\r\n\tThere are a variety of approaches to reversing biodiversity loss, ranging from economic, to ecological and ethical. The utilitarian approach to conservation, bolstered by the concept of ecosystem services, can be utilized to improve the conservation case by supplementing the burgeoning biodiversity rhetoric. To address this issue, a pluralistic approach to biodiversity is required for conservation and sustainability.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-339-8",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-338-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-340-4",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"ab014f8ed1669757335225786833e9a9",bookSignature:"Dr. Gopal Shukla, Dr. Jahangeer Bhat and Dr. Sumit Chakravarty",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11460.jpg",keywords:"Ecosystem Services, Intrinsic Value, Global Trends in Biodiversity Loss, Convention on Biological Diversity, Utilitarian Value, Biodiversity Conservation, Perception, In Situ and Ex Situ Conservation, Nature Conservation, Sustainable Development Goals, Drivers of Degradation, Prioritizing Biodiversity",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 17th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 22nd 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 21st 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 9th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 8th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Gopal Shukla, prior to becoming an assistant professor, has worked under NAIP (National Agricultural Innovation Project), NICRA ( National Innovations on Climate Resilient Agriculture), and SERB (Science and Engineering Research Board) projects. The focus of his research and development work is forest conservation. He has authored 75 research papers, 10 book chapters and has edited 5 books.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Dr. Jahangeer is a Guest Associate Editor in Frontiers in the Environmental Science journal and is the first researcher to report the first time growing of Acacia dealbata Link. (Silver Wattle), an invasive species in the high altitudes of the Himalayas. He has 11 years of research and 8 years of teaching experience with a publication record of more than 60, including research articles, review papers, conference papers, and books of national and international repute.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:"Dr. Chakravarty, Ph. D., has a wide experience in forestry training, research, and development. He is currently working as a Professor in Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Pundibari, Cooch Behar, West Bengal, India. He has conducted research on several aspects of forestry, agroforestry, medicinal plants, and climate change. He has trained many students in these fields. The focus of his research and development work is on forest ecology and conservation.",coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"101105",title:"Dr.",name:"Gopal",middleName:null,surname:"Shukla",slug:"gopal-shukla",fullName:"Gopal Shukla",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/101105/images/system/101105.jpg",biography:"Dr. Gopal Shukla, Ph.D., is currently an assistant professor of Forestry in Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Pundibari, Cooch Behar, West Bengal, India. He holds an MSc and Ph.D. in Forestry from Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya. Before joining the university, he worked under NAIP (National Agricultural Innovation Project), NICRA ( National Innovations on Climate Resilient Agriculture), and SERB (Science and Engineering Research Board) projects. 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He has been instrumental in developing HE and TVET streams of forestry and allied programmes and worked closely in accreditation with the Fiji Higher Education Commission and forestry stakeholders. Before joining Fiji National University, he worked for HNB Garhwal University, Srinagar, India, and has 11 years of research and 8 years of teaching experience with a publication record of more than 60, including research articles, review papers, conference papers, and books of national and international repute. Dr. Jahangeer reviews research articles for several scientific journals and has handled research projects in his capacity as Principal Investigator and Co-Principal Investigator. His major interests lie in emerging issues in forestry including conservation of biodiversity, traditional knowledge of plants, and sustainable management of forest resources. His focus of research is vegetation ecology, ethnobotany, and evaluation of ecosystem services, forest plant biodiversity, climate change, and socio-cultural issues in forestry. Dr. Jahangeer is currently working at the College of Horticulture and Forestry, Rani Lakshmi Bai Central Agricultural University, Jhansi, India.",institutionString:"Central Agricultural University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Central Agricultural University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"94999",title:"Dr.",name:"Sumit",middleName:null,surname:"Chakravarty",slug:"sumit-chakravarty",fullName:"Sumit Chakravarty",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94999/images/system/94999.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sumit Chakravarty, Ph.D., has wide experience in forestry training, research, and development. He is currently a professor at Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Pundibari, Cooch Behar, West Bengal, India. He holds an MSc in Forestry and a Ph.D. in Agronomy from Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana. He has conducted research on several aspects of forestry, agroforestry, medicinal plants, and climate change. He has trained many students in these fields. 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While the cornea is transparent and located in the front the eye, the sclera is the white part that forms the rest of the eye, giving it its spherical form, and providing hardness and structural protection to the internal part of the eye. Different types of collagen constitute the core of both structures, which is surrounded by the so-called “ground substance” that lies between the collagen fibers and around the few cells that are present in these elements. The viscoelastic properties of the cornea and sclera define the distensibility of the eye, which is related to the control these structures exert over intraocular pressure. Moreover, the cornea fulfils its main functions at the interface of the eye with air or water (depending on the habitat). Indeed, the cornea is the principal refracting surface of the dioptric system of the eye, which is why it is transparent, avascular, viscoelastic and quite resistant to deformation.
The structural and chemical composition of the ECM of very large eyes like the whale’s eye has been little studied. The human eye measures approximately 2.3 cm in diameter and the two whale’s eyes that we have analyzed were 12 and 13 cm in diameter (Figure 1). In this chapter we compare the morphological and structural aspects of the human cornea and sclera with those structures in one of the largest eyes ever studied. We consider that at least some of the differences in the structure of these eyes is likely to help adapt the whale to its very extreme conditions of life. These animals live between two very different habitats, capable of rapidly shifting between the water surface and the very deep sea, experiencing huge changes in pressure that their eye can only support without deforming thanks to the strong structure of both the cornea and sclera.
(A) Scheme of the whale and human eye in proportional scale. In green the sclera and in blue the cornea (B) Picture of half of the whale’s eye. (C) cornea, (S) Sclera.
Here we will consider the two structures separately, the cornea and sclera, although there is a continuation between both in the eye. The composition of both structures is very similar, mainly comprised of an ECM that contains collagen, as mentioned above, although the organization of the collagen fibers in each differs underlies their distinct viscoelastic characteristics. Quick-freezing and the deep-etching methods have been used in ultrastructural studies of the collagen fibers in the cornea and sclera, demonstrating that corneal collagen fibers were separated by moderate interfibrillar spaces. By contrast, scleral collagen fibers were organized compactly, with fewer interconnecting filaments. In the sclera, the collagen fibers have a wider diameter (around 200 nm) than those in the cornea (around 40 nm), and the periodicity of the collagen striations was variable in each structure, although in the sclera these striations were difficult to detect because of the surrounding ground substance [1]. Here we used several techniques to study the whale’s cornea and sclera, from classical histochemical trichromic staining (Figure 2), fluorescent light microscopy (Figure 3) to scanning electron microscopy (SEM) (Figures 4 and 5), in addition to Raman spectroscopy (Figure 6). While microscopy will enable us to determine the structure and ultrastructure of the tissue, Raman spectroscopy is a technique that can be used to optically probe the molecular changes in the tissue. The result of this technique is a spectrum characterized by shifts in wave numbers, which in many cases can be associated with the vibration of particular chemical bond (or single functional group) in the molecule [2]. We will describe the two structures cornea and sclera, comparing human and whale main differences.
Trichrome staining of paraffin sections from cornea (A) and sclera (B) of whale’s eye. Note the linear and parallel organization of the fibres in cornea and the different orientation of the fibres in the sclera. Scale bar 50 μm.
Fluorescence microscopic picture of the nuclei of the keratocytes. Note their distribution and orientation in cornea (A) and sclera (B) stained with DAPI. In the cornea there are lower number of keratocytes and they are more organized than in the sclera. Scale bar 100 μm.
Scanning electron microscopy pictures of the whale’s (A) and human (B) corneas. Note the distribution of the fibers in laminar bundles. Scale in μm.
Scanning electron microscopic pictures of (A) and (B) are both sclera collagen fibers from whale’s sclera. (A) lower and (B) higher magnification. Scale in μm.
Raman spectrometry (A) overlapping the spectra from human bone (blue) and whale’s sclera.
Four methods were used to study the extracellular matrix. Two light microscopy methods, for that purpose the cornea and sclera were fixed for 12 h with paraformaldehyde (PAF) 4% and for the other two techniques of electron microscopy a post fixation with 2,5% glutaraldehyde for 2 h was performed after the previous fixation with PAF. The first histological technique used was Masson’s trichrome staining, performed in 5 micrometers paraffin sections to visualize the collagen fibers in blue/green from the extracellular matrix (Figure 2). The second technique used was fluorescence microscopic technique, to determine the organization of the keratocytes. For that purpose the nuclei of the keratocytes were stained with DAPI in cryostat sections (14 micrometers) (Figure 3). The third technique was the scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to visualize the ultrastructure of the matrix components, for that purpose, small portions (few mm2) of cornea and sclera were dehydrated in increasing gradation of alcohol followed by complete dehydration with hexamethyldisilazane (HDMS), then the pieces were oriented in the platform of the microscope and coated with gold (Figures 4 and 5). The last technique was RAMAN microscopy, for that purpose small portions of cornea and sclera were dehydrated as for the SEM, but the HDMS step was not carried out. Thus, the samples were analyzed with a confocal InVia Raman (Renishaw) connected to a spectrophotometer and an excitation laser of 785 nm was connected to a Leica microscope to register the spectro of the different tissues (Figure 6).
As indicated above, the cornea is a transparent organ that allows the light to enter into the eye. The features that contribute to its transparency are a thin epithelium, the absence of blood vessels and its chemical composition, mainly comprised of collagen and some important ground substance, with very few cells. The cornea has five main parts: (1) the epithelium; (2) Bowman’s layer; (3) the stroma; (4) Descement’s layer; and (5) the endothelium. In this chapter we will concentrate on the stroma, of which the ECM is the main component.
In humans the cornea is approximately 0.5 mm thick, while in the whale’s eye it measures 3 to 4 millimetres. In both cases it is composed almost entirely of collagenous lamellae. The collagen fibres are organized in lamellae approximately 6 mm in diameter but with certain variability in their width and thickness. The lamellae are arranged parallel to the corneal surface and sometimes they form loose fibrillar networks. The collagen fibres within the bundles lie parallel to each other, and they are uniform in size and spacing, a feature produced by the cementing ground substance that is distributed regularly between the fibres (Figure 2). In the most peripheral cornea, the lamellae gradually adopt a less regular orientation and little-by-little their structure approximates to the organization in the sclera [3]. The collagen fibres in the central cornea vary in diameter between 21–65 nm in humans [4], data that is consistent with that found in our human SEM preparations.
A few specialized fibroblasts called keratocytes can be found between the collagen fibres, and they are responsible for the synthesis of the collagen and ground substance. Only a small proportion of the cornea is occupied by these cells, around 2–3% in humans, and as such, it is generally considered an almost acellular structure [5]. The small number of cells present in the corneal stroma, the avascular nature of this structure and the very well-organized collagen lamellae, all contributes to the characteristic transparency of the cornea (Figures 2 and 3).
The ground substance in the cornea consists of mucoproteins, glycoproteins and other substances exclusive to collagen, and it forms a cement like filling in the space between the corneal fibres. In 1969, using alkaline lead, citrate and uranyl acetate staining, 2 nm diameter filaments were seen to exist at right angles to the collagen fibres that they connected, postulating that these were the proteoglycans that bind to the corneal collagen D-period [6]. Using cationic dyes (alcian blue, cuprolinic blue, cupromeronic blue) in a critical electrolyte mode, the presence of proteoglycans was confirmed. Later studies described these proteoglycans to be keratan sulphate (lumincan) and dermatan sulphate (decorin) in the cornea [7], while only dermatan sulphate proteoglycan was found in the sclera, bound to the same sites as in cornea [8]. It was subsequently proposed that these molecules play a role in maintaining the relative positions of the fibrils, which is important for corneal transparency [9, 10]. So far, the most sophisticated and less invasive technique to study the ultrastructure of the cornea, without affecting the physiological state of hydration is the X-ray [11] and this will help in the future for a better understand the pathophysiology of the cornea.
The corneas of the whale studied are oval in shape, with axes of 5 x 3 cm, and they have a convex outer surface. The corneal thickness varies between the centre, where it is 2.5 mm thick, and the periphery where it is thicker, measuring 4 mm at the corneal-scleral boundary. The diameter of the corneal collagen fibres also differed significantly between the human and whale. Thus, while in humans the corneal fibres are around 60 nm in diameter, in whale they measure around 200 nm (Figure 4). The composition of the collagen is probably very similar in both species, not least because their histochemical staining is very similar, also resembling that of the pig, rat and mouse cornea. Moreover, and in addition to SEM and TEM, when the whale cornea and sclera was studied by Raman spectroscopy, the characteristics of the peaks for the collagen components were similar to those in humans [12].
The sclera is the white part of the eye and it is relative thin, ranging from 0.6 mm in the anterior part to 1 mm in the posterior part of human eyes. However, the sclera is very thick in large whales like the fin whales that we have studied, and it measures 3 to 4 cm at the back of the eye, although it is thinner (0,5 cm) in the anterior part (Figure 1). This thick and quite hard structure serves as a coffer in which the sensitive parts of the eye like the retina can be protected from the intense pressures these animals are exposed to when swimming in the deep seas.
The ECM of the human sclera is mainly composed of type I, III, V and VI collagen. The principal function of type I collagen is to resist tension, while type III collagen is considered essential in maintain the structure of expandable organs and type V collagen has been implicated in controlling fibril diameter. Type V collagen also fulfils a role in anchoring to the basement membrane and adjacent stromal matrix, a function it shares with type VI collagen [13]. In the sclera, the collagen fibrils have various diameters, ranging from 25 to 230 nm. Although these collagen fibrils form bundles, their arrangement is more heterogeneous in the sclera than in the cornea. These collagen bundles vary in width and thickness, often sprouting branches and intertwining with each other, at least in humans [14]. Moreover, in the sclera there is a narrower interfibrillar distance than in the cornea and the ground substance is more abundant, impairing the discrimination of the band periodicity of the collagen fibres. Indeed, it has been necessary to use special treatments and atomic force microscopy to describe the differences in the periodicity of the collagen bands between the cornea and sclera [15].
In transverse section of the eye the human sclera is thinner towards the corneo-scleral junction, while it thickens in the medial direction, posterior to the vitreous chamber, where it joins the bundle of the optic nerve. The dorsal part of the sclera is larger than the ventral domain, which means that the optic nerve can exit the eye with a ventral disposition. The collagen fibres that make up the sclera are mainly embedded in the ground substance and the characterization of the different types of collagen fibres has been achieved in humans by immunogold EM staining [16]. The fibres are tightly packed and arranged in different directions, which provides the eyeball with strength and shape (Figures 2B and 5). Close to the corneo-scleral limbus, large blood vessels circulate not far from the angle, forming a ring. In the sclero-corneal stroma of the limbus there is a large number of pigmented cells and numerous channels are present in this area that form the well-developed trabecular meshwork responsible for draining aqueous humour toward the veins.
The analysis of the whale’s sclera using Raman spectrometry showed us that even when the thick sclera is quite hard (with a texture like a spongiosum bone), hydroxyapatite does not appear to be present and thus, we concluded that the hard sclera is not ossified Indeed, when comparing the spectrometry fingerprint of human bone with that from the whale’s sclera, both structures share collagen peaks (Figure 6). The sclera is likely to be important in preserving the shape of the eyeball, shielding it from the effects of the deforming forces. Indeed, this large eye can be retracted or protruded thanks to a large muscle that surrounds the optic nerve and that is full of blood vessels, the ophthalmic rete [17]. It is possible that this large muscle also helps the eye and a thick sclera resist the pressure of the deep seas and avoid eye deformation.
Glaucoma is the main cause of blindness in the world. Although there are several types of glaucoma, the most common is characterized by an increase in the intraocular pressure (IOP) that induces neurodegeneration in the retina. Indeed, glaucoma leads to the death of the retinal ganglion cells that are the responsible for sending visual information from the eye to the brain, thus causing blindness [18]. The increasing of the intraocular pressure is due to the elevated secretion of aqueous humour or to a reduction in the evacuation of it, mainly through the trabecular meshwork. So far, in the human eye it has not been detected any sensor to detect and control the intraocular pressure. Interestingly, encapsulated sensory corpuscles are specialized nerve endings located in the corneo-scleral area that do not have a very clear function. These have been found in different cetaceans and in the whale
The thickness of the cornea is very important and has to be taken into consideration in order to measure IOP correctly. Since the way to measure the IOP is through the cornea, the instruments used must be adapted to the mean cornea thickness. However, in order to correct the defects, a refraction technique has been developed that involves correcting the curvature of the cornea by reshaping the stroma of the cornea with a laser, LASIK surgery. The thickness of the cornea is critical to be able to perform this surgery, particularly since the mean cornea thickness in humans is 500 um and it reaches a maximum of 600 um, and LASIK surgery should not be performed on thinner corneas. After LASIK surgery, the patient should retain a minimum of 250 μm corneal thickness. In this sense, IOP measurements can vary depending on the thickness of the cornea, being underestimated in patients with thinner corneas and overestimated in patients with thicker corneas. Another side effect of re-shaping a thin cornea is the deformation in the central part, which can alter corneal curvature, so-called keratoconus. This is a phenomenon that leads to a gradually bulging of the cornea outwards into a cone shape, which causes blurry, distorted vision. In order to correct this keratoconus crosslinking of the collagen fibers should be performed by applying UV light to the collagen fibers, thereby reinforcing the structure of the cornea. The UV light together with the application of riboflavin (vitamin B2) will enhance the bonds between collagen fibers in the stroma of the cornea [20]. It is also hypothesized that stiffening of ocular structures, including cornea and sclera may be related to the pathogenesis of glaucoma [21].
Another alteration to the cornea that can influence IOP measurement is the prolonged use of contact lenses. Initially, contact lenses can induce a flattening of the cornea during the first months of use, but prolonged use can cause a thinning of the cornea with some deformation. Thus, we can conclude that prolonged use of contact lenses negatively influences corneal physiology. Aging can also change central and peripheral corneal thickness. By using ultrasonic pachymetry in 250 patients aged 9 to 97 years, it was concluded that central corneal thickness increases significantly with age, whereas the degree of symmetry decreases [22]. Accordingly, there are different factors that can affect corneal thickness and thus, IOP measurements, which could influence the detection and treatment of glaucoma.
The sclera provides a tough fibrous support structure for the retina and optic nerve, fulfilling a biomechanical function that may be crucial in glaucoma. Several studies have assessed collagen fiber architecture in order to identify if uniaxial (one preferred direction) or biaxial (two directions) collagen organization of the sclera is related to glaucoma. So far, changes in fiber orientation have been detected between glaucomatous and non-glaucomatous eyes, although it could be an adaptation to the elevated pressure and it is not clear if there is a predisposition to glaucomatous axon damage [23]. However, the very hard, strong and thick sclera present in the whale’s eye means there is no capacity for distension or structural modification. As such, any elevation in IOP in whales would be sensed by the retina. The other structure in the eye that is sensitive to IOP is the lamina cribosa (LC) or cribiform plate that forms a scaffold for the passage of the optic nerve’s axon bundles, anchoring the bundles to each other and to the sides forming the optic nerve. It reinforces the posterior eye, protecting it from injury at the site of optic nerve exit. The LC is subject to mechanical strain as it lies at the border between two different compartments subject to pressure: the anterior compartment to IOP and the retrobulbar compartment to that of the cerebrospinal fluid [24]. Hence, the LC has been proposed as the main site controlling the pressure that represents the insult to retinal ganglion cell axons in glaucoma [25]. Moreover, the LC thickness and the posterior displacement of its components have been associated with the rate of progressive retinal fiber layer thinning and the severity of glaucoma. Changes in the structure of the LC have been found in patients with glaucoma, indicating that these structural changes could provide information regarding the evolution of glaucoma [26]. However, in our large exanimated animals, the LC of the whales is as hard as the sclera, which means it will be very difficult for it to deform. Thus, in these animals there is a very limited possibility for the eye to deform in response changes in the IOP.
In conclusion, we have evaluated the structure of the eye in the second largest mammalian on the planet, the long fin whale, considering the possible functional consequences of its features. These eyes are around 150 times larger than the human eye, although their structure is very similar and their ECM components are also comparable, albeit in different proportions. Thus, the cornea and sclera are thicker, adapting to the whale’s ecosystem and to the physiology of their body size. The very large structures and the rigid ECM lead us to consider the implication of the ECM in eye diseases like glaucoma and keratoconus, which in these animals will be very difficult to explain in the context of their very distinct dimensions and structure.
We would like to thank the support by: Grupos UPV/EHU GIU18/50; PIBA 2020-1-0026; Retos MINECO FEDER (PID2019-111139RB-I00); FECYT-19-14532 to EV. Basque Government Post-Doctoral Fellowship to XP.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
We would like to thank AMBAR association for the help in getting the whale’s eye. In addition, we would like to thank all persons that unconditionally encouraged and supported us to carry out the research and to show the results in the art exhibition of scientific photography about the eye of the whale in the Bizkaia Aretoa in February 2020.
The temporomandibular joint (TMJ) can be classified by its function and by its anatomy. Functionally it is ginglymoarthrodial, a term derived from ginglymus, meaning a hinge joint, allowing movement only forwards and backwards in one plane, and arthrodial, meaning a joint allowing sliding movement of surfaces [1]. Anatomically, it is a diarthrodial joint, defined as the discontinuous articulation of two bones that allow freedom of movement. The movement of the TMJ is dictated by muscles and limited by ligaments, its capsule of fibrous connective tissue is innervated, vascularized and strongly attached to the joint surfaces. It is also a synovial joint, whose fluid acts as a joint lubricant and supplies its metabolic and nutritional needs [2]. When occluding the mandible, it will be subjected to loads, a unilateral occlusion will result in load peaks at the contralateral TMJ. In addition, the condyle is an adaptable and regenerative unit with the ability to maintain functions despite trauma and degenerative changes [3]. The TMJ is the only joint in the human body that houses a growth center, resulting in the perpetual need for the left and right joints to work coordinated [4].
Biomechanics is the study of mechanics applied to living beings, it analyzes loads, efforts, tension, movement, size, shape and structure of the body. The temporomandibular joint is subject to forces produced by the masticatory muscles and the occlusion stress that is supported by the teeth [3]. In addition, it analyzes and helps understand the interaction of form, function and mechanism of the temporomandibular disorders to prevent, diagnose and cure these disorders [5]. A total joint replacement should function as close to a healthy joint as possible. It must be able to withstand the same forces and must produce the same movements as a normal joint [6].
The temporal bone contributes three regions to the TMJ, the largest being the articular or mandibular fossa, a concave surface whose anterior limit is the articular eminence, and its posterior limit is the postglenoid process [2]. The glenoid fossa is wider mediolaterally than anteroposteriorly, its surface is thin, and it may be translucent in a dissected skull, showing that although the articular fossa contains the posterior edge of the disc and condyle, it’s not a functionally resistant tension part [1, 7]. The second portion, the articular eminence, is a transverse bony prominence that continues mediolaterally across the articular surface, is generally thick, and serves as a major functional component of the TMJ. The third portion of the articular surface of the temporal bone is the preglenoid plane, a flattened area anterior to the eminence [2, 7].
The mandibular portion that is part of the TMJ is the condyle, it’s a paired structure that forms an angle of approximately 145° to 160° with each other. It normally has an elliptical shape and measures on average 20 mm mediolaterally (range 13 to 25 mm) and 10 mm anteroposteriorly (range 5.5 to 16 mm). The condyle tends to be rounded mediolaterally and convex anteroposteriorly. The size and shape of the condyle present large individual variations that may be relevant in terms of biomechanical load. In its medial portion below its articular surface is the pterygoid fovea, site of insertions of the lateral pterygoid muscle [2, 8].
Lining the inner face of the joint, there are two types of tissue: articular and synovial cartilage. The space bounded by these two structures is called the synovial cavity, which is filled with synovial fluid. The articular surfaces of the temporal bone and condyle are covered with dense articular fibrocartilage. This cover has the ability to regenerate and remodel under functional stress. Deep to the fibrocartilage of the condyle, there is a proliferative zone of cells that can become cartilage or bone tissue. Articular cartilage is composed of chondrocytes and an intercellular matrix of collagen fibers, water, and a nonfibrous tissue, filling material, called the ground substance. Chondrocytes are arranged in three layers characterized by different cell shapes. The superficial zone contains small flattened cells with their longitudinal axes parallel to the surface. In the middle zone the cells are larger and rounder and appear in columns perpendicular to the surface. The deep zone contains the largest cells and is divided by the Level mark; below which some degree of calcification occurs [2].
Cartilage is nourished primarily by diffusion from synovial fluid. Collagen fibers are arranged in an interlocking meshwork of fibrils parallel to the joint surface, joining as bundles and descending to them junction in the calcified cartilage between the level marks. Functionally, these meshes provide a framework for the interstitial water and the essential substance to resist the compressive forces encountered in the load [2].
Articular cartilage contains a higher proportion of collagen fibers than other synovial joints. The fundamental substance contains a variety of plasma proteins, glucose, urea and salts, as well as proteoglycans, which are synthesized by the Golgi apparatus of chondrocytes. Proteoglycans are macromolecules that contain a protein core linked to chondroitin sulfate and keratan sulfate glycosaminoglycan chains. Proteoglycans are involved in the diffusion of nutrients and metabolic degradation. The ground substance allows the entry and exit of large amounts of water, allowing its characteristic functional elasticity in response to deformation and load [2, 8].
The lining of the capsule is the synovial membrane, a thin, smooth, richly vascular, and innervated membrane that contains no epithelium. Synovial cells have a phagocytic and secretory function and are believed to be the site of hyaluronic acid production. Synovial fluid is considered an ultrafiltrate of plasma which comes from two sources: the first, from plasma by dialysis, and the second, from the secretion of type A and B synoviocytes [1, 2]. Among its functions is the lubrication of the joint, phagocytosis of particles and nutrition of the articular cartilage. It contains a high concentration of hyaluronic acid. The proteins found in synovial fluid are identical to plasma proteins; however, it has a lower total protein content, a higher percentage of albumin, and a lower percentage of α −2-globulin.
The number of leukocytes is less than 200 per cubic millimeter and less than 25% of these cells are polymorphonuclear. Only a small amount of synovial fluid, usually less than 2 ml, is present within the healthy TMJ [2].
Its biconcave in shape with a length of approximately 12 mm and a width of 16 mm. It is firmly attached to the lateral and medial poles of the condyle [9]. made up of dense fibrous connective tissue and is not vascularized or innervated, an adaptation that allows it to resist pressure, is composed of densely organized collagen fibers, high molecular weight proteoglycans, elastic fibers, and cells ranging from fibrocytes to chondrocytes. Collagen is mainly made up of types I and II. The fibers have a typical pattern of distribution in the intermediate zone, oriented sagittally and parallel to the disc surface. Most of these fibers continue into the anterior and posterior bands to intertwine or continue with the oriented collagen fibers transversely and vertically of these bands or pass through the entire bands to continue towards the anterior and posterior disc attachments. Vertically and transversely oriented fibers are more pronounced in the anterior and posterior band. In the intermediate part there is weaker cross-linking of the collagen bundles, which makes this area less resistant to mediolateral shear stresses [8].
Anatomically the disc can be divided into three regions in a sagittal section: an anterior portion (about 2 mm), posterior portion (about 3 mm), and a middle portion of 1 mm. The anterior portion of the disc consists of a layer of fibroelastic fascia (upper) and a fibrous layer (lower). The disc is flexible and adapts to the demands of the joint surfaces, joining the capsule anteriorly, posteriorly, medially, and laterally [2, 7]. It’s bounded inferiorly by the articular surface of the mandibular condyle and laterally and medially by the synovial membrane. It divides the inferior and superior joint compartment into two spaces. The inferior joint space contains approximately 0.9 ml of synovial fluid, while the superior joint space contains approximately 1.2 ml [9].
Articular disc has been shown to have region- and direction-dependent variations in biomechanical response. Female joint discs tend to be stiffer and relax less than male discs, suggesting a possible etiologic factor in the development and progression of temporomandibular disorders, and the higher prevalence among women [10].
The presence of a fibrocartilaginous disc in the joint prevents peak loads because it has the capacity to deform and adapt to the joint surfaces. These deformations ensure that the loads are absorbed and distributed over larger contact areas. In addition, the shape of the disc and the location of the contact zones continuously change during mandibular movement to adapt to the articulating surfaces. As a result, there will be a change in the magnitude and location of the deformations [11].
The retrodiscal area is called the bilaminar zone because it consists of two laminae separated by loose connective tissue made up of elastic fibers, blood vessels, lymphatics, nerves, and adipose tissue. The inferior lamina inserts into the periosteum of the condyle approximately 8 to 10 mm below the condylar apex. The lamina consists of thick fibers that originate from almost the entire height of the posterior band and lacks elastic fibers. The lamina stretches with occlusion and bends as the condyle rotates into the mandibular opening. It is believed to serve as a control ligament to prevent extreme rotation of the disc at the condyle in rotational movements [2, 8]. On the other hand, the upper lamina inserts into the periosteum of the fossa anterior to the squamotympanic and petrotympanic fissures, is thinner than the lower lamina and contains thinner collagen fibers. It has elastic fibers and collagen fibers that fold in the occluded position and stretch during opening or protrusion, allowing the disc to slide anteriorly. The position of the disc is ensured by the lateral and posterior inferior ligaments [8].
The loose tissue of the retrocondylar space compensates for pressure changes that arise when the retrocondylar space expands during translation. The loose fibroelastic structure allows the blood vessels to expand, causing the posterior superior lamina to press against the fossa and the posterior inferior lamina to fold superiorly. The blood vessels are connected with the pterygoid venous plexus located anteromedially to the condyle. Therefore, during opening, blood drains backwards and laterally to fill the enlarged space behind the condyle, and upon closing, it is pushed into the pterygoid plexus [8].
They are composed of collagen and act predominantly as restraints on movement of the condyle and disc. Three ligaments can be considered main: collateral, capsular and temporomandibular ligaments. Other ligaments such as the sphenomandibular, stylomandibular, pterygomandibular, and Pinto ligaments are considered accessory ligaments because they serve to some extent as passive restrictors in mandibular movement [2, 7].
They are short paired structures that span each joint, they attach superiorly to the temporal bone along the rim of the glenoid fossa and articular eminence, and inferiorly to the neck of the condyle along the rim of the articular facet. It surrounds the joint spaces and the disc, being attached anteriorly and posteriorly, as well as medially and laterally. The function is to resist medial, lateral and inferior forces, thus maintaining the attachment of the disc to the condyle. This offers protection in extreme movements, a secondary function is to contain the synovial fluid within the superior and inferior joint spaces [2, 7].
They are found on the lateral aspect of each TMJ or temporomandibular joint. They are individual structures that function in pairs with the corresponding ligament in the opposite TMJ. It can be separated into two different parts, which have different functions. The external oblique part descends from the external aspect of the articular tubercle of the zygomatic process and inferiorly to the external posterior surface of the condylar neck. It limits the amount of inferior distraction that the condyle can have in translation and rotation movements. The internal horizontal part also arises from the external surface of the articular tubercle, just medial to the origin of the external oblique part of the ligament, and runs horizontally posteriorly to join the lateral pole of the condyle and the posterior pole of the disc. The function of the inner portion is to limit the posterior movement of the condyle, particularly during rotational movements, for example when the mandible moves laterally in masticatory function [2, 7].
It is a remnant of Merckel’s cartilage. It originates from the sphenoid spine and on its way to the mandible inserts into the medial wall of the TMJ joint capsule. It continues its descent to attach to the lingula of the mandible as well as to the lower part of the medial side of the condylar neck. Its main function is to protect the TMJ of an excessive translation of the condyle, after 10 degrees of opening of the mouth, also functions as a point of rotation during the activation of the lateral pterygoid muscle [2, 7].
The stylomandibular ligament arises from the styloid process to the posterior margin of the mandible or the angle of the mandible. It is considered a thickening of the deep cervical fascia. Its function is to limit the excessive protrusion of the mandible [2, 7].
The pterygomandibular ligament or raphe (PTML) is a thickening of the oropharyngeal fascia. It arises from the apex of the hamulus of the internal pterygoid plane of the skull to the posterior zone of the retromolar trigone of the mandible, limiting its movements [2, 7].
It has two parts: The first part refers to the middle ear involving the malleus in relation to the anterior ligament of the malleus; the second, the portion of the joint capsule of the TMJ, in contact with the retrodiscal tissues. The functions are two. In the TMJ it protects the synovial membrane with respect to the tensions of the structures surrounding and in the middle ear, would seem to control or influence the appropriate pressure for this area of the ear [2, 7].
The vascular supply of the TMJ arises mainly from branches of the superficial temporal artery, the maxillary artery, and the masseteric artery. All arteries within a radius of 3 cm contribute to the vascularization of the TMJ through the appearance of secondary capillaries that branch to surround the joint capsule [12]. Venous drainage occurs through the pterygoid plexus in the retrodiscal area, which alternately fills and empties in protrusion and retrusion movements, respectively, to subsequently communicate with the internal maxillary vein, the sphenopalatine vein, the medial meningeal veins, the deep temporal veins, the masseteric veins and the inferior alveolar vein [7].
Lymphatic drainage is not always easy to describe because, in the case of TMJ disease, the lymph nodes may increase in number. Generally, the lymphatic system that drains the TMJ comes from the area of the submandibular triangle [7].
The TMJ has several proprioceptive receptors, particularly in the parenchyma of the articular disc: Golgi—Mazzoni and Ruffini; Myelinated and unmyelinated nerve fibers are innervated primarily by the auriculotemporal nerve posteriorly, the masseteric nerve anteriorly, the posterior deep temporal nerve anteromedially, and the branch of the TMJ arising directly from the mandibular nerve anteriorly. The middle part, although there are variations in these innervation pathways [13].
Classically, four masticatory muscles are described: temporal, masseter, lateral and medial pterygoid, although the supra and infrahyoid muscles also participate in mandibular movements [14].
The function of the temporalis muscle is to elevate the mandible for closure. It is not a power muscle. Contractions of the middle and posterior portions of the muscle contribute to retrusion of the mandible, and a small degree of unilateral contraction of the temporal bone assists in deviation of the mandible to the ipsilateral side [14].
Both the superficial and deep parts of the masseter muscle are powerful elevators of the jaw, but they function independently and reciprocally in some movements. The deep layer of the masseter is not active during protrusive movements and is always active during forced retrusion, whereas the superficial portion is active during protrusion and is inactive during retrusion. Similarly, the deep masseter is active in ipsilateral movements but does not function in contralateral movements, while the superficial masseter is active during contralateral movements but not in ipsilateral movements [14].
The primary function of the medial pterygoid is elevation of the mandible, but it also has a limited role in unilateral protrusion in synergism with the lateral pterygoid to promote rotation to the opposite side [14].
It has two portions that can be considered two functionally distinct muscles. The main function of the lower head is protrusive and contralateral movement. When the two inferior bundles contract, the condyle is pulled forward and below the articular eminence, with the disc moving passively with the condylar head. This movement contributes to the opening of the oral cavity. When the inferior head works unilaterally, it produces a contralateral movement of the mandible. The function of the superior bundles is predominantly involved with the closing and retrusion movements [14].
This group of muscles is formed by 4 suprahyoid pairs that are digastric, mylohyoid, stylohyoid and geniohyoid and 4 infrahyoid pairs that are sternohyoid, omohyoid, sternothyroid and thyrohyoid whose function in mandibular movements is to fix or move the hyoid [14].
Mandibular movement during function and parafunction involves complex neuromuscular patterns originating and modifying from central and peripheral origin. The ATM contributes about 2000 movements per day [11, 15].
The active muscles are the digastric, mylohyoid, and geniohyoid. There is no activity in the temporal when there is a slow opening and the mandible is in maximum opening, although some activity can occur in the medial pterygoid [15].
There is no temporary activity during mandibular closure as long as there is no contact with the teeth. The elevation without contact is given by the masseter and medial pterygoid [15].
Voluntary retrusion in mandibular closure is given by the contraction of the posterior fibers of the temporalis muscle, as well as by the suprahyoid and infrahoid muscle groups [15].
Protrusion without occlusal contact is the result of contraction of the lateral and medial pterygoids as well as the bilateral masseters [15].
Lateral movement of the mandible without tooth contact is achieved primarily by contraction of the medial and posterior fibers of the ipsilateral temporalis muscle and by contralateral contraction of the lateral and medial pterygoid and anterior temporalis fibers. The suprahyoid muscles are active keeping the mandible slightly protruded and depressed [15].
Functionally, mandibular movements are complex with six degrees of possible movement, which occur as complex interrelated rotational and translational activities. They are possible thanks to the relationship of four different joints: lower and upper. Although the TMJ does not function independently of the other, a classification of isolated mandibular movements is necessary [11, 16].
Movements have been extensively studied at the level of the occlusal interface, being Ulf Posselt one of the first to describe motion in three dimensions. Condylar rotation and translation of the condyle-disc assembly, in most cases, begin simultaneously. On average, condylar rotation increases or decreases linearly by approximately 2°/mm of anterior or posterior translation during opening or closing, respectively [8, 16].
Rotation occurs when the condyles rotate around a fixed point or axis during mandibular opening and closing. Rotational motion can occur in three reference planes: horizontal, vertical, and sagittal. Each of them occurs around a point called the axis [11].
Horizontal orientation axis: opening and closing movement, referred to as a hinge, therefore it occurs around an axis called the hinge axis. It is considered the purest rotation movement [16].
Vertical axis of rotation: Also called frontal axis. It occurs when one of the condyles moves anteriorly from the position of the terminal hinge axis with the vertical axis in the opposite condyle, which remains in said axis. This type of movement does not occur normally [16].
Sagittal axis of rotation: Occurs when one of the condyles moves inferiorly while the other remains in the position of the terminal axis. This movement occurs in conjunction with other movements. Mathematical studies indicate that in this plane there is the same contact and muscle activity from one side to the other, so there are no alterations in dental occlusion that result in a joint without load [11, 16].
The amount of condylar rotation does not differ between men and women. A finding that contrasts with the greater maximum interincisal opening of men compared to women due to differences in jaw length. In fact, with the same degree of rotation, the greater the length of the mandible, the greater the opening of the mouth. Consequently, the degree of interincisal opening cannot be considered as a measure of joint mobility or laxity, unless corrected for mandibular size [8].
Translation can be defined as a movement in which every point of the object t simultaneously has the same speed and direction. In the masticatory system, it occurs when the mandible protrudes. During normal movements, rotation and translation occur simultaneously, as the mandible rotates in one or more axes, each of the axes is changing orientation in space [16].
The total movement of the mandible does not consist only of rotation and translation. Side-to-side or eccentric bodily movement of the mandible and rotation and translation of the joints indicate that the mandible acts as a free-moving or floating; structure. Controlled by pairs of complementary and opposing functional muscle groups that gradually exert impulse force with numerous force vectors, the three-dimensional movement of the mandible with a dual-operation joint system is unlike any other orthopedic system in the body [17].
Classical records analyzed mandibular movements in terms of their geometry, using mechanical systems. Posselt designed an instrument called a gnatho-tensiometer, which could record border movements in all three planes, obtaining the Posselt diagram. Currently, technology has made it possible to improve position tracking techniques and thus be able to analyze mandibular kinematics with high spatial and temporal resolution (Figure 1) [18].
Posselt diagram.
Movement is not only guided by the shape of the bones, muscles, and ligaments, but also by the occlusion of the teeth [1]. The Glossary of Prosthodontic Terms defines occlusion as the static relationship between the chewing surfaces of the maxillary and mandibular teeth. Dental contact has to be studied from a functional perspective and a more adequate definition of occlusion would be the biological and dynamic relationship of the components of the masticatory system that determines dental relationships [19].
Occlusion comprises a wide range of topics, the biomechanics of occlusal contact between two teeth with different cusp inclinations form a complex system [16]. From a clinical point of view, TMJ changes including intracapsular exudate and joint tissue loss can result in occlusal changes such as anterior or posterior open bites. It is important to mention that a particular occlusal scheme is not a determinant of disease. There is no evidence to suggest that one scheme predominates over another. Group functions compared to canine guides cause less condylar displacement, this displacement is small and has no clinical significance [19].
The range of vertical movement is dictated by anterior determinants such as overbite and posterior determinants such as TMJ condylar guidance. From a biomechanical point of view, anterior versus posterior determinants have a greater influence on tooth contact due to their proximity to the teeth. On the other hand, the condylar guide will influence when the molars are in contact or close to contact during mandibular movements [19].
Studies about whether the TMJ is subjected to load has been the subject of discussion for many years. Brehnan et al. in 1981 was able to corroborate in his studies carried out on monkeys that there is a load in the TMJ. It’s accepted that mechanical loading is essential for growth [11]. During the natural function of the joint, a combination of compressive, tensile, and shear loads occur [5]. The efforts produced by the loads will generate a deformation which can be quantified by determining the change between the original length with the final length of a structure, this deformation is expressed as a percentage, there are two types of deformation: elastic one in which eliminating the force the material recovers its original dimension, while plastic deformation is one in which the original dimension is not recovered. The elastic limit es the yield point beyond which permanent deformation occurs and the tissue does not return to its original shape. Ultimate strength is the stress a tissue can withstand, and breaking strength is the stress at which the tissue breaks (Figure 2) [20].
Graph shows that the elastic limit and the maximun resistance.
The value of the maximum resistance of the disc depends on the direction of the applied stress and the region where it is applied. For example, the ultimate strength of the intermediate zone of the disc is 37.4 MPa (1 MPa = 106N/m2) when a tensile stress is applied anteroposteriorly, while it is 1.6 MPa when the application of stress is medio-lateral [11].
During compressive loading the disk becomes smaller, during tensile loading, it is stretched in the direction of loading, during shear loading, one edge of the disk surface moves parallel to the adjacent surface (Figure 3) [16]. Therefore, an unloaded TMJ may show degenerative changes, which may lead to impaired masticatory function. However, an excessive load that exceeds the adaptive capacity can also lead to degradation of the joint structure [11]. If the surfaces of the condyle or fossa have significant bony irregularities, the distribution of force over an even smaller square area of the joint can make these ratios more diverse and destructive. Otherwise, an aging dysfunctional disc/capsule does not have the necessary viscoelastic properties to meet the functional demands of the TMJ [17].
Different types of load over disc. A. Normal state. B. Tension. C. Compression D. shear.
Any surgical procedure must restore functional congruence between all four joint surfaces. Any intervention must limit the instability of the joint to eliminate the progressive influence of torque and shear at the lateral attachment of the disc/capsule to the mandibular condyle. Currently, no synthetic or biological material meets the viscoelastic properties disk/capsule Knowledge of biomechanics will guide the clinician in making decisions for the surgical treatment of TMJ.
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In industry practice, engineers apply individual and highly specialized tools with strong limitation regarding defect detection in early engineering phases. Experts typically execute reviews with limited tool support which make engineering projects defective and risky. Semantic Web Technologies (SWTs) can help to bridge the gap between heterogeneous sources as foundation for efficient and effective defect detection. Main questions focus on (a) how to bridge gaps between loosely coupled tools and incompatible data models and (b) how SWTs can help to support efficient and effective defect detection in context of engineering process improvement. This chapter describes success-critical requirements for defect detection in MDE and shows how SWTs can provide the foundation for early and efficient defect detection with an adapted review approach. The proposed defect detection framework (DDF) suggests different levels of SWT contributions as a roadmap for engineering process improvement. Two selected industry-related real-life cases show different levels of SWT involvement. Although SWTs have been successfully applied in real-life use cases, SWT applications can be risky if applied without good understanding of success factors and limitations.",book:{id:"5486",slug:"quality-control-and-assurance-an-ancient-greek-term-re-mastered",title:"Quality Control and Assurance",fullTitle:"Quality Control and Assurance - An Ancient Greek Term Re-Mastered"},signatures:"Dietmar Winkler, Marta Sabou and Stefan Biffl",authors:[{id:"95798",title:"Dr.",name:"Dietmar",middleName:null,surname:"Winkler",slug:"dietmar-winkler",fullName:"Dietmar Winkler"},{id:"135962",title:"Prof.",name:"Stefan",middleName:null,surname:"Biffl",slug:"stefan-biffl",fullName:"Stefan Biffl"},{id:"196030",title:"Dr.",name:"Marta",middleName:null,surname:"Sabou",slug:"marta-sabou",fullName:"Marta Sabou"}]},{id:"53946",doi:"10.5772/67211",title:"The Evolution of Quality Concepts and the Related Quality Management",slug:"the-evolution-of-quality-concepts-and-the-related-quality-management",totalDownloads:4438,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Enterprises usually adopt some quality practices to control the product quality during the manufacturing process in order to assure the delivery of qualitative good products to customers. The quality practices or quality management systems adopted by industries will further evolve due to the changes of quality concepts as time goes by. This chapter discusses the change of quality concepts and the related revolution of quality management systems in the past century. The quality concepts were gradually changed from the achievement of quality standards, satisfaction of customer needs, and expectations to customer delight. Since merely satisfying customers is not enough to ensure customer loyalty, the enterprises gradually focus on customers’ emotional responses and their delight in order to pursue their loyalty. The emotion of “delight” is composed of “joy” and “surprise,” which can be achieved as the customers’ latent requirements are satisfied. Thus, the concept of “customer delight” and the means to provide the innovative quality so as to meet the unsatisfied customers’ latent needs are elaborated on. Finally, a framework of innovation creation is developed that is based on the mining of customer's latent requirements. This outline will manifest the essential elements of the related operation steps.",book:{id:"5486",slug:"quality-control-and-assurance-an-ancient-greek-term-re-mastered",title:"Quality Control and Assurance",fullTitle:"Quality Control and Assurance - An Ancient Greek Term Re-Mastered"},signatures:"Ching-Chow Yang",authors:[{id:"11862",title:"Prof.",name:"Ching-Chow",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"ching-chow-yang",fullName:"Ching-Chow Yang"}]},{id:"53267",doi:"10.5772/65847",title:"Exploring the Relationship of Supply Chain Risk Management to Quality Management",slug:"exploring-the-relationship-of-supply-chain-risk-management-to-quality-management",totalDownloads:1551,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"This research explores the relationship between an organization's supply chain risk management (SCRM) maturity and quality maturity. SCRM maturity was measured using a survey questionnaire sent to organizations in the USA. Quality maturity was assessed via ISO 9001:2008 certification status as well as through a survey questionnaire of total quality management (TQM) practices for organizations in the USA. The results suggest that ISO 9001:2008 is not related to SCRM maturity, while TQM maturity is related to SCRM maturity. Organizations with more mature TQM programs appear to also have more mature SCRM programs.",book:{id:"5486",slug:"quality-control-and-assurance-an-ancient-greek-term-re-mastered",title:"Quality Control and Assurance",fullTitle:"Quality Control and Assurance - An Ancient Greek Term Re-Mastered"},signatures:"Tyler Florio",authors:[{id:"195084",title:"Mr.",name:"Tyler",middleName:null,surname:"Florio",slug:"tyler-florio",fullName:"Tyler Florio"}]},{id:"53019",doi:"10.5772/66199",title:"A Framework to Manage Quality of Enterprise Content Management Systems",slug:"a-framework-to-manage-quality-of-enterprise-content-management-systems",totalDownloads:1407,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"There is a wide range of enterprise content management (ECM) systems which supports, among other things, document management processes, records management and Web content management. However, each of these systems has many features and some of them can meet organizational needs depending on the scale, sector and workflow of the organization. In addition, it is very common that organizations are unaware of what ECM system best fits their needs, since each company has its particular scope and strategic objectives. This chapter is contextualized within the real project called THOT designed for the Andalusian Public Administration in Spain. The aim of this project is to study in detail ECM systems and propose an objective method to compare them for the specific scope and strategic objective of organizations. Quality evaluation framework (QuEF) has been adapted for this purpose.",book:{id:"5486",slug:"quality-control-and-assurance-an-ancient-greek-term-re-mastered",title:"Quality Control and Assurance",fullTitle:"Quality Control and Assurance - An Ancient Greek Term Re-Mastered"},signatures:"José González Enríquez, Francisco José Domínguez Mayo, Julián\nAlberto García García, María José Escalona Cuaresma and Manuel\nMejías Risoto",authors:[{id:"104846",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:"Jose",surname:"Escalona",slug:"maria-escalona",fullName:"Maria Escalona"},{id:"191332",title:"Ph.D.",name:"José",middleName:null,surname:"González",slug:"jose-gonzalez",fullName:"José González"},{id:"191493",title:"Dr.",name:"F.J.",middleName:null,surname:"Domínguez-Mayo",slug:"f.j.-dominguez-mayo",fullName:"F.J. Domínguez-Mayo"},{id:"191494",title:"Dr.",name:"J.A.",middleName:null,surname:"García-García",slug:"j.a.-garcia-garcia",fullName:"J.A. García-García"},{id:"195075",title:"Dr.",name:"M.",middleName:null,surname:"Mejías",slug:"m.-mejias",fullName:"M. Mejías"}]},{id:"53522",doi:"10.5772/66360",title:"The Use of Control Charts in the Study of Bitcoin’s Price Variability",slug:"the-use-of-control-charts-in-the-study-of-bitcoin-s-price-variability",totalDownloads:1648,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"The focus of this research is bitcoin’s variability and its comparison with the variability of the EURO/USD exchange rate. Virtual currencies have been evolving in a dynamic way in the last few years. Under 600 different virtual currencies, the most successful was bitcoin. Its adherents saw in it an alternative to the traditional means of payments allowing the performance of real-time transactions at low costs. The accessibility, where no financial infrastructure is ensured or where either limited or no international agreements exist between financial and banking institutions was also an advantage. The opponents perceived this as a temporary curiosity with no future. Time confirmed that bitcoin has gained on popularity and the exchange rate to the main currencies rose in a dynamic way. The analysts, however, underline that the bitcoin is too volatile and unpredictable, so it cannot compete against the main currencies. The aim of this research is to compare the bitcoin (BTC) to US Dollar (USD) exchange rate and Euro to USD exchange rate volatility using control charts. The results have shown that BTC/USD exchange rate volatility is strongly affected by unexpected price jumps during the period (2010–2016), an act that significantly distinguishes it from more stable and predictable EUR/USD exchange rate variability.",book:{id:"5486",slug:"quality-control-and-assurance-an-ancient-greek-term-re-mastered",title:"Quality Control and Assurance",fullTitle:"Quality Control and Assurance - An Ancient Greek Term Re-Mastered"},signatures:"Beata Szetela",authors:[{id:"190806",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Beata",middleName:null,surname:"Szetela",slug:"beata-szetela",fullName:"Beata Szetela"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"53024",title:"Key Aspects for Implementing ISO/IEC 17025 Quality Management Systems at Materials Science Laboratories",slug:"key-aspects-for-implementing-iso-iec-17025-quality-management-systems-at-materials-science-laborator",totalDownloads:2819,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Implementing a quality management system based on the requirements specified in ISO/IEC 17025 standard at materials science laboratories is challenging, mainly due to two main factors: (i) the high technical complexity degree of some tests used for materials characterization and (ii) the fact that most materials science laboratories provide materials characterization tests and also carry out research and development activities. In this context, this chapter presents key subjects while implementing a quality management system at materials science laboratories and some considerations on strategies for effectively implementing such systems.",book:{id:"5486",slug:"quality-control-and-assurance-an-ancient-greek-term-re-mastered",title:"Quality Control and Assurance",fullTitle:"Quality Control and Assurance - An Ancient Greek Term Re-Mastered"},signatures:"Rodrigo S. Neves, Daniel P. Da Silva, Carlos E. C. Galhardo, Erlon H.\nM. Ferreira, Rafael M. Trommer and Jailton C. Damasceno",authors:[{id:"20571",title:"Prof.",name:"Erlon H.",middleName:null,surname:"Martins Ferreira",slug:"erlon-h.-martins-ferreira",fullName:"Erlon H. Martins Ferreira"},{id:"145815",title:"Dr.",name:"Rodrigo",middleName:null,surname:"De Santis Neves",slug:"rodrigo-de-santis-neves",fullName:"Rodrigo De Santis Neves"},{id:"145816",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Eduardo Cardoso Galhardo",slug:"carlos-eduardo-cardoso-galhardo",fullName:"Carlos Eduardo Cardoso Galhardo"},{id:"159056",title:"Dr.",name:"Jailton",middleName:null,surname:"Damasceno",slug:"jailton-damasceno",fullName:"Jailton Damasceno"},{id:"191863",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"Pereira Da Silva",surname:"Fernandes",slug:"daniel-fernandes",fullName:"Daniel Fernandes"},{id:"191865",title:"Dr.",name:"Rafael",middleName:null,surname:"Mello Trommer",slug:"rafael-mello-trommer",fullName:"Rafael Mello Trommer"}]},{id:"53946",title:"The Evolution of Quality Concepts and the Related Quality Management",slug:"the-evolution-of-quality-concepts-and-the-related-quality-management",totalDownloads:4433,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Enterprises usually adopt some quality practices to control the product quality during the manufacturing process in order to assure the delivery of qualitative good products to customers. The quality practices or quality management systems adopted by industries will further evolve due to the changes of quality concepts as time goes by. This chapter discusses the change of quality concepts and the related revolution of quality management systems in the past century. The quality concepts were gradually changed from the achievement of quality standards, satisfaction of customer needs, and expectations to customer delight. Since merely satisfying customers is not enough to ensure customer loyalty, the enterprises gradually focus on customers’ emotional responses and their delight in order to pursue their loyalty. The emotion of “delight” is composed of “joy” and “surprise,” which can be achieved as the customers’ latent requirements are satisfied. Thus, the concept of “customer delight” and the means to provide the innovative quality so as to meet the unsatisfied customers’ latent needs are elaborated on. Finally, a framework of innovation creation is developed that is based on the mining of customer's latent requirements. This outline will manifest the essential elements of the related operation steps.",book:{id:"5486",slug:"quality-control-and-assurance-an-ancient-greek-term-re-mastered",title:"Quality Control and Assurance",fullTitle:"Quality Control and Assurance - An Ancient Greek Term Re-Mastered"},signatures:"Ching-Chow Yang",authors:[{id:"11862",title:"Prof.",name:"Ching-Chow",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"ching-chow-yang",fullName:"Ching-Chow Yang"}]},{id:"53144",title:"Youden Two-Sample Method",slug:"youden-two-sample-method",totalDownloads:2408,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The results obtained when testing materials, equipment and procedures are not generally identical. Factors that influence the magnitude of the results are not fully controllable. As such, the interpretation and analysis of results must take into account the variations caused by numerous and random unavoidable causes. Intercomparison exercises are considered of being of importance, as they do allow the examination of the analytical process and their generated results. Youden plot is particularly aimed at interlaboratory comparisons. The raw results provided by the participating laboratories are treated by a statistical method applied by the centre performing the trial. In order to materialize this, two similar materials with small differences in the concentration of the characteristics are required. The advantage of Youden analysis is its ability to separate the random errors with a minimum effort by participants in the design from the point of view of the analytical requirement. This book chapter illustrates the method that has been applied to elaborate on data covering a diverse scientific field: polyunsaturated fatty acids in fat and oils, total blood cholesterol and aspirin in pharmaceutical preparations. Finally, liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry detector has been applied to the determination of an emerging contaminant, methylparaben (MeP), in surface waters.",book:{id:"5486",slug:"quality-control-and-assurance-an-ancient-greek-term-re-mastered",title:"Quality Control and Assurance",fullTitle:"Quality Control and Assurance - An Ancient Greek Term Re-Mastered"},signatures:"Julia Martín, Nieves Velázquez and Agustin G. Asuero",authors:[{id:"190870",title:"Dr.",name:"Agustín G.",middleName:null,surname:"Asuero",slug:"agustin-g.-asuero",fullName:"Agustín G. Asuero"},{id:"190871",title:"Dr.",name:"Julia",middleName:null,surname:"Martín",slug:"julia-martin",fullName:"Julia Martín"},{id:"195055",title:"Dr.",name:"Nieves María",middleName:null,surname:"Velázquez",slug:"nieves-maria-velazquez",fullName:"Nieves María Velázquez"}]},{id:"52915",title:"Using Lot Quality Assurance Sampling to Monitor the Prevalence of Abortions and the Quality of Reproductive Health Care in Armenia",slug:"using-lot-quality-assurance-sampling-to-monitor-the-prevalence-of-abortions-and-the-quality-of-repro",totalDownloads:1579,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Monitoring abortion prevalence is essential to plan control efforts. Lot Quality Assurance Sampling (LQAS) is an inexpensive, reliable method for monitoring abortion prevalence and access to quality reproductive health (RH) services. This chapter presents survey results from 2000 in three sites of Armenia (Gyumri, Gavar and Goris) using LQAS principles (i.e., 44%, 95% CI: ±6% of women had an induced abortion in their lifetime, a total abortion rate (TAR) of 2.0 abortions per woman). Modern contraceptive use was lowest in Goris (16%. 95% CI: ±7%) and highest in Gyumri (43%, 95% CI: ±11%). Only 37% (95% CI: ±9%) of women with an induced abortion received family planning information and 21% (95% CI: ±4%) of mothers were counselled about family planning after delivery. While limited access to family planning information and contraceptives is still an issue in Armenia, recently new reproductive health priorities—such as infertility, sex-selective abortions and abortions due to socio-economic difficulties—have become more common and can be investigated using LQAS in both community surveys and health facility assessments. This study demonstrates that measuring national abortion prevalence and access to services mask underlying variations; the awareness of which is essential for health program planning.",book:{id:"5486",slug:"quality-control-and-assurance-an-ancient-greek-term-re-mastered",title:"Quality Control and Assurance",fullTitle:"Quality Control and Assurance - An Ancient Greek Term Re-Mastered"},signatures:"Joseph J. Valadez and Lusine Mirzoyan",authors:[{id:"191876",title:"Prof.",name:"Joseph",middleName:null,surname:"Valadez",slug:"joseph-valadez",fullName:"Joseph Valadez"},{id:"195035",title:"Dr.",name:"Lusine",middleName:null,surname:"Mirzoyan",slug:"lusine-mirzoyan",fullName:"Lusine Mirzoyan"}]},{id:"53267",title:"Exploring the Relationship of Supply Chain Risk Management to Quality Management",slug:"exploring-the-relationship-of-supply-chain-risk-management-to-quality-management",totalDownloads:1546,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"This research explores the relationship between an organization's supply chain risk management (SCRM) maturity and quality maturity. SCRM maturity was measured using a survey questionnaire sent to organizations in the USA. Quality maturity was assessed via ISO 9001:2008 certification status as well as through a survey questionnaire of total quality management (TQM) practices for organizations in the USA. The results suggest that ISO 9001:2008 is not related to SCRM maturity, while TQM maturity is related to SCRM maturity. Organizations with more mature TQM programs appear to also have more mature SCRM programs.",book:{id:"5486",slug:"quality-control-and-assurance-an-ancient-greek-term-re-mastered",title:"Quality Control and Assurance",fullTitle:"Quality Control and Assurance - An Ancient Greek Term Re-Mastered"},signatures:"Tyler Florio",authors:[{id:"195084",title:"Mr.",name:"Tyler",middleName:null,surname:"Florio",slug:"tyler-florio",fullName:"Tyler Florio"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"730",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:31,numberOfPublishedChapters:314,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:17,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:14,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/3.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"May 13th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:8,editor:{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"38",title:"Pollution",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"110740",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",slug:"ismail-m.m.-rahman",fullName:"Ismail M.M. Rahman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110740/images/2319_n.jpg",biography:"Ismail Md. Mofizur Rahman (Ismail M. M. Rahman) assumed his current responsibilities as an Associate Professor at the Institute of Environmental Radioactivity, Fukushima University, Japan, in Oct 2015. He also has an honorary appointment to serve as a Collaborative Professor at Kanazawa University, Japan, from Mar 2015 to the present. \nFormerly, Dr. Rahman was a faculty member of the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh, affiliated with the Department of Chemistry (Oct 2002 to Mar 2012) and the Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical Engineering (Mar 2012 to Sep 2015). Dr. Rahman was also adjunctly attached with Kanazawa University, Japan (Visiting Research Professor, Dec 2014 to Mar 2015; JSPS Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Apr 2012 to Mar 2014), and Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (TokyoTech-UNESCO Research Fellow, Oct 2004–Sep 2005). \nHe received his Ph.D. degree in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University, Japan (2011). He also achieved a Diploma in Environment from the Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (2005). Besides, he has an M.Sc. degree in Applied Chemistry and a B.Sc. degree in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. \nDr. Rahman’s research interest includes the study of the fate and behavior of environmental pollutants in the biosphere; design of low energy and low burden environmental improvement (remediation) technology; implementation of sustainable waste management practices for treatment, handling, reuse, and ultimate residual disposition of solid wastes; nature and type of interactions in organic liquid mixtures for process engineering design applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201020",title:"Dr.",name:"Zinnat Ara",middleName:null,surname:"Begum",slug:"zinnat-ara-begum",fullName:"Zinnat Ara Begum",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201020/images/system/201020.jpeg",biography:"Zinnat A. Begum received her Ph.D. in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University in 2012. She achieved her Master of Science (M.Sc.) degree with a major in Applied Chemistry and a Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. Her work affiliations include Fukushima University, Japan (Visiting Research Fellow, Institute of Environmental Radioactivity: Mar 2016 to present), Southern University Bangladesh (Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering: Jan 2015 to present), and Kanazawa University, Japan (Postdoctoral Fellow, Institute of Science and Engineering: Oct 2012 to Mar 2014; Research fellow, Venture Business Laboratory, Advanced Science and Social Co-Creation Promotion Organization: Apr 2018 to Mar 2021). The research focus of Dr. Zinnat includes the effect of the relative stability of metal-chelator complexes in the environmental remediation process designs and the development of eco-friendly soil washing techniques using biodegradable chelators.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"39",title:"Environmental Resilience and Management",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/39.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"137040",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Navarro-Pedreño",slug:"jose-navarro-pedreno",fullName:"Jose Navarro-Pedreño",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRAXrQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-03-09T15:50:19.jpg",biography:"Full professor at University Miguel Hernández of Elche, Spain, previously working at the University of Alicante, Autonomous University of Madrid and Polytechnic University of Valencia. Graduate in Sciences (Chemist), graduate in Geography and History (Geography), master in Water Management, Treatment, master in Fertilizers and Environment and master in Environmental Management; Ph.D. in Environmental Sciences. His research is focused on soil-water and waste-environment relations, mainly on soil-water and soil-waste interactions under different management and waste reuse. His work is reflected in more than 230 communications presented in national and international conferences and congresses, 29 invited lectures from universities, associations and government agencies. Prof. Navarro-Pedreño is also a director of the Ph.D. Program Environment and Sustainability (2012-present) and a member of several societies among which are the Spanish Society of Soil Science, International Union of Soil Sciences, European Society for Soil Conservation, DessertNet and the Spanish Royal Society of Chemistry.",institutionString:"Miguel Hernández University of Elche, Spain",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"40",title:"Ecosystems and Biodiversity",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/40.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"209149",title:"Prof.",name:"Salustiano",middleName:null,surname:"Mato",slug:"salustiano-mato",fullName:"Salustiano Mato",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRLREQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:23:50.png",biography:"Salustiano Mato de la Iglesia (Santiago de Compostela, 1960) is a doctor in biology from the University of Santiago and a Professor of zoology at the Department of Ecology and Animal Biology at the University of Vigo. He has developed his research activity in the fields of fauna and soil ecology, and in the treatment of organic waste, having been the founder and principal investigator of the Environmental Biotechnology Group of the University of Vigo.\r\nHis research activity in the field of Environmental Biotechnology has been focused on the development of novel organic waste treatment systems through composting. The result of this line of work are three invention patents and various scientific and technical publications in prestigious international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:{id:"60498",title:"Prof.",name:"Josefina",middleName:null,surname:"Garrido",slug:"josefina-garrido",fullName:"Josefina Garrido",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRj1VQAS/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:06:51.jpg",biography:"Josefina Garrido González (Paradela de Abeleda, Ourense 1959), is a doctor in biology from the University of León and a Professor of Zoology at the Department of Ecology and Animal Biology at the University of Vigo. She has focused her research activity on the taxonomy, fauna and ecology of aquatic beetles, in addition to other lines of research such as the conservation of biodiversity in freshwater ecosystems; conservation of protected areas (Red Natura 2000) and assessment of the effectiveness of wetlands as priority areas for the conservation of aquatic invertebrates; studies of water quality in freshwater ecosystems through biological indicators and physicochemical parameters; surveillance and research of vector arthropods and invasive alien species.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorThree:{id:"464288",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Ramil",slug:"francisco-ramil",fullName:"Francisco Ramil",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003RI7lHQAT/Profile_Picture_2022-03-31T10:15:35.png",biography:"Fran Ramil Blanco (Porto de Espasante, A Coruña, 1960), is a doctor in biology from the University of Santiago de Compostela and a Professor of Zoology at the Department of Ecology and Animal Biology at the University of Vigo. His research activity is linked to the taxonomy, fauna and ecology of marine benthic invertebrates and especially the Cnidarian group. Since 2004, he has been part of the EcoAfrik project, aimed at the study, protection and conservation of biodiversity and benthic habitats in West Africa. He also participated in the study of vulnerable marine ecosystems associated with seamounts in the South Atlantic and is involved in training young African researchers in the field of marine research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Vigo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"41",title:"Water Science",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/41.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"349630",title:"Dr.",name:"Yizi",middleName:null,surname:"Shang",slug:"yizi-shang",fullName:"Yizi Shang",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/349630/images/system/349630.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Yizi Shang is a pioneering researcher in hydrology and water resources who has devoted his research career to promoting the conservation and protection of water resources for sustainable development. He is presently associate editor of Water International (official journal of the International Water Resources Association). He was also invited to serve as an associate editor for special issues of the Journal of the American Water Resources Association. He has served as an editorial member for international journals such as Hydrology, Journal of Ecology & Natural Resources, and Hydro Science & Marine Engineering, among others. He has chaired or acted as a technical committee member for twenty-five international forums (conferences). Dr. Shang graduated from Tsinghua University, China, in 2010 with a Ph.D. in Engineering. Prior to that, he worked as a research fellow at Harvard University from 2008 to 2009. Dr. Shang serves as a senior research engineer at the China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research (IWHR) and was awarded as a distinguished researcher at National Taiwan University in 2017.",institutionString:"China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research",institution:{name:"China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:2,paginationItems:[{id:"82297",title:"The Climate Change-Agriculture Nexus in Drylands of Ethiopia",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103905",signatures:"Zenebe Mekonnen",slug:"the-climate-change-agriculture-nexus-in-drylands-of-ethiopia",totalDownloads:16,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Vegetation Dynamics, Changing Ecosystems and Human Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11663.jpg",subseries:{id:"40",title:"Ecosystems and Biodiversity"}}},{id:"81999",title:"Climate Change, Rural Livelihoods, and Human Well-Being: Experiences from Kenya",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104965",signatures:"André J. Pelser and Rujeko Samanthia Chimukuche",slug:"climate-change-rural-livelihoods-and-human-well-being-experiences-from-kenya",totalDownloads:17,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Vegetation Dynamics, Changing Ecosystems and Human Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11663.jpg",subseries:{id:"40",title:"Ecosystems and Biodiversity"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:1,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"10843",title:"Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)",subtitle:"Monitoring, Impact and Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10843.jpg",slug:"persistent-organic-pollutants-pops-monitoring-impact-and-treatment",publishedDate:"April 13th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",hash:"f5b1589f0a990b6114fef2dadc735dd9",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) - Monitoring, Impact and Treatment",editors:[{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",middleName:null,surname:"Rashed",slug:"mohamed-nageeb-rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63465/images/system/63465.gif",biography:"Prof. Mohamed Nageeb Rashed is Professor of Analytical and Environmental Chemistry and former vice-dean for environmental affairs, Faculty of Science, Aswan University, Egypt. He received his Ph.D. in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Assiut University, Egypt, in 1989. His research interest is in analytical and environmental chemistry with special emphasis on: (1) monitoring and assessing biological trace elements and toxic metals in human blood, urine, water, crops, vegetables, and medicinal plants; (2) relationships between environmental heavy metals and human diseases; (3) uses of biological indicators for monitoring water pollution; (4) environmental chemistry of lakes, rivers, and well water; (5) water and wastewater treatment by adsorption and photocatalysis techniques; (6) soil and water pollution monitoring, control, and treatment; and (7) advanced oxidation treatment. Prof. Rashed has supervised several MSc and Ph.D. theses in the field of analytical and environmental chemistry. He served as an examiner for several Ph.D. theses in analytical chemistry in India, Kazakhstan, and Botswana. He has published about ninety scientific papers in peer-reviewed international journals and several papers in national and international conferences. He participated as an invited speaker at thirty international conferences. Prof. Rashed is the editor-in-chief and an editorial board member for several international journals in the fields of chemistry and environment. He is a member of several national and international societies. He received the Egyptian State Award for Environmental Research in 2001 and the Aswan University Merit Award for Basic Science in 2020. Prof. Rashed was recognized in Stanford University’s list of the World’s Top 2% Scientists in 2020 and 2021.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aswan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]},openForSubmissionBooks:{paginationCount:1,paginationItems:[{id:"11478",title:"Recent Advances in the Study of Dyslexia",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11478.jpg",hash:"26764a18c6b776698823e0e1c3022d2f",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,submissionDeadline:"June 30th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"294281",title:"Prof.",name:"Jonathan",surname:"Glazzard",slug:"jonathan-glazzard",fullName:"Jonathan Glazzard"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:54,paginationItems:[{id:"81595",title:"Prosthetic Concepts in Dental Implantology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104725",signatures:"Ivica Pelivan",slug:"prosthetic-concepts-in-dental-implantology",totalDownloads:22,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology - From Science to Clinical Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10808.jpg",subseries:{id:"2",title:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry"}}},{id:"80963",title:"Pain Perception in Patients Treated with Ligating/Self-Ligating Brackets versus Patients Treated with Aligners",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102796",signatures:"Farid Bourzgui, Rania Fastani, Salwa Khairat, Samir Diouny, Mohamed El Had, Zineb Serhier and Mohamed Bennani Othmani",slug:"pain-perception-in-patients-treated-with-ligating-self-ligating-brackets-versus-patients-treated-wit",totalDownloads:21,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Current Trends in Orthodontics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10780.jpg",subseries:{id:"2",title:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry"}}},{id:"80964",title:"Upper Airway Expansion in Disabled Children",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102830",signatures:"David Andrade, Joana Andrade, Maria-João Palha, Cristina Areias, Paula Macedo, Ana Norton, Miguel Palha, Lurdes Morais, Dóris Rocha Ruiz and Sônia Groisman",slug:"upper-airway-expansion-in-disabled-children",totalDownloads:35,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Oral Health Care - An Important Issue of the Modern Society",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10827.jpg",subseries:{id:"1",title:"Oral Health"}}},{id:"80839",title:"Herbs and Oral Health",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103715",signatures:"Zuhair S. 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He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:null},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:"Manufacturing and Technology Integrated Campus – SENAI CIMATEC",institution:null},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:null},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"302698",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Shan",slug:"yao-shan",fullName:"Yao Shan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"125911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jia-Ching",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jia-ching-wang",fullName:"Jia-Ching Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"357085",title:"Mr.",name:"P. 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He obtained his Master’s degree in the Department of Information and Communications from Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST) in 2003. In 2010, he received his Ph.D. degree in the School of Information and Mechatronics from GIST. In the meantime, he was an executed team leader at Culture Technology Institute, GIST, 2010-2012. In 2011, he worked at Lancaster University, the UK as a visiting scholar. In September 2012, he joined Daegu University, where he is currently an associate professor in the School of ICT Conver, Daegu University. Also, he served as the Board of Directors of KSIIS since 2019, and HCI Korea since 2016. From 2017~2019, he worked as a center director of the Mixed Reality Convergence Research Center at Daegu University. From 2015-2017, He worked as a director in the Enterprise Supporting Office of LINC Project Group, Daegu University. His research interests include Activity Fusion & Reasoning, Machine Learning, Context-aware Middleware, Human-Computer Interaction, etc.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute of Science and Technology",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"262719",title:"Dr.",name:"Esma",middleName:null,surname:"Ergüner Özkoç",slug:"esma-erguner-ozkoc",fullName:"Esma Ergüner Özkoç",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Başkent University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"346530",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibrahim",middleName:null,surname:"Kaya",slug:"ibrahim-kaya",fullName:"Ibrahim Kaya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"419199",title:"Dr.",name:"Qun",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"qun-yang",fullName:"Qun Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Auckland",country:{name:"New Zealand"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"24",type:"subseries",title:"Computer Vision",keywords:"Image Analysis, Scene Understanding, Biometrics, Deep Learning, Software Implementation, Hardware Implementation, Natural Images, Medical Images, Robotics, VR/AR",scope:"The scope of this topic is to disseminate the recent advances in the rapidly growing field of computer vision from both the theoretical and practical points of view. Novel computational algorithms for image analysis, scene understanding, biometrics, deep learning and their software or hardware implementations for natural and medical images, robotics, VR/AR, applications are some research directions relevant to this topic.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11420,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. 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His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403"},editorialBoard:[{id:"1177",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:"J. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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