The relationship of miRNA and inflammation response.
\r\n\tThis book shall focus on these antisense guided sequence specific silencing molecules with different mechanisms and potency for gene silencing, providing the reader with a comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art in ASO based therapeutics, featuring the more recent developments in terms of clinical translation and the use of nanomedicine for the effective delivery of therapeutic nucleic acids towards precision medicine.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"96f256f5bb2e750c7496b3c0b62cb95a",bookSignature:"Prof. Pedro Baptista and Prof. Alexandra R Fernandes",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9571.jpg",keywords:"gene therapy, gene silencing, genome modulation, post-transcriptional modulation, modified oligonucleotides, PNAs, LNAs, siRNA, antisense nucleotides, vectorization of antisense nucleotides, nanotheranostics, clinical translation, nanoparticles for gene delivery",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 25th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 15th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 14th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 3rd 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 2nd 2020",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a year",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"82671",title:"Prof.",name:"Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Baptista",slug:"pedro-baptista",fullName:"Pedro Baptista",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/82671/images/system/82671.jpg",biography:"Pedro Viana Baptista (b.1972) holds a degree in Pharmaceutical Sciences (1996) from the Universidade de Lisboa. He obtained his PhD in Human Molecular Genetics from the School of Pharmacy, University of London in 2000. In 2001 moved to FCT-NOVA where he created the Nanomedicine Group, which he leads. Currently, he is Full Professor of Molecular Genetics & Nanomedicine at the Department of Life Sciences, FCT-NOVA and responsible for the NanoImunoTech Group – Nanomedicine in the Applied Biomolecular Sciences Research Unit. His work focuses on the biomedical applications of nanoparticle-based strategies towards light-induced cancer therapy and as gene silencing platforms (including siRNA, antisense and nanobeacons). Coordinates several research projects focused on the use of nanotechnology for molecular diagnostics and nanotheranostics, including nanoparticles for diagnostics and therapy; biosensors (TFTs and ISFETs); medium-throughput SNP analysis platforms, and nanoparticle-based therapies (nanovectors for siRNA and antisense therapy, targeted combined therapies).",institutionString:"Universidade Nova de Lisboa",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Universidade Nova de Lisboa",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"253664",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexandra R",middleName:null,surname:"Fernandes",slug:"alexandra-r-fernandes",fullName:"Alexandra R Fernandes",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253664/images/system/253664.jpg",biography:"Alexandra R. Fernandes is an Assistant Professor at the Department of Life Sciences, FCT-NOVA where she leads the group of Cancer Therapeutics dedicated to assessing novel compounds against tumor cells and elucidate the underlying molecular mechanisms. She has obtained her PhD in Biotechnology from IST-UL and, before joining FCT-NOVA, was responsible for setting up key molecular genetics diagnostics facilities in Portugal.",institutionString:"Universidade Nova de Lisboa",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Universidade Nova de Lisboa",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"270941",firstName:"Sandra",lastName:"Maljavac",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/270941/images/7824_n.jpg",email:"sandra.m@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"66690",title:"Pathogenic Roles of MicroRNA in the Development of Asthma",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85922",slug:"pathogenic-roles-of-microrna-in-the-development-of-asthma",body:'\nPediatric asthma is a global problem. In the last decade, its incidence has highly increased, particular growing by 10% in China [1]. Etiologically, asthma attack, due to gene-environmental interactions, can also be induced by allergy factors, including air pollution, pollen, fungi and dust mites, food, and so on [2]. As a chronic inflammatory disease and a polygenic hereditary disease, the mechanism of asthma is not clearly understood until now. The adaptive and innate immune system with the involvement of mast cells, eosinophils, lymphocytes (T cells, B cells), macrophages, and dendritic cells, even epithelial cells and structure cells, contributed to the inflammation reaction of asthma [3, 4, 5]. Moreover, change in the secretion of IgE and cytokines, including gamma-interferon (γ-IFN) and tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α), is important in asthma attacks [6, 7, 8]. As an immune regulator, microRNA (miRNA or miR) regulates on target gene mRNA and plays an important role in the development and pathogenesis of asthma.
\nMicroRNAs are a group of small nonprotein-coding RNAs that are 21–25 nucleotides in length. They act as transcriptional regulators involved in many complex human disorders and in biological processes including cell proliferation and apoptosis [9, 10]. Childhood asthma susceptibility is associated with mutations in specific gene mRNA and/or their specific miRNA. For example, HLA-G has been identified as an asthma susceptibility gene [11], which was found to be the target gene of miR-148a, miR-148b, and miR-152. Further support for the theory that miRNA changes may be the cause of childhood asthma. The specific genotype of children with asthma was related to the significant difference in allele polymorphism (SNP) of rs2910164G/C and rs2292832C/T of pre-miRNA [12]. It showed that miR-223 was involved in the maturation and function of neutrophil differentiation [13]. miR-27b-3p, miR-513a-5p, and miR-22-3p were also indicated to have influenced dust mite-induced asthma by regulating its target gene [14, 15]. In a murine model of acute and chronic asthma study, abnormal expression of miRNAs including miR-146b, miR-223, miR-29b, miR-29c, miR-483, miR-5745p, miR-672, and miR-690 in asthma was detected [16]. It was found that miRNA plays an important role in regulating immune pathway(s). A lot of studies have focused on the relationship between miRNA and asthma during decades, which involved not only in inflammation cells and cytokines but also in the treatment of glucocorticoids (Table 1). In this chapter, we discuss the relationship of miRNAs to their targeted mRNA(s) involved in the inflammation cell in asthma, in order to review the pathogenic mechanism of asthma.
\nmiRNA | \nInflammatory response | \nReaction and cell differentiate | \nReference | \n
---|---|---|---|
miRNA-223 | \nImmune inflammatory response | \nNeutrophils mature and differentiate | \n[13] | \n
miRNA-146, miRNA-146a | \nAsthma, innate immune responses | \nAirway epithelium, NF-kappaB pathway | \n[17, 18] | \n
miRNA-147 | \nImmune inflammatory response | \nTLR signaling pathway | \n[19] | \n
miRNA-145 | \nAsthma | \nComparable to glucocorticoid treatment | \n[20] | \n
miRNA-155 | \nImmune inflammatory response, asthma | \nTLR signaling pathway, regulation of allergic inflammation, macrophage inflammatory response, Th2 priming of dendritic cells | \n[21, 22, 23, 24] | \n
miRNA-21 | \nImmune inflammatory response, asthma | \nTLR signaling pathway, NF-kB, IL-12p35 polarization | \n[25, 26, 27] | \n
miRNA-124 | \nAllergy inflammation | \nM2 phenotype of monocytic cells | \n[28] | \n
miRNA-148a, miR-148b, and miR-152 | \nAsthma | \nHLA-G | \n[11, 29] | \n
miRNA-126 | \nAsthma | \nTh2 response, airway hyperresponse | \n[30] | \n
let-7 | \nAsthma | \nIl-13, regulation of allergic inflammation | \n[31, 32, 33] | \n
miRNA-221 | \nAsthma | \nMast cell activity regulates the production of cytokines | \n[34, 35] | \n
miRNA-9 | \nAsthma | \nRegulates steroid-resistant airway hyperresponsiveness | \n[36] | \n
miRNA-672, miRNA-143 | \nAsthma | \nExpression of metalloproteinase | \n[37] | \n
miR-19a | \nAsthma | \nEnhances proliferation of bronchial epithelial cells by targeting TGFbetaR2 gene | \n[38] | \n
miRNA-203 | \nAsthma | \nNegatively regulates c-Abl, ERK1/2 phosphorylation, and proliferation in smooth muscle cells | \n[39] | \n
miRNA-133, miR-133a | \nAsthma | \nUpregulation of Rhoa in bronchial smooth muscle cells | \n[40] | \n
miR-192 | \nAsthma | \nDecreased expression in peripheral blood of asthmatic individuals undergoing an allergen inhalation challenge | \n[41] | \n
The relationship of miRNA and inflammation response.
T cell and B cell play an important role in immune mechanism, especially innate and adaptive immunity, of asthma. As an immune regulator, miRNA influences on these two cells and regulates their proliferation and function. Many studies have been focused on the regulation of miRNA to T cell and B cell in order to clear the mechanism of asthma.
\nT follicular helper (Tfh) cells are essential for the formation of germinal centers (GCs). As a subset of CD4+, it mediates GC formation and maintenance and provides help to antigen-specific B cells during infection and vaccination. Th17 cells have also been implicated in the pathogenesis of several autoimmune and inflammatory diseases [42, 43, 44]. Th17 cells also mediate immune responses that are involved in maintaining epithelial barrier integrity, and it has been widely suggested that some cases of asthma may be caused by dysregulated Th17 responses [44, 45]. MiRNA also regulates the differentiation and function of these cells.
\nIt was found that the miR-17-92 cluster’s increasing role in regulating the immune system is involved in innate and adaptive immunity, including B cells and subsets of T cells such as Th1, Th2, T follicular helper cells, regulatory T cells, monocytes/macrophages, NK cells, and dendritic cells [46]. Moreover, the study found that the miR-17 approximately 92 cluster is a critical regulator of T cell-dependent antibody responses and follicular helper T cells’ (TFH cells) differentiation [47].
\nWe knew that the relationship of miRNA and its target gene mRNA is not a one-to-one correspondence. Target gene mRNA could be regulated by many miRNAs, or one miRNA could regulate a number of mRNAs. A study showed that some miRNAs with strong probability may induce miR-27b, miR-27a, miR-30c, miR-1, and miR-141 or inhibit miR-20b, miR-93, miR-20a, miR-152, miR-21, and miR-106a in Th17 differentiation by targeting negative or positive regulators of Th17 differentiation, respectively [48]. In a regulatory network model of murine T helper cell differentiation, the miR-212~132 and miR-182~183 clusters were significantly upregulated, and the overall miR-106~363 cluster was downregulated, which predicted to affect Th17 cell differentiation. In vitro, when miR-18b, miR-106a, and miR-363-3p were transfected into primary murine Cd4(+) lymphocytes, the expression of retinoid-related orphan receptor c (Rorc), Rora, IL17a, and IL17f and abolished secretion of Th17-mediated interleukin-17a (IL17a) have declined [49].
\nIn addition, miR-18a directly targeted Smad4, Hif1a, and Rora in the Th17 cell gene expression program. All of these reveal that activating signals influence the outcome of Th cell differentiation via differential regulation of mature microRNAs within a common cluster [50]. miR-18a was the most dynamically upregulated microRNA of the miR-17-92 cluster during Th17 cell differentiation. Based on which, the involvement of miR-18a in the regulation of T-cell differentiation was demonstrated.
\nmiR-155, as an important regulator in asthma, was involved in many pathways in allergy disease in Table 1. It was shown that the function in macrophage inflammatory response [23] is differentially expressed in allergic T cells exposed to DM extract compared to in nonallergic cells. The level of miR-155 expression was positively associated with the expression of the TH2 cytokines IL-5 and IL-13. When miR-155 was inhibited by glucocorticoids in Jurkat T cells, then the production of these cytokines were inhibited [51].
\nSeveral differentially expressed miRNAs in asthma, such as miRNA-34/449, let-7, miRNA-19, miRNA-21, and miRNA-455, were identified in various cell types and tissues including epithelial cells, T cells, type 2 innate lymphoid cells, lung tissues, and smooth muscles. These miRNAs are involved in epithelial differentiation, mucus production, airway remodeling, and inflammation as well [52]. miR-146a has been shown to modulate T-cell immunity as well as enhance class switch and secretion of IgE in B cells by upregulating 14-3-3 sigma expression [53].
\nB cells play a critical role in immune responses, but the regulation of microRNAs to B-cell proliferation and function was partially understood. Not only miR-17-92 cluster was involved in B cell [46], but miR-146a also enhances class switch and secretion of IgE in B cells [53]. As an important immune regulatory cell, thrombospondin 1 (TSP1)-producing B cells were regulated by miRNAs as well. miR-98 can suppress the expression of TSP1 in the peripheral B cells of patients with allergic asthma [54]. Further study revealed that overexpression of miR-29b in human B cells precipitated a reduction in overall AID protein whose activity affected the function of class-switch recombination (CSR) and then results in corresponding diminution in CSR to IgE [55].
\nIt is essential that mast cells have major effector and immune regulatory functions in IgE-associated allergic diseases or in innate and adaptive immune responses. But their mechanism was not clear yet. miRNAs provide an additional layer in the regulation of gene expression acting as repressors with several targets at the posttranscriptional level. Several studies showed that miRNA expression patterns during differentiation and activation of mast cells. The expression of many miRNAs changes following IgE-FcepsilonRI cross-linking in activated mast cells. Upregulated expression of miR-221 promotes IgE-mediated activation of mast cell degranulation by PI3K/Akt/PLCgamma/Ca2+ signaling pathway, in a non-NF-kappaB-dependent manner [56]. Downregulation of miR-223 promotes degranulation via the PI3K/Akt pathway by targeting IGF-1R in mast cells [57]. In cockroach allergen model of asthma, when miRNA-33b was overexpressed, mast cell degranulation was inhibited through suppression of the calcium release and IgE-FcepsilonRI pathway [58]. In line with this, neutralization of miR-132 by anti-miR inhibitor leads to sustained production of HB-EGF protein in activated mast cells [59].
\nCytokine is also related to miRNA and mast cells in inflammation response of asthma. The treatment of IL-10 has been shown to suppress TNF production in mast cells. IL-10 effects are dependent on Stat3 activation, eliciting miR-155 expression, with a resulting loss of suppressor of cytokine signaling-1 [60]. miR-221, which was overexpressed in a murine asthma model, stimulated IL-4 secretion in mast cells through a pathway involving PTEN, p38, and NF-kappaB [61]. miR-223 reduces IL-6 secretion in mast cells by inhibiting the IGF1R/PI3K signaling pathway [62]. Mex-3B, an antisense oligonucleotide targeting, directly upregulates IL-33 expression by inhibiting miR-487b-3p-mediated repression of IL-33 [63].
\nDendritic cells (DCs) are the professional antigen-presenting cells (APCs) in the lung. They are found to be crucial in the induction and maintenance of allergic asthma by cross-linking innate and adaptive immune responses. After transfection with miR-23b reagents, DCs were evaluated for endocytic ability, surface marker expression, cytokine secretion, and CD4+ T-cell differentiation. The study proved that miR-23b is capable of inducing tolerogenic DC activity and Treg responses in vitro through the inhibition of the Notch1 and NF-kappaB signaling pathways; thus, miR-23b might represent a therapeutic target for the management of allergic diseases [64].
\nmiR-155 has been shown to be a crucial regulator of the immune system mentioned above. Not only miR-155 can influence on T cell function but also regulate the activity of DCs. Deficiency of miR-155 on DCs was also associated with impaired purinergic receptor signaling and alleviates AAI by diminishing Th2 priming capacity and ATP-/P2R-induced activation of DCs in mice [24].
\nAsthma may be classified according to severity and inflammatory phenotype and is likely to be distinguished by specific microRNA (miRNA) expression profiles. The study of miRNA expression in sputum supernatants with the inflammatory cells in severe asthma was taken out. Expression of miR-629-3p, miR-223-3p, and miR-142-3p was significantly upregulated in the sputum of patients with severe asthma compared with that in healthy control subjects and was highest in patients with neutrophilic asthma. It suggested that these miRNAs are related to asthma inflammatory phenotype [65].
\nSingle-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in miRNAs could affect their efficiency in binding to messenger RNAs (mRNAs), which was taken little into account before. In a study in Korean population, it showed that the CT/CC genotype of miR-196a2 at locus rs11614913 was associated with eosinophilic asthma and a higher sputum eosinophil count than the TT genotype. The CG/GG genotype at rs2910164 of miR-146a had a hyperresponsiveness in airway compared with the CC genotype. The AG/GG genotype at rs3746444 of miR-499 manifested higher predicted values of forced expiratory volume in 1 s (%FEV1) than the AA genotype [66].
\nA study about evaluating clinical potential of plasma miR-21 and miR-146a involved in T helper cell differentiation in childhood asthma found that the levels of miR-21 and miR-146a were not only positively correlated with eosinophil percentage but also associated with FEV1. miR-21 and miR-146a are upregulated in asthmatic children. miR-21 and miR-146a play a role in eosinophilic endotypic classification of asthma [67]. Moreover, its data show that miR-185-5p profile in eosinophils can be used as asthma diagnosis biomarker in serum and that this profile is able to rank asthma severity [68].
\nMonocytes and macrophages are important roles of the immune system, which possess pleiotropic effector and immunoregulatory functions. Classical activation (M1) and alternative activation (M2) of macrophages are necessary in the function. M1 polarization of macrophages results in the production of proinflammatory cytokines and antimicrobial and tumoricidal activity, whereas M2 polarization of macrophages is related to immunosuppression, tumorigenesis, wound repair, and elimination of parasites [69]. It also reveals that miRNAs were involved in M macrophages’ activity. miR-511 is increased in macrophages following IL-4 and IL-13 stimulation and decreased in M1 macrophages both in vitro and in vivo [70]. Particularly, miR-9, miR-127, miR-155, and miR-125b have been shown to promote M1 polarization, while miR-124, miR-223, miR-34a, let-7c, miR-132, miR-146a, and miR-125a-5p may induce M2 polarization in macrophages by targeting various transcription factors and adaptor proteins. Differentiation of monocytes to macrophages is inhibited by miR-24, miR-30b, miR-142-3p, and miR-199a-5p. MiR-155 and miR-142-3p inhibit macrophage proliferation, compared to let-7a. Interestingly, miR-155 has both pro- and antiapoptotic roles, whereas miR-21 and let-7e negatively regulate macrophage apoptosis [69, 71, 72]. These data revealed that the function of miRNAs in modulating macrophage polarization may have potential way in the treatment of inflammation-related diseases.
\nOn the other hand, studying the development of allergy disease in maternal pregnancy revealed that the embryonic development is highly sensitive to xenobiotic toxicity. If exposed to environmental toxins in utero, it affects physiological responses of the progeny. In the animal model, there was a lower expression of miR-130a and increased expression of miR-16 and miR-221 in the lungs of mice which were exposed to sidestream cigarette smoke (SS) or secondhand smoke exhibit. These miRNAs regulate HIF-1 alpha-regulated apoptotic, angiogenic, and immune pathways. This process will lead to increase incidence of allergic asthma (AA) and bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) in the progenies [73].
\nBesides, the expression of miRNAs was different in fungal bioaerosols which are ubiquitous in the environment, and human exposure can result in a variety of health effects ranging from systemic, subcutaneous, and cutaneous infections to respiratory morbidity including allergy, asthma, and hypersensitivity pneumonitis. It was found that miRNAs were involved in the inflammatory stimuli exposure to fungal. In studies of exposures to fungi (such as Aspergillus fumigatus, Candida albicans, and Cryptococcus neoformans), it was revealed that several miRNAs that were shared between responses to these species including miR-125 a/miR-125 b, miR-132 [43], miR-146a, and miR-29a/miR-29b were also involved in macrophage polarization/activation, TLR-mediated signaling, natural killer cell function, C-leptin signaling, and inhibition of Th1 immune response, respectively [74]. On the other hand, miR-487b can suppress the levels of mRNA and protein for IL-33, which plays an important role in macrophage activation for innate host defense and proinflammatory responses during the differentiation of bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs) [75].
\nIn summary, miRNAs exert their effect by binding to complementary nucleotide sequences of the targeted messenger RNA, thus forming an RNA-induced silencing complex. miRNAs play important roles in many aspects of macrophage biology and thereby affect many biological and pathological conditions, like monocyte differentiation and development, macrophage polarization, infection, tumor growth, inflammatory activation, and so on [71, 72]. Numerous studies have demonstrated the important role of miRNA in the pathogenesis of childhood asthma, suggesting that miRNA plays a regulatory role between genes and the environment as well as allergic airway inflammation. The mechanism of miRNA activity involves a large number of miRNAs, which take mRNA with multiple functions as target genes and synergistically regulate multiple aspects of complex pathophysiological processes in childhood asthma. The role of miRNAs in inflammation cells is important in both innate and acquired immunity in which T cell, B cell, mast cells, macrophages, and dendritic cells are involved. The role of miRNAs in these cell types, miR-17-92 cluster, miR-221, miR-223, miR-146a, and miR-155, may be crucial (Figure 1). Depending on these roles of miRNAs in dendritic cells, mast cells, and macrophages, we speculate about possible future directions in the field [76]. It is likely variant miRNAs form a network in which these miRNAs may interact with each other and alter the expression of target genes in the inflammation process of pediatric asthma. On the other hand, it is envisaged that targeted manipulation of specific miRNAs could be developed as a new treatment for asthma. At present, our group has already had some result about the relationship of miRNA to target gene in dust mite-induced asthma. Depending on this review, further investigation should be pursued on the immune regulatory function of miRNA in children’s asthma.
\nmiR-17-92 cluster, miR-221, miR-223, miR-146a, and miR-155 are associated with inflammation cells. (A) Downregulation of miR-223 promotes degranulation via the PI3K/Akt pathway by targeting IGF-1R and reduces IL-6 secretion in mast cells. It also induced M2 polarization. (B) miR-221 promoted IgE-mediated activation of mast cells degranulation by PI3K/Akt/PLCgamma/Ca2+ signaling pathway and stimulated IL-4 secretion in mast cells through a pathway involving PTEN, p38, and NF-kappaB. (C) miR-17~92 cluster as a critical regulator of T-cell-dependent antibody responses and follicular helper T cell (TFH cell) and Th17 differentiation. It enhances class switch and secretion of IgE in B cells. (D) miR-146 modulated T-cell immunity and enhanced class switch and secretion of IgE in B cells. miR-146a played a role in eosinophilic endotypic classification of asthma. It induced M2 polarization as well. (E) miR-155 was associated with Th2 cell and cytokine secretion. Deficiency of miR-155 on DCs was also related to impaired purinergic receptor signaling and alleviates AAI by diminishing Th2 priming capacity and ATP-/P2R-induced activation of DCs. It promoted M1 polarization.
This study was supported by Shanghai Science and Science Commission International Cooperation Project (No. 18410721300) and Project on the cross project of Shanghai Jiaotong University (YG2017MS34).
\nThere was no conflict of interest (economic, personal, scientific, healthcare, educational, religious, and social) interfering with the chapter.
The rapid interest on Internet of Things (IoT) technologies together with electronics has brought up new, interesting and challenging fields of crossover electronics researches to our work, homes and daily life with an abundance of new viewpoints.
\nWearable electronics, newly growing area in the global market, are being fundamentally designed to be worn to function, which makes them different from mobile devices. In the mid-1990s, mobile phones and internet technologies penetrated into human life with a dramatic increase and the mobile devices became smaller, more portable and affordable. In all over the world, most people particularly aged 15–35 know how to operate computers and mobile phones and they are becoming the focus of attention of IT industry incredibly. Thus, the body-worn computing devices are believed to be a hit in the global market within a decade [1].
\nThe integration of wearable technology is expected to set and enhance the design concept of apparel sector in the near future; however, the functioning alone is not enough in the global market to sell a kind of “wearable electronic” product. Without compromising any traditional characteristics such as wearability and washability, the product will be meaningless to be purchased by the consumers in the market. Besides, some wearable electronics require the user interface to be present and available all the time which makes them very obtrusive compared to other wearable devices such as wrist belt for healthcare. In addition, the appearance of clothes, their color, shape, style, etc. are very important to enhance the desirability of the product from the viewpoint of marketing strategies.
\nIdeally, an intelligent garment presents functioning unlike traditional garment, such as health monitoring, detection of fall, identification of emergency, etc. It collects the data and transmits the data either wirelessly or wired solutions to an external computing unit, where the data is processed and interpreted; thus results in a response or feedback to a wearer/external center.
\nIn this chapter, a design of an intelligent garment with a controllable e-textile (electronic textile)-based thermal panel for heating purpose is presented. Firstly, textile-based heating approaches will be described. Then, the design of a wearable heating system will be given in detail. Design of e-textile-based thermal panels with their production process will be issued. The electrical connection network of the heating jacket with thermal panels and an electronic control module consisting of power control and management system will be addressed. The chapter goes on the integration of electronic control module to textile structure and describes the development of a whole wearable heating vest system. The chapter then addresses the real-time monitoring of the heating vest performance. Throughout this chapter, the development stage of a kind of intelligent garment particularly; “wearable heating vest” from design concept to prototyping will be understood.
\nAn electric current passing through any conductive material will generate heat. In an electric resistance heating system, the electric current passing through the resistor generates an amount of heat depending on its level; however, the current flow is limited by the resistance and applied voltage in a circuit based on a basic principle of Ohm’s law (Figure 1) [2].
\nOhm’s law illustration.
Resistors with specific value can be manufactured in various shapes and sizes within a fabric. The area of the fabric in which the resistors are located has not any effect on the resistor’s value. Independent from the area and the surface of the fabric, conductive elements can be placed in the form of parallel and series in order to form electrical networks inside/over the fabric structure. The resistance values can change depending on the conductive element type particularly from a few ohms to many kilo ohms. In fact, the linear resistance of conductive yarns/tracks defines the resistance values of electrical networks constructed in a fabric structure. The way of formation and insertion of conductive tracks are critical in a textile-based heating system since the manufacturing process can damage the conductive tracks hence may result in a decrease in conductivity level [3, 4]. Moreover, those conductive tracks used for wearable systems should be thin enough to be bend and to allow flexibility, and at the same time strong enough for not to be broken and provide an efficient heating [5].
\nEvery square centimeter of fabric will dissipate heat in terms of several watts of power depending on the resistor conductivity level. In order to obtain higher power dissipation, the resistor can be scaled up in the fabric area, however in the case of high power dissipation, high level of power supply is mainly required.
\nFor an efficient heat dissipation, to broaden the electrical network on a thin surface of the fabric is necessary. Indeed, the efficiency level at the dissipating heat due to the electrical network configuration on the fabric is one of the most important factors to have the efficient heating system [6]. For having flexible heating within a textile structure, the typical fabric constructions such as plain, twill weave patterns or single jersey, interlock etc. with typical fabric weight of 250 g/m2 can be chosen. Composition of the fibers affects the washability and heating behavior of the system. For instance, the heating performance of wool fabric compared to cotton fabric is higher. For this reason, in a design of textile-based electrical heating system, if the cotton fabric is used as a base fabric for electrical network configuration then the system’s heating capacity apparently will be less compared to those from woolen fabrics. Therefore, to choose appropriate fiber composition plays an important role on the heating performance of the system.
\nIn battery-powered portable applications, to specify the required wattage value rather than its rated voltage gives great flexibility to design heating system. Especially, to determine wattage value with a specified resistance value of the conductor will present great freedom for having e-textile-based thermal panels such that to calculate the required level of distance for insertion of conductive yarns/tracks and hence, the size of textile-based heating panels will become easy.
\nOverall, the area requiring heat should be wrapped with a flexible surface for having efficient heating performance due to heat delivery by conduction and convection mechanisms [7, 8, 9]. For this reason, textile-based electrical heating systems present great advantage for maintaining human body at vital required heat level by satisfying more contact with flexible architecture, thus little heat loss occurs. Moreover, the researches on textile-based electrical heating systems recently focused on the development of a product that can monitor and regulate human body temperature according to climate change particularly for outdoor activities like skiing, snowboarding. Although heated garments have an obvious appeal for outdoor activities, the limitations of battery technology restrict the scale of electrical heating in those applications.
\nHousehold textile objects, such as seating, carpets, bedding and towels can be heated based on e-textile design approach, without intrusive heater cables. In our urban living spaces, textile-based heating systems like heated curtains and carpets might eliminate the use of radiators and vents. Apart from household applications, outdoor apparel market is clearly very promising and affluent, i.e., jackets and gloves. However, the market is currently very small and has niche applications for heated wear from motorcyclists and scuba divers to cold water fish hunters, pylon riggers and cold-store workers.
\nThe aim of the textile-based heating systems is to provide necessary warmth to the user/environment in a cooler environment. Warmth condition is necessary to keep the human body system to function [10]. The constant temperature of a human body for maintaining body functions is 37°C; anything below resulted by prolonged exposure to cold temperatures can cause hypothermia and can be fatal for the survival of human body [11, 12, 13]. Therefore, heating systems play a major role to keep human body maintained at vital required heat levels. The heat can be applied to different areas on the human body. However, the flexibility of the heating system is very important since the users’/system structures are mostly irregular shaped. Heating with non-flexible systems may cause great heat losses due to fewer contact. For this reason, textile-based heating systems are an added advantage because of efficient heat delivery mechanism by wrapping the structure due to its flexibility.
\nTextile-based heating systems can be grouped into two categories: polymer-based and metal-based textile heaters. Metal-based textile heaters include metals as heating elements while polymer-based textile heaters include polymer materials to generate heat [14].
\nAs a metal-based textile heater, wires and sometimes metal sheets are used. Dorman® - Seat Heater Pad seen in Figure 2a and metal wires placed inside the car seat in Figure 2b are examples for textile-based car seat heaters.
\nTextile-based car seat heaters (a) [15] (b) [16].
Major applications of metal-based heating systems can be found in automotive, construction, sports and recreation sectors. Flexible, reliable and controllable heating systems have been manufactured using textiles. The common design approach is to insert metal wires onto woven fabrics [17]. In those systems, copper and nickel-chromium alloys are mainly used as heating elements. They are integrated into a layered textile system in order to be protected from damages when the seat is in use. Those systems include different controllable heating levels, from high to low which can be controlled by the user. Appropriate control to regulate the amount of heat and the duration of heating is very important in order to avoid excessive heat application to the user which could cause discomfort [18, 19, 20]. For this reason, on and off times are added to power control and management systems in today’s automotive textile-based heating systems. In sports, recreation activities and in buildings, the similar design approach is taken into account. The main difference is only the size of application such that heating elements are placed on a much bigger scale, and so the power applied is also high [5]. Those applications do not require much flexibility, nor is weight an issue.
\nHowever, when the flexibility and drapability of a textile becomes important, polymer-based textile heating approaches take place. Indeed, how to create a comfortable wearable heating system is also a challenging issue and is a very important area of research.
\nWith the introduction of polymer-based conductive yarns, polymer-based heating systems become great of interest for researchers and product developers. In a polymer-based heating system, when the direct current is applied, polymer-based conductive yarns carry the current and while carrying current they produce heat. In Figure 3, commercial flexible polymer-based products are seen. The presented commercial products by EXO2 uses FabRocTM technology as it reduces automatically the use of power when the temperature increases. The power consumption and heat generated are easily controlled and make the product intrinsically safe. In this system, carbon-loaded silicone yarn which is made by the combination of silicone and carbon polymers, and then extruded in a patented process to produce FabRoc® yarn is used [5]. This system can be applied to the various range of product applications where the flexibility is needed. Indeed, this system does not allow any yarn breakages or overheat as in use of wires and solid panels to accumulate.
\nFlexible polymer-based (a) heated back support by EXO2 [21], (b) storm Walker jacket by EXO2 [22], and (c) DelphyneWomens 5 zone heated jacket [23].
The main applications of polymer-based textile heating systems are wearable heated fabric structures; heated vest, jacket, gloves, insoles, slippers, socks, therapeutic body warmers. In heated gloves (Figure 4a), extreme flexibility is required compared to jackets and vest since the arms and fingers exhibit excessive bending. For this reason, flexible conductive yarns, such as stainless steel yarns, silver plated polyamide yarns can be a good option as the heating element in those structures. The production technique can be knitting however the compatibility of the conductive yarn and its tolerance in terms of conductivity level for processing with knitting machine should be clearly investigated before starting production.
\nFlexible polymer-based heated glove, sock and slipper [24].
In a heated sock system (Figure 4b), polymer-based conductive yarns are knitted to the bottom of the foot through the heel and the toes to provide warmth.
\nIn the slippers (Figure 4c), a heating system is generally made of woven structure composed of conductive fibers throughout the insole and placed between the foam and foot bed lining. In all systems, rechargeable lithium ion batteries are used as power supply to generate heat with a controller adjusting warmth level.
\nThe heated insoles (Figure 5) provide a steady heat inside shoes and boots and they are operated by a wireless remote control. The insulated fabric structure does not allow the warmth to leak through the soles of footwear.
\nFlexible polymer-based heated insoles [24].
Flexible polymer-based therapeutic products provide heat to muscles, tendons and ligaments to increase blood circulation thereby relieving the sensation of pain [25] (Figure 6).
\nFlexible polymer-based therapeutic products [25].
By positioning polymer-based heating structures behind the upholstery layers, protection against abrasion can be satisfied. Polymeric conductive yarns can be inserted on textiles structures using not only knitting techniques but also weaving, embroidery and stitching techniques. Then, the multilayered composite structures can be provided by coating, welding and lamination techniques according to specific usage area. For instance, in case waterproof property is needed, the textile structure (i.e. knitted, woven) including conductive yarns as heating element can be coated by different layers in order to provide waterproof property.
\nWearable polymer-based heating systems are mostly advantageous because of their efficient heating and flexible structure for human body and they require less electrical power with small rechargeable batteries. They can be folded and compacted when they are not in use. They can be found in various range of products which can be worn in between layers of clothing and provide a controllable heating effect when required.
\nThis section describes the major considerations followed in the design and manufacture of the wearable heating vest. It starts with the design of e-textile-based thermal panel, followed by production process, electrical connection network and electronic control module. Finally, the assembly of all demanded components to reach the wearable heating vest is given in detail.
\nDuring the design of the e-textile-based thermal panels, a number of factors are taken into consideration. First one among those was the selection of conductive yarn, examples of which are presented in Figure 7. In order to better investigate the effect of the resistance of the conductive yarn on resulting surface temperature, a total of seven stainless steel conductive yarns having resistance values of 4, 5, 9, 18, 30, 39 and 51 Ω/m were selected and used.
\nConductive yarns.
Secondly, the textile fabric was considered. For easier processability and their physical and mechanical superiority during processing and use, two PU-coated thermoplastic fabrics, namely Polyester and Polyamide fabrics, were used. Finally, three different welding tapes were selected for protection and waterproofness of the circuits made of conductive yarns, namely ST-604 with two PU layers, ST-306 with two PU and one Nylon layers, and ST-318 with two PU and one Polyester layers (see Figure 8). All three welding tapes selected are strong, resilient, and easy to work with. Since they do not contain plasticizers or volatile organic compounds, they are suitable for use in the production of e-textile transmission lines via a hot air welding technique. Welding was also previously shown to be an effective technique in the production of e-textile transmission lines [26].
\nWelding tapes.
Depending on the fabric and welding tape to be used, processing temperatures and feeding rates were carefully selected in order to achieve proper adhesion of the tape while avoiding any harm on the fabric, the welding tape or the conductive yarn. The levels of processing temperatures (450–550°C) and feeding rates (1.5–12 ft./min) are carefully selected by preliminary trials.
\nFollowing the experimental trials, demanded amounts of conductive yarns are placed over the selected fabric, either polyamide or polyester, and covered by the selected welding tape using H&H AI-001 hot air welding machine, as presented in Figure 9. Thanks to the unique excellent flexibility, lamination capability and soft hand properties of the welding tape, slippage of conductive yarns, distortion of overall fabric structure and thus formation of short circuits are avoided. Moreover, being manufactured from multilayered thermoplastic films, water leakages are prevented and edge fraying is eliminated by over bonded seams on conductive yarns.
\nManufacturing e-textile-based thermal panel using hot air welding machine.
Lithium batteries of three different potentials of 7.4, 9 and 12 V are used for application of potential difference to the samples. Details of the batteries are given in Table 1.
\nPotential (V) | \nType | \nElectric power (Ah) | \nWeight (g) | \nPrice (USD) | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
7.4 | \nLithium | \n2.5 | \n120 | \n14.5 | \n
9 | \nLithium | \n10 | \n254 | \n16.5 | \n
12 | \nLithium | \n6.8 | \n295 | \n15.0 | \n
Characteristics of lithium batteries.
In order to avoid any interference during testing of the samples for their thermal performance via Fluke® Thermal Camera Ti200, a testing set up is prepared in a dark room compatible with AATCC TM 128 [27]. The dark room avoids any light or heat reflection from the walls, the floor or the ceiling, and does not have any other heat or light source other than those demanded during testing. An opaque 45° inclined background block is set into a dark testing cubicle. The thermal camera is locked to the tripod with its apparatus and they are placed together in front of the dark testing cubicle. At this point, the thermal camera was perpendicular enough to the inclined background block, and the distance between the thermal camera and the specimens is adjusted to 34–38 cm so that the errors were negligible, as instructed by the manufacturer of the thermal camera. Demanded amount of potential difference, 7.4, 9 or 12 V, is applied using the related battery, and thus a current flowing through the conductive yarns is created. SmartView® Software is used to analyze the specimens after they are tested. Emissivity value of opaque background block is estimated to have a value of 0.95. Figure 10 shows the experiment set up to test electrical heating in which the e-textile structure is connected to a battery (power supply) by the electrical crocodiles.
\nTesting set up to measure surface temperature.
An example of the thermal image of the e-textile sample together with sample’s original image is given in Figure 11.
\nOriginal e-textile sample and its thermal image acquired by the thermal camera.
For the selection of better e-textile-based thermal panel, some criteria were applied. When the performance of the final product is considered, the leading factors to be taken into account were selected as a deviation of tested surface temperature from optimal surface temperature, battery life and battery weight. An optimal surface temperature of 60°C is considered, and any sample having tested surface temperature below 55°C or over 65°C are excluded. Considering battery life and battery weight; 12 V applied Polyester – ST306–550°C – 6 ft./min with 5 Ω resistance seems to be the optimal sample. It has 17 h of battery life and can heat the garment up to 57–58°C. The weight of the battery that is used for this sample to supply 12 V potential difference was 295 g.
\nFor manufacturing e-textile-based thermal panel to be placed inside the wearable heating vest, stainless steel yarn of 5 Ω/m resistance is placed over approximately 35 × 45 cm of PVA interlining. PVA interlining is easily dissolved when in contact with water at over 50°C, and was selected on purpose in order to observe the waterproof property of the thermal panel. The placement of the conductive yarn is as given in Figure 12.
\nPlacement of conductive yarn over interlining.
Maximum care is taken during placement of the conductive yarn in order to avoid the formation of the short circuit. Transmission lines made of conductive yarns are then covered with ST306 welding tape as shown in Figure 9. For reaching 550°C of temperature during adhesion of ST306 welding tapes over the conductive yarns, hot press is used. Hence, the structure including conductive yarns covered by welding tapes became flexible, soft and waterproof. Having high bending strength aside with flexibility, the distortion and slippage of the conductive yarns are prevented. Thus, over bonded e-textile structure eliminates short circuit formation and hot/cold spot formation when folded. Finally, the interlining comprising conductive yarns is placed between two folds of 40 × 50 cm of PU-coated polyester fabrics and stitched on all four sides to reach the final e-textile-based thermal heating panel. Moreover, a pocket for inserting the electronic control module is attached to the left bottom side of the panel, at the bottom of which two snap fasteners are placed on which alternating ends of the conductive yarn are soldered. A total of eight brit buttons are stitched all around the panel for easier attachment and displacement of the panel when desired. The final e-textile-based thermal panel to be placed inside the vest is presented in Figure 13.
\nE-textile-based thermal heating panel to be placed inside the heating vest.
For supplying the demanded potential difference an electronic control module is designed and manufactured. Three 3.7 V batteries are connected in series, and used as power supplies. The technical drawing for control module circuit is as presented in Figure 14. The circuit brings protection against short circuits and electrical overload. To prevent electrical overloads, circuit breakers are used to stop the flow of current to the overloaded transmission lines. Hence, the control module with its circuit provides electrical safety. Moreover, thanks to its special design, the circuit is able to feed the system with constant energy output by automatically leveling the energy input from the batteries during use.
\nTechnical drawing for control module.
The manufactured circuit card is placed in an HH-0055 model 76 × 112 × 26 mm standard box. The control module, as shown in Figure 15, has 10 heating levels equipped with 10 LED displays which show the total energy output adjusted by the user at the desired comfort level. It has a total weight of less than 200 g.
\nElectronic control module.
Through the two snap fasteners at the bottom of the box, the control module is easily fastened after being inserted inside the pocket at the bottom left of the e-textile-based heating panel as shown in Figure 16. It has an on/off switch which is easily reachable by the user of the heated vest without being taken out of the pocket in which the module is inserted.
\nInsertion of electronic control module inside the pocket on the panel.
When connected to DC via its charger as shown in Figure 17, the control module can be fully recharged in 11 h, and keeps on supplying the heated vest with demanded energy at 10th level (up to 22 W) for as long as 4.5 h when used outdoors at an ambient temperature of 10°C. Thanks to the special design of the pocket in which it is inserted and fastened, the control module can be recharged without removal from the pocket.
\nConnection of electronic control module and its charger.
The integration of e-textile-based thermal heating panel to the vest is presented in Figure 18a. Eight buttons are stitched inside the vest on the corresponding locations where they will be fastened to the brits on the panel. Thanks to the eight brit buttons stitched all around the panel, the panel can be attached and displaced easily, and does not slip or cause discomfort of the wearer while putting on. Because of the proper selection of the place of the inner pocket in which the electronic control module is inserted, there is no distortion on the heated vest as shown in Figure 18b.
\nWearable heating vest (a) view from inside and (b) view from outside.
For observation and monitoring of the heating performance of the heated vest in real-time, the vest was worn by a volunteer, and thermal camera images from the front and back of the torso were taken after wearing for 30 s, and from the back torso when the heating vest is on for 10 min and immediately after putting off at an ambient temperature of 21°C. As the ambient temperature was 21°C, the heating vest was set for a heating level of 5. As presented in Figures 19 and 20, the front temperature on the surface of the vest reached 23.5°C, and back temperature on the surface of the vest reached 25.5°C just 30 s after wearing the heating vest, respectively. It is apparent that the heating vest quickly starts heating up, and the heat is evenly distributed even after 30 s.
\nThermal and actual images on first 30 s after wearing the heating vest (Front surface temperature on the vest: 23.5°C, ambient temperature: 21°C).
Thermal and actual images on first 30 s after wearing the heating vest (Back surface temperature on the vest: 25.5°C, ambient temperature: 21°C).
As presented in Figures 21 and 22, the back temperature on the surface of the vest reached 30.2°C, 10 min after wearing, and the surface temperature on the top clothing immediately after putting off was observed as high as 38.4°C, respectively.
\n10 min after wearing the heating vest (Back surface temperature on the vest: 30.2°C, ambient temperature: 21°C).
10 min after wearing the heating vest (Back surface temperature on the top clothing of wearer: 38.4°C, ambient temperature: 21°C).
The textile-based heating systems are one of the influential developments in wearable electronic textiles. Heating with textile structure requires conservation of battery life with respect to power output. To compromise wearability between cost, bulk, heat output and the lifespan of the battery is not an easy task. Indeed, the current battery technology restricts the scale of electrical heating that can conveniently be applied. In the future, the development of flexible fuel cells or supercapacitor technology may soon become a realistic alternative to rechargeable batteries. Moreover, another promising effector technology lies in the washability concept of those wearable textile-based heating systems. In addition, attractive efforts would be on solutions for interconnectivity between the power supply and the polymer-based heating elements.
\nThis research work was supported by the Ministry of Science, Industry and Technology of TURKEY, with the project titled “Design of e-textile-based thermal heating panels via welding technology, Project No.0034.TGSD.2015-2”. The researchers would like to thank CETEKS Elektronik Tekstil San. Tic. Ltd.Şti for final prototype development.
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\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'We have more than a decade of experience in Open Access publishing. The advantages of publishing with IntechOpen include:
\n\nOur platform – IntechOpen is the world’s leading publisher of OA books, built by scientists, for scientists.
\n\nOur reputation – Everything we publish goes through a two-stage peer review process. We’re proud to count Nobel laureates among our esteemed authors. We meet European Commission standards for funding, and the research we’ve published has been funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation and the Wellcome Trust, among others. IntechOpen is a member of all relevant trade associations (including the STM Association and the Association of Learned and Professional Society Publishers) and has a selection of books indexed in Web of Science's Book Citation Index.
\n\nOur expertise – We’ve published more than 4,500 books by more than 118,000 authors and editors.
\n\nOur reach – Our books have more than 130 million downloads and more than 146,150 Web of Science citations. We increase citations via indexing in all the major databases, including the Book Citation Index at Web of Science and Google Scholar.
\n\nOur services – The support we offer our authors and editors is second to none. Each book in our program receives the following:
\n\nOur end-to-end publishing service frees our authors and editors to focus on what matters: research. We empower them to shape their fields and connect with the global scientific community.
\n\n"In developing countries until now, advancement in science has been very limited, because insufficient economic resources are dedicated to science and education. These limitations are more marked when the scientists are women. In order to develop science in the poorest countries and decrease the gender gap that exists in scientific fields, Open Access networks like IntechOpen are essential. Free access to scientific research could contribute to ameliorating difficult life conditions and breaking down barriers." Marquidia Pacheco, National Institute for Nuclear Research (ININ), Mexico
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