbon with outstanding characteristics and potential applications. Carbon nanodots are fluorescent materials and possess unique characteristics such as biocompatibility, photostability, low toxicity, sustainable, and eco-friendly. Fluorescent carbon nanodots are emerging nanomaterials that show promising potential in bioimaging, optical sensing, information encryption and storage, photocatalysis, lasers, drug delivery, energy conversion, and photovoltaic applications. Carbon nanodots can be synthesized at very low cost through various sustainable approaches that employ inexpensive renewable resources as starting materials. Carbon nanodots are fascinating carbon-based materials that have received mass attention from past few years for their substantial applications in diverse fields. Carbon nanodots have a huge impact on both health and environmental applications because of their potential to serve as nontoxic replacements to traditional heavy metal-based quantum dots. Herein we highlight the intriguing characteristics and potential applications of fluorescent carbon nanodots in various fields and their perspective in future.",signatures:"Adil Shafi, Sayfa Bano, Suhail Sabir, Mohammad Zain Khan and Mohammed Muzibur Rahman",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69209",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69209",authors:[{id:"24438",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed Muzibur",surname:"Rahman",slug:"mohammed-muzibur-rahman",fullName:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman"}],corrections:null},{id:"71927",title:"The Role of Mangroves Forests in Decarbonizing the Atmosphere",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92249",slug:"the-role-of-mangroves-forests-in-decarbonizing-the-atmosphere",totalDownloads:606,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Mangrove forests occupy approximately not more than 1% of the world’s forested land, according to experts. These important ecosystems are currently being lost at an alarming rate. Aquaculture, urban development, agriculture, and industrial development have been observed to be the major causes of these mangrove losses. Mangroves are an important source of ecosystem goods and services, among which are carbon sequestration, providing breeding and nursery grounds for several species of flora and fauna, materials, medicines, and climate change impact protection. Carbon dioxide capturing and sequestration is a system of man-made processes to reduce carbon dioxide emissions from utilities which use coal and gas. Mangroves can actually do this as natural carbon capture and sequestration (CCS) agents for mankind.",signatures:"Charles Nyanga",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71927",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71927",authors:[{id:"313049",title:"Dr.",name:"Charles",surname:"Nyanga",slug:"charles-nyanga",fullName:"Charles Nyanga"}],corrections:null},{id:"67099",title:"Recycling Polymeric Materials for Corrosion Control",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83469",slug:"recycling-polymeric-materials-for-corrosion-control",totalDownloads:401,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The purpose of this chapter is to present the state of the art for using recycled polymeric materials as effective corrosion inhibitors for metals in different corrosive solutions. Initially, the chapter provides the information about corrosion definition, rust formation, and corrosion costs. The chapter gives comprehensive picture about the standard practices for corrosion control, highlighting the recent trends. In addition, it summarizes the corrosion inhibition mechanism in different media. Recent and novel corrosion inhibitors based on recycling several polymeric materials are reviewed and are presented according to the area of application of the inhibitors. As presented, recent trends are focusing on the compounds that are environmentally friendly and less toxic to the environment.",signatures:"Mohamed A. Deyab",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67099",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67099",authors:[{id:"263155",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed",surname:"Deyab",slug:"mohamed-deyab",fullName:"Mohamed Deyab"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6170",title:"Arid Environments and Sustainability",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e0649511530c554a4cd5baf9432a4d3c",slug:"arid-environments-and-sustainability",bookSignature:"Hasan Arman and Ibrahim Yuksel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6170.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"143532",title:"Prof.",name:"Hasan",surname:"Arman",slug:"hasan-arman",fullName:"Hasan Arman"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8264",title:"New Frontiers on Life Cycle Assessment",subtitle:"Theory and Application",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"59f13958eb30b72de4f8d1bc63f6dd2d",slug:"new-frontiers-on-life-cycle-assessment-theory-and-application",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo and Fabio De Felice",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8264.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8983",title:"Sustainability Concept In Developing Countries",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2b7e452ede9e56b4a3b7e35c835f8446",slug:"sustainability-concept-in-developing-countries",bookSignature:"Surendra N. 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\n
1. Introduction
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Since Lotfi Aliasker Zadeh introduced the fuzzy set [1] and the fuzzy logic [2], these two concepts have been successfully applied to various kinds of fields existing in the earth (e.g., see references in [3]), and the usefulness of these two concepts have also been verified in many industries.
\n
Fuzzy logic is basically a multi-valued logic that allows intermediate values to be defined between conventional evaluations like yes or no, true or false, and big or small. The main characteristic of fuzzy concept is that it can handle some complicated phenomena of systems with the help of the fuzzy and linguistic modeling. Thus, it is possible to design knowledge-oriented intelligent systems if we use the fuzzy logic in the design of systems. This is a very important characteristic of fuzzy logic.
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Most physical systems are almost nonlinear dynamic systems. Conventional control design approaches use different approximation methods such as linear, piecewise linear, and lookup table approximations to handle their nonlinearities. The linear approximation method linearizes a nonlinear dynamic system about a single equilibrium point and provides a linearized design-model for it. Then, the controller is designed for the linearized design-model to satisfy a given control objective. The linear approximation method is relatively simple, but it tends to limit control performance. In addition, the controller designed by the linear approximation method is valid only under the assumption that the states of a nonlinear dynamic system operate closely around the considered equilibrium point, which is the basic limitation of the control design by the linear approximation method [4]. The piecewise linear approximation method requires the design of several linear controllers. Thus, it works better than the linear approximation method, although it is tedious to implement. The lookup table approximation method can improve control performance, but it is difficult to debug and tune. Moreover, in complex systems where multiple inputs exist, the lookup table approximation method may be very costly to implement because large memories are required to store a lookup table.
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In many applications, the fuzzy control, based on the fuzzy logic, provides better control performance than linear, piecewise linear, or lookup table approximation methods because it provides an efficient framework to incorporate linguistic fuzzy information from human experts. The so-called intelligent control has emerged to use the expert information in the control community. Some tools for implementing the intelligent control can be referred to artificial neural network, genetic algorithm, and fuzzy logic. Note that the artificial neural network is a learning-based device whose design is motivated by the function of human brains and components thereof. And, the genetic algorithm is inspired by Charles Robert Darwin’s theory of evolution and works by creating many stochastic selection parameters to a problem. Usually, the expert information is represented by fuzzy terms like small, large, fast, and so on. Therefore, the fuzzy control is more adequate to implement the intelligent control with the expert information than the artificial neural network and the genetic algorithm.
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Fuzzy controllers can perform the nonlinear control actions because fuzzy logic systems are capable of uniformly approximating any nonlinear function over a compact set to any degree of accuracy [5]. Thus, if the parameters of a fuzzy controller are carefully chosen, it is possible to design a fuzzy controller for nonlinear dynamic systems. Then, it is well known that fuzzy controllers are robust with respect to disturbances of systems because their operations are determined by fuzzy rules. Also, fuzzy controllers are customizable because it is easy to understand and modify their rules.
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As the behaviors of dynamic systems become complex, the need of fuzzy scheme increases, and the linguistic analysis suggested by Zadeh [6] allows us to analyze the qualitative behaviors of systems with the fuzzy algorithms. As motivated by the study of [6], Mamdani and Assilian [7] proposed the configuration of a fuzzy system with fuzzifier and defuzzifier, and they applied the fuzzy logic to the control of a dynamic plant, and the fuzzy control has attracted a great deal of interest among researchers. Note that fuzzy system is a name for the system which has a direct relationship with fuzzy concepts (e.g., fuzzy sets and linguistic variables) and fuzzy logic [5]. Also, note that the function of fuzzifier is to map crisp points to fuzzy sets, and the function of defuzzifier is to map fuzzy sets to crisp points [5].
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Subsequently, many successful applications of the fuzzy control have increased the need of theoretical analysis concerning the stability and performance of fuzzy control systems. Most of all, the stability of fuzzy control systems has often been required to be verified with theoretical arguments, and there have been several significant studies for designing the stabilizing controllers for fuzzy systems with rigorous stability proofs [8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14], in which the so-called TS-type fuzzy model proposed by Takagi and Sugeno [15] has mainly been used to represent fuzzy systems. Specifically, in [8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14], the authors made TS-type fuzzy models of dynamic systems with the IF-THEN fuzzy implication and fuzzy inference and designed the stabilizing control laws for TS-type fuzzy models. Then they applied the stabilizing control laws for TS-type fuzzy models to dynamic systems. In the fuzzy control design, the knowledge of an expert can be applied to the control design for dynamic systems by a linguistic expression such as the IF-THEN fuzzy implication.
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Concerning the performance of fuzzy control systems, the optimality has often been considered as an important issue in the design of fuzzy control systems, and the conventional linear optimal control method [16] has been used to design the optimal control law for TS-type fuzzy systems. On the optimality issue of fuzzy control systems, Wang [17] developed the optimal fuzzy controller for linear time-invariant systems by utilizing the Pontryagin minimum principal. However, the design method of [17] does not have much practical implications because it may not be a good choice to use the fuzzy controller designed for linear systems directly as the controller for nonlinear fuzzy systems. Based on the linear quadratic optimal control theory [16], Wu and Lin [18] presented a design method of the optimal controllers for both continuous- and discrete-time fuzzy systems. The main strategy of [18] is to seek the optimal controller that minimizes a given performance index by solving the matrix Riccati differential equations or the steady-state algebraic Riccati equations. Later, Wu and Lin [19] addressed a quadratic optimal control problem for continuous-time fuzzy systems, which were represented by the so-called linear-like synthetic matrix form and developed a design scheme of the optimal fuzzy controller under finite or infinite horizon by utilizing the calculus-of-variation method. The study of [19] is also based on solving a steady-state algebraic Riccati-like equation, but it utilizes an efficient algorithm to design the global optimal fuzzy controller. Park et al. [20] addressed the optimal control problem for continuous-time TS-type fuzzy systems. However, the design method of [20] has less redundancy in choice of feedback gains and requires undesirable high feedback gains, which are the main drawbacks of [20] in the design of the optimal controller for fuzzy systems. Kim and Rhee [21] presented a response surface methodology, and they applied this methodology to the design of an optimal fuzzy controller for a plant. Wu and Lin [22] proposed a way to design a global optimal discrete-time fuzzy controller to control and stabilize a nonlinear discrete-time TS-type fuzzy system with finite or infinite horizon time. Chen and Liu [23] studied the problem of guaranteed cost control for TS-type fuzzy systems with a time-varying delayed state. Mirzaei et al. [24] proposed an optimized fuzzy controller for antilock braking systems to improve vehicle control during sudden braking. Lin, Wang, and Lee [25] investigated a geometric property of time-optimal control problem in the TS-type fuzzy model via Lie algebra and found the time-optimal controller as the bang-bang type with a finite number of switching by applying the maximum principle. Mostefai et al. [26] presented a fuzzy observer-based optimal control design for the compensation of nonlinear friction in a robot joint structure based on a fuzzy local modeling technique. Zhu [27] studied a fuzzy optimal control problem for a multistage fuzzy system to optimize the expected value of a fuzzy objective function subject to a multistage fuzzy system. Esfahani and Sichani [28] studied the problem of optimal fuzzy H∞-tracking control design for nonlinear systems that are represented by using the TS fuzzy modeling scheme. Through these studies, the optimal control for fuzzy systems has quite been progressed.
\n
Since TS-type fuzzy systems essentially have a nonlinear nature due to the IF-THEN fuzzy implication and fuzzy inference, we see that a nonlinear optimal control method is suitable for designing an optimal control law for TS-type fuzzy systems. In addition, when we design an optimal control law for TS-type fuzzy systems, it is often required that the control design should allow us to control the convergence rates of state trajectories to an equilibrium point. The decay rate of the closed-loop dynamics may be used to achieve this requirement in the control design. These observations motivate the author to study an optimal control of TS-type fuzzy systems that can provide good convergence rates of state trajectories to an equilibrium point in this chapter.
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More specifically, in this chapter, the author presents a theoretical result on the optimal control of nonlinear dynamic systems. In this theoretical result, the author presents the optimal control problem for nonlinear dynamic systems and solves this problem by utilizing the dynamic programming approach [29] and the inverse optimal approach [30]. Note that Kalman [31] first proposed the inverse optimal approach to establish some gain and phase margins of a linear quadratic regulator. Also, note that the conventional direct optimal approach is based on seeking a stabilizing controller that minimizes a given performance index. On the other hand, the inverse optimal approach avoids the task of solving the Hamilton-Jacobi- Bellman (H-J-B) equation numerically but finds a stabilizing controller first and then shows its optimality with respect to a posteriorly determined performance index. In this chapter, the author employs the dynamic programming approach to derive the H-J-B equation associated with the optimal control problem for nonlinear dynamic systems. Then, the author presents an analytic way to solve the H-J-B equation with the help of the inverse optimal approach, by which the author establishes a systematic approach for designing the optimal controller for nonlinear dynamic systems. The resulting optimal controller takes the form of state feedback \n\n\nL\ng\n\nV\n\n controller and has a relaxed control gain structure.
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Then, based on the theoretical result presented in this chapter, the author establishes an optimal control design for TS-type fuzzy systems that guarantees the global asymptotic stability of an equilibrium point and the optimality with respect to a cost function, which incorporates a penalty on the state and control input vectors, and provides good convergence rates of state trajectories to an equilibrium point. The problem appearing in this optimal control design for TS-type fuzzy systems is given as a linear matrix inequality (LMI)-based problem. From the results, the optimal controller can be found by a simple controller design procedure, which is essentially given as LMIs. The control design involving LMIs is particularly useful in practice because LMIs can be efficiently solved by recently developed interior-point methods (e.g., [32, 33]). One of the algorithms belonging to the interior-point methods can be found in [34], and an implementation of the algorithm in [34] is included in the LMI Control Toolbox of MATLAB [35], which will be used as the solver for the LMI-based problem appearing in the optimal control design.
\n
Note that the optimal controller for a nonlinear dynamic system is in general designed for a linearized design-model, which is obtained by conventional linear approximation techniques, because it is sometimes difficult to solve the nonlinear optimal control problem associated with a nonlinear dynamic system. Clearly, the optimal controller designed for a linearized design-model guarantees its optimality only at an equilibrium point used to design a linearized design-model. Compared with a design-model obtained by conventional linear approximation techniques, the TS-type fuzzy model can be seen as a good design-model for approximating a nonlinear dynamic system because it retains the essential features of a nonlinear dynamic system with a linguistic description in terms of fuzzy IF-THEN rules, by which the TS-type fuzzy system is valid over a range of operating points within fuzzy sets. Thus, when we design the optimal controller for a nonlinear dynamic system, it is adequate to approximate a nonlinear dynamic system with a TS-type fuzzy model and to use a TS-type fuzzy model rather than a linearized design-model. In addition, one can expect that the optimal controller designed for a TS-type fuzzy system has a wider range of optimality than the optimal controller designed for a linearized design-model because the former guarantees the optimality over a range of operating points within fuzzy sets.
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As a control design example in this chapter, the three-axis attitude stabilization problem of a rigid body is considered to illustrate the optimal control design method for TS-type fuzzy systems presented in this chapter. The attitude motion of a rigid body is basically represented by a set of two Equations [36]: (i) Euler’s dynamic equation, which describes the time derivative of the angular velocity vector and (ii) the kinematic equation, which relates the time derivatives of the orientation angles to the angular velocity vector. For representing the orientation angles of a rigid body, there exist several kinematic parameterizations such as Euler angles, Gibbs vector, Cayley-Rodrigues parameters, and modified Rodrigues parameters [37, 38], which are singular three-dimensional parameter representations, and quaternion (also called Euler parameters), which is a nonsingular four-dimensional parameter representation. Note that three-dimensional parameter representations exhibit singular orientations because the Jacobian matrix is singular for some orientations. On the other hand, the quaternion consists of four parameters subject to the unit length constraint and is a globally nonsingular parameter for describing the body orientation [36].
\n
In this chapter, the equations of motion of a rigid body including dynamics and kinematics are considered. The kinematic equation of a rigid body considered in this chapter is described by the quaternion. The equations of motion of a rigid body considered in this chapter describe a system in cascade interconnection, and the backstepping method of [39] can be efficiently utilized to apply the optimal control design method presented in this chapter to the three-axis attitude stabilization problem of a rigid body.
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The optimal attitude stabilization problem of a rigid body has been addressed by several researchers [40, 41, 42]. Also, there have been many studies which consider performance indices such as time and/or fuel in the formulation of the optimal attitude stabilization problem of a rigid body [43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49], in which the optimal regulation problems for angular velocity subsystem of a rigid body and for some quadratic performance indexes have mainly been addressed.
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The optimal attitude control problem of the complete attitude motion of a rigid body, which includes dynamics as well as kinematics, has been investigated by many researchers: Carrington and Junkins [50] used a polynomial expansion approach to approximate the solution of H-J-B equation. Rotea et al. [51] showed that Lyapunov functions including a logarithmic term in the kinematic parameters result in linear controllers with a finite quadratic performance index. For the general quadratic performance index, they also presented sufficient conditions which guarantee the existence of a linear and suboptimal stabilizing controller. Tsiotras [52] derived a new class of globally asymptotically stabilizing feedback control laws as well as a family of exponentially stabilizing optimal control laws for the complete attitude motion of a nonsymmetric rigid body. Later, Tsiotras [53] presented a partial solution to the optimal regulation problem of a spinning rigid body by using the natural decomposition of the complete attitude motion into its kinematics and dynamics systems and the inherent passivity properties of these two systems. Bharadwaj et al. [54] presented a couple of new globally stabilizing attitude control laws based on minimal and exponential coordinates. Park and Tahk [55] have considered the problem of three-axis robust attitude stabilization of a rigid body with inertia uncertainties, and they have presented a class of new robust attitude control laws having relaxed feedback gain structures. Later, Park and Tahk [56] have extended their robust attitude control scheme of [55] to the optimal attitude control scheme by using the Hamilton-Jacobi theory of [57]. Also, Park et al. [58] have first addressed a game-theoretic approach to robust and optimal attitude stabilization of a rigid body with external disturbances.
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Note that, in the case of robot arm control, since the arms or hand fingers can be viewed as actuators which maneuver the attitude of the held object, the results on the attitude control of a rigid body can be applied to the attitude control of a rigid payload held by the robot arm [59]. With this relation, there have been many studies concerning the attitude control problem of a rigid body, and some remarkable studies can be referred to [60, 61].
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The rest of this chapter is composed as follows. In Section 2, the author presents a theoretical result on the optimal control of nonlinear dynamic systems. In Section 3, the author introduces TS-type fuzzy systems and presents an optimal control design for TS-type fuzzy systems. In Section 4, the author considers the three-axis attitude stabilization problem of a rigid body as a control design example and illustrates the effectiveness of the optimal control design for TS-type fuzzy systems. In Section 5, the author concludes this chapter with concluding remarks.
where \n\nf\n:\n\nR\nn\n\n→\n\nR\nn\n\n\n and \n\ng\n:\n\nR\nn\n\n→\n\nR\n\nn\n×\np\n\n\n\n are smooth, vector- and matrix-valued functions, respectively, and \n\nf\n\n0\n\n=\n0\n.\n\n Moreover, \n\nx\n\nt\n\n∈\n\nR\nn\n\n\n and \n\nu\n\nt\n\n∈\n\nR\np\n\n\n are the state and control input vectors, respectively. Throughout this chapter, we use the definitions of
\n\nV\n:\n\nR\nn\n\n→\nR\n\n is a scalar function [4].
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In general, we can find the optimal control law for the nonlinear dynamic system in (1) by numerically solving the corresponding Hamilton-Jacobi-Bellman (H-J-B) equation. However, this is a difficult task, and, thus, we may need a simple and efficient method to find optimal control law for the nonlinear dynamic system in (1). In the following, the author presents a theory to provide the optimal control law for the nonlinear dynamic system in (1) by circumventing the task of numerically solving the H-J-B equation.
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Proposition 1 [62]: For the nonlinear dynamic system in (1), suppose that there exists a radially unbounded and positive definite function \n\nV\n\n\nx\n\nt\n\n\n\n\n that has continuous, first, partial derivatives with respect to \n\nx\n\nt\n\n\n and the feedback control \n\nu\n\nt\n\n=\n−\nα\n\nR\n\n−\n1\n\n\n\n\n\n\nL\ng\n\nV\n\n\nx\n\nt\n\n\n\n\n\nT\n\n,\n\n where \n\nα\n≥\n1\n\n is a constant and \n\nR\n=\n\nR\nT\n\n>\n0\n\n is a positive definite matrix, achieves global asymptotic stability of the equilibrium point \n\nx\n\nt\n\n=\n0\n\n for the system in (1) such that:
for all \n\nx\n\nt\n\n≠\n0\n\n and \n\nα\n≥\n1\n.\n\n Since \n\nV\n\n\nx\n\nt\n\n\n\n\n is a radially unbounded and positive definite function, the condition in (6) guarantees that the control law \n\n\nu\n∗\n\n\nt\n\n\n in (3) is a globally asymptotically stabilizing control law for the system in (1) by the Lyapunov’s stability theorem [4].
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Next, define \n\nW\n\n\nx\n\nt\n\n\n\n≜\n4\n\nα\n2\n\nV\n\n\nx\n\nt\n\n\n\n\n and consider the following H-J-B equation associated with the optimal control problem for the system in (1):
which implies that \n\n\nu\n∗\n\n\nt\n\n\n in (3) and in (5) are solutions of the H-J-B equation in (7). In addition, by (2) and the property of \n\nR\n=\n\nR\nT\n\n>\n0\n,\n\n\n\nl\n\n\nx\n\nt\n\n\n\n\n in (5) satisfies \n\nl\n\n\nx\n\nt\n\n\n\n>\n0\n\n for all \n\nx\n\nt\n\n≠\n0\n\n and \n\nα\n≥\n1\n.\n\n This completes the proof.
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In proposition 1, we see that the globally asymptotically stabilizing control law in (3) for the nonlinear dynamic system in (1) can be found without the task of numerically solving the H-J-B equation in (7) and the control law in (3) is optimal with respect to the cost function in (4). The key point of this work is that we posteriorly determine the penalty on the state vector, which is \n\nl\n\n\nx\n\nt\n\n\n\n,\n\n rather than we priorly choose it. Sepulcher, Janković, and Kokotović [30] proposed this approach which is referred to as the inverse optimal approach.
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It is remarkable that as shown in (4, 5), we can adjust the penalty on the control input vector, which is \n\nR\n,\n\n and the penalty on the state vector, which is \n\nl\n\n\nx\n\nt\n\n\n\n,\n\n with the weight matrix \n\nR\n.\n\nIndeed, we can decrease the penalty on the control input vector and increase the penalty on the state vector with a weight matrix \n\nR\n\n having small values. In this condition, we can obtain a cheap optimal control law requiring a large control effort, and this cheap optimal control law makes the nonlinear dynamic system in (1) stable within a short period of time. Note that the term “cheap” refers to the fact that the control effort is viewed as being cheap. On the other hand, we can increase the penalty on the control input vector and decrease the penalty on the state vector with a weight matrix \n\nR\n\n having large values. In this condition, we can obtain an expensive optimal control law requiring a small control effort, and this expensive optimal control law makes the nonlinear dynamic system in (1) stable within a long period of time. Note that the term “expensive” refers to the fact that the control effort is viewed as being expensive.
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As shown in (3), since the constant \n\nα\n\n of the optimal control law \n\n\nu\n∗\n\n\nt\n\n\n in (3) plays the role of a feedback gain for \n\n\nu\n∗\n\n\nt\n\n\n even though the weight matrix \n\nR\n\n is predetermined to impose the penalties on the control input and state vectors, it is also remarkable that the optimal control law \n\n\nu\n∗\n\n\nt\n\n\n in (3) has a relaxed feedback gain structure.
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Now, if we consider a practical application, we know that any control law for dynamic systems must provide good convergence rates of state trajectories to an equilibrium point. For achieving this requirement in the design of a control law, the decay rate can be used as a design factor to dominate convergence rates of state trajectories to an equilibrium point. Note that the decay rate of a system is defined to be the largest constant \n\nγ\n>\n0\n\n such that \n\n\nlim\n\nt\n→\n∞\n\n\n\ne\nγt\n\n\n\n\nx\n\nt\n\n\n\n2\n\n=\n0\n\n holds for all trajectories of a system, where \n\n\n\n\nx\n\nt\n\n\n\n2\n\n\n denotes the Euclidean norm of \n\nx\n\nt\n\n.\n\n From the definition of decay rate, the convergence rate of the system trajectory to the equilibrium point can be controlled. Also, note that stability of dynamic systems corresponds to a positive decay rate. In the following, the author presents a theory about the decay rate.
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Proposition 2 [32]: If there exist a positive definite function \n\nV\n\n\nx\n\nt\n\n\n\n\n and a constant \n\nβ\n>\n0\n\n such that
for all trajectories of a system, then the decay rate of a system is at least \n\nβ\n.\n\n
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Proof: If there exist a positive definite function \n\nV\n\n\nx\n\nt\n\n\n\n\n and a constant \n\nβ\n>\n0\n\n such that \n\n\nV\ṅ\n\n\n\nx\n\nt\n\n\n\n<\n−\n2\nβV\n\n\nx\n\nt\n\n\n\n\n for all trajectories of a system, then we obtain \n\nV\n\n\nx\n\nt\n\n\n\n<\nV\n\n\nx\n\n0\n\n\n\n\ne\n\n−\n2\nβt\n\n\n.\n\n With a positive definite function \n\nV\n\n\nx\n\nt\n\n\n\n≜\nx\n\n\nt\n\nT\n\n\nX\n\n−\n1\n\n\nx\n\nt\n\n,\n\n where \n\nX\n=\n\nX\nT\n\n>\n0\n\n is a positive definite matrix, \n\nV\n\n\nx\n\nt\n\n\n\n<\nV\n\n\nx\n\n0\n\n\n\n\ne\n\n−\n2\nβt\n\n\n\n can be represented by \n\n\n\n\n\nX\n\n−\n\n1\n2\n\n\n\nx\n\nt\n\n\n\n2\n2\n\n<\n\n\n\n\nX\n\n−\n\n1\n2\n\n\n\n\n\ne\n\n−\nβt\n\n\nx\n\n0\n\n\n\n2\n2\n\n.\n\n Then, by Rayleigh-Ritz theorem [63], we can derive the following:
where \n\n\nλ\nmin\n\n\n\nX\n\n−\n1\n\n\n\n\n and \n\n\nλ\nmax\n\n\n\nX\n\n−\n1\n\n\n\n\n denote the minimum and maximum eigenvalues of \n\n\nX\n\n−\n1\n\n\n,\n\nrespectively. Thus, we obtain \n\n\n\n\nx\n\nt\n\n\n\n2\n\n<\n\n\n\n\nλ\nmax\n\n\n\nX\n\n−\n1\n\n\n\n/\n\nλ\nmin\n\n\n\nX\n\n−\n1\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nx\n\n0\n\n\n\n2\n\n\ne\n\n−\nβt\n\n\n,\n\nand therefore the decay rate of the system is at least \n\nβ\n.\n\n This completes the proof.
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3. Optimal control of fuzzy systems
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3.1. Fuzzy systems
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The TS-type fuzzy model and the TS-type fuzzy control law for a system are given by the following IF-THEN fuzzy implications, respectively [15]:
Plant rule i for a system:
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IF \n\n\nx\n1\n\n\nt\n\n\n is \n\n\nM\n\ni\n1\n\n\n\n and · · · and \n\n\nx\nn\n\n\nt\n\n\n is \n\n\nM\nin\n\n,\n\n THEN
In (10, 11), \n\n\nx\ni\n\n\nt\n\n,\ni\n=\n1\n,\n⋯\n,\nn\n\n and \n\n\nM\nij\n\n,\ni\n=\n1\n,\n⋯\n,\nr\n,\nj\n=\n1\n,\n⋯\n,\nn\n\n are state variables and fuzzy sets, respectively, and \n\nr\n\n is the number of IF-THEN rules. Moreover, \n\n\nA\ni\n\n∈\n\nR\n\nn\n×\nn\n\n\n,\n\n\n\n\nB\ni\n\n∈\n\nR\n\nn\n×\np\n\n\n,\n\n and \n\n\nK\ni\n\n∈\n\nR\n\np\n×\nn\n\n\n.\n\n
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If we follow the usual fuzzy inference method, we can represent the state equations of the TS-type fuzzy model and the TS-type fuzzy control law for a system as follows, respectively [9]:
and \n\n\nM\nij\n\n\n\n\nx\nj\n\n\nt\n\n\n\n\n denotes the grade of membership of \n\n\nx\nj\n\n\nt\n\n\n in the fuzzy set \n\n\nM\nij\n\n.\n\n Here,\n\n\nh\ni\n\n,\ni\n=\n1\n,\n⋯\n,\nr\n\n in (14) satisfy \n\n\nh\ni\n\n\n\nx\n\nt\n\n\n\n≥\n0\n,\ni\n=\n1\n,\n⋯\n,\nr\n\n and \n\n\n∑\n\ni\n=\n1\n\nr\n\n\nh\ni\n\n\n\nx\n\nt\n\n\n\n=\n1\n\n for all \n\nx\n\nt\n\n∈\n\nR\nn\n\n.\n\n
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3.2. Problem definition
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The author defines two kinds of problems considered in this section. The first problem is to design a control law for the TS-type fuzzy system in (12) that achieves the global asymptotic stability of the equilibrium point \n\nx\n\nt\n\n=\n0\n\n and minimizes the cost function
where \n\nl\n\n\nx\n\nt\n\n\n\n>\n0\n\n for all \n\nx\n\nt\n\n≠\n0\n\n and \n\nR\n=\n\nR\nT\n\n>\n0\n\n is a positive definite matrix. The second problem is that the decay rate of the closed-loop dynamics for the TS-type fuzzy system in (12) should be at least \n\nβ\n\n, where \n\nβ\n>\n0\n\n is a constant.
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3.3. Optimal control design
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We can use the results of propositions 1 and 2 to solve the problems defined in Section 3.2. Specifically, we define \n\nf\n\n\nx\n\nt\n\n\n\n≜\n\n∑\n\ni\n=\n1\n\nr\n\n\nh\ni\n\n\n\nx\n\nt\n\n\n\n\nA\ni\n\nx\n\nt\n\n\n and \n\ng\n\n\nx\n\nt\n\n\n\n≜\n\n∑\n\ni\n=\n1\n\nr\n\n\nh\ni\n\n\n\nx\n\nt\n\n\n\n\nB\ni\n\n\n for the TS-type fuzzy system in (12). Then, if there exists a radially unbounded and positive definite function \n\nV\n\n\nx\n\nt\n\n\n\n\n such that the conditions in (2) and (9) hold, then an optimal control law in the form of (3) for the TS-type fuzzy system in (12) can be found. Thus, we have to construct \n\nV\n\n\nx\n\nt\n\n\n\n\n whose time derivative satisfies the conditions in (2, 9). The author uses a quadratic Lyapunov function \n\nV\n\n\nx\n\nt\n\n\n\n=\nx\n\n\nt\n\nT\n\n\nX\n\n−\n1\n\n\nx\n\nt\n\n,\n\n where \n\nX\n=\n\nX\nT\n\n>\n0\n\n is a positive definite matrix, as the candidate of such a \n\nV\n\n\nx\n\nt\n\n\n\n\n, and presents the following theory:
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Theorem 1 [62]: For the TS-type fuzzy system in (12), suppose that there exists a function \n\nV\n\n\nx\n\nt\n\n\n\n=\nx\n\n\nt\n\nT\n\n\nX\n\n−\n1\n\n\nx\n\nt\n\n\n with \n\nX\n∈\n\nR\n\nn\n×\nn\n\n\n\n such that
where \n\n\nK\ni\n\n≜\n4\nα\n\nR\n\n−\n1\n\n\n\nB\ni\nT\n\n\nX\n\n−\n1\n\n\n,\ni\n=\n1\n,\n⋯\n,\nr\n\n is the optimal, globally asymptotically stabilizing control law for the TS-type fuzzy system in (12) that minimizes the cost function
for all \n\nx\n\nt\n\n≠\n0\n\n and \n\nα\n≥\n1\n,\n\n where \n\n\nG\nij\n\n≜\n\nA\ni\n\n−\n2\nα\n\nB\ni\n\n\nR\n\n−\n1\n\n\n\nB\nj\nT\n\n\nX\n\n−\n1\n\n\n,\n\n and the decay rate of the closed-loop dynamics for the TS-type fuzzy system in (12) with the control law \n\n\nu\n∗\n\n\nt\n\n\n in (18) is at least \n\nβ\n,\n\n where \n\nβ\n>\n0\n\n is a constant.
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Proof: Suppose that \n\nV\n\n\nx\n\nt\n\n\n\n=\nx\n\n\nt\n\nT\n\n\nX\n\n−\n1\n\n\nx\n\nt\n\n,\n\n where \n\nX\n=\n\nX\nT\n\n>\n0\n\n is a positive definite matrix. Then, from proposition 1, the control law \n\n\nu\n∗\n\n\nt\n\n\n in (3) with \n\ng\n\n\nx\n\nt\n\n\n\n≜\n\n∑\n\ni\n=\n1\n\nr\n\n\nh\ni\n\n\n\nx\n\nt\n\n\n\n\nB\ni\n\n\n and \n\nV\n\n\nx\n\nt\n\n\n\n=\nx\n\n\nt\n\nT\n\n\nX\n\n−\n1\n\n\nx\n\nt\n\n\n becomes
for all \n\nx\n\nt\n\n≠\n0\n,\n\n where \n\n\nG\nij\n\n≜\n\nA\ni\n\n−\n\n1\n2\n\n\nB\ni\n\n\n\n4\nα\n\nR\n\n−\n1\n\n\n\nB\nj\nT\n\n\nX\n\n−\n1\n\n\n\n\n=\n\nA\ni\n\n−\n\n1\n2\n\n\nB\ni\n\n\nK\nj\n\n,\n\n and
for all \n\nx\n\nt\n\n,\n\n where \n\n\nQ\nij\n\n≜\n\nA\ni\n\n−\n\nB\ni\n\n\n\n4\nα\n\nR\n\n−\n1\n\n\n\nB\nj\nT\n\n\nX\n\n−\n1\n\n\n\n\n=\n\nA\ni\n\n−\n\nB\ni\n\n\nK\nj\n\n\n and \n\nβ\n>\n0\n\n is a constant. Since the normalized weight functions \n\n\nh\ni\n\n,\ni\n=\n1\n,\n⋯\n,\nr\n\n in (22) and (23) satisfy \n\n\nh\ni\n\n\n\nx\n\nt\n\n\n\n\nh\nj\n\n\n\nx\n\nt\n\n\n\n≥\n0\n,\ni\n=\n1\n,\n⋯\n,\nr\n,\nj\n=\n1\n,\n⋯\n,\nr\n\n and \n\n\n∑\n\ni\n=\n1\n\nr\n\n\n∑\n\nj\n=\n1\n\nr\n\n\nh\ni\n\n\n\nx\n\nt\n\n\n\n\nh\nj\n\n\n\nx\n\nt\n\n\n\n=\n1\n\n (i.e., \n\n\n∑\n\ni\n=\n1\n\nr\n\n\n∑\n\nj\n=\n1\n\nr\n\n\nh\ni\n\n\n\nx\n\nt\n\n\n\n\nh\nj\n\n\n\nx\n\nt\n\n\n\n=\n\n∑\n\ni\n=\n1\n\nr\n\n\nh\ni\n2\n\n\n\nx\n\nt\n\n\n\n+\n2\n\n∑\n\ni\n<\nj\n\nr\n\n\nh\ni\n\n\n\nx\n\nt\n\n\n\n\nh\nj\n\n\n\nx\n\nt\n\n\n\n=\n1\n\n) for all \n\nx\n\nt\n\n∈\n\nR\nn\n\n,\n\n sufficient conditions for satisfying (22) and (23) are
respectively. If all sets of inequalities in (24, 25) are pre- and post-multiplied by a positive definite matrix \n\nX\n=\n\nX\nT\n\n>\n0\n,\n\n then we can transform the nonlinear conditions in (24, 25) into the linear conditions in (16, 17), respectively. Thus, by the results of propositions 1 and 2, we see that the control law \n\n\nu\n∗\n\n\nt\n\n\n in (21) with a positive definite matrix \n\nX\n=\n\nX\nT\n\n>\n0\n\n satisfying the conditions in (16, 17) becomes the optimal, globally asymptotically stabilizing control law for the TS-type fuzzy system in (12) that minimizes the cost function in (19), where \n\nl\n\n\nx\n\nt\n\n\n\n\n in (20) comes from (5) and satisfies \n\nl\n\n\nx\n\nt\n\n\n\n>\n0\n\n for all \n\nx\n\nt\n\n≠\n0\n\n and \n\nα\n≥\n1\n\n by (22) and the property of \n\nR\n=\n\nR\nT\n\n>\n0\n,\n\n and the decay rate of the closed-loop dynamics for the TS-type fuzzy system in (12) with the control law \n\n\nu\n∗\n\n\nt\n\n\n in (21) becomes at least \n\nβ\n>\n0\n.\n\n This completes the proof.
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Now, consider the TS-type fuzzy system with a common input matrix, which is described by
Theorem 2 [62]: For the TS-type fuzzy system in (26), suppose that there exists a function \n\nV\n\n\nx\n\nt\n\n\n\n=\nx\n\n\nt\n\nT\n\n\nX\n\n−\n1\n\n\nx\n\nt\n\n\n with \n\nX\n∈\n\nR\n\nn\n×\nn\n\n\n\n such that
where \n\nR\n=\n\nR\nT\n\n>\n0\n\n is a positive definite matrix and \n\nα\n≥\n1\n\n and \n\nβ\n>\n0\n\n are constants. Then the control law:
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\n\n\nu\n∗\n\n\nt\n\n=\n−\nKx\n\nt\n\n,\n\nE30
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where \n\nK\n≜\n4\nα\n\nR\n\n−\n1\n\n\n\nB\nT\n\n\nX\n\n−\n1\n\n\n\n is the optimal, globally asymptotically stabilizing control law for the TS-type fuzzy system in (26) that minimizes the cost function
for all \n\nx\n\nt\n\n≠\n0\n\n and \n\nα\n≥\n1\n,\n\n and the decay rate of the closed-loop dynamics for the TS-type fuzzy system in (26) with the control law \n\n\nu\n∗\n\n\nt\n\n\n in (30) is at least \n\nβ\n,\n\n where \n\nβ\n>\n0\n\n is a constant.
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Proof: Suppose that \n\nV\n\n\nx\n\nt\n\n\n\n=\nx\n\n\nt\n\nT\n\n\nX\n\n−\n1\n\n\nx\n\nt\n\n,\n\n where \n\nX\n=\n\nX\nT\n\n>\n0\n\n is a positive definite matrix. Then, from proposition 1, the control law \n\n\nu\n∗\n\n\nt\n\n\n in (3) with \n\ng\n\n\nx\n\nt\n\n\n\n≜\nB\n\n and \n\nV\n\n\nx\n\nt\n\n\n\n=\nx\n\n\nt\n\nT\n\n\nX\n\n−\n1\n\n\nx\n\nt\n\n\n becomes
for all \n\nx\n\nt\n\n,\n\n where \n\nβ\n>\n0\n\n is a constant. Since the normalized weight functions \n\n\nh\ni\n\n,\ni\n=\n1\n,\n⋯\n,\nr\n\n in (34, 35) satisfy \n\n\nh\ni\n\n\n\nx\n\nt\n\n\n\n≥\n0\n,\ni\n=\n1\n,\n⋯\n,\nr\n\n and \n\n\n∑\n\ni\n=\n1\n\nr\n\n\nh\ni\n\n\n\nx\n\nt\n\n\n\n=\n1\n\n for all \n\nx\n\nt\n\n∈\n\nR\nn\n\n,\n\n sufficient conditions for satisfying (34, 35) are
respectively. If all sets of inequalities in (36, 37) are pre- and post-multiplied by a positive definite matrix \n\nX\n=\n\nX\nT\n\n>\n0\n,\n\n then we can transform the nonlinear conditions in (36, 37) into the linear conditions in (28, 29), respectively. Therefore, by the results of propositions 1 and 2, we see that the control law \n\n\nu\n∗\n\n\nt\n\n\n in (33) with a positive definite matrix \n\nX\n=\n\nX\nT\n\n>\n0\n\n satisfying the conditions in (28, 29) becomes the optimal, globally asymptotically stabilizing control law for the TS-type fuzzy system in (26) that minimizes the cost function in (31), where \n\nl\n\n\nx\n\nt\n\n\n\n\n in (32) comes from (5) and satisfies \n\nl\n\n\nx\n\nt\n\n\n\n>\n0\n\n for all \n\nx\n\nt\n\n≠\n0\n\n and \n\nα\n≥\n1\n\n by (34) and the property of \n\nR\n=\n\nR\nT\n\n>\n0\n,\n\n and the decay rate of the closed-loop dynamics for the TS-type fuzzy system in (26) with the control law \n\n\nu\n∗\n\n\nt\n\n\n in (33) becomes at least \n\nβ\n>\n0\n.\n\n This completes the proof.
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Note that the problem appearing in Theorems 1 and 2 is to find a matrix \n\nX\n∈\n\nR\n\nn\n×\nn\n\n\n\n subject to some linear constraints in the form of linear matrix inequality (LMI). Therefore, this problem is an LMI-based problem [32], and we can efficiently solve the LMI-based problem by the LMI Control Toolbox of MATLAB [35]. In this chapter, the author uses the LMI Control Toolbox of MATLAB [35] as the solver for the LMI-based problem in the optimal control design.
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4. A control design example
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As a control design example, the author considers the three-axis attitude stabilization problem of a rigid body and illustrates the effectiveness of the optimal control design for TS-type fuzzy systems presented in Section 3.
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4.1. Rigid body model
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First, the dynamic equation of the rotational motion of a rigid body is described as follows [36]:
where \n\nω\n\nt\n\n=\n\n\n\n\nω\n1\n\n\nt\n\n\n\nω\n2\n\n\nt\n\n\n\nω\n3\n\n\nt\n\n\n\nT\n\n∈\n\nR\n3\n\n\n is the angular velocity vector of the body in the body-fixed frame, \n\nu\n\nt\n\n=\n\n\n\n\nu\n1\n\n\nt\n\n\n\nu\n2\n\n\nt\n\n\n\nu\n3\n\n\nt\n\n\n\nT\n\n∈\n\nR\n3\n\n\n is the control torque vector of the body, and \n\nJ\n∈\n\nR\n\n3\n×\n3\n\n\n\n is the inertia matrix of the body and satisfies \n\nJ\n=\n\nJ\nT\n\n>\n0\n.\n\n And \n\nΩ\n\n\nω\n\nt\n\n\n\n∈\n\nR\n\n3\n×\n3\n\n\n\n denotes a skew-symmetric matrix defined by
where \n\nq\n\nt\n\n=\n\n\n\n\nq\n1\n\n\nt\n\n\n\nq\n2\n\n\nt\n\n\n\nq\n3\n\n\nt\n\n\n\nq\n4\n\n\nt\n\n\n\nT\n\n≜\n\n\n\n\nq\n1\n\n\nt\n\n\n\nq\nv\n\n\n\nt\n\nT\n\n\n\nT\n\n∈\n\nR\n4\n\n\n is the quaternion and \n\nF\n\n\nq\n\nt\n\n\n\n:\n\nR\n4\n\n→\n\nR\n\n4\n×\n3\n\n\n\n denotes the kinematics Jacobian matrix defined as
where \n\n\nI\n\n3\n×\n3\n\n\n\n denotes the \n\n3\n×\n3\n\n identity matrix.
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With the notations of the Euler axis \n\n\ne\n̂\n\n∈\n\nR\n3\n\n\n and Euler angle \n\nϕ\n∈\nR\n\n, we define the quaternion by \n\n\nq\n1\n\n\nt\n\n≜\ncos\n\n\nϕ\n/\n2\n\n\n\n and \n\n\nq\nv\n\n\nt\n\n≜\n\ne\n̂\n\nsin\n\n\nϕ\n/\n2\n\n\n.\n\n The quaternion \n\nq\n\nt\n\n\n is subject to the unit length constraint of \n\n\n\n\nq\n\nt\n\n\n\n2\n\n=\n1\n\n for all \n\nt\n≥\n0\n\n and is a kinematic parameter set that can represent the orientation of a body and [36]. From the definition of the quaternion, we see that \n\n\nq\n1\n\n\nt\n\n\n satisfies \n\n\nq\n1\n\n\nt\n\n≥\n0\n\n for all \n\n−\nπ\n\nrad\n≤\nϕ\n≤\nπ\n\nrad\n,\n\n which describes all eigenaxis rotations [36]. Thus, we can write \n\n\nq\n1\n\n\nt\n\n\n as \n\n\nq\n1\n\n\nt\n\n=\n\n\n1\n−\n\n\n\n\nq\nv\n\n\nt\n\n\n\n2\n2\n\n\n\n\n for all \n\n−\nπ\n\nrad\n≤\nϕ\n≤\nπ\n\nrad\n.\n\n.
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4.2. Optimal control design
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First, it is observed that two state equations given by (38) and (41) represent a system in cascade interconnection. That is, the angular velocity vector indirectly controls the kinematics system in (41). Thus, the angular velocity vector can be regarded as a virtual control input of the kinematics system in (41) to stabilize the kinematics system in (41). This observation gives the following theorem: Theorem 3 [62]: Consider the kinematics system in (41) with \n\nω\n\nt\n\n\n to be the control input, and let the control law for the kinematics system in (41) be
where \n\n\nk\n1\n\n>\n0\n\n is a constant. Then, \n\n\nω\nv\n\n\nt\n\n\n in (43) is the global asymptotic stabilizing control law for the kinematics system in (41).
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Proof: With the control law \n\n\nω\nv\n\n\nt\n\n\n in (43), the closed-loop system of the kinematics system in (41) becomes
Now, consider the Lyapunov function candidate \n\nV\n\n\nq\n\nt\n\n\n\n=\n\n\n\n\nq\n1\n\n\nt\n\n−\n1\n\n\n2\n\n+\n\n\n\n\nq\nv\n\n\nt\n\n\n\n2\n2\n\n\n. Taking the time derivative of \n\nV\n\n\nq\n\nt\n\n\n\n\n along a nonzero trajectory of the closed-loop system in (44) and using the property of \n\nΩ\n\n\n\nq\nv\n\n\nt\n\n\n\n\nq\nv\n\n\nt\n\n≡\n0\n\n for all \n\n\nq\nv\n\n\nt\n\n∈\n\nR\n3\n\n,\n\n then the following condition holds:
for all \n\n\nq\nv\n\n\nt\n\n≠\n0\n\n and all \n\n\nk\n1\n\n>\n0\n.\n\n Then, global asymptotic stability of the closed-loop dynamics in (44) follows from the Barbashin-Krasovskii theorem [4]. This completes the proof.
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Next, we have to stabilize the dynamics system in (38) with making \n\nω\n\nt\n\n\n in (38) follow \n\n\nω\nv\n\n\nt\n\n\n in (43), and this is a backstepping problem [39]. For solving this problem, the author defines the new variable \n\nδ\n\nt\n\n\n as \n\nδ\n\nt\n\n≜\nω\n\nt\n\n−\n\nω\nv\n\n\nt\n\n=\nω\n\nt\n\n+\n\nk\n1\n\n\nq\nv\n\n\nt\n\n.\n\n For convenience of notation, the author defines \n\n\nx\n1\n\n\nt\n\n≜\n\nδ\n1\n\n\nt\n\n,\n\n\n\n\nx\n2\n\n\nt\n\n≜\n\nδ\n2\n\n\nt\n\n,\n\n\n\n\nx\n3\n\n\nt\n\n≜\n\nδ\n3\n\n\nt\n\n,\n\n\n\n\nx\n4\n\n\nt\n\n≜\n\nq\n2\n\n\nt\n\n,\n\n\n\n\nx\n5\n\n\nt\n\n≜\n\nq\n3\n\n\nt\n\n,\n\n\n\n\nx\n6\n\n\nt\n\n≜\n\nq\n4\n\n\nt\n\n,\n\n\n\n\nx\nδ\n\n\nt\n\n≜\n\n\n\n\nx\n1\n\n\nt\n\n\n\nx\n2\n\n\nt\n\n\n\nx\n3\n\n\nt\n\n\n\nT\n\n,\n\n and \n\n\nx\n\nq\nv\n\n\n\nt\n\n≜\n\n\n\n\nx\n4\n\n\nt\n\n\n\nx\n5\n\n\nt\n\n\n\nx\n6\n\n\nt\n\n\n\nT\n\n.\n\n Then, with \n\nx\n\nt\n\n≜\n\n\n\n\nx\nδ\n\n\n\nt\n\nT\n\n\n\nx\n\nq\nv\n\n\n\n\nt\n\nT\n\n\n\nT\n\n\n and \n\n\nq\n1\n\n\nt\n\n=\n\n\n1\n−\n\n\n\n\nx\n\nq\nv\n\n\n\nt\n\n\n\n2\n2\n\n\n\n\n for all \n\n−\nπ\n\nrad\n≤\nϕ\n≤\nπ\n\nrad\n,\n\nthe author represents the state equation for \n\nx\n\nt\n\n\n by
where \n\nA\n\n\nx\n\nt\n\n\n\n∈\n\nR\n\n6\n×\n6\n\n\n\n and \n\nB\n∈\n\nR\n\n6\n×\n3\n\n\n\n are defined in (46) and (47), respectively. In (47), \n\n\n0\n\n3\n×\n3\n\n\n\n denotes the \n\n3\n×\n3\n\n zero matrix:
where diag means the diagonal matrix, \n\n\nk\n1\n\n=\n0.2\n,\n\n and \n\n\nx\n\nδ\ni\n\n\n,\n\nx\n\nq\n\nv\ni\n\n\n\n∈\n\n\n−\n0.5\n\n0.5\n\n,\ni\n=\n1\n,\n⋯\n,\n3\n.\n\n If we do sampling \n\nA\n\n\nx\n\nt\n\n\n\n\n in (46) at nine operating points of \n\n\n\nx\n\nδ\ni\n\n\n\nx\n\nq\n\nv\ni\n\n\n\n\n=\n\n\n0\n\n0\n\n\n,\n\n\n\n\n\n0\n\n0.5\n\n\n,\n\n\n\n\n\n0\n−\n0.5\n\n\n,\n\n\n\n\n\n0.25\n\n0\n\n\n,\n\n\n\n\n\n0.25\n\n0.5\n\n\n,\n\n\n\n\n\n−\n0.25\n\n0\n\n\n,\n\n\n\n\n\n−\n0.25\n−\n0.5\n\n\n,\n\n\n\n\n\n0.5\n\n0.5\n\n\n,\n\n\n\n\n\n−\n0.5\n−\n0.5\n\n\n,\n\n\n\ni\n=\n1\n,\n⋯\n,\n3\n\n with the given \n\n\nk\n1\n\n=\n0.2\n\n and \n\nJ\n\n in (48), we can obtain the following TS-type fuzzy model for the system in (38):
In (49), \n\nx\n\nt\n\n∈\n\nR\n6\n\n\n is the state vector, \n\nu\n\nt\n\n∈\n\nR\n3\n\n\n is the control input vector, \n\n\nM\nij\n\n,\ni\n=\n1\n,\n⋯\n,\n9\n,\nj\n=\n1\n,\n⋯\n,\n6\n\n are the fuzzy sets defined as in Figures 1 and 2, \n\n\nA\ni\n\n,\ni\n=\n1\n,\n⋯\n,\n9\n\n are obtained by sampling \n\nA\n\n\nx\n\nt\n\n\n\n\n in (46) at the given nine operating-points, and \n\nB\n\n is given in (47). With the normalized weight functions \n\n\nh\ni\n\n,\ni\n=\n1\n,\n⋯\n,\n9\n\n defined by
Fuzzy sets \n\n\nM\nij\n\n,\ni\n=\n1\n,\n⋯\n,\n9\n,\nj\n=\n1\n,\n⋯\n,\n3\n\n used to design TS-type fuzzy model in (49) for system in (45).
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Figure 2.
Fuzzy sets \n\n\nM\nij\n\n,\ni\n=\n1\n,\n⋯\n,\n9\n,\nj\n=\n4\n,\n⋯\n,\n6\n\n used to design TS-type fuzzy model in (49) for system in (45).
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We can use the result of theorem 2 to design the optimal control law for the TS-type fuzzy system in (50) because the TS-type fuzzy system in (50) has the common input matrix B in (47). Then, we assume that \n\nα\n=\n2\n,\n\n\n\nβ\n=\n0.1\n,\n\n and \n\nR\n=\n\nI\n3\n×\n3\n\n\n in (28) and (29). With these values, the authors solve the LMIs in (27), (28), and (29) by using the command of “feasp” provided by the LMI Control Toolbox of MATLAB [35]. From the result, we obtain the following optimal control law for the TS-type fuzzy system in (43) that minimizes the cost function in (31):
Since we can analyze the pure effect of the weight matrix \n\nR\n\n on the control performance without any constraint, the author designs two other optimal control laws for the TS-type fuzzy system in (50) without considering the decay rate constraint, which is given by (29), to clearly analyze the influence of the weight matrix \n\nR\n\n in (31) on the control performance. The author designs one by solving (27) and (28) for the TS-type fuzzy system in (50) with \n\nα\n=\n2\n\n and \n\nR\n=\n\nI\n\n3\n×\n3\n\n\n\n, and one is given by
The author designs the other by solving (27) and (28) for the TS-type fuzzy system in (50) with \n\nα\n=\n2\n\n and \n\nR\n=\n3\n×\n\nI\n\n3\n×\n3\n\n\n\n, and the other is given by
As the numerical simulation model, the author uses the equations of rotational motion of a rigid body given by (38) and (41), where the inertia matrix is given by (48). The author assumes that the initial conditions at the initial time \n\n\nt\n0\n\n=\n0\n\n sec for the Euler axis \n\n\ne\n̂\n\n\n and the Euler angle \n\nϕ\n\n are \n\n\ne\n̂\n\n\n\nt\n0\n\n\n=\n\n\n\n0.4896\n\n0.2030\n\n0.8480\n\n\nT\n\n\n and \n\nϕ\n\n\nt\n0\n\n\n=\n2.4648\n\n rad, respectively, which give \n\nq\n\n\nt\n0\n\n\n=\n\n\n\n0.3320\n\n0.4618\n\n0.1915\n\n0.7999\n\n\n\nT\n\n.\n\n Note that the given \n\nϕ\n\n\nt\n0\n\n\n\n represents an almost upside-down initial orientation of a rigid body. Also, the author assumes a rest-to-rest maneuver of a rigid body, and, thus, the author assumes that the initial condition for the angular velocity vector is \n\nω\n\n\nt\n0\n\n\n=\n\n\n\n0\n\n0\n\n0\n\n\nT\n\n\nrad/sec.
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With the optimal control laws \n\n\nu\na\n\n\nt\n\n\n of (51), \n\n\nu\nb\n\n\nt\n\n\n of (52), and \n\n\nu\nc\n\n\nt\n\n\n of (53), the author illustrates the influences of the decay rate \n\nβ\n\n in (29) and the weight matrix \n\nR\n\n in (31) on the control performance. Then, in Figures 3–5, the author shows the numerical simulation results for a rigid body with each control law \n\n\nu\na\n\n\nt\n\n,\n\n\n\n\nu\nb\n\n\nt\n\n,\n\n and \n\n\nu\nc\n\n\nt\n\n.\n\n In Figures 3–5, the red-solid, green-dashed, and blue-dotted lines represent the state trajectories of a rigid body with \n\n\nu\na\n\n\nt\n\n,\n\n\n\n\nu\nb\n\n\nt\n\n,\n\n and \n\n\nu\nc\n\n\nt\n\n,\n\n respectively.
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Figure 3.
Angular velocity responses of the rigid body given by (38) and (41) with control laws \n\n\nu\na\n\n\nt\n\n\n of (51), \n\n\nu\nb\n\n\nt\n\n\n of (52), and \n\n\nu\nc\n\n\nt\n\n\n of (53) designed in this chapter at initial conditions \n\nω\n\n\nt\n0\n\n\n=\n\n\n\n0\n\n0\n\n0\n\n\nT\n\n\n rad/sec and \n\nq\n\n\nt\n0\n\n\n=\n\n\n\n0.3320\n\n0.4618\n\n0.1915\n\n0.7999\n\n\n\nT\n\n.\n\n
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Figure 4.
Quaternion responses of the rigid body given by (38) and (41) with control laws \n\n\nu\na\n\n\nt\n\n\n of (51), \n\n\nu\nb\n\n\nt\n\n\n of (52), and \n\n\nu\nc\n\n\nt\n\n\n of (53) designed in this chapter at initial conditions \n\nω\n\n\nt\n0\n\n\n=\n\n\n\n0\n\n0\n\n0\n\n\nT\n\n\n rad/sec and \n\nq\n\n\nt\n0\n\n\n=\n\n\n\n0.3320\n0.4618\n\n0.1915\n\n0.7999\n\n\n\nT\n\n.\n\n
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Figure 5.
Control input responses of the rigid body given by (38) and (41) with control laws \n\n\nu\na\n\n\nt\n\n\n of (51), \n\n\nu\nb\n\n\nt\n\n\n of (52), and \n\n\nu\nc\n\n\nt\n\n\n of (53) designed in this chapter at initial conditions \n\nω\n\n\nt\n0\n\n\n=\n\n\n\n0\n\n0\n\n0\n\n\nT\n\n\n rad/sec and \n\nq\n\n\nt\n0\n\n\n=\n\n\n\n0.3320\n\n0.4618\n\n0.1915\n\n0.7999\n\n\n\nT\n\n.\n\n
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First, as shown in Figures 3–5, we see that \n\n\nu\na\n\n\nt\n\n,\n\n\n\n\nu\nb\n\n\nt\n\n,\n\n and \n\n\nu\nc\n\n\nt\n\n\n guarantee the asymptotic stability of the equilibrium point. Second, in Figures 3 and 4, we observe that \n\n\nu\na\n\n\nt\n\n\nprovides more desirable control performance than \n\n\nu\nb\n\n\nt\n\n\n and \n\n\nu\nc\n\n\nt\n\n\n because the design of \n\n\nu\na\n\n\nt\n\n\nincorporates with the decay rate constraint.
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Finally, in Figures 3 and 4, we see that the state responses of a rigid body with \n\n\nu\nb\n\n\nt\n\n\n show faster convergence rates to the equilibrium point than those with \n\n\nu\nc\n\n\nt\n\n\n. And, in Figure 5, we see that the control efforts using \n\n\nu\nb\n\n\nt\n\n\n and \n\n\nu\nc\n\n\nt\n\n\n are comparable. We can explain this result by the fact that the weight matrix \n\nR\n\n whose diagonal elements are small increases the penalty on the state vector and decreases the penalty on the control input vector, which makes the system stable within a short period of time and the weight matrix \n\nR\n\n whose diagonal elements are large decreases the penalty on the state vector and increases the penalty on the control input vector, which makes the system stable within a long period of time.
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5. Conclusion
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In this chapter, the author presented a theory on the optimal control of nonlinear dynamic systems by utilizing the dynamic programming approach and the inverse optimal approach. Specifically, the author employed the dynamic programming approach to derive the Hamilton-Jacobi-Bellman (H-J-B) equation associated with the optimal control problem for nonlinear dynamic systems and utilized the inverse optimal approach to avoid the task of solving the H-J-B equation numerically.
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Then, the author established an optimal control design for TS-type fuzzy systems to achieve the global asymptotic stability of an equilibrium point, the optimality with respect to a cost function, and the good convergence rates of state trajectories to an equilibrium point. Based on this optimal control design, the author presented a systematic way for designing the optimal control law for TS-type fuzzy systems.
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The author showed the usefulness of the optimal control design by considering the three-axis attitude stabilization problem of a rigid body. The optimal three-axis attitude stabilizing control law for a rigid body was designed, and its control performance was analyzed by numerical simulations. The numerical simulation results demonstrated that the optimal three-axis attitude stabilizing control law designed in this chapter provides desirable optimal control performance together with good convergence rates of state trajectories to an equilibrium point.
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The author would like to suggest two further research topics: one is an extension of the study presented in this chapter toward the robust control design for TS-type fuzzy systems with system parametric uncertainties and external disturbances. The problem is to incorporate these robustness issues into the optimal control design approach, and the key to solve this problem may be found in many literatures addressing the robust control approaches such as loop-transfer-recovery approach, guaranteed-cost approach, stochastic approach, and state-estimation approach. However, the difficulty of combining these approaches with the optimal control design method comes from the fact that these approaches are mainly for linear systems. Therefore, the extension of these approaches to nonlinear dynamic systems may be requisite. The other is to develop the optimal control design of TS-type fuzzy systems for tracking problems. Tracking problems assume that the equilibrium point is not the zero state. In linear dynamic systems, tracking problems can be reduced to regulation problems under the assumption that the desired state is known or can be reduced to disturbance-rejection problems under the assumption that the disturbance signal is known. However, in many cases, the desired state or the disturbance signal is not known. Thus, in such cases, some alternatives such as minimax approach and proportional-integral control may be needed. The minimax approach is for the worst-case design such that the disturbance signal maximizes the same performance index that the control input minimizes. And the proportional-integral control can be used to reject the constant disturbances. In the sequel, the minimax approach and the proportional-integral control may provide the solution to the tracking problem of TS-type fuzzy systems.
\n
\n\n',keywords:"intelligent system design, nonlinear optimal control, fuzzy systems, rigid body motion, rigid body attitude control",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/64541.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/64541.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64541",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64541",totalDownloads:820,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:36,impactScoreQuartile:2,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"July 31st 2018",dateReviewed:"October 22nd 2018",datePrePublished:"November 26th 2018",datePublished:"November 20th 2019",dateFinished:"November 26th 2018",readingETA:"0",abstract:"In this chapter, the author presents a theoretical result on the optimal control of nonlinear dynamic systems. In this theoretical result, the author presents the optimal control problem for nonlinear dynamic systems and shows that this problem can be solved by utilizing the dynamic programming approach and the inverse optimal approach. The author employs the dynamic programming approach to derive the Hamilton-Jacobi-Bellman (H-J-B) equation associated with the optimal control problem for nonlinear dynamic systems. Then, the author presents an analytic way to solve the H-J-B equation with the help of the inverse optimal approach. Based on the theoretical result presented in this chapter, the author establishes an optimal control design for TS-type fuzzy systems that guarantees the global asymptotic stability of an equilibrium point and the optimality with respect to a cost function and provides good convergence rates of state trajectories to an equilibrium point. The author considers the three-axis attitude stabilization problem of a rigid body to illustrate the optimal control design method for TS-type fuzzy systems. The author designs the optimal three-axis attitude stabilizing control law for a rigid body based on this optimal control design method and analyzes its control performance by numerical simulations.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/64541",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/64541",book:{id:"8613",slug:"aerospace-engineering"},signatures:"Yonmook Park",authors:[{id:"2861",title:"Dr.",name:"Yonmook",middleName:null,surname:"Park",fullName:"Yonmook Park",slug:"yonmook-park",email:"ym-park@kaist.ac.kr",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Nonlinear optimal control",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Optimal control of fuzzy systems",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1. Fuzzy systems",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2. Problem definition",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.3. Optimal control design",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"4. A control design example",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.1. Rigid body model",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.2. Optimal control design",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.3. Numerical simulation results",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Zadeh LA. Fuzzy sets. Information and Control. 1965;8(3):338-353\n'},{id:"B2",body:'Zadeh LA. Fuzzy algorithms. Information and Control. 1968;12(2):94-102\n'},{id:"B3",body:'Bezdek JC. Editorial: Fuzzy models what are they, and why? IEEE Transactions on Fuzzy Systems. 1994;1(1):1-6\n'},{id:"B4",body:'Khalil HK. Nonlinear Systems. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall; 1996\n'},{id:"B5",body:'Wang LX. Adaptive Fuzzy Systems and Control. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall; 1994\n'},{id:"B6",body:'Zadeh LA. 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In: Proceedings of the 4th Asian Control Conference; 25-27 September 2002; Singapore. pp. 881-885\n'},{id:"B57",body:'Anderson BDO, Moore JB. Optimal Control: Linear Quadratic Methods. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall; 1990\n'},{id:"B58",body:'Park Y, Tahk MJ, Bang HC. A game-theoretic approach to robust optimal attitude stabilization of a spacecraft with external disturbances. In: Proceedings of the JSASS 15th International Sessions in 39th Aircraft Symposium; 29–31 October 2001; Gifu, Japan. pp. 17-20\n'},{id:"B59",body:'Wen JT, Kreutz-Delgado K. The attitude control problem. IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control. 1991;36(10):1148-1162\n'},{id:"B60",body:'Lizarralde F, Wen JT. Attitude control without angular velocity measurement: A passivity approach. IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control. 1996;41(3):468-472\n'},{id:"B61",body:'Caccavale F, Natale C, Siciliano B, Villani L. Six-DOF impedance control based on angle/axis representations. IEEE Transactions on Robotics and Automation. 1999;15(2):289-300\n'},{id:"B62",body:'Park Y. Optimal control of TS-type fuzzy systems. IEEE Transactions on Aerospace and Electronic Systems. 2014;50(1):761-772\n'},{id:"B63",body:'Horn R. Matrix Analysis. New York: Cambridge University Press; 1985\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Yonmook Park",address:"ym-park@kaist.ac.kr",affiliation:'
AI R&D Center, Anam Electronics Co. Ltd., Guro-gu, Seoul, Republic of Korea
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1. Introduction
We are living in an exceptionally challenging historical moment. We learned that no matter how much we control our lives, our environment and our relationships, everything can be transformed instantly, depending on the will of a virus that does not respect ages, nationalities, lineage, intelligence or skills. We learned that the unlimited power that science and technology had given us was just a huge illusion, owing to the absolute and overwhelming power of a nature that we had almost forgotten.
After all, the balance of forces we knew was inevitably stunned and the beliefs with which we built our lives were totally challenged by an unpredictable and constantly changing reality.
In fact, uncertainty is probably one of the biggest challenges we face today. Never, as much as today, the way we manage emotions can make a difference in our future, both personal and professional. Uncertainty about a potential future threat upsets our ability to avoid it or to mitigate its negative impact, and thus results in anxiety, fear and anguish. In fact, uncertainty weakens how efficiently and effectively we can plan the future, and thus contributes to anxiety. Anxiety is related to anticipatory representations of possible, uncertain future events. On another hand, fear and anxiety can be distinguished according to how much certainty one has concerning the probability, timing, or nature of future threat. Moreover, environmental signs denoting the unambiguous presence of close threat increase the probability of a possible “fearful” defensive behaviors, more diffuse, distal, or unpredictable threat cues produce “anxious” risk assessment behavior that is likely to persist until such uncertainty is resolved.
More than a year has passed since SARS-CoV-2 began to spread around the world. If at first its presence did not cause severe apprehension, it soon turned into thoughtful worry, as more and more people were infected with COVID-19. Anxiety and fear have increase exponentially not only because of the newness of this virus and its consequences in the short, medium and long term, but basically because of its incredibly fast spread. The prevention measures that were briefly embraced around the world strongly conditioned everyone’s life; a phenomenon that had never been experienced during our lifetime. Restricted to our home, banned from traveling, forced to wear mask, obligated to strictly obey physical distancing protocols, everyone fought together to slow down the spread of COVID-19. On the other hand, the mass media did not only extensive, but also intense coverage, detailing every detail of a scenario, at the very least, scary and unpredictable.
Worldwide, there have been more than 150 million confirmed cases of COVID-19, and more than 3 million deaths ascribed to the illness. According to official predictions, throughout most of the world, the rate of new SARS-CoV-2 infections is gradually decreasing, because of herd immunity that has meaningly improved with vaccination efforts.
The preventive restrictions firstly fulfilled to block the spread of the virus are now starting to be smoothed over. However, the marks of the lockdown experiences remain and are mirrored in the way people deal with the newly re-acquired “freedoms”. Actually, the remaining fear and concern are certainly related to the fact that countries, such as Portugal, have lived periods of true hope followed by moments of extreme distress when faced with the exponential increase in infected people following a slight weakening of the preventive measures during the Christmas period. The population realized, often directly in themselves and in their closest ones, that the virus was not giving a break. And even when a “new normal” begins to be experienced, many fears and anxieties persist. For some, going back and socializing with other people is a source of fear and anxiety. Moreover, fear triggers safety behaviors (hand washing) that can mitigate certain contamination threats, but it tends paradoxically also to enhance fear [1, 2, 3].
In a survey of 44,000 participants conducted in Belgium in the beginning of April 2020, the number of people reporting an anxiety (20%) or a depressive disorder (16%) had increased substantially compared to a survey conducted in 2018 (i.e., 11% and 10% prevalence, respectively) [4]. However, it is important to note that anxiety, itself, is a regular emotion, experienced by people in their daily lives, and characterized by feelings of tension, worry, insecurity, usually accompanied by physical changes such as increased blood pressure and heart rate, sweating, dry mouth, tremors and dizziness. Despite this normative character, when anxiety persists in certain contexts, interferes negatively with the ability to perform daily activities and causes significant physical and/or emotional suffering, we are facing an anxious pathology. That is, under normal conditions, anxiety can be useful, as it helps to identify dangerous situations and allows for better preparation to face them. When well controlled, it acts primarily as a stimulant. In excess, it causes unnecessary suffering.
Despite vaccines and the decrease in the prevalence of the disease, some people experience what scientists already call the COVID-19 anxiety syndrome. Its symptoms are close to those of other mental health conditions, including anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD), but its cause lies in the pandemic and related factors appear to be the cause.
2. COVID-19 anxiety syndrome
The strength and extent of this pandemic has put people on high alert, feeling fear and concern about the impact this virus could have. As scientific development allowed for a better understanding of the virus, as well as its forms of prevention and treatment, new routines began to be established to manage the relationship with this pandemic. As a worldwide phenomenon, there were many different reactions. Some people refused to change their behavior, while others strictly followed the rules to prevent the disease. However, on a larger scale, in one way or another, most people have experienced a unexpected disruption in their lives, what can be considered a disaster situation.
The International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies classifies a disaster as “a serious problem occurring over a short or long period of time that causes widespread human, material, economic or environmental loss which exceeds the ability of the affected community or society to cope using its own resources.” A disaster can have comprehensive penalties for mental health, remarkably triggering post-traumatic stress disorder, anxiety and depression.
As a greater understanding of the pandemic-related mental health consequences evolved, an emerging group of anxiety-related symptoms and behaviors associated with the COVID-19 pandemic was identified. They classify this phenomenon as COVID-19 anxiety syndrome.
2.1 What is COVID-19 anxiety syndrome?
Nikčević and Spada [5] describe the characteristics of the COVID-19 anxiety syndrome, namely avoidance, compulsive symptom checking, worry and threat monitoring (combined). This syndrome is manifested by the impossibility of leaving the house for fear of COVID-19, frequent checking of symptoms despite not being in a high-risk scenario and avoiding social situations or people. People with this syndrome tend to have increased post-traumatic stress, general stress, anxiety, health anxiety, and suicidal ideation.
Stress can cause the following:
Feelings of fear, anger, sadness, worry, numbness or frustration
Changes in appetite, energy, desires and interests
Difficulty concentrating and making decisions
Difficulty sleeping or nightmares
Physical reactions such as headaches, body aches, stomach problems and rashes
Worsening of chronic health problems
Worsening of mental health conditions
Increased use of tobacco, alcohol and other substances
Since the pandemic is equated with its disaster situation, it is obviously natural to experience stress, anxiety, sadness and worry during the COVID-19 pandemic. The challenge lies in our ability to handle this. In fact, these could be central construct in explaining the negative individual and societal consequences of the coronavirus pandemic. Thus, it is vital to better understand what people are exactly afraid of and explore relevant predictors. A very particular public, and sometimes neglected by literature, are student workers and even more specifically, higher education student workers.
3. Working students in higher education
Higher Education enrolments have continued on an upward climb for decades, as more people recognize the value of the higher education, mainly for the tangible value of the diploma in the marketplace. The diversity in higher education is an unquestionable trend, but with that diversity it is also seen deep changes in how students are funding their academic investments. Adult degree seekers, first-generation students and students from low-income backgrounds have become a mainstay in the growing mix in higher education today.
This new diversity challenges the image of the “traditional student”: direct-from-high school and financially supported by parents. Today’s higher education students face a complex set of dilemmas about whether to attend higher education, where to attend, how to pay, how much to work, how many jobs to take, how to manage family and children, and how to balance these competing priorities while in higher education. Thus, working students are those students who work outside the school and having a school responsibility too.
Different research studies have highlighted the negative consequences of working while studying, namely:
the difficulties in meeting higher education requirements [6, 7],
the tiredness, the shortage of time and the few hours for recreation [11].
In fact, full time students experienced strong demands on their time management and could be at risk of overload [12]. Lowe & Gayle [12] conducted a study with working students and found that over half of the students achieved a good or manageable work/life/study balance, whilst some experienced stress caused by conflicting priorities.
The students’ success in balancing study with work and family life seems to be induced by their coping strategies and by the nature and quality of the support they get from families and employers. On another hand, Sanchez-Gelabert, Figueroa & Elias [13] advocate that regarding the impact of working while studying on academic performance, in general it seems that there is little disparity between the marks obtained when compared with full-time students. Even though this first professional socialization process has a negative impact on marks when the job is full-time, it actually has positive repercussions on future job quality. Thus, having a related job seems to contributes most positively to the academic success. On another hand, better scores were obtained by those who had a related job while they studied for their degree. Obviously, these students developed and acquired specific skills and made contacts in the workplace which contributed to improving their labour market outcomes.
Mounsey et al. [14] conducted also a study which explored the differences between working and non-working students in terms of mental health, academic achievement, and perceptions about student employment. No significant difference in depression between working and non-working students were found; however, working students displayed more anxiety than non-working counterparts and reported more stress and fewer buffers. Unlike previous research, there was no difference in the grade point averages of working and non-working students, nor differences in perception of the problems and benefits of work.
In the pandemic context, according to the results of the survey conducted in Portugal, 90% of the respondents said that the lockdown caused by the covid-19 had a negative consequence on their mental health, namely in terms of demotivation, anxiety, ‘stress’ and sleep disturbances mentioned respectively by 85%, 72%, 63% and 56% of students. According to the same research study, many students still report feeling symptoms of depression, tiredness and fatigue, relating these symptoms to the increase in time spent in front of the computer. On the other hand, they also refer to the worsening of previously diagnosed psychiatric conditions, with most of them not having any follow-up on mental health issues.
As working student are a population that lives a set of tensions between their work, their academic studies and their family life, it is considered very important to explore not only their greatest anxieties and fears, but also the ways they choose to deal with it.
The main goal of our study was to assess working student’s different fears and concerns regarding the coronavirus pandemic and the ways they choose to deal with it, namely their exposure to media coverage of the COVID-19.
4. Methods
4.1 Sample
The present study was developed in a higher education institution, whose programmes offer is exclusively in after-work hours. This institution offers bachelor’s and master’s degrees in the field of real estate management aimed at working students. It is a private institution that focused on teaching real estate management, being recognized in the specialized job market. Respondents for this study were recruited through online advertisements using a learning platform (Moodle) which is the same one they use daily to attend classes, which were take place at a distance, during the lockdown period. All working students were identified and invited to participate.
In total, 155 respondents provided consent to participate. However, 54 respondents did not fill out properly or complete the survey. Hence, the final sample involved 101 respondents (completion rate: 65.16%). The majority of our sample consisted of men (67.33%) and a large majority of the respondents lives and/or works in the same district as the higher education institution operate (94.06%). Participation was on a voluntary basis (see Table 1 for a detailed overview of the demographic data of our sample).
N
%
Age in years
18–30
14
13,86%
31–40
42
41,58%
41–50
28
27,72%
51–60
15
14,85%
More than 60
2
1,98%
Gender
101
Male
68
67,33%
Female
32
31,68%
Prefer not to say
1
0,99%
Region of residence
101
Sample District of HEI
95
94,06%
Another District
6
5,94%
Work in healthcare
Yes
1
1%
No
99
98%
Unsure
1
1%
Infected by the coronavirus?
Yes
1
1%
No
97
96%
Unsure
3
3%
Table 1.
Demographic information of the respondents (total N = 101).
4.2 Materials and procedures
4.2.1 Measures
As in Mertens et al [15], fear of the coronavirus was measured using an 8-item questionnaire referred to as the Fear of the Coronavirus Questionnaire (FCQ). Respondents were asked to rate their level of agreement with each statement on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = “Strongly disagree”, 5 = “Strongly agree”). Examples of the items are: “I am very worried about the coronavirus”, “I am taking precautions to prevent infection (e.g., washing hands, avoiding contact with people, avoiding door handles)”, and “I take more precautions compared to most people to not become infected”. Each item corresponds to different fear factors, such as subjective experiences (worrying), attentional biases, and avoidance behaviors [16].
Intolerance of uncertainty (IU) was measured using the IUS-12 developed and validated by Carleton, Norton, and Asmundson [17], which assesses an individual’s propensity to find uncertain situations unpleasant. It consists of 12 statements scored on 5-point Likert scales (1 = “Not at all characteristic of me”, 5 = “Entirely characteristic of me”). Examples of the statements are: “Unforeseen events upset me greatly”, “It frustrates me not having all the information I need”, and “Uncertainty keeps me from living a full life”.
To measure voluntary exposure to news about the coronavirus, respondents were asked to answer the following question: “Have you looked up any extra information regarding the coronavirus outbreak?”. Likewise, if they had looked up any information, they were asked to indicate what sources they accessed (options: “Regular newspapers/websites/TV news”, “Social media (Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, …)”, “Professional websites (health institute, blogs posted by virologists/biologists, …)”, “Friends/family/acquaintances”, “Online searches (e.g., through Google, Bing, Ecosia, etc.)”, “Other (please specify)”; multiple answers were possible). Finally, they were asked to rate the extent to which they paid attention to the source of the media outlet when looking up new information using 5-point Likert scales (1 = “Strongly agree”, 5 = “Strongly disagree”).
As demographic predictors, respondents were asked to indicate the gender they identify with the most (“male”, “female”, “prefer not to say”), their age (in decade categories), whether they work in healthcare (“yes”, “no”, “unsure (please clarify)”), whether they already got infected by the virus (“yes”, “no”, “unsure”), and their place of residence.
4.2.2 Survey administration
All questionnaires described above were delivered through an online survey using the Moodle platform. The online survey could be completed with the use of a personal computer/laptop, tablets, or smartphone. The complete survey took approximately 10 min to complete.
4.3 Data analysis strategy
As this is an highly exploratory study, descriptive statistical analyses were carried out, using the analysis of relative percentages. Analyses were conducted in IBM SPSS v26.
The demographic variables analyzed were the gender and the age. The remaining demographic data were not included in the analysis because the majority of the respondents do not work in healthcare (95.95%), had never been infected with the virus and mostly lived in the same place where the higher education institution operates.
5. Results
Results point out to the large majority of the working students were very worried about the corona virus (91,8% agree or strongly agree) and are taking precautions to prevent infection namely, washing hands, avoiding contact with people, avoiding door handles (87,6% agree or strongly agree). Women tend to be more worried than men, however men seem to be taking more precautions to prevent infection. The oldest one tends to be more worried and to take more precautions to prevent infection.
It is also the older people who tend to constantly following all news updates regarding the virus and the same trend appear in women, albeit with less intensity. However, the vaster majority of the working students tend to constantly following all news updates regarding the virus (70.3% agree or strongly agree). A similar percentage is found among the same respondents when asked if they have stocked up on supplies to prepare for problems related to the coronavirus outbreak (68.32% agree or strongly agree). Nonetheless, are men and the oldest who assume to have stocked up on supplies.
The results show that working students found the virus much more dangerous than the seasonal flu (95.05% agree or strongly agree) and differences of opinion between men and women are not noticed. However, the same does not happen when the analysis focuses on age, as older people, although most of them agree, 34% disagree or strongly disagree.
Almost all the working students (98%) agree or strongly agree with the idea of “I am worried that friends or family will be infected”. All the women agree or strongly agree, such as 94.3% of the respondents with 50 years old or more. The opposite trend is noticed on the answers related to this statement: “I feel that the health authorities are not doing enough to deal with the virus”. Only 31.68% of the working students consider that health authorities are not doing enough to deal with the virus. This percentage increases lightly in men and older people.
When asked to compare themselves with the rest of the population, working students consider that they take more precautions not to be infected (77.23%). Men and younger respondents tend to agree even more than the average of working student who are more cautious than the rest of the population.
When the intolerance of uncertainty was measured, which assesses an individual’s propensity to find uncertain situations unpleasant, the results point to the idea that working students tend to be highly likely to consider situations of uncertainty as uncomfortable. In fact, the majority of the working students tend to agree or strongly agree with statements such as “Unforeseen events upset me greatly” (66.33%), “It frustrates me not having all the information I need” (76.24%), and “Uncertainty keeps me from living a full life” (56.44%).
To measure voluntary exposure to news about the coronavirus, the vast majority of the respondents (70.30%) seems to agree (binary answer: yes or no) to the question: “Have you looked up any extra information regarding the coronavirus outbreak? (not taking into account coincidentally seeing/reading about it in the news)”. Websites and TV news were the sources more mentioned by working students to looked up any information about corona virus. The oldest tend to give more importance to regular newspapers and the newest prefer social media, such as Facebook, Twitter and Instagram. Among the websites most wanted, were “professional websites” as health institute, blogs posted by virologists/biologists, …” and online searches (e.g., through Google).
6. Conclusions
The results of the present exploratory research study allow us to conclude that working students tend to be very worried about the corona virus and are taking actively precautions to prevent infection. They tend to constantly following all news updates regarding the virus even because found this virus much more dangerous than the seasonal flu and were very worried that friends or family will be infected. Although they consider that health authorities are competent entities to deal with the virus, most decide to make some stock of essential goods to deal with the confinement period.
When asked to compare themselves with the remaining population, working students consider that they take more precautions not to be infected.
When the individual’s propensity to find uncertain situations unpleasant was measure, working students tend to be highly likely to consider situations of uncertainty as uncomfortable.
Another important conclusion is that working students not only want, but actively seek news about the coronavirus. Internet seems to be the main source of information, not only through official websites, such as through social media.
These results are not surprising if we consider that working students almost necessarily have more developed time management skills to be able to deal with full-time work and an intense academic life. So, the fear of the unknown, the fear of uncertain situations that might get out of your control tend to be anxiogenic.
Some suggestions for the management of coronavirus fear can be made based on our findings. Particularly, if we consider the possible relationship between media exposure and fear of the coronavirus, which suggests that more exposure to media can lead to more fear. Therefore, it would be crucial to ensure that communication must be clear and unambiguous, without sensationalism or disturbing images, even because uncertainty tends to increase the fear.
On another hand, working students must be advised to somewhat restrict their exposure to media coverage of the COVID-19 crisis and avoid sensational media, which may enhance stress and decrease well-being. Clear information about the risk of threat and by taking (additional) steps to protect vulnerable groups for risk of infection could be another way to manage fear of the coronavirus could focus on the perceived risk of the virus for loved ones. There is evidence that suggest that such ‘fear appeals’ do not work very well to promote behavior change [18], particularly when people, like working students, have little coping strategies.
In conclusion, it was found that working students tend to report a wide range of concern regarding the coronavirus outbreak. Moreover, anxiety-related individual differences, looking up information about the coronavirus outbreak, and risks for loved ones seems to be positively related to increased fear of the coronavirus. Working students are a high-risk population group managing the fear and anxiety caused by the pandemic. Policy makers, higher education institution governance must be alert to these populations at increased risk and take measures to mitigate this risk.
Acknowledgments
We thank all respondents, as well as the higher education institution that hosted this study.
Conflict of interest
The author declare no conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"working students, coping styles, pandemic, fear, media exposure, covid-19",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/78171.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/78171.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/78171",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/78171",totalDownloads:376,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"February 4th 2021",dateReviewed:"August 3rd 2021",datePrePublished:"August 20th 2021",datePublished:"November 3rd 2021",dateFinished:"August 20th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Today we live in times of real uncertainty. All of us, young, old, adults or children, experience new ways of facing daily challenges. The education and health sectors are naturally the most affected and deserve to be assessed for the impacts of this pandemic. This chapter aims to focus its analysis on a specific group of students in higher education: working students. In fact, this population group has a distinct profile from “regular” students in higher education. Typically, the student role is not the predominant one in their lives, competing with their roles as active workers and as heads of their families. Choosing a quantitative scientific methodology, about a hundred working student were the target of a survey exploring not only their greatest anxieties and fears, but also the ways they choose to deal with it, namely their exposure to media coverage of the COVID-19. It is expected that the results will contribute to a critical reflection on the challenges that this pandemic poses to us, identifying clues to better manage and overcome them.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/78171",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/78171",signatures:"Diana Dias",book:{id:"10814",type:"book",title:"Anxiety, Uncertainty, and Resilience During the Pandemic Period",subtitle:"Anthropological and Psychological Perspectives",fullTitle:"Anxiety, Uncertainty, and Resilience During the Pandemic Period - Anthropological and Psychological Perspectives",slug:"anxiety-uncertainty-and-resilience-during-the-pandemic-period-anthropological-and-psychological-perspectives",publishedDate:"November 3rd 2021",bookSignature:"Fabio Gabrielli and Floriana Irtelli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10814.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83968-126-4",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-119-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-215-5",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"259407",title:"Prof.",name:"Fabio",middleName:null,surname:"Gabrielli",slug:"fabio-gabrielli",fullName:"Fabio Gabrielli"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"347123",title:"Prof.",name:"Diana",middleName:"Da Silva",surname:"Dias",fullName:"Diana Dias",slug:"diana-dias",email:"diana.sil.dias@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. COVID-19 anxiety syndrome",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 What is COVID-19 anxiety syndrome?",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4",title:"3. Working students in higher education",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"4. Methods",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"4.1 Sample",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"4.2 Materials and procedures",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"4.2.1 Measures",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"4.2.2 Survey administration",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.3 Data analysis strategy",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"5. Results",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"6. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Deacon B, Maack D, The effects of safety behaviors on the fear of contamination: An experimental investigation. Behaviour Research and Therapy. 2008; 46 (4); 537-547. DOI: 10.1016/j.brat.2008.01.010'},{id:"B2",body:'Engelhard IM, van Uijen SL, van Seters N, Velu N, The effects of safety behavior directed towards a safety cue on perceptions of threat. Behavior Therapy. 2015;46 (5); 604-610. DOI: 10.1016/j.beth.2014.12.006'},{id:"B3",body:'Olatunji BO, Etzel EN, Tomarken AJ, Ciesielski BG, Deacon B, The effects of safety behaviors on health anxiety: An experimental investigation. Behaviour Research and Therapy. 2011; 49 (11); 719-728. DOI: 10.1016/j.brat.2011.07.008'},{id:"B4",body:'Sciensano. COVID-19 gezondheidsenquête: Enkele voorlopige resultaten [Internet]. 2020. Available from: https://www.sciensano.be/sites/www.wiv-isp.be/files/report_final_nl_0.pdf'},{id:"B5",body:'Nikčević AV, Spada MM, The COVID-19 anxiety syndrome scale: development and psychometric properties. Psychiatry Res. 2020; 292. DOI: 10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113322'},{id:"B6",body:'Humphrey R, Pulling Structured Inequality into Higher Education: the Impact of Part-Time Working on English University Students. Higher Education Quarterly. 2006; 60(3); 270-286. DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-2273.2006.00317.x'},{id:"B7",body:'O’Toole DM, Stratton LS, Wetzel, JN, A Longitudinal Analysis of the Frequency of Part-Time Enrollment and the Persistence of Students Who Enroll Part Time. Research in Higher Education, 2003; 44(5); 519-537. DOI: 10.1023/A:1025491208661'},{id:"B8",body:'Soler Julve I, Los estudiantes universitarios. Perfiles y modalidades de vinculación con el estudio en la universidad española. Valencia: Universitat de València; 2013.'},{id:"B9",body:'Elias M, Masjuan JM, Sanchez-Gelabert A, Signs of Reengagement? In: M. Vukasović M, Maassen P., Nerland M., Stensaker B, Pinheiro R, & Vabø A (Eds.), Effects of Higher Education Reforms (pp. 21-42). Rotterdam: SensePublishers.: 2012. DOI: 10.1007/978-94-6209-016-3'},{id:"B10",body:'Bozick R. Making It Through the First Year of College: The Role of Students’ Economic Resources, Employment, and Living Arrangements. Sociology of Education. 2007; 80(3); 261-285. DOI: 10.1177/003804070708000304'},{id:"B11",body:'Curtis S, Williams J, The reluctant workforce: undergraduates’ part-time employment. Education and Training. 2002; 44; 5-1 DOI: 10.1108/00400910210416192'},{id:"B12",body:'Lowe L, Gayle V, Exploring the work/life/study balance: the experience of higher education students in a Scottish further education college, Journal of Further and Higher Education. 2007; 31:3; 225-238, DOI: 10.1080/03098770701424942'},{id:"B13",body:'Sanchez-Gelabert A, Figueroa M, Elias M. Working whilst studying in higher education: The impact of the economic crisis on academic and labour market success. Eur J Educ. 2017;52:231-244. DOI: 10.1111/ejed.12212.'},{id:"B14",body:'Mounsey R, Vandehey M, Diekhoff G, Working and Non-Working University Students: Anxiety, Depression, and Grade Point Average, College Student Journal. 2013; 47; 2; 379-389.'},{id:"B15",body:'Mertens G, Gerritsen L, Duijndam S, Salemink E, Engelhard I, Fear of the coronavirus (COVID-19): Predictors in an online study conducted in March 2020, Journal of Anxiety Disorders. 2020; 74; 102258. DOI: 10.1016/j.janxdis.2020.102258.'},{id:"B16",body:'Lang PJ, Fear reduction and fear behavior: Problems in treating a construct In: Schlien JM (Ed.), Research in psychotherapy. American Psychological Association; 1968. p. 90-103.'},{id:"B17",body:'Carleton RN, Norton M, Asmundson G, Fearing the unknown: A short version of the Intolerance of Uncertainty Scale. Journal of Anxiety Disorders. 2007; 21 (1); pp. 105-117. DOI: 10.1016/j.janxdis.2006.03.014'},{id:"B18",body:'Peters G, Ruiter R, Kok G, Threatening communication: A critical re-analysis and a revised meta-analytic test of fear appeal theory. Health Psychology Review. 2013; 7(Sup. 1); pp. S8-S31. DOI: 10.1080/17437199.2012.703527'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Diana Dias",address:"diana.dias@ulp.pt",affiliation:'
CIPES - Center for Research in Higher Education Policies, Portugal
Lusófona University, Portugal
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IMPORTANT: You must be a member or grantee of the listed funders in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds. Do not attempt to contact the funders if this is not the case.
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UK Research and Innovation (former Research Councils UK (RCUK) - including AHRC, BBSRC, ESRC, EPSRC, MRC, NERC, STFC.) Processing charges for books/book chapters can be covered through RCUK block grants which are allocated to most universities in the UK, which then handle the OA publication funding requests. It is at the discretion of the university whether it will approve the request.)
UK Research and Innovation (former Research Councils UK (RCUK) - including AHRC, BBSRC, ESRC, EPSRC, MRC, NERC, STFC.) Processing charges for books/book chapters can be covered through RCUK block grants which are allocated to most universities in the UK, which then handle the OA publication funding requests. It is at the discretion of the university whether it will approve the request.)
Wellcome Trust (Funding available only to Wellcome-funded researchers/grantees)
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Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a3479e76c6ac538aac76409c9efb7e41",slug:"neuroimaging-neurobiology-multimodal-and-network-applications",bookSignature:"Yongxia Zhou",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9347.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"259308",title:"Dr.",name:"Yongxia",middleName:null,surname:"Zhou",slug:"yongxia-zhou",fullName:"Yongxia Zhou"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8938",title:"Inhibitory Control Training",subtitle:"A Multidisciplinary Approach",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bd82354f3bba4af5421337cd42052f86",slug:"inhibitory-control-training-a-multidisciplinary-approach",bookSignature:"Sara Palermo and Massimo Bartoli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8938.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"233998",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Palermo",slug:"sara-palermo",fullName:"Sara Palermo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6998",title:"Synucleins",subtitle:"Biochemistry and Role in Diseases",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2b4b802fec508928ce8ab9deebd1375f",slug:"synucleins-biochemistry-and-role-in-diseases",bookSignature:"Andrei Surguchov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6998.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"266540",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrei",middleName:null,surname:"Surguchov",slug:"andrei-surguchov",fullName:"Andrei Surguchov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:65,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"46296",doi:"10.5772/57398",title:"Physiological Role of Amyloid Beta in Neural Cells: The Cellular Trophic Activity",slug:"physiological-role-of-amyloid-beta-in-neural-cells-the-cellular-trophic-activity",totalDownloads:5886,totalCrossrefCites:18,totalDimensionsCites:31,abstract:null,book:{id:"3846",slug:"neurochemistry",title:"Neurochemistry",fullTitle:"Neurochemistry"},signatures:"M. del C. Cárdenas-Aguayo, M. del C. Silva-Lucero, M. Cortes-Ortiz,\nB. Jiménez-Ramos, L. Gómez-Virgilio, G. Ramírez-Rodríguez, E. Vera-\nArroyo, R. Fiorentino-Pérez, U. García, J. Luna-Muñoz and M.A.\nMeraz-Ríos",authors:[{id:"42225",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Luna-Muñoz",slug:"jose-luna-munoz",fullName:"Jose Luna-Muñoz"},{id:"114746",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",middleName:null,surname:"Meraz-Ríos",slug:"marco-meraz-rios",fullName:"Marco Meraz-Ríos"},{id:"169616",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria del Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Cardenas-Aguayo",slug:"maria-del-carmen-cardenas-aguayo",fullName:"Maria del Carmen Cardenas-Aguayo"},{id:"169857",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria del Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Silva-Lucero",slug:"maria-del-carmen-silva-lucero",fullName:"Maria del Carmen Silva-Lucero"},{id:"169858",title:"Dr.",name:"Maribel",middleName:null,surname:"Cortes-Ortiz",slug:"maribel-cortes-ortiz",fullName:"Maribel Cortes-Ortiz"},{id:"169859",title:"Dr.",name:"Berenice",middleName:null,surname:"Jimenez-Ramos",slug:"berenice-jimenez-ramos",fullName:"Berenice Jimenez-Ramos"},{id:"169860",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Gomez-Virgilio",slug:"laura-gomez-virgilio",fullName:"Laura Gomez-Virgilio"},{id:"169861",title:"Dr.",name:"Gerardo",middleName:null,surname:"Ramirez-Rodriguez",slug:"gerardo-ramirez-rodriguez",fullName:"Gerardo Ramirez-Rodriguez"},{id:"169862",title:"Dr.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Vera-Arroyo",slug:"eduardo-vera-arroyo",fullName:"Eduardo Vera-Arroyo"},{id:"169863",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosana Sofia",middleName:null,surname:"Fiorentino-Perez",slug:"rosana-sofia-fiorentino-perez",fullName:"Rosana Sofia Fiorentino-Perez"},{id:"169864",title:"Dr.",name:"Ubaldo",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia",slug:"ubaldo-garcia",fullName:"Ubaldo Garcia"}]},{id:"58070",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72427",title:"MRI Medical Image Denoising by Fundamental Filters",slug:"mri-medical-image-denoising-by-fundamental-filters",totalDownloads:2564,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:30,abstract:"Nowadays Medical imaging technique Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) plays an important role in medical setting to form high standard images contained in the human brain. MRI is commonly used once treating brain, prostate cancers, ankle and foot. The Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) images are usually liable to suffer from noises such as Gaussian noise, salt and pepper noise and speckle noise. So getting of brain image with accuracy is very extremely task. An accurate brain image is very necessary for further diagnosis process. During this chapter, a median filter algorithm will be modified. Gaussian noise and Salt and pepper noise will be added to MRI image. A proposed Median filter (MF), Adaptive Median filter (AMF) and Adaptive Wiener filter (AWF) will be implemented. The filters will be used to remove the additive noises present in the MRI images. The noise density will be added gradually to MRI image to compare performance of the filters evaluation. The performance of these filters will be compared exploitation the applied mathematics parameter Peak Signal-to-Noise Ratio (PSNR).",book:{id:"6144",slug:"high-resolution-neuroimaging-basic-physical-principles-and-clinical-applications",title:"High-Resolution Neuroimaging",fullTitle:"High-Resolution Neuroimaging - Basic Physical Principles and Clinical Applications"},signatures:"Hanafy M. Ali",authors:[{id:"213318",title:"Dr.",name:"Hanafy",middleName:"M.",surname:"Ali",slug:"hanafy-ali",fullName:"Hanafy Ali"}]},{id:"41589",doi:"10.5772/50323",title:"The Role of the Amygdala in Anxiety Disorders",slug:"the-role-of-the-amygdala-in-anxiety-disorders",totalDownloads:9671,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:null,book:{id:"2599",slug:"the-amygdala-a-discrete-multitasking-manager",title:"The Amygdala",fullTitle:"The Amygdala - A Discrete Multitasking Manager"},signatures:"Gina L. Forster, Andrew M. Novick, Jamie L. Scholl and Michael J. Watt",authors:[{id:"145620",title:"Dr.",name:"Gina",middleName:null,surname:"Forster",slug:"gina-forster",fullName:"Gina Forster"},{id:"146553",title:"BSc.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Novick",slug:"andrew-novick",fullName:"Andrew Novick"},{id:"146554",title:"MSc.",name:"Jamie",middleName:null,surname:"Scholl",slug:"jamie-scholl",fullName:"Jamie Scholl"},{id:"146555",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Watt",slug:"michael-watt",fullName:"Michael Watt"}]},{id:"26258",doi:"10.5772/28300",title:"Excitotoxicity and Oxidative Stress in Acute Ischemic Stroke",slug:"excitotoxicity-and-oxidative-stress-in-acute-ischemic-stroke",totalDownloads:7157,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:null,book:{id:"931",slug:"acute-ischemic-stroke",title:"Acute Ischemic Stroke",fullTitle:"Acute Ischemic Stroke"},signatures:"Ramón Rama Bretón and Julio César García Rodríguez",authors:[{id:"73430",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramon",middleName:null,surname:"Rama",slug:"ramon-rama",fullName:"Ramon Rama"},{id:"124643",title:"Prof.",name:"Julio Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"García",slug:"julio-cesar-garcia",fullName:"Julio Cesar García"}]},{id:"62072",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78695",title:"Brain-Computer Interface and Motor Imagery Training: The Role of Visual Feedback and Embodiment",slug:"brain-computer-interface-and-motor-imagery-training-the-role-of-visual-feedback-and-embodiment",totalDownloads:1439,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:23,abstract:"Controlling a brain-computer interface (BCI) is a difficult task that requires extensive training. Particularly in the case of motor imagery BCIs, users may need several training sessions before they learn how to generate desired brain activity and reach an acceptable performance. A typical training protocol for such BCIs includes execution of a motor imagery task by the user, followed by presentation of an extending bar or a moving object on a computer screen. In this chapter, we discuss the importance of a visual feedback that resembles human actions, the effect of human factors such as confidence and motivation, and the role of embodiment in the learning process of a motor imagery task. Our results from a series of experiments in which users BCI-operated a humanlike android robot confirm that realistic visual feedback can induce a sense of embodiment, which promotes a significant learning of the motor imagery task in a short amount of time. We review the impact of humanlike visual feedback in optimized modulation of brain activity by the BCI users.",book:{id:"6610",slug:"evolving-bci-therapy-engaging-brain-state-dynamics",title:"Evolving BCI Therapy",fullTitle:"Evolving BCI Therapy - Engaging Brain State Dynamics"},signatures:"Maryam Alimardani, Shuichi Nishio and Hiroshi Ishiguro",authors:[{id:"11981",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Ishiguro",slug:"hiroshi-ishiguro",fullName:"Hiroshi Ishiguro"},{id:"231131",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Alimardani",slug:"maryam-alimardani",fullName:"Maryam Alimardani"},{id:"231134",title:"Dr.",name:"Shuichi",middleName:null,surname:"Nishio",slug:"shuichi-nishio",fullName:"Shuichi Nishio"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"29764",title:"Underlying Causes of Paresthesia",slug:"underlying-causes-of-paresthesia",totalDownloads:192666,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"1069",slug:"paresthesia",title:"Paresthesia",fullTitle:"Paresthesia"},signatures:"Mahdi Sharif-Alhoseini, Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar and Alexander R. Vaccaro",authors:[{id:"91165",title:"Prof.",name:"Vafa",middleName:null,surname:"Rahimi-Movaghar",slug:"vafa-rahimi-movaghar",fullName:"Vafa Rahimi-Movaghar"}]},{id:"63258",title:"Anatomy and Function of the Hypothalamus",slug:"anatomy-and-function-of-the-hypothalamus",totalDownloads:4558,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"The hypothalamus is a small but important area of the brain formed by various nucleus and nervous fibers. Through its neuronal connections, it is involved in many complex functions of the organism such as vegetative system control, homeostasis of the organism, thermoregulation, and also in adjusting the emotional behavior. The hypothalamus is involved in different daily activities like eating or drinking, in the control of the body’s temperature and energy maintenance, and in the process of memorizing. It also modulates the endocrine system through its connections with the pituitary gland. Precise anatomical description along with a correct characterization of the component structures is essential for understanding its functions.",book:{id:"6331",slug:"hypothalamus-in-health-and-diseases",title:"Hypothalamus in Health and Diseases",fullTitle:"Hypothalamus in Health and Diseases"},signatures:"Miana Gabriela Pop, Carmen Crivii and Iulian Opincariu",authors:null},{id:"57103",title:"GABA and Glutamate: Their Transmitter Role in the CNS and Pancreatic Islets",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-their-transmitter-role-in-the-cns-and-pancreatic-islets",totalDownloads:3478,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Glutamate and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) are the major neurotransmitters in the mammalian brain. Inhibitory GABA and excitatory glutamate work together to control many processes, including the brain’s overall level of excitation. The contributions of GABA and glutamate in extra-neuronal signaling are by far less widely recognized. In this chapter, we first discuss the role of both neurotransmitters during development, emphasizing the importance of the shift from excitatory to inhibitory GABAergic neurotransmission. The second part summarizes the biosynthesis and role of GABA and glutamate in neurotransmission in the mature brain, and major neurological disorders associated with glutamate and GABA receptors and GABA release mechanisms. The final part focuses on extra-neuronal glutamatergic and GABAergic signaling in pancreatic islets of Langerhans, and possible associations with type 1 diabetes mellitus.",book:{id:"6237",slug:"gaba-and-glutamate-new-developments-in-neurotransmission-research",title:"GABA And Glutamate",fullTitle:"GABA And Glutamate - New Developments In Neurotransmission Research"},signatures:"Christiane S. Hampe, Hiroshi Mitoma and Mario Manto",authors:[{id:"210220",title:"Prof.",name:"Christiane",middleName:null,surname:"Hampe",slug:"christiane-hampe",fullName:"Christiane Hampe"},{id:"210485",title:"Prof.",name:"Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Manto",slug:"mario-manto",fullName:"Mario Manto"},{id:"210486",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Mitoma",slug:"hiroshi-mitoma",fullName:"Hiroshi Mitoma"}]},{id:"35802",title:"Cross-Cultural/Linguistic Differences in the Prevalence of Developmental Dyslexia and the Hypothesis of Granularity and Transparency",slug:"cross-cultural-linguistic-differences-in-the-prevalence-of-developmental-dyslexia-and-the-hypothesis",totalDownloads:3601,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"673",slug:"dyslexia-a-comprehensive-and-international-approach",title:"Dyslexia",fullTitle:"Dyslexia - A Comprehensive and International Approach"},signatures:"Taeko N. Wydell",authors:[{id:"87489",title:"Prof.",name:"Taeko",middleName:"N.",surname:"Wydell",slug:"taeko-wydell",fullName:"Taeko Wydell"}]},{id:"58597",title:"Testosterone and Erectile Function: A Review of Evidence from Basic Research",slug:"testosterone-and-erectile-function-a-review-of-evidence-from-basic-research",totalDownloads:1331,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Androgens are essential for male physical activity and normal erectile function. Hence, age-related testosterone deficiency, known as late-onset hypogonadism (LOH), is considered a risk factor for erectile dysfunction (ED). This chapter summarizes relevant basic research reports examining the effects of testosterone on erectile function. Testosterone affects several organs and is especially active on the erectile tissue. The mechanism of testosterone deficiency effects on erectile function and the results of testosterone replacement therapy (TRT) have been well studied. Testosterone affects nitric oxide (NO) production and phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE-5) expression in the corpus cavernosum through molecular pathways, preserves smooth muscle contractility by regulating both contraction and relaxation, and maintains the structure of the corpus cavernosum. Interestingly, testosterone deficiency has relationship to neurological diseases, which leads to ED. Testosterone replacement therapy is widely used to treat patients with testosterone deficiency; however, this treatment might also induce some problems. Basic research suggests that PDE-5 inhibitors, L-citrulline, and/or resveratrol therapy might be effective therapeutic options for testosterone deficiency-induced ED. Future research should confirm these findings through more specific experiments using molecular tools and may shed more light on endocrine-related ED and its possible treatments.",book:{id:"5994",slug:"sex-hormones-in-neurodegenerative-processes-and-diseases",title:"Sex Hormones in Neurodegenerative Processes and Diseases",fullTitle:"Sex Hormones in Neurodegenerative Processes and Diseases"},signatures:"Tomoya Kataoka and Kazunori Kimura",authors:[{id:"219042",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tomoya",middleName:null,surname:"Kataoka",slug:"tomoya-kataoka",fullName:"Tomoya Kataoka"},{id:"229066",title:"Prof.",name:"Kazunori",middleName:null,surname:"Kimura",slug:"kazunori-kimura",fullName:"Kazunori Kimura"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"18",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81646",title:"Cortical Plasticity under Ketamine: From Synapse to Map",slug:"cortical-plasticity-under-ketamine-from-synapse-to-map",totalDownloads:15,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104787",abstract:"Sensory systems need to process signals in a highly dynamic way to efficiently respond to variations in the animal’s environment. For instance, several studies showed that the visual system is subject to neuroplasticity since the neurons’ firing changes according to stimulus properties. This dynamic information processing might be supported by a network reorganization. Since antidepressants influence neurotransmission, they can be used to explore synaptic plasticity sustaining cortical map reorganization. To this goal, we investigated in the primary visual cortex (V1 of mouse and cat), the impact of ketamine on neuroplasticity through changes in neuronal orientation selectivity and the functional connectivity between V1 cells, using cross correlation analyses. We found that ketamine affects cortical orientation selectivity and alters the functional connectivity within an assembly. These data clearly highlight the role of the antidepressant drugs in inducing or modeling short-term plasticity in V1 which suggests that cortical processing is optimized and adapted to the properties of the stimulus.",book:{id:"11374",title:"Sensory Nervous System - Computational Neuroimaging Investigations of Topographical Organization in Human Sensory Cortex",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11374.jpg"},signatures:"Ouelhazi Afef, Rudy Lussiez and Molotchnikoff Stephane"},{id:"81582",title:"The Role of Cognitive Reserve in Executive Functioning and Its Relationship to Cognitive Decline and Dementia",slug:"the-role-of-cognitive-reserve-in-executive-functioning-and-its-relationship-to-cognitive-decline-and",totalDownloads:23,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104646",abstract:"In this chapter, we explore how cognitive reserve is implicated in coping with the negative consequences of brain pathology and age-related cognitive decline. Individual differences in cognitive performance are based on different brain mechanisms (neural reserve and neural compensation), and reflect, among others, the effect of education, occupational attainment, leisure activities, and social involvement. These cognitive reserve proxies have been extensively associated with efficient executive functioning. We discuss and focus particularly on the compensation mechanisms related to the frontal lobe and its protective role, in maintaining cognitive performance in old age or even mitigating the clinical expression of dementia.",book:{id:"11742",title:"Neurophysiology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11742.jpg"},signatures:"Gabriela Álvares-Pereira, Carolina Maruta and Maria Vânia Silva-Nunes"},{id:"81488",title:"Aggression and Sexual Behavior: Overlapping or Distinct Roles of 5-HT1A and 5-HT1B Receptors",slug:"aggression-and-sexual-behavior-overlapping-or-distinct-roles-of-5-ht1a-and-5-ht1b-receptors",totalDownloads:20,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104872",abstract:"Distinct brain mechanisms for male aggressive and sexual behavior are present in mammalian species, including man. However, recent evidence suggests a strong connection and even overlap in the central nervous system (CNS) circuitry involved in aggressive and sexual behavior. The serotonergic system in the CNS is strongly involved in male aggressive and sexual behavior. In particular, 5-HT1A and 5-HT1B receptors seem to play a critical role in the modulation of these behaviors. The present chapter focuses on the effects of 5-HT1A- and 5-HT1B-receptor ligands in male rodent aggression and sexual behavior. Results indicate that 5-HT1B-heteroreceptors play a critical role in the modulation of male offensive behavior, although a definite role of 5-HT1A-auto- or heteroreceptors cannot be ruled out. 5-HT1A receptors are clearly involved in male sexual behavior, although it has to be yet unraveled whether 5-HT1A-auto- or heteroreceptors are important. Although several key nodes in the complex circuitry of aggression and sexual behavior are known, in particular in the medial hypothalamus, a clear link or connection to these critical structures and the serotonergic key receptors is yet to be determined. This information is urgently needed to detect and develop new selective anti-aggressive (serenic) and pro-sexual drugs for human applications.",book:{id:"10195",title:"Serotonin and the CNS - New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10195.jpg"},signatures:"Berend Olivier and Jocelien D.A. Olivier"},{id:"81093",title:"Prehospital and Emergency Room Airway Management in Traumatic Brain Injury",slug:"prehospital-and-emergency-room-airway-management-in-traumatic-brain-injury",totalDownloads:49,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104173",abstract:"Airway management in trauma is critical and may impact patient outcomes. Particularly in traumatic brain injury (TBI), depressed level of consciousness may be associated with compromised protective airway reflexes or apnea, which can increase the risk of aspiration or result in hypoxemia and worsen the secondary brain damage. Therefore, patients with TBI and Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) ≤ 8 have been traditionally managed by prehospital or emergency room (ER) endotracheal intubation. However, recent evidence challenged this practice and even suggested that routine intubation may be harmful. This chapter will address the indications and optimal method of securing the airway, prehospital and in the ER, in patients with traumatic brain injury.",book:{id:"11367",title:"Traumatic Brain Injury",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11367.jpg"},signatures:"Dominik A. Jakob, Jean-Cyrille Pitteloud and Demetrios Demetriades"},{id:"81011",title:"Amino Acids as Neurotransmitters. The Balance between Excitation and Inhibition as a Background for Future Clinical Applications",slug:"amino-acids-as-neurotransmitters-the-balance-between-excitation-and-inhibition-as-a-background-for-f",totalDownloads:19,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103760",abstract:"For more than 30 years, amino acids have been well-known (and essential) participants in neurotransmission. They act as both neuromediators and metabolites in nervous tissue. Glycine and glutamic acid (glutamate) are prominent examples. These amino acids are agonists of inhibitory and excitatory membrane receptors, respectively. Moreover, they play essential roles in metabolic pathways and energy transformation in neurons and astrocytes. Despite their obvious effects on the brain, their potential role in therapeutic methods remains uncertain in clinical practice. In the current chapter, a comparison of the crosstalk between these two systems, which are responsible for excitation and inhibition in neurons, is presented. The interactions are discussed at the metabolic, receptor, and transport levels. Reaction-diffusion and a convectional flow into the interstitial fluid create a balanced distribution of glycine and glutamate. Indeed, the neurons’ final physiological state is a result of a balance between the excitatory and inhibitory influences. However, changes to the glycine and/or glutamate pools under pathological conditions can alter the state of nervous tissue. Thus, new therapies for various diseases may be developed on the basis of amino acid medication.",book:{id:"10890",title:"Recent Advances in Neurochemistry",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10890.jpg"},signatures:"Yaroslav R. 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Endotheliitis of CNS vessels can lead to vessel occlusion and stroke. COVID-19 can also result in cerebral hemorrhage and sinus thrombosis possibly related to changes in clotting behavior. Vaccination is most important to prevent COVID-19 in the nervous system. 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His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. 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She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/15648_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is currently working as Assistant Professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow for the last 6 years. He has completed his Doctor in Philosophy (Pharmacology) in 2020 from Integral University, Lucknow. He completed his Bachelor in Pharmacy in 2013 and Master in Pharmacy (Pharmacology) in 2015 from Integral University, Lucknow. He is the gold medalist in Bachelor and Master degree. He qualified GPAT -2013, GPAT -2014, and GPAT 2015. His area of research is Pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/ natural products in liver and cardiac diseases. He has guided many M. Pharm. research projects. He has many national and international publications.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null},{id:"255360",title:"Dr.",name:"Usama",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"usama-ahmad",fullName:"Usama Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255360/images/system/255360.png",biography:"Dr. Usama Ahmad holds a specialization in Pharmaceutics from Amity University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Integral University. Currently, he’s working as an Assistant Professor of Pharmaceutics in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University. From 2013 to 2014 he worked on a research project funded by SERB-DST, Government of India. He has a rich publication record with more than 32 original articles published in reputed journals, 3 edited books, 5 book chapters, and a number of scientific articles published in ‘Ingredients South Asia Magazine’ and ‘QualPharma Magazine’. He is a member of the American Association for Cancer Research, International Association for the Study of Lung Cancer, and the British Society for Nanomedicine. Dr. Ahmad’s research focus is on the development of nanoformulations to facilitate the delivery of drugs that aim to provide practical solutions to current healthcare problems.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"30568",title:"Prof.",name:"Madhu",middleName:null,surname:"Khullar",slug:"madhu-khullar",fullName:"Madhu Khullar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/30568/images/system/30568.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madhu Khullar is a Professor of Experimental Medicine and Biotechnology at the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India. She completed her Post Doctorate in hypertension research at the Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, USA in 1985. She is an editor and reviewer of several international journals, and a fellow and member of several cardiovascular research societies. Dr. Khullar has a keen research interest in genetics of hypertension, and is currently studying pharmacogenetics of hypertension.",institutionString:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",institution:{name:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",biography:"Xianquan Zhan received his MD and Ph.D. in Preventive Medicine at West China University of Medical Sciences. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics at the Central South University, China, and the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC), USA. He worked at UTHSC and the Cleveland Clinic in 2001–2012 and achieved the rank of associate professor at UTHSC. Currently, he is a full professor at Central South University and Shandong First Medical University, and an advisor to MS/PhD students and postdoctoral fellows. He is also a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and European Association for Predictive Preventive Personalized Medicine (EPMA), a national representative of EPMA, and a member of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS). He is also the editor in chief of International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, an associate editor of EPMA Journal, Frontiers in Endocrinology, and BMC Medical Genomics, and a guest editor of Mass Spectrometry Reviews, Frontiers in Endocrinology, EPMA Journal, and Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. He has published more than 148 articles, 28 book chapters, 6 books, and 2 US patents in the field of clinical proteomics and biomarkers.",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"297507",title:"Dr.",name:"Charles",middleName:"Elias",surname:"Assmann",slug:"charles-assmann",fullName:"Charles Assmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297507/images/system/297507.jpg",biography:"Charles Elias Assmann is a biologist from Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM, Brazil), who spent some time abroad at the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (LMU, Germany). He has Masters Degree in Biochemistry (UFSM), and is currently a PhD student at Biochemistry at the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of the UFSM. His areas of expertise include: Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, Enzymology, Genetics and Toxicology. He is currently working on the following subjects: Aluminium toxicity, Neuroinflammation, Oxidative stress and Purinergic system. Since 2011 he has presented more than 80 abstracts in scientific proceedings of national and international meetings. Since 2014, he has published more than 20 peer reviewed papers (including 4 reviews, 3 in Portuguese) and 2 book chapters. He has also been a reviewer of international journals and ad hoc reviewer of scientific committees from Brazilian Universities.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"217850",title:"Dr.",name:"Margarete Dulce",middleName:null,surname:"Bagatini",slug:"margarete-dulce-bagatini",fullName:"Margarete Dulce Bagatini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217850/images/system/217850.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Margarete Dulce Bagatini is an associate professor at the Federal University of Fronteira Sul/Brazil. She has a degree in Pharmacy and a PhD in Biological Sciences: Toxicological Biochemistry. She is a member of the UFFS Research Advisory Committee\nand a member of the Biovitta Research Institute. She is currently:\nthe leader of the research group: Biological and Clinical Studies\nin Human Pathologies, professor of postgraduate program in\nBiochemistry at UFSC and postgraduate program in Science and Food Technology at\nUFFS. She has experience in the area of pharmacy and clinical analysis, acting mainly\non the following topics: oxidative stress, the purinergic system and human pathologies, being a reviewer of several international journals and books.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"226275",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Metin",middleName:null,surname:"Budak",slug:"metin-budak",fullName:"Metin Budak",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226275/images/system/226275.jfif",biography:"Metin Budak, MSc, PhD is an Assistant Professor at Trakya University, Faculty of Medicine. He has been Head of the Molecular Research Lab at Prof. Mirko Tos Ear and Hearing Research Center since 2018. His specializations are biophysics, epigenetics, genetics, and methylation mechanisms. He has published around 25 peer-reviewed papers, 2 book chapters, and 28 abstracts. He is a member of the Clinical Research Ethics Committee and Quantification and Consideration Committee of Medicine Faculty. His research area is the role of methylation during gene transcription, chromatin packages DNA within the cell and DNA repair, replication, recombination, and gene transcription. His research focuses on how the cell overcomes chromatin structure and methylation to allow access to the underlying DNA and enable normal cellular function.",institutionString:"Trakya University",institution:{name:"Trakya University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",slug:"anca-pantea-stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",biography:"Anca Pantea Stoian is a specialist in diabetes, nutrition, and metabolic diseases as well as health food hygiene. She also has competency in general ultrasonography.\n\nShe is an associate professor in the Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases Department, Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Bucharest, Romania. She has been chief of the Hygiene Department, Faculty of Dentistry, at the same university since 2019. Her interests include micro and macrovascular complications in diabetes and new therapies. Her research activities focus on nutritional intervention in chronic pathology, as well as cardio-renal-metabolic risk assessment, and diabetes in cancer. She is currently engaged in developing new therapies and technological tools for screening, prevention, and patient education in diabetes. \n\nShe is a member of the European Association for the Study of Diabetes, Cardiometabolic Academy, CEDA, Romanian Society of Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases, Romanian Diabetes Federation, and Association for Renal Metabolic and Nutrition studies. She has authored or co-authored 160 papers in national and international peer-reviewed journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"279792",title:"Dr.",name:"João",middleName:null,surname:"Cotas",slug:"joao-cotas",fullName:"João Cotas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/279792/images/system/279792.jpg",biography:"Graduate and master in Biology from the University of Coimbra.\n\nI am a research fellow at the Macroalgae Laboratory Unit, in the MARE-UC – Marine and Environmental Sciences Centre of the University of Coimbra. My principal function is the collection, extraction and purification of macroalgae compounds, chemical and bioactive characterization of the compounds and algae extracts and development of new methodologies in marine biotechnology area. \nI am associated in two projects: one consists on discovery of natural compounds for oncobiology. The other project is the about the natural compounds/products for agricultural area.\n\nPublications:\nCotas, J.; Figueirinha, A.; Pereira, L.; Batista, T. 2018. An analysis of the effects of salinity on Fucus ceranoides (Ochrophyta, Phaeophyceae), in the Mondego River (Portugal). Journal of Oceanology and Limnology. in press. DOI: 10.1007/s00343-019-8111-3",institutionString:"Faculty of Sciences and Technology of University of Coimbra",institution:null},{id:"279788",title:"Dr.",name:"Leonel",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"leonel-pereira",fullName:"Leonel Pereira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/279788/images/system/279788.jpg",biography:"Leonel Pereira has an undergraduate degree in Biology, a Ph.D. in Biology (specialty in Cell Biology), and a Habilitation degree in Biosciences (specialization in Biotechnology) from the Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Coimbra, Portugal, where he is currently a professor. In addition to teaching at this university, he is an integrated researcher at the Marine and Environmental Sciences Center (MARE), Portugal. His interests include marine biodiversity (algae), marine biotechnology (algae bioactive compounds), and marine ecology (environmental assessment). Since 2008, he has been the author and editor of the electronic publication MACOI – Portuguese Seaweeds Website (www.seaweeds.uc.pt). He is also a member of the editorial boards of several scientific journals. Dr. Pereira has edited or authored more than 20 books, 100 journal articles, and 45 book chapters. He has given more than 100 lectures and oral communications at various national and international scientific events. He is the coordinator of several national and international research projects. In 1998, he received the Francisco de Holanda Award (Honorable Mention) and, more recently, the Mar Rei D. Carlos award (18th edition). He is also a winner of the 2016 CHOICE Award for an outstanding academic title for his book Edible Seaweeds of the World. In 2020, Dr. Pereira received an Honorable Mention for the Impact of International Publications from the Web of Science",institutionString:"University of Coimbra",institution:{name:"University of Coimbra",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"61946",title:"Dr.",name:"Carol",middleName:null,surname:"Bernstein",slug:"carol-bernstein",fullName:"Carol Bernstein",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/61946/images/system/61946.jpg",biography:"Carol Bernstein received her PhD in Genetics from the University of California (Davis). She was a faculty member at the University of Arizona College of Medicine for 43 years, retiring in 2011. Her research interests focus on DNA damage and its underlying role in sex, aging and in the early steps of initiation and progression to cancer. In her research, she had used organisms including bacteriophage T4, Neurospora crassa, Schizosaccharomyces pombe and mice, as well as human cells and tissues. She authored or co-authored more than 140 scientific publications, including articles in major peer reviewed journals, book chapters, invited reviews and one book.",institutionString:"University of Arizona",institution:{name:"University of Arizona",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"182258",title:"Dr.",name:"Ademar",middleName:"Pereira",surname:"Serra",slug:"ademar-serra",fullName:"Ademar Serra",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/182258/images/system/182258.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serra studied Agronomy on Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul (UFMS) (2005). He received master degree in Agronomy, Crop Science (Soil fertility and plant nutrition) (2007) by Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados (UFGD), and PhD in agronomy (Soil fertility and plant nutrition) (2011) from Universidade Federal da Grande Dourados / Escola Superior de Agricultura Luiz de Queiroz (UFGD/ESALQ-USP). Dr. Serra is currently working at Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation (EMBRAPA). His research focus is on mineral nutrition of plants, crop science and soil science. Dr. Serra\\'s current projects are soil organic matter, soil phosphorus fractions, compositional nutrient diagnosis (CND) and isometric log ratio (ilr) transformation in compositional data analysis.",institutionString:"Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation",institution:{name:"Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"12",type:"subseries",title:"Human Physiology",keywords:"Anatomy, Cells, Organs, Systems, Homeostasis, Functions",scope:"Human physiology is the scientific exploration of the various functions (physical, biochemical, and mechanical properties) of humans, their organs, and their constituent cells. The endocrine and nervous systems play important roles in maintaining homeostasis in the human body. Integration, which is the biological basis of physiology, is achieved through communication between the many overlapping functions of the human body's systems, which takes place through electrical and chemical means. Much of the basis of our knowledge of human physiology has been provided by animal experiments. Because of the close relationship between structure and function, studies in human physiology and anatomy seek to understand the mechanisms that help the human body function. The series on human physiology deals with the various mechanisms of interaction between the various organs, nerves, and cells in the human body.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/12.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11408,editor:{id:"195829",title:"Prof.",name:"Kunihiro",middleName:null,surname:"Sakuma",slug:"kunihiro-sakuma",fullName:"Kunihiro Sakuma",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195829/images/system/195829.jpg",biography:"Professor Kunihiro Sakuma, Ph.D., currently works in the Institute for Liberal Arts at the Tokyo Institute of Technology. He is a physiologist working in the field of skeletal muscle. He was awarded his sports science diploma in 1995 by the University of Tsukuba and began his scientific work at the Department of Physiology, Aichi Human Service Center, focusing on the molecular mechanism of congenital muscular dystrophy and normal muscle regeneration. His interest later turned to the molecular mechanism and attenuating strategy of sarcopenia (age-related muscle atrophy). His opinion is to attenuate sarcopenia by improving autophagic defects using nutrient- and pharmaceutical-based treatments.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tokyo Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:{id:"331519",title:"Dr.",name:"Kotomi",middleName:null,surname:"Sakai",slug:"kotomi-sakai",fullName:"Kotomi Sakai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000031QtFXQA0/Profile_Picture_1637053227318",biography:"Senior researcher Kotomi Sakai, Ph.D., MPH, works at the Research Organization of Science and Technology in Ritsumeikan University. She is a researcher in the geriatric rehabilitation and public health field. She received Ph.D. from Nihon University and MPH from St.Luke’s International University. Her main research interest is sarcopenia in older adults, especially its association with nutritional status. Additionally, to understand how to maintain and improve physical function in older adults, to conduct studies about the mechanism of sarcopenia and determine when possible interventions are needed.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ritsumeikan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},series:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261"},editorialBoard:[{id:"213786",title:"Dr.",name:"Henrique P.",middleName:null,surname:"Neiva",slug:"henrique-p.-neiva",fullName:"Henrique P. 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Shaaban and Amr Farouk",slug:"encapsulation-of-essential-oils-and-their-use-in-food-applications",totalDownloads:50,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Essential Oils - Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"80959",title:"Biological Application of Essential Oils and Essential Oils Components in Terms of Antioxidant Activity and Inhibition of Cholinesterase Enzymes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102874",signatures:"Mejra Bektašević and Olivera Politeo",slug:"biological-application-of-essential-oils-and-essential-oils-components-in-terms-of-antioxidant-activ",totalDownloads:48,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Essential Oils - Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"80859",title:"Antioxidant Effect and Medicinal Properties of Allspice Essential Oil",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103001",signatures:"Yasvet Yareni Andrade Avila, Julián Cruz-Olivares and César Pérez-Alonso",slug:"antioxidant-effect-and-medicinal-properties-of-allspice-essential-oil",totalDownloads:34,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Essential Oils - Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}},{id:"80777",title:"Starch: A Veritable Natural Polymer for Economic Revolution",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102941",signatures:"Obi P. 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