Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
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We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
Throughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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While it is not possible to remove accidents from our lives completely, it is possible to develop new techniques or set new standards or prepare contingency plans to reduce their possibility of happening or to alleviate their consequences. 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He received his Ph.D. from Gazi University, Ankara, Turkey, Department of Environmental and Technical Research of Accidents in 2006. His main research interests include accident analysis and prevention. His research focuses on working conditions, quality of working life, traffic accident analysis and prevention, and occupational health and safety. 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However, from a negative point of view, AVs would be hacked, expose our data to third parties, cause liability problems, increase carbon emissions into the atmosphere, risk our health, and constitute a financial burden in economies. The first section will introduce this chapter. The second section will give general information on the history AVs with a general description of them. How AVs work will be explained in the third section. The fourth section will mention the concerns regarding AVs. The pros, cons, and moral issues of AVs will be shown in the fifth section. The sixth chapter will argue the legal issues regarding AVs. 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1. Introduction
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The popularization of general anesthesia by William Morton in the 1840’s and the concept of antisepsis introduced by Joseph Lister would lead to a paradigm shift and the emergence of modern surgery [1, 2]. The mastery of surgery was no longer associated with speed or flamboyance, but instead focused on meticulous dissection, careful handling of tissues, hemostasis, and correct approximation of tissue planes to promote adequate healing. Among operative specialties, this transition from “art” to “science” of surgery was most profound in the neurosurgical field, enabling rapid advances to occur.
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Early in the evolution of modern surgery, the issue of hemostatic control became prominent, as the heavily vascularized central nervous system and its propensity to bleed resulted in limitations of procedures and posed significant challenges [3, 4, 5]. Surgical ligation was utilized sparingly for fear of vessel rupture or vascular occlusion that may compromise entire vascular distributions. The instruments and techniques in neurosurgical armamentarium therefore relied predominately on application of pressure with gauze to combat bleeding [3, 6]. As a result, a search and incorporation of novel alternatives in hemostatic techniques would effectively lead to the development of modern neurosurgery as represented by Horsley’s use of bone wax and other pioneering hemostatic maneuvers [7, 8] and the introduction of electrosurgery by Cushing and Bovie in the 1920’s [9, 10]. Later in the revolutionary era of neurosurgery, biosurgical materials were introduced [6, 11].
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2. Neurosurgical biosurgery
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In its broadest sense, the term biosurgery relates to the utilization of biomaterials that are defined as systemically and pharmacologically inert substances designed for implementation within or incorporation with living systems [12, 13, 14]. In the context of the current chapter, biosurgical materials (BSMs) are defined as biomaterials that are intended as adjuncts in attaining surgical hemostasis [15, 16]. The gradual development of hemostatic techniques has greatly impacted not only the field of neurosurgery, but all of surgery. The application of biosurgical agents first developed in the neurosurgical theater proved immensely valuable across virtually all surgical applications.
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One of the earliest neurosurgical applications of biosurgical hemostats involved the control of bleeding in inaccessible areas with difficult tissue topography and in situations where use of electrocautery, sutures, or clips may simply not be feasible [4, 13, 17]. This chapter will review the categories, mechanism of action, efficacy, advantages, disadvantages, and complications of the various biological materials currently available for hemostasis in neurosurgery.
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3. Classification
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The abundance of biosurgical materials available for use requires a system of categorization. These agents can be divided into specific categories based on their mechanism of action, including passive or active hemostatics, flowable agents, and sealants [18, 19, 20]. Passive or mechanical agents act through contact with the site of bleeding to promote platelet aggregation [21, 22]. They form a matrix type network at the site of bleeding, thereby activating the coagulation pathway to provide a platform for platelet aggregation and clot formation. At the same time, these agents will be ineffective if used on patients with known coagulopathies due to factor deficiencies or platelet dysfunction. These products include gelatins, collagens, cellulose, and polysaccharide spheres. They require no special storage, minimal or no preparation, and are relatively inexpensive [23, 24].
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Active hemostatic agents act biologically and directly participate in the coagulation cascade to stimulate fibrinogen at the site of bleeding to produce a fibrin clot [21, 25]. These agents primarily include the different forms of thrombin, and are useful in patients with coagulopathies or platelet dysfunction [18, 26]. However, they rely on the presence of fibrinogen in the patient’s blood to be effective. In general, they control bleeding more effectively than passive agents, are more costly, and are prepared/available in various forms and formulations.
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Flowable hemostatic agents consist of various combinations of active and passive components within a single application [20, 27]. This category includes products that work by providing a physical barrier to blood flow while actively converting fibrinogen in blood into fibrin at the bleeding site [26, 28]. Finally, sealants work by the formation of a barrier impervious to flow [24, 29]. There are several types of sealants currently available for use. Our subsequent discussion will focus on each of the various types of biosurgicals utilized, with emphasis on neurosurgical applications.
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4. Passive hemostatic agents
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4.1 Microfibrillar collagen
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This material contains 1-μm microcrystals of purified bovine dermal collagen available as flour-like or sheet-like format [30, 31]. The microcrystalline collagenous network provides surface for platelets to aggregate while coagulation factors are released [30, 31]. The effectiveness of microfibrillar materials may be decreased in cases of severe thrombocytopenia (<10,000 mL) [32]. The material should be kept dry prior to use because moisture may decrease its activity and the hydrophilic nature of product results in adherence to surgical gloves and possible mis-application. Consequently, the material is best handled with sterile forceps. As with other biologic hemostats, optimally the smallest amount required to arrest bleeding should be utilized, although this may not be precisely known in every situation.
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Of importance, microfibrillar collagen is considered a foreign substance and can therefore serve as a nidus for infection and/or foreign body reaction [33]. The small particles of the flour-like material are useful for arresting bleeding from cancellous bone. In this setting, it has demonstrated superior efficacy when compared with other agents, such as thrombin alone or thrombin combined with gelfoam [7]. It also does not seem to interfere with bone healing in contrast to oxidized cellulose or bone wax [34]. It is recommended to firmly pack product into bone surface followed by direct pressure for 5–10 minutes. In terms of clinical application considerations, it should not be used in areas where it may exert pressure on adjacent structures because of fluid absorption and expansion. Also, excessive expansion along a dural sinus may lead to occlusion after bone flap replacement. Although collagen is relatively less antigenic and only results in minor inflammation there remains the very small risk of allergic reactions [35, 36]. Finally, it can also lead to infection, abscess, pseudo-abscess or granuloma formation [37, 38, 39].
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4.2 Oxidized regenerated cellulose
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This type of biomaterial was developed in the 1940’s to help facilitate hemostasis [40, 41]. It is available as pads, strips or powder [40, 42, 43]. It can absorb seven to ten times its own weight [44]. This ubiquitous hemostatic agent is one of the most frequently used. Upon contact with blood, the material reacts to form a reddish black gelatinous mass containing hematin (accounts for the color change) [45]. The oxidation of cellulose results in a product of low pH with resultant bacteriostatic properties [46, 47]. Despite the antimicrobial properties the rates of infection do appear to correlate with the amount of retained product [48]. Consequently, though often left in place in surgical beds, excess amounts should be removed prior to wound closure. Of note, the addition of saline or thrombin to oxidized regenerated cellulose may decrease its effectiveness in addition to inactivating thrombin as a result of the acidic environment [49]. It may also interfere with bone healing and may cause blood vessel compression [49]. Finally, there are reports of excessive postoperative swelling of this type of biomaterial [50].
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4.3 Absorbable gelatin sponge
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Also introduced in the 1940’s this type of hemostatic material consists of water-insoluble sponges prepared from purified porcine skin gelatin [11]. It provides hemostasis by absorbing up to 45x its weight in fluid, thus restricting blood flow and providing stable matrix for clot formation [51]. Gelfoam with gentle pressure can tamponade and treat most dural sinus bleeding without occlusion of the sinus. Although hemostatically beneficial, this capacity to expand physically can lead to compression of neural (and vascular) structures [52]. Absorbable gelatin material is considered relatively nonreactive, however there have been case reports of giant-cell granuloma formation at the implantation site [53, 54]. Although generally non-antigenic, this type of biosurgical material is considered a foreign body and can serve as a nidus for infection [55].
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4.4 Polysaccharide hemospheres
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This is a relatively new category of biosurgicals, derived from vegetable starch containing no animal or human components [56, 57, 58]. It is available in powder form with a bellows-type applicator [56, 59]. The material requires no mixing and is available for immediate use. It produces a hydrophilic effect to dehydrate blood and concentrate solid components to increase barrier formation [59, 60]. It poses little risk to patients since it lacks any human or animal components and should not be used in closed spaces because of physical expansion / swelling.
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5. Active hemostatic agents
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5.1 Thrombin (bovine, pooled human plasma thrombin, and recombinant)
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There are three forms of thrombin products differentiated based on type of plasma used to provide concentrated thrombin to rapidly convert fibrinogen to fibrin clot [61, 62, 63]. This class of biosurgicals should be used in cases of mild to moderate bleeding, mainly because such products tend to be easily washed off in the setting of brisk arterial bleeding or surgical irrigation [64]. In addition, thrombin-based hemostatic agents may be less effective in situations of severe fibrinogen deficiency [15]. Finally, thrombin products should not be allowed to enter the vascular system as intravascular thrombosis can occur [65].
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Antibody formation represents a risk with the use of bovine thrombin, leading to coagulopathy and even death in rare cases [66, 67]. In fact, there is a “Black Box” warning associated with this complication. The use of bovine thrombin is contraindicated if the patient is allergic or has known sensitives to materials of bovine origin [23, 68]. On the other hand, pooled human plasma carries a potential risk of viral or prion disease transmission since multiple units of blood are required to manufacture each lot of product [69, 70].
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5.2 Flowable agents
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These products represent a combination of absorbable passive and active hemostatic components [71, 72]. One of the flowables currently available is a combination of bovine gelatin particles and pooled human thrombin [73, 74], while the other consist of absorbable porcine gelatin particles combined with stand-alone thrombin [27, 75]. In order to become effective, the flowables require direct contact with blood as fibrinogen source [76]. Reconstitution is required, with these products having a paste-like consistency and the ability to “remain in place” compared to liquid thrombin [43]. Flowables are applied with a syringe-like applicator and require 2–3 minutes of preparation time [28, 77]. Direct injection into emissary veins or venous sinuses should be avoided to decrease the risk of dural venous sinus thrombosis and post-operative venous stroke.
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6. Sealants
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6.1 Fibrin sealants/glue
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This group of agents consists of concentrated fibrinogen and thrombin. They increase the rate of blood clot formation by providing higher concentrations of both fibrinogen and thrombin [78]. There are three available types: (a) Pooled human plasma [79, 80]; (b) Individual human plasma, bovine collagen, and bovine thrombin [81]; and (c) Pooled human plasma and equine collagen [82].
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Sealants may be used in coagulopathic patients with insufficient fibrinogen [64, 78, 83]. These agents can also be used in heparinized patients since they do not rely on host factors for hemostasis [84, 85, 86]. Typical indications are hemostasis during cardiopulmonary bypass, splenic injuries, and a number of less commonly utilized general surgical applications [23]. However, they are widely used as hemostatic adjuncts and sealants during neurosurgical procedures, including the prevention of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) leaks [87, 88].
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6.2 Polyethylene glycol polymers
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There are three different product types in this class of biosurgicals [89, 90]. They tend to be most efficacious when used on a relatively dry field to allow sufficient time for polymerization [91]. One type of polyethylene glycol polymers (PGPs) consists of a combination of 2 polyethylene glycol (PEG) polymers that cross-link to each other and contact tissue following application [92]. In effect, the PGP-based network acts as a sealant to tissue fluids as well as barrier to cell ingrowth and adhesion formation [92, 93].
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Another type of PGP material consists of a combination of PEG polymer, trilysine amine, and blue dye [94, 95]. This particular component mix produces a hydrogel able to help with dural closure because of its ability to form a watertight seal [96]. A modified derivative using a reduced molecular weight PEG component can be used in sutured dural repair during spinal surgery [96, 97]. The built-in blue dye is used to provide accurate placement of sealant [98, 99]. Some concerns about this particular material being associated with cases of postoperative spinal cord compression have been voiced [94, 100, 101, 102]. As such, specific non-expanding formulations exist for usage in the spinal canal [103].
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The third class of PEG polymer compound consists of a combination with human serum albumin. This substance is biodegradable and fairly well studied in terms of safety and effectiveness [104]. It provides a strong barrier, as evidenced by the FDA approval for use on visceral pleura to close air leaks of >2 mm during pulmonary surgeries [105]. There may also be associated economic benefits of using this type of biologic sealant [106].
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7. Neurosurgical applications
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It is important to realize that biosurgical agents are adjuncts to hemostasis when standard methods like direct pressure, suturing, or cautery are impractical or ineffective [107, 108]. Good knowledge of the mechanism of action of different available biosurgical hemostats is critical, with multiple considerations including the patient’s anticoagulation status, the rate of bleeding, the presence of thrombocytopenia, fibrinogen level assessment, and many other factors. The choice of a specific biosurgical product should be dependent on the type of surgery, site of bleeding, other anatomic considerations, cost, and preference of the operating neurosurgeon [3, 16, 32, 109, 110].
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The continuous oozing encountered from dilated varicose intraspinal veins and bone during spinal surgery can be effectively managed with topical hemostats [111, 112]. With that said, such materials should not be left in contact with intra or extradural nerve roots due to possibility of granuloma formation [39, 53, 54, 113]. There have been reports of paraplegia from use of oxidized cellulose during thoracotomy from passage of material through the intervertebral foramen resulting in spinal cord compression [114, 115]. Therefore, it is recommended to use only the minimum required amount and any excess material should be removed once adequate hemostasis is attained.
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Biosurgical materials are increasingly applied during spinal cord surgery to help with hemostasis since opportunities for electrocautery use are limited in this setting. Bipolar cautery, although more focused than monopolar cautery, can also allow dissipation of heat from the tips inducing thermal injury to vascular and neural structures. Fibrin glues are commonly used as hemostatic agents in neurosurgical procedures, including the management of epidural, cortical, and dural sinus bleeding [116].
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During surgical resection of brain tumors, from craniotomy to extradural hemostasis following dural closure, one will find that these agents are generally used throughout the procedure. For example, oxidized regenerated cellulose is widely used during ablation of lesion(s) and at the end to prevent and abate any bleeding in the remaining cavity. However, excess agent should not be left along the surgical cavity. A single layer of oxidized regenerated cellulose should be sufficient for hemostasis without significant risk. Evaluations of the efficacy and safety of polysaccharide hemospheres reported no adverse events after use in brain surgery. There have been several reports of signal anomalies on post-operative imaging mimicking residual tumor or early recurrence, or even abscess when oxidized regenerated cellulose or gelatin sponges are left in the operative field. A pediatric case series of 3 patients who underwent intracerebral surgery with use of microfibrillar collagen reported that all required second surgery for new or recurrent seizures [38]. An MRI of preoperatively suspected tumor recurrence or abscess subsequently confirmed to be microfibrillar collagen-centric necrotizing granuloma surrounded with macrophages and eosinophils. One must remain aware of the above considerations and remove any local hemostatic agent prior to dural closure.
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Bleeding during surgery on the pituitary via a transsphenoidal approach may significantly impede visualization while not being conducive of the use of electrocautery [117]. The use of oxidized cellulose and Floseal (Baxter, Deerfield, IL) can be useful in this situation. Mild persistent oozing from brain tissue following excision can be controlled with application of oxidized regenerated cellulose followed by its removal from the remaining cavity prior to closure. Defects of the skull base in some cases require filling of the defect with bone graft, followed by suture and/or grafting of the dura reinforced with fibrin sealant. A minimally invasive treatment of spontaneous supratentorial intracerebral hemorrhage was also described using Floseal. Floseal was placed in 31 patients without evidence of vascular anomalies or coagulopathy following evacuation of hematoma from a 3 cm craniotomy. Hemostasis was achieved in all but 1 patient who required re-exploration [118].
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A multicenter, prospective randomized study with 237 patients undergoing elective cranial surgery demonstrated PEG hydrogel (DuraSeal, Integra LifeSciences, Princeton, NJ) similarly safe when used with common dural sealing techniques (eg, sutures, autologous grafts, gelatin or collagen sponges, fibrin glues) or when used as dural closure augmentation in cranial surgery [99]. The incidences of neurosurgical complications, surgical site infections and CSF leaks were similar between treatment groups using PEG hydrogel and the control group using standard dural sealing techniques. DuralSeal was also found to be statistically significantly superior to fibrin sealant at preventing CSF leaks following posterior fossa craniotomy or craniectomy [119]. However, the special formulation of DuraSeal Exact should be used in areas where expansion can lead to neurologic compromise – such as the spinal canal [120]. This is because neurologic compromise after expansion has been described in the literature [101, 121]. This again emphasizes mindfulness to use to least amount of material to achieve closure and/or hemostasis while precluding migration or expansion of any excess materials.
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8. Synthesis
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Hemostasis in neurosurgery – more so that many other surgical disciplines – is challenged by the closed space environment of the brain, spinal cord, and other critical structures [3, 122, 123]. Unlike other areas in which the “bulk” or space-occupying characteristics of biosurgicals may represent a potential benefit as they expand, this is less desirable in neurosurgical applications. In the closed environment of the skull, brain, or the spinal cord – even if bone is removed to help minimize the effect of swelling from edema – a relatively small amount of compression, especially in critical areas, like the brain stem, can have devastating consequences. As discussed in previous sections of this chapter, such compressive complications, if left untreated can result in irreversible neurologic damage [94, 100, 101, 102], with resultant “Black Box” warnings clearly outlining biomaterial-specific restrictions.
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Of growing concern in all aspects of surgery is the increasing utilization of anticoagulants and anti-platelet therapies – and often various combinations of both [124, 125]. While the indications for such therapies are outside of the scope of this review, it is clear that more and more patients are being prescribed agents belonging to these broad medication classes. This is of special significance in the elderly population, where anticoagulants and antiplatelet drugs are used for stroke reduction (e.g., in non-valvular atrial fibrillation); various prophylaxis indications (e.g., orthopedic surgery); and of most concern, being used without any clear indications [126]. However, many clinical factors that prompt physicians to initiate antiplatelet or anticoagulant use also increase the neurosurgical risk associated with even minor traumatic events (e.g., falls and minor head injuries). Under such circumstances, even minor neurological injuries can quickly evolve into bleeding-related catastrophes when patients are anticoagulated [127, 128, 129].
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Neurosurgical interventions in the setting of traumatic (or even spontaneous) subdural, epidural, and intraventricular hemorrhage, when confounded by drugs that inherently interfere with hemostasis can compound the difficulties and risks of an already complex clinical scenario [130, 131]. The overall challenge can be magnified even further as acute reversal agents tend to be expensive, may not always be available, reliable/effective, and could result in thrombotic complications in high-risk scenarios such as multi-trauma or massive transfusion [131, 132, 133, 134]. Furthermore, reversal algorithms and guidelines, while helpful do not always definitively address the acute problem once significant bleeding starts, and regardless of the mechanism and defect in the clotting cascade, a consumptive process may be triggered that might require a multi-faceted approach to effectively and timely manage the associated coagulopathy [134, 135, 136, 137]. Similar to other surgical scenarios, such as major trauma and cardiothoracic surgery, at times the best way of managing bleeding is via a timely and aggressive operative intervention. The above concepts are critical in the setting of neurosurgical applications of biosurgical hemostats in that it must be recognized that “bleeding” is a complex problem and often requires a combination of tools to control. Such basic tools require an understanding of the primary question – why is this patient bleeding?
Mechanical bleeding – Direct blood vessel injury that requires sutures, clips, and/or physical closure. No amount of blood products, biosurgicals, or other hemostatic agents can substitute for definitive surgical hemostasis [138].
Diffuse oozing – This includes needle holes, micro-circulation (arterial and venous), that might benefit from biosurgical agents to augment the natural clotting and hemostatic process [138].
Defects in the clotting cascade – either physiologic, such as inherent factor deficiencies (hemophilia), secondary to pathologic conditions (renal failure, acquired Von Willebrand’s disease in aortic stenosis), or iatrogenic from medical therapies such at anti-coagulants and anti-platelet agents. Even the act of surgical incisions and minor tissue trauma can activate various components of the clotting cascade and thus complicate bleeding management [138, 139].
Temperature management – Clotting is a complex enzymatic process that has evolved to be optimal at physiologic temperatures. Hypothermia, either environmental after trauma, perioperative, or therapeutic (for witnessed cardiac arrests, for example) can have potential adverse effects on hemostasis and must be considered in the context of a bleeding patient [108, 138, 139].
Other patient factors and comorbidities can have unpredictable effects on hemostasis, but must be considered in the bleeding neurosurgical patients. Elderly, debilitated, and frail patients might be malnourished and hence have impaired protein stores which contribute to diminished clotting factor reserves – even in the setting of normal clotting tests. Patients might be taking herbal supplements (which might not even be reported in a medical record or medication lists) that have been correlated with bleeding risks [140, 141, 142].
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Each of the above considerations requires a focused approach and highly specific management strategy. It is important to recognize that good surgical technique must be augmented with a broader understanding of the biologic mechanisms that contribute to the overall disease process and that there is no single tool that is ideal for all circumstances [108, 138]. Conversely, it must be recognized that there is a growing concern that using the wrong or inappropriate therapy for a given clinical scenario can be just as problematic, if not intrinsically ineffective or potentially dangerous. More so than ever in the past, optimal management of the neurosurgical patient (especially one who is bleeding) requires an in-depth and comprehensive understanding of the complex mechanisms of hemostasis pathways and the clotting cascade while also recognizing those variables, such as pharmaceutical therapies, that might adversely impact the normal balance between clotting and bleeding.
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In summary, in the setting of neurosurgical bleeding management, several key concepts must be recognized:
Use the right tool for the right job
Sometimes more than one approach is necessary to control bleeding
Different types of bleeding might require different management strategies
Difficult to access areas
Risk for post-operative re-bleeding
Compressive or expanding agents can cause devastating complications
Recognizing the differences between arterial and venous bleeding and how management of each might be different
Understanding the specific reasons why bleeding is occurring and what interventions – such as biosurgical agents – should be central to the overall hemostatic management.
Sometimes the best approach to managing bleeding is preventing it in the first place with strict attention to surgical technique and anatomy. It might sound inherently obvious, but the best way to avoid a dural sinus bleeding is to avoid injury in the first place.
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9. Conclusions
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Uncontrolled or difficult to control bleeding in neurosurgery is a challenging clinical problem and one that is becoming more common with wider use of anti-coagulant and anti-platelet agents in a population that is aging, becoming more frail, has more co-morbidities, and is at increasingly greater risk for neurotrauma. In addition, as more patients are undergoing major surgical interventions and re-interventions for complex neuro-axial pathologies the risks for bleeding complications also increase. Effective management of bleeding and bleeding related morbidity requires a thorough understanding of the mechanisms of bleeding and potential biologic defects in the normal hemostatic process. With such an understanding, management can be more focused and targeted towards the specific problem. Hence, an understanding of the adjuvant therapies, such as the full-spectrum of biosurgical agents that can be used to manage bleeding is imperative in achieving optimal patient outcomes.
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
The authors would like to acknowledge Dr. Roy S. Hwang, for his support and expertise during the preparation of this manuscript.
\n
\n',keywords:"biosurgery, biosurgical hemostat, biosurgical materials, hemostasis, neurosurgery, surgical bleeding",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/75094.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/75094.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75094",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75094",totalDownloads:220,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"October 12th 2020",dateReviewed:"January 8th 2021",datePrePublished:"February 11th 2021",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"February 4th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Hemostasis in neurosurgery has evolved significantly over the past few decades. New advances in hemostatic agents, some developed specifically with neurosurgical applications in mind, allowed for more effective control of difficult intraoperative bleeding. These agents vary in the mechanism of action and each may be indicated in different and often highly specific situations. Here we present a review of the most commonly used hemostatic agents, their mechanism of action and their indications. Focus is placed on key aspects and considerations regarding the use biosurgical materials in neurosurgery, with emphasis on clinical appropriateness and patient safety.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/75094",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/75094",signatures:"Jean Claude Petit-Me, Stanislaw P. Stawicki, Michael S. Firstenberg and Evan Marlin",book:{id:"8206",type:"book",title:"Contemporary Applications of Biologic Hemostatic Agents across Surgical Specialties - Volume 1",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Contemporary Applications of Biologic Hemostatic Agents across Surgical Specialties - Volume 1",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Michael S. Firstenberg and Dr. Stanislaw P. Stawicki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8206.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-78984-441-2",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-440-5",pdfIsbn:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"64343",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael S.",middleName:null,surname:"Firstenberg",slug:"michael-s.-firstenberg",fullName:"Michael S. Firstenberg"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Neurosurgical biosurgery",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Classification",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Passive hemostatic agents",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"4.1 Microfibrillar collagen",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"4.2 Oxidized regenerated cellulose",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"4.3 Absorbable gelatin sponge",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"4.4 Polysaccharide hemospheres",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"5. Active hemostatic agents",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"5.1 Thrombin (bovine, pooled human plasma thrombin, and recombinant)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"5.2 Flowable agents",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12",title:"6. Sealants",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"6.1 Fibrin sealants/glue",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"6.2 Polyethylene glycol polymers",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15",title:"7. Neurosurgical applications",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16",title:"8. Synthesis",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17",title:"9. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_18",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nHaridas, R.P. and J.A. Mifflin, Researches regarding the Morton ether inhaler at Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston\n. Anesthesia & Analgesia, 2013. 117(5): p. 1230-1235.\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nFrancoeur, J.R., Joseph Lister: Surgeon Scientist (1827? 1912). Journal of Investigative Surgery, 2000. 13(3): p. 129-132.\n'},{id:"B3",body:'\nChivukula, S., G.M. Weiner, and J.A. 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DuraSeal® Exact Spine Sealant System. 2020 October 10, 2020]; Available from: https://www.integralife.com/duraseal-exact-spine-sealant-system/product/dural-repair-sealants-duraseal-exact-spine-sealant-system.\n'},{id:"B104",body:'\nPark, B.J., et al., Prospective evaluation of biodegradable polymeric sealant for intraoperative air leaks. Journal of cardiothoracic surgery, 2016. 11(1): p. 168.\n'},{id:"B105",body:'\nFuller, C., Reduction of intraoperative air leaks with Progel in pulmonary resection: a comprehensive review. Journal of cardiothoracic surgery, 2013. 8(1): p. 90.\n'},{id:"B106",body:'\nZaraca, F., et al., Cost-effectiveness analysis of sealant impact in management of moderate intraoperative alveolar air leaks during video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery lobectomy: a multicentre randomised controlled trial. Journal of thoracic disease, 2017. 9(12): p. 5230.\n'},{id:"B107",body:'\nAucar, J.A., V. Punja, and J.A. Asensio, Biosurgicals and Trauma, in Biosurgicals-The Next Frontier in Operative Approaches. 2019, IntechOpen.\n'},{id:"B108",body:'\nFirstenberg, M.S., J.M. Hanna, and S.P. Stawicki, The Role of Biosurgical Hemostatic Sealants in Cardiac Surgery, in Biosurgicals-The Next Frontier in Operative Approaches. 2020, IntechOpen.\n'},{id:"B109",body:'\nFujimoto, Y., et al., Modified hemostatic technique using microfibrillar collagen hemostat in endoscopic endonasal transsphenoidal surgery. Neurologia medico-chirurgica, 2014. 54(8): p. 617-621.\n'},{id:"B110",body:'\nEllegala, D.B., N.F. Maartens, and E.R. Laws Jr, Use of FloSeal hemostatic sealant in transsphenoidal pituitary surgery. Neurosurgery, 2002. 51(2): p. 513-516.\n'},{id:"B111",body:'\nLandi, A., et al., Efficacy, security, and manageability of gelified hemostatic matrix in bleeding control during thoracic and lumbar spine surgery: FloSeal versus Surgiflo. Journal of Neurological Surgery Part A: Central European Neurosurgery, 2016. 77(02): p. 139-143.\n'},{id:"B112",body:'\nGregori, F., et al., Comparative Analysis about Efficacy, Security, and Manageability of Gelified Hemostatic Matrix in Bleeding Control during Thoracic and Lumbar Spine Surgery: Floseal versus Surgiflo. Global Spine Journal, 2015. 5(1_suppl): p. s-0035-1554306-s-0035-1554306.\n'},{id:"B113",body:'\nRenati, S., et al., Granulomatous meningitis secondary to Avitene (microfibrillar collagen). Neurology: Clinical Practice, 2017. 7(5): p. 384-386.\n'},{id:"B114",body:'\nShort, H.D., Paraplegia associated with the use of oxidized cellulose in posterolateral thoracotomy incisions. The Annals of thoracic surgery, 1990. 50(2): p. 288-290.\n'},{id:"B115",body:'\nHenry, M.C., et al., Postoperative paraplegia secondary to the use of oxidized cellulose (Surgicel). Journal of pediatric surgery, 2005. 40(4): p. E9-E11.\n'},{id:"B116",body:'\nSekhar, L.N., et al., The use of fibrin glue to stop venous bleeding in the epidural space, vertebral venous plexus, and anterior cavernous sinus. Operative Neurosurgery, 2007. 61(suppl_3): p. ONS-E51-ONS-E51.\n'},{id:"B117",body:'\nJane Jr, J.A., et al., Pituitary surgery: transsphenoidal approach. Neurosurgery, 2002. 51(2): p. 435-444.\n'},{id:"B118",body:'\nGazzeri R, Galarza M, Neroni M, Alfieri A, Esposito S. Minimal craniotomy and matrix hemostatic sealant for the treatment of spontaneous supratentorial intracerebral hemorrhage. Journal of neurosurgery. 2009 May 1;110(5):939-42.\n'},{id:"B119",body:'\nThan, K.D., C.J. Baird, and A. Olivi, Polyethylene glycol hydrogel dural sealant may reduce incisional cerebrospinal fluid leak after posterior fossa surgery. Operative neurosurgery, 2008. 63(suppl_1): p. ONS182-ONS187.\n'},{id:"B120",body:'\nKim, K.D., et al., Duraseal exact is a safe adjunctive treatment for durotomy in spine: postapproval study. Global spine journal, 2019. 9(3): p. 272-278.\n'},{id:"B121",body:'\nEpstein, N.E., Dural repair with four spinal sealants: focused review of the manufacturers’ inserts and the current literature. The Spine Journal, 2010. 10(12): p. 1065-1068.\n'},{id:"B122",body:'\nQiu, L., et al., Bioadhesives in neurosurgery: a review. Journal of neurosurgery, 2019. 1(aop): p. 1-11.\n'},{id:"B123",body:'\nGrant, G.A., Update on hemostasis: neurosurgery. Surgery, 2007. 142(4): p. S55-S60.\n'},{id:"B124",body:'\nBeshay, J.E., et al., Emergency reversal of anticoagulation and antiplatelet therapies in neurosurgical patients: a review. Journal of neurosurgery, 2010. 112(2): p. 307-318.\n'},{id:"B125",body:'\nPowner, D.J., E.A. Hartwell, and W.K. Hoots, Counteracting the effects of anticoagulants and antiplatelet agents during neurosurgical emergencies. Neurosurgery, 2005. 57(5): p. 823-831.\n'},{id:"B126",body:'\nHon, H., et al., Inappropriate preinjury warfarin use in trauma patients: A call for a safety initiative. Journal of Postgraduate Medicine, 2016. 62(2): p. 73.\n'},{id:"B127",body:'\nStawicki, S.P., et al., Prognostication of traumatic brain injury outcomes in older trauma patients: a novel risk assessment tool based on initial cranial CT findings. International journal of critical illness and injury science, 2017. 7(1): p. 23.\n'},{id:"B128",body:'\nGarber, S.T., W. Sivakumar, and R.H. Schmidt, Neurosurgical complications of direct thrombin inhibitors—catastrophic hemorrhage after mild traumatic brain injury in a patient receiving dabigatran: Case report. Journal of neurosurgery, 2012. 116(5): p. 1093-1096.\n'},{id:"B129",body:'\nWitt, D.M., et al., Effect of warfarin on intracranial hemorrhage incidence and fatal outcomes. Thrombosis research, 2013. 132(6): p. 770-775.\n'},{id:"B130",body:'\nVespa, P.M., D. Hirt, and G.T. Manley, Traumatic Brain Injury, An Issue of Neurosurgery Clinics of North America, E-Book. Vol. 27. 2016: Elsevier Health Sciences.\n'},{id:"B131",body:'\nHawryluk, G., et al., Management of anticoagulation following central nervous system hemorrhage in patients with high thromboembolic risk. Journal of Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 2010. 8(7): p. 1500-1508.\n'},{id:"B132",body:'\nWisler, J.R., et al., Competing priorities in the brain injured patient: Dealing with the unexpected. Brain injury: Pathogenesis, monitoring, recovery and management. Rijeka, Croatia: InTech, 2012: p. 341-54.\n'},{id:"B133",body:'\nStawicki, S.P., et al., Deep venous thrombosis and pulmonary embolism in trauma patients: an overstatement of the problem? The American surgeon, 2005. 71(5): p. 387-391.\n'},{id:"B134",body:'\nBarry, N., et al., An exploratory, hypothesis-generating, meta-analytic study of damage control resuscitation in acute hemorrhagic shock: Examining the behavior of patient morbidity and mortality in the context of plasma-to-packed red blood cell ratios. International Journal of Academic Medicine, 2016. 2(2): p. 159.\n'},{id:"B135",body:'\nKumar, M.A., Coagulopathy associated with traumatic brain injury. Current neurology and neuroscience reports, 2013. 13(11): p. 391.\n'},{id:"B136",body:'\nMaegele, M., Coagulopathy after traumatic brain injury: incidence, pathogenesis, and treatment options. Transfusion, 2013. 53: p. 28S–37S.\n'},{id:"B137",body:'\nGupta, G., et al., Impact of coagulation profile on outcome of head injury. Journal of clinical and diagnostic research: JCDR, 2016. 10(1): p. PC04.\n'},{id:"B138",body:'\nFirstenberg, M.S. and S.P. Stawicki, Introductory Chapter: Biosurgical Adoption as the Foundation of New Operative Approaches and Strategies, in Biosurgicals - The Next Frontier in Operative Approaches - Volume 1, S.P. Stawicki and M.S. Firstenberg, Editors. 2020, IntechOpen.\n'},{id:"B139",body:'\nFirstenberg, M.S. and S.P. Stawicki, The Use of Sealants in Cardiac Surgery. 2017.\n'},{id:"B140",body:'\nNguyen, T. and A. Garg, The potential of increased bleeding rates in geriatrics who takes saw palmetto, an herbal supplement, in concurrence with blood thinners. Journal of the American Medical Directors Association, 2017. 18(3): p. B24-B25.\n'},{id:"B141",body:'\nEvans, D.C., et al., Comorbidity-polypharmacy scoring facilitates outcome prediction in older trauma patients. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 2012. 60(8): p. 1465-1470.\n'},{id:"B142",body:'\nBirriel, T.J., et al., Adverse drug reactions in the era of multi-morbidity and polypharmacy. Journal of basic and clinical pharmacy, 2015. 6(4): p. 122.\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Jean Claude Petit-Me",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Surgery, Level 1 Regional Trauma Center, St. Luke’s University Health Network, USA
'},{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki",address:"stawicki.ace@gmail.com",affiliation:'
Department of Research and Innovation, St. Luke’s University Health Network, USA
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Michael S. Firstenberg",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Neurosurgery, St. Luke’s University Health Network, USA
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However, this chapter focuses on how cataract surgery might be combined with different glaucoma surgical procedures, such as trabeculectomy, non-penetrating procedures and minimally invasive procedures (MIGS), as well as implantation of drainage devices like the Trabectome® and the iStent®, both used for trabecular flow increase; the CyPass® implant, which acts by increasing the uveoscleral flow; the XEN® implant that facilitates the drainage of the aqueous humor from the anterior chamber to the subconjunctival space and finally the endocyclophotocoagulation that decreases the aqueous humor production. 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She obtained her medical degree, Masters and PhD degree at the University of Zagreb. She trained in ophthalmology at the Universities of Zagreb and Harvard Medical School in Boston and finished Postdoctoral Cornea Research Fellowship at Harvard Medical School. She acts as surgical instructor for the European Society of Cataract and Refractive Surgeons and European School for Advanced Studies in Ophthalmology. The area of her surgical and research expertise is anterior segment surgery, with the overall experience of over 20 000 surgeries. She was the first surgeon in south-eastern Europe to start with modern transplantation techniques - lamellar corneal grafts and transplantation of corneal limbal stem cell transplantation. She had held dozens of invited lectures all over Europe, published more than 100 professional and scientific papers, and co-authored five international books. For her work dr. Dekaris received several rewards: Croatian State Annual Award for scientific work, Croatian Ministry of Health Award for the achievements in Ophthalmology and South-eastern European Society Award for development of ophthalmology. She is an Editorial board member of five, and a reviewer of another six international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"213121",title:"Prof.",name:"Nikica",surname:"Gabrić",slug:"nikica-gabric",fullName:"Nikica Gabrić",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"213122",title:"Dr.",name:"Ante",surname:"Barišić",slug:"ante-barisic",fullName:"Ante Barišić",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"220509",title:"Dr.",name:"Germán",surname:"Bianchi",slug:"german-bianchi",fullName:"Germán Bianchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]},generic:{page:{slug:"open-access-funding",title:"Open Access Funding",intro:"
IntechOpen’s Academic Editors and Authors have received funding for their work through many well-known funders, including: the European Commission, Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, Wellcome Trust, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC), CGIAR Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centers, National Institute of Health (NIH), National Science Foundation (NSF), National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), German Research Foundation (DFG), Research Councils United Kingdom (RCUK), Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Austrian Science Fund (FWF), Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT), Australian Research Council (ARC).
Open Access publication costs can often be designated directly in the grants or in specific budgets allocated for that purpose. Many of the most important funding organisations encourage, and even request, that the projects they fund are made available at no cost to the wider public. IntechOpen strives to maintain excellent relationships with these funders and ensures compliance with mandates.
\\n\\n
In order to help Authors identify appropriate funding agencies and institutions, we have created a list, based on extensive research on various OA resources (including ROARMAP and SHERPA/JULIET) of organizations that have funds available. Before consulting our list we encourage you to petition your own institution or organization for Open Access funds or check the specifications of your grant with your funder to ascertain if publication costs are included. Where you are in receipt of a grant you should clarify:
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Does your institution already have a budget for covering Open Access publication costs?
\\n\\t
Does your grant list Open Access publication fees as legitimate direct/indirect costs?
\\n
\\n\\n
If you are associated with any of the institutions in our list below, you can apply to receive OA publication funds by following the instructions provided in the links. Please consult the Open Access policies or grant Terms and Conditions of any institution with which you are linked to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).
\\n\\n
Please note that this list is not a definitive one and is updated regularly. To suggest possible modifications or the inclusion of your institution/funder, please contact us at funders@intechopen.com
\\n\\n
Please be aware that you must be a member, or grantee, of the institutions/funders listed in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
Open Access publication costs can often be designated directly in the grants or in specific budgets allocated for that purpose. Many of the most important funding organisations encourage, and even request, that the projects they fund are made available at no cost to the wider public. IntechOpen strives to maintain excellent relationships with these funders and ensures compliance with mandates.
\n\n
In order to help Authors identify appropriate funding agencies and institutions, we have created a list, based on extensive research on various OA resources (including ROARMAP and SHERPA/JULIET) of organizations that have funds available. Before consulting our list we encourage you to petition your own institution or organization for Open Access funds or check the specifications of your grant with your funder to ascertain if publication costs are included. Where you are in receipt of a grant you should clarify:
\n\n
\n\t
Does your institution already have a budget for covering Open Access publication costs?
\n\t
Does your grant list Open Access publication fees as legitimate direct/indirect costs?
\n
\n\n
If you are associated with any of the institutions in our list below, you can apply to receive OA publication funds by following the instructions provided in the links. Please consult the Open Access policies or grant Terms and Conditions of any institution with which you are linked to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).
\n\n
Please note that this list is not a definitive one and is updated regularly. To suggest possible modifications or the inclusion of your institution/funder, please contact us at funders@intechopen.com
\n\n
Please be aware that you must be a member, or grantee, of the institutions/funders listed in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
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On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. 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Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. 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Plant cell and organ culture systems are feasible option for the production of secondary metabolites that are of commercial importance in pharmaceuticals, food additives, flavors, and other industrial materials. The stress, including various elicitors or signal molecules, often induces the secondary metabolite production in the plant tissue culture system. The recent developments in elicitation of plant tissue culture have opened a new avenue for the production of secondary metabolite compounds. Secondary metabolite synthesis and accumulation in cell and organ cultures can be triggered by the application of elicitors to the culture medium. Elicitors are the chemical compounds from abiotic and biotic sources that can stimulate stress responses in plants, leading to the enhanced synthesis and accumulation of secondary metabolites or the induction of novel secondary metabolites. Elicitor type, dose, and treatment schedule are major factors determining the effects on the secondary metabolite production. The number of parameters, such as elicitor concentrations, duration of exposure, cell line, nutrient composition, and age or stage of the culture, is also important factors influencing the successful production of biomass and secondary metabolite accumulation. This chapter reviews the various abiotic and biotic elicitors applied to cultural system and their stimulating effects on the accumulation of secondary metabolites.",book:{id:"5066",slug:"abiotic-and-biotic-stress-in-plants-recent-advances-and-future-perspectives",title:"Abiotic and Biotic Stress in Plants",fullTitle:"Abiotic and Biotic Stress in Plants - Recent Advances and Future Perspectives"},signatures:"Poornananda M. Naik and Jameel M. Al–Khayri",authors:[{id:"176282",title:"Prof.",name:"Jameel M.",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Khayri",slug:"jameel-m.-al-khayri",fullName:"Jameel M. Al-Khayri"},{id:"176284",title:"Dr.",name:"Poornananda M.",middleName:null,surname:"Naik",slug:"poornananda-m.-naik",fullName:"Poornananda M. Naik"}]},{id:"49274",doi:"10.5772/61368",title:"Reactive Oxygen Species and Antioxidant Enzymes Involved in Plant Tolerance to Stress",slug:"reactive-oxygen-species-and-antioxidant-enzymes-involved-in-plant-tolerance-to-stress",totalDownloads:4956,totalCrossrefCites:50,totalDimensionsCites:110,abstract:"Plants are continuously exposed to several stress factors in field, which affect their production. These environmental adversities generally induce the accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which can cause severe oxidative damage to plants. ROS are toxic molecules found in various subcellular compartments. The equilibrium between the production and detoxification of ROS is sustained by enzymatic and nonenzymatic antioxidants. Due to advances in molecular approaches during the last decades, nowadays it is possible to develop economically important transgenic crops that have increased tolerance to stresses. This chapter discusses the oxidative stress and damage to plants. In addition, it reports the involvement of antioxidant enzymes in the tolerance of plants to various stresses.",book:{id:"5066",slug:"abiotic-and-biotic-stress-in-plants-recent-advances-and-future-perspectives",title:"Abiotic and Biotic Stress in Plants",fullTitle:"Abiotic and Biotic Stress in Plants - Recent Advances and Future Perspectives"},signatures:"Andréia Caverzan, Alice Casassola and Sandra Patussi Brammer",authors:[{id:"176303",title:"Dr.",name:"Alice",middleName:null,surname:"Casassola",slug:"alice-casassola",fullName:"Alice Casassola"},{id:"176409",title:"Dr.",name:"Andréia",middleName:null,surname:"Caverzan",slug:"andreia-caverzan",fullName:"Andréia Caverzan"},{id:"176410",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Patussi Brammer",slug:"sandra-patussi-brammer",fullName:"Sandra Patussi Brammer"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"66996",title:"Ethiopian Common Medicinal Plants: Their Parts and Uses in Traditional Medicine - Ecology and Quality Control",slug:"ethiopian-common-medicinal-plants-their-parts-and-uses-in-traditional-medicine-ecology-and-quality-c",totalDownloads:4174,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"The main purpose of this review is to document medicinal plants used for traditional treatments with their parts, use, ecology, and quality control. Accordingly, 80 medicinal plant species were reviewed; leaves and roots are the main parts of the plants used for preparation of traditional medicines. The local practitioners provided various traditional medications to their patients’ diseases such as stomachaches, asthma, dysentery, malaria, evil eyes, cancer, skin diseases, and headaches. The uses of medicinal plants for human and animal treatments are practiced from time immemorial. Stream/riverbanks, cultivated lands, disturbed sites, bushlands, forested areas and their margins, woodlands, grasslands, and home gardens are major habitats of medicinal plants. Generally, medicinal plants used for traditional medicine play a significant role in the healthcare of the majority of the people in Ethiopia. The major threats to medicinal plants are habitat destruction, urbanization, agricultural expansion, investment, road construction, and deforestation. Because of these, medicinal plants are being declined and lost with their habitats. Community- and research-based conservation mechanisms could be an appropriate approach for mitigating the problems pertinent to the loss of medicinal plants and their habitats and for documenting medicinal plants. Chromatography; electrophoretic, macroscopic, and microscopic techniques; and pharmaceutical practice are mainly used for quality control of herbal medicines.",book:{id:"8502",slug:"plant-science-structure-anatomy-and-physiology-in-plants-cultured-in-vivo-and-in-vitro",title:"Plant Science",fullTitle:"Plant Science - Structure, Anatomy and Physiology in Plants Cultured in Vivo and in Vitro"},signatures:"Admasu Moges and Yohannes Moges",authors:[{id:"249746",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Admasu",middleName:null,surname:"Moges",slug:"admasu-moges",fullName:"Admasu Moges"},{id:"297761",title:"MSc.",name:"Yohannes",middleName:null,surname:"Moges",slug:"yohannes-moges",fullName:"Yohannes Moges"}]},{id:"63148",title:"Domestic Livestock and Its Alleged Role in Climate Change",slug:"domestic-livestock-and-its-alleged-role-in-climate-change",totalDownloads:15946,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"It is very old wisdom that climate dictates farm management strategies. In recent years, however, we are increasingly confronted with claims that agriculture, livestock husbandry, and even food consumption habits are forcing the climate to change. We subjected this worrisome concern expressed by public institutions, the media, policy makers, and even scientists to a rigorous review, cross-checking critical coherence and (in)compatibilities within and between published scientific papers. Our key conclusion is there is no need for anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases (GHGs), and even less so for livestock-born emissions, to explain climate change. Climate has always been changing, and even the present warming is most likely driven by natural factors. The warming potential of anthropogenic GHG emissions has been exaggerated, and the beneficial impacts of manmade CO2 emissions for nature, agriculture, and global food security have been systematically suppressed, ignored, or at least downplayed by the IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) and other UN (United Nations) agencies. Furthermore, we expose important methodological deficiencies in IPCC and FAO (Food Agriculture Organization) instructions and applications for the quantification of the manmade part of non-CO2-GHG emissions from agro-ecosystems. However, so far, these fatal errors inexorably propagated through scientific literature. Finally, we could not find a clear domestic livestock fingerprint, neither in the geographical methane distribution nor in the historical evolution of mean atmospheric methane concentration. In conclusion, everybody is free to choose a vegetarian or vegan lifestyle, but there is no scientific basis, whatsoever, for claiming this decision could contribute to save the planet’s climate.",book:{id:"7491",slug:"forage-groups",title:"Forage Groups",fullTitle:"Forage Groups"},signatures:"Albrecht Glatzle",authors:[{id:"252990",title:"Dr.",name:"Albrecht",middleName:null,surname:"Glatzle",slug:"albrecht-glatzle",fullName:"Albrecht Glatzle"}]},{id:"66714",title:"Biotic and Abiotic Stresses in Plants",slug:"biotic-and-abiotic-stresses-in-plants",totalDownloads:5911,totalCrossrefCites:60,totalDimensionsCites:106,abstract:"Plants are subjected to a wide range of environmental stresses which reduces and limits the productivity of agricultural crops. Two types of environmental stresses are encountered to plants which can be categorized as (1) Abiotic stress and (2) Biotic stress. The abiotic stress causes the loss of major crop plants worldwide and includes radiation, salinity, floods, drought, extremes in temperature, heavy metals, etc. On the other hand, attacks by various pathogens such as fungi, bacteria, oomycetes, nematodes and herbivores are included in biotic stresses. As plants are sessile in nature, they have no choice to escape from these environmental cues. Plants have developed various mechanisms in order to overcome these threats of biotic and abiotic stresses. They sense the external stress environment, get stimulated and then generate appropriate cellular responses. They do this by stimuli received from the sensors located on the cell surface or cytoplasm and transferred to the transcriptional machinery situated in the nucleus, with the help of various signal transduction pathways. This leads to differential transcriptional changes making the plant tolerant against the stress. The signaling pathways act as a connecting link and play an important role between sensing the stress environment and generating an appropriate biochemical and physiological response.",book:{id:"8015",slug:"abiotic-and-biotic-stress-in-plants",title:"Abiotic and Biotic Stress in Plants",fullTitle:"Abiotic and Biotic Stress in Plants"},signatures:"Audil Gull, Ajaz Ahmad Lone and Noor Ul Islam Wani",authors:null},{id:"62573",title:"Introductory Chapter: Terpenes and Terpenoids",slug:"introductory-chapter-terpenes-and-terpenoids",totalDownloads:7635,totalCrossrefCites:29,totalDimensionsCites:56,abstract:null,book:{id:"6530",slug:"terpenes-and-terpenoids",title:"Terpenes and Terpenoids",fullTitle:"Terpenes and Terpenoids"},signatures:"Shagufta Perveen",authors:[{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen"},{id:"192994",title:"Dr.",name:"Areej",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Taweel",slug:"areej-al-taweel",fullName:"Areej Al-Taweel"}]},{id:"62876",title:"Introduction to Phytochemicals: Secondary Metabolites from Plants with Active Principles for Pharmacological Importance",slug:"introduction-to-phytochemicals-secondary-metabolites-from-plants-with-active-principles-for-pharmaco",totalDownloads:5894,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:30,abstract:"Phytochemicals are substances produced mainly by plants, and these substances have biological activity. In the pharmaceutical industry, plants represent the main source to obtain various active ingredients. They exhibit pharmacological effects applicable to the treatment of bacterial and fungal infections and also chronic-degenerative diseases such as diabetes and cancer. However, the next step in science is to find new ways to obtain it. In this chapter, we discuss about the main groups of phytochemicals, in addition to presenting two case studies. One of the most important secondary metabolites is currently Taxol, which is a natural compound of the taxoid family and is also known for its antitumor activity against cancer located in breasts, lungs, and prostate and is also effective with Kaposi’s sarcoma. Our case studies will be about Taxol, extracted from an unexplored plant species, and the production of Taxol by its endophytic fungi.",book:{id:"6794",slug:"phytochemicals-source-of-antioxidants-and-role-in-disease-prevention",title:"Phytochemicals",fullTitle:"Phytochemicals - Source of Antioxidants and Role in Disease Prevention"},signatures:"Nadia Mendoza and Eleazar M. Escamilla Silva",authors:[{id:"51406",title:"Dr.",name:"Eleazar",middleName:"Máximo",surname:"Escamilla Silva",slug:"eleazar-escamilla-silva",fullName:"Eleazar Escamilla Silva"},{id:"243304",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Nadia",middleName:null,surname:"Mendoza",slug:"nadia-mendoza",fullName:"Nadia Mendoza"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"41",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82159",title:"Chlorophyll and Its Role in Freshwater Ecosystem on the Example of the Volga River Reservoirs",slug:"chlorophyll-and-its-role-in-freshwater-ecosystem-on-the-example-of-the-volga-river-reservoirs",totalDownloads:15,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105424",abstract:"The present chapter has the aim to considerate the most significant aspects of chlorophyll (Chl) applications in the ecological study of fresh waters on the example of the Volga River reservoirs. Throughout the cascade of seven large reservoirs, Chl varied in wide range from 2.5–9 to over 100 μg/L with mean values of 16.5–41.2, 6.7–44.0, and 3.6–10.6 μg/L in the Upper, Middle, and Lower Volga, respectively. Mean Chl values that constantly decrease from the Upper Volga to Lower Volga, characterize Ivankovo, Uglich, and Cheboksary reservoirs as eutrophic, Saratov and Volgograd reservoirs as mesotrophic, while Gorky and Kuibyshev reservoirs in some years are mesotrophic or eutrophic. Chl seasonal dynamics in the Rybinsk reservoir that is dynamics of phytoplankton biomass, is characterized by spring, summer, and, in some years, autumn maxima. Water temperature and water regime of the reservoir are the main factors in Chl dynamics. Years with low-water conditions are favorable for the high Chl concentrations and intensive development of algae. Seasonally average Chl that make from 5 to 22 μg/L during 1969–2019, show variations in trophic state of reservoir from mesotrophic (Chl < 10 μg/L), to moderately eutrophic (10–15 μg/L), and eutrophic (15–22 μg/L).",book:{id:"11324",title:"Chlorophylls",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11324.jpg"},signatures:"Natalya Mineeva"},{id:"82027",title:"Underutilized Grasses Production: New Evolving Perspectives",slug:"underutilized-grasses-production-new-evolving-perspectives",totalDownloads:21,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105375",abstract:"Globally, over-reliance on major food crops (wheat, rice and maize) has led to food basket’s shrinking, while climate change, environmental pollution and deteriorating soil fertility demand the cultivation of less exhaustive but nutritious grasses. Unlike neglected grasses (grass species restricted to their centres of origin and only grown at the subsistence level), many underutilized grasses (grass species whose yield or usability potential remains unrealized) are resistant and resilient to abiotic stresses and have multiple uses including food (Coix lacryma-jobi), feed (Eragrostis amabilis and Cynodon dactylon), esthetic value (Miscanthus sinensis and Imperata cylindrica), renewable energy production (Spartina pectinata and Andropogon gerardii Vitman) and contribution to ecosystem services (Saccharum spontaneum). Lack of agricultural market globalization, urbanization and prevalence of large commercial enterprises that favor major grasses trade, improved communication means that promoted specialization in favor of established crops, scant planting material of underutilized grasses and fewer research on their production technology and products development are the prime challenges posed to underutilized grasses promotion. Integration of agronomic research with novel plant protection measures and plant breeding and molecular genetics approaches for developing biotic and abiotic stresses tolerant cultivars along with the development of commercially attractive food products hold the future key for promoting underutilized grasses for supplanting food security and sustainably multiplying economic outcomes.",book:{id:"10895",title:"Grasses and Grassland - New Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10895.jpg"},signatures:"Muhammad Aamir Iqbal, Sadaf Khalid, Raees Ahmed, Muhammad Zubair Khan, Nagina Rafique, Raina Ijaz, Saira Ishaq, Muhammad Jamil, Aqeel Ahmad, Amjad Shahzad Gondal, Muhammad Imran, Junaid Rahim and Umar Ayaz Aslam Sheikh"},{id:"81218",title:"Murburn Model of Photosynthesis: Effect of Additives like Chloride and Bicarbonate",slug:"murburn-model-of-photosynthesis-effect-of-additives-like-chloride-and-bicarbonate",totalDownloads:30,totalDimensionsCites:2,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103132",abstract:"Oxygenic photosynthesis essentially involves photo-lysis (splitting of water to release oxygen), photo-reduction (formation of NADPH), and photo-phosphorylation (synthesis of ATP) reactions. These reactions use photoactive pigments such as chlorophylls and carotenoids. Z-scheme and Kok-Joliot cycle, the acclaimed and deterministic model of photosynthesis, are founded on the classical enzyme reaction mechanisms that depend solely on affinity-based interactions of enzymes with the substrates at defined active sites, for explaining electron/moiety transfers. In contrast, the new murburn model is built on stochastic collisions between diffusible reactive species (DRS) and other milieu components (including enzymes, substrates and ions). This novel perspective explains fast kinetics and action spectrum, and affords a spontaneously probable/evolvable biochemical system. The murburn perspective proposes that the photo-excitation of pigments in the chloroplast leads to effective charge separation and DRS-formation. DRS are stabilized/utilized by a pool of redox-active components via disordered/parallel bimolecular interactions at the thylakoid membrane interface. Herein, we provide details of how murburn model is a thermodynamically, kinetically, and mechanistically viable mechanism for the formation of ATP, NADPH and oxygen. The murburn model also provides more viable explanations for several classical experimental observations in photosynthesis (Emerson enhancement effect, Jagendorf/Racker experiments, etc.) and the non-specific effects of diverse additives (such as chloride and bicarbonate).",book:{id:"11324",title:"Chlorophylls",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11324.jpg"},signatures:"Kelath Murali Manoj, Nikolai Bazhin, Yanyou Wu and Afsal Manekkathodi"},{id:"81388",title:"Electronic Structure of Chlorophyll Monomers and Oligomers",slug:"electronic-structure-of-chlorophyll-monomers-and-oligomers",totalDownloads:40,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104089",abstract:"This chapter deals with the electronic structure of chlorophyll molecules and their complexes. Different theoretical and quantum chemical calculation methods are used to study the molecular and electronic structure of chlorophylls. Studied spectral region covers ultraviolet and infrared spectral regions, containing blue side of the Soret band, as also traditional Qy band region. Thus, there are not only focusing on the traditional Qy, Qx, and Soret transitions of chlorophylls but also high-energy transitions (in this region also proteins and nuclei acids absorb light). The aim is to show the effect of molecular conformation on the electronic states and thus on the absorption and emission spectra of monomers and oligomers. In chlorophyll-protein complexes, such conformation effect finetuning the spectral transitions and increases overlap between donor and acceptor states of energy transfer processes. Also, the role of vibronic transition in the shape of absorption and emission spectra of the studied systems will be considered.",book:{id:"11324",title:"Chlorophylls",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11324.jpg"},signatures:"Juha Matti Linnanto"},{id:"81038",title:"Earth’s Energy Budget Impact on Grassland Diseases",slug:"earth-s-energy-budget-impact-on-grassland-diseases",totalDownloads:18,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99971",abstract:"The change in climate have caused different biotic and abiotic factors to be more prominent when management plan is executed. The increase in temperature have then cause frequent drought that may attract alien species of vectors to spread novel diseases among the native plants. However, the change in climate varies in different countries. Thus, common diseases that threatens food security such as Xanthomonas spp., Pseudomonas spp are in limelight of research. Vectors lifecycle may cause plant diseases to by cyclative. Therefore, to find the break in the vector’s lifecycle will be a method to eradicate harmful population in grassland. Modern days will then call for innovative method and limitations should be considered. Climate change have also impacted pathogens migration and mating pattern. The need for innovative management is constantly on the rise.",book:{id:"10895",title:"Grasses and Grassland - New Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10895.jpg"},signatures:"Ang Jia Wei Germaine"},{id:"81107",title:"Can Genus Trichoderma Manage Plant Diseases under Organic Agriculture?",slug:"can-genus-trichoderma-manage-plant-diseases-under-organic-agriculture",totalDownloads:95,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103762",abstract:"Organic agriculture has been coming up as one of the promising segments of crop production systems in India. There are numerous reasons for it, however; human health, sustainable environment, soil health, etc. are the important ones. As per the latest information, India has about 1.5% of total cultivable land under organic agriculture. The occurrence of plant diseases in this crop production system is one of the limiting factors. For the management of plant diseases in organically grown crops, there are limited resources since there is a restriction on the use of synthetic fungicides. Under such a situation, bio-pesticides have the potency to take care of plant diseases. Although there are certain fungal and bacterial candidates well efficient in controlling diseases, genus Trichoderma has occupied a prestigious position among them. It is capable of managing seed and soil-borne plant diseases. Presently it is available in wettable powder (WP) and liquid formulations in variable concentrations for the application.",book:{id:"11317",title:"Trichoderma - Technology and Uses",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11317.jpg"},signatures:"Kishor Chand Kumhar, Dalvinder Pal Singh and Anil Kumar"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:15},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"July 5th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). In addition to a number of research articles, he has written two books, Computational Intelligence: An Introduction and Fundamentals of Computational Swarm Intelligence.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Stellenbosch University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. 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He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. 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He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. 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She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. 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She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI)",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:{name:"Kobe College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. 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Currently, he is a professor of Orthodontics. He holds a Certificate of Advanced Study type A in Technology of Biomaterials used in Dentistry (1995); Certificate of Advanced Study type B in Dento-Facial Orthopaedics (1997) from the Faculty of Dental Surgery, University Denis Diderot-Paris VII, France; Diploma of Advanced Study (DESA) in Biocompatibility of Biomaterials from the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Casablanca (2002); Certificate of Clinical Occlusodontics from the Faculty of Dentistry of Casablanca (2004); University Diploma of Biostatistics and Perceptual Health Measurement from the Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Casablanca (2011); and a University Diploma of Pedagogy of Odontological Sciences from the Faculty of Dentistry of Casablanca (2013). 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. 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\r\n\tIn general, the harsher the environmental conditions in an ecosystem, the lower the biodiversity. Changes in the environment caused by human activity accelerate the impoverishment of biodiversity.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity refers to “the variability of living organisms from any source, including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; it includes diversity within each species, between species, and that of ecosystems”.
\r\n
\r\n\tBiodiversity provides food security and constitutes a gene pool for biotechnology, especially in the field of agriculture and medicine, and promotes the development of ecotourism.
\r\n
\r\n\tCurrently, biologists admit that we are witnessing the first phases of the seventh mass extinction caused by human intervention. It is estimated that the current rate of extinction is between a hundred and a thousand times faster than it was when man first appeared. The disappearance of species is caused not only by an accelerated rate of extinction, but also by a decrease in the rate of emergence of new species as human activities degrade the natural environment. The conservation of biological diversity is "a common concern of humanity" and an integral part of the development process. Its objectives are “the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits resulting from the use of genetic resources”.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe following are the main causes of biodiversity loss:
\r\n
\r\n\t• The destruction of natural habitats to expand urban and agricultural areas and to obtain timber, minerals and other natural resources.
\r\n
\r\n\t• The introduction of alien species into a habitat, whether intentionally or unintentionally which has an impact on the fauna and flora of the area, and as a result, they are reduced or become extinct.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Pollution from industrial and agricultural products, which devastate the fauna and flora, especially those in fresh water.
\r\n
\r\n\t• Global warming, which is seen as a threat to biological diversity, and will become increasingly important in the future.
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\r\n\tThe environment is subject to severe anthropic effects. Among them are those associated with pollution, resource extraction and overexploitation, loss of biodiversity, soil degradation, disorderly land occupation and planning, and many others. These anthropic effects could potentially be caused by any inadequate management of the environment. However, ecosystems have a resilience that makes them react to disturbances which mitigate the negative effects. It is critical to understand how ecosystems, natural and anthropized, including urban environments, respond to actions that have a negative influence and how they are managed. It is also important to establish when the limits marked by the resilience and the breaking point are achieved and when no return is possible. The main focus for the chapters is to cover the subjects such as understanding how the environment resilience works, the mechanisms involved, and how to manage them in order to improve our interactions with the environment and promote the use of adequate management practices such as those outlined in the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals.
\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
\r\n\tWater is not only a crucial substance needed for biological life on Earth, but it is also a basic requirement for the existence and development of the human society. Owing to the importance of water to life on Earth, early researchers conducted numerous studies and analyses on the liquid form of water from the perspectives of chemistry, physics, earth science, and biology, and concluded that Earth is a "water polo". Water covers approximately 71% of Earth's surface. However, 97.2% of this water is seawater, 21.5% is icebergs and glaciers, and only 0.65% is freshwater that can be used directly by humans. As a result, the amount of water reserves available for human consumption is limited. The development, utilization, and protection of freshwater resources has become the focus of water science research for the continued improvement of human livelihoods and society.
\r\n
\r\n\tWater exists as solid, liquid, and gas within Earth’s atmosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere. Liquid water is used for a variety of purposes besides drinking, including power generation, ecology, landscaping, and shipping. Because water is involved in various environmental hydrological processes as well as numerous aspects of the economy and human society, the study of various phenomena in the hydrosphere, the laws governing their occurrence and development, the relationship between the hydrosphere and other spheres of Earth, and the relationship between water and social development, are all part of water science. Knowledge systems for water science are improving continuously. Water science has become a specialized field concerned with the identification of its physical, chemical, and biological properties. In addition, it reveals the laws of water distribution, movement, and circulation, and proposes methods and tools for water development, utilization, planning, management, and protection. Currently, the field of water science covers research related to topics such as hydrology, water resources and water environment. It also includes research on water related issues such as safety, engineering, economy, law, culture, information, and education.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/41.jpg",keywords:"Water, Water Resources, Freshwater, Hydrological Processes, Utilization, Protection"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343",scope:"Biomedical Engineering is one of the fastest-growing interdisciplinary branches of science and industry. The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. 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We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. 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