Useful properties acquired by spontaneous mutations in evolutionary processes in plants (Table was directly taken from Mba [42]).
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7475",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Immunogenetics",title:"Immunogenetics",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Because genetic factors can impact immune responses, and immunogenetic associations serve as a predictor of disease development and as a biological indicator of disease progression, the study of immunogenetics is important to basic genetics and immunology, as well as to translational and individualized medicine.This book addresses a few but important issues on the subject of immunogenetics. First, it will review the role that human leukocyte antigen molecules play in the immune system and then take into consideration the effectiveness of Western blotting for the detection of immunologic proteins. The book will discuss studies on the immunogenetics of cancer and tuberculosis followed by implications for immunotherapy. Working separately, the book will also provide evidence that the application of immunogenetics has improved our understanding of brain and behavior disorders.",isbn:"978-1-83880-348-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-347-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-110-5",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75838",price:100,priceEur:109,priceUsd:129,slug:"immunogenetics",numberOfPages:96,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"dd50ca8b9158dc45b6b23fcae43d1daa",bookSignature:"Nima Rezaei",publishedDate:"June 19th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7475.jpg",numberOfDownloads:5659,numberOfWosCitations:5,numberOfCrossrefCitations:9,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:17,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:31,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 28th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 6th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 5th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 24th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 23rd 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"116250",title:"Dr.",name:"Nima",middleName:null,surname:"Rezaei",slug:"nima-rezaei",fullName:"Nima Rezaei",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/116250/images/system/116250.jpg",biography:"Professor Nima Rezaei obtained an MD from Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Iran. He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"7",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1037",title:"Immunogenetics",slug:"immunogenetics"}],chapters:[{id:"66722",title:"Introductory Chapter: Immunogenetics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85505",slug:"introductory-chapter-immunogenetics",totalDownloads:1258,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Amene Saghazadeh and Nima Rezaei",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66722",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66722",authors:[{id:"116250",title:"Dr.",name:"Nima",surname:"Rezaei",slug:"nima-rezaei",fullName:"Nima Rezaei"},{id:"301367",title:"Dr.",name:"Amene",surname:"Saghazadeh",slug:"amene-saghazadeh",fullName:"Amene Saghazadeh"}],corrections:null},{id:"63838",title:"Dynamic Interaction between Immune Escape Mechanism and HLA-Ib Regulation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80731",slug:"dynamic-interaction-between-immune-escape-mechanism-and-hla-ib-regulation",totalDownloads:969,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"HLA molecules scan the intracellular proteome and present self- or non-self-peptides to immune effector cells. HLA-Ia (HLA-A, HLA-B and HLA-C) are the most polymorphic genes, resulting in various numbers of allelic variants expressed on the surface of almost all nucleated cells. In contrast to HLA-Ia molecules that activate the immune system during pathogenic invasion, the marginal polymorphic HLA-Ib molecules (HLA-E, HLA-F and HLA-G) are upregulated during pathogenic episodes and mediate immune tolerance. A fine tuning between downregulation of HLA-Ia and upregulation of HLA-Ib can be observed through immunological episodes that require to remain unrecognized by immune effector cells. While HLA-Ia molecules collaborate by presenting a wide range of peptides, every HLA-Ib molecule is highly specialized in its protective immune function and seems to be restricted in the presentation of peptides. Additionally, Ia molecules are expressed ubiquitously while the expression of HLA-Ib molecules is strictly restricted to certain tissues and occurs instantly on demand of the cells/tissue that attempt to be hidden from the immune system. The more knowledge becomes available for the function of HLA-Ib molecules; the question emerges if the molecular typing of HLA-Ib molecules would be reasonable to take a decision post treatment for personalized cellular therapies.",signatures:"Gia-Gia Toni Ho, Funmilola Heinen, Florian Stieglitz, Rainer Blasczyk and Christina Bade-Döding",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63838",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63838",authors:[{id:"72037",title:"Prof.",name:"Rainer",surname:"Blasczyk",slug:"rainer-blasczyk",fullName:"Rainer Blasczyk"},{id:"169291",title:"Dr.",name:"Christina",surname:"Bade-Doeding",slug:"christina-bade-doeding",fullName:"Christina Bade-Doeding"},{id:"268556",title:"BSc.",name:"Funmilola",surname:"Heinen",slug:"funmilola-heinen",fullName:"Funmilola Heinen"},{id:"268557",title:"MSc.",name:"Gia-Gia Toni",surname:"Ho",slug:"gia-gia-toni-ho",fullName:"Gia-Gia Toni Ho"},{id:"268558",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Florian",surname:"Stieglitz",slug:"florian-stieglitz",fullName:"Florian Stieglitz"}],corrections:null},{id:"65585",title:"Psychoneuroimmunology and Genetics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82557",slug:"psychoneuroimmunology-and-genetics",totalDownloads:967,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Psychoneuroimmunology is a study that investigates the interaction between human emotions and the immune system, which is mediated by the endocrine and nervous systems. The nervous and immune systems maintain extensive communication, including communication to lymphoid organs from deep-rooted sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves. Genetic factors are responsible for individual variation in emotional reactivity, and neuroendocrine stress responses were shown by earlier studies in humans. Several gene-environment studies have shown that long-term effects of stress are being moderated by genetic variations in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. There is a large interindividual variability of HPA axis stress reactivity on variants of the glucocorticoid (GR) or mineralocorticoid receptor genes, and it documents a sex-specific association between different GR gene polymorphisms and salivary cortisol responses to acute psychosocial stress. In conclusion, many kinds of mind-body behavioral interventions are effective in improving mood, quality of life, reducing stress, and anxiety, thereby altering neuroendocrine and immune functions, and ultimately altering the genetic aberrations. However, the question remains as to whether these latter effects are sufficiently large or last long enough to contribute to health benefits, or if they are even relevant to the development of a disease.",signatures:"Rama P. Vempati and Hemakumar M. Reddy",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65585",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65585",authors:[{id:"252474",title:"Dr.",name:"Ram",surname:"Vempati",slug:"ram-vempati",fullName:"Ram Vempati"}],corrections:null},{id:"60651",title:"Immunoassay Techniques Highlighting Biomarkers in Immunogenetic Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75951",slug:"immunoassay-techniques-highlighting-biomarkers-in-immunogenetic-diseases",totalDownloads:1617,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:9,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Diagnosis of autoimmune diseases is crucial for the clinician and the patient alike. The immunoassay techniques most commonly used for this purpose are immunohistochemistry, ELISA, and Western blotting. For the detection of more specific biomarkers or the discovery of new ones for diagnostic purposes and as therapeutic targets, microarray techniques are increasingly used, for example, protein microarray, Luminex, and in recent years, surface plasmon resonance imaging. All of these technologies have undergone changes over time, making them easier to use. Similar technologies have been invented but responding to specific requirements for both diagnostic and research purposes. The goals are to study more analytes in the same sample, in a shorter time, and with increased accuracy. The reproducibility and reliability of the results are also a target pursued by manufacturers. In this chapter, we present these technologies and their utility in the diagnosis of immunogenetic diseases.",signatures:"Emilia Manole, Alexandra E. Bastian, Ionela D. Popescu, Carolina Constantin, Simona Mihai, Gisela F. Gaina, Elena Codrici and Monica T. Neagu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/60651",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/60651",authors:[{id:"52215",title:"Prof.",name:"Monica",surname:"Teodora Neagu",slug:"monica-teodora-neagu",fullName:"Monica Teodora Neagu"},{id:"52218",title:"Dr.",name:"Carolina",surname:"Constantin",slug:"carolina-constantin",fullName:"Carolina Constantin"},{id:"89397",title:"Dr.",name:"Emilia",surname:"Manole",slug:"emilia-manole",fullName:"Emilia Manole"},{id:"216223",title:"Dr.",name:"Elena",surname:"Codrici",slug:"elena-codrici",fullName:"Elena Codrici"},{id:"216226",title:"Dr.",name:"Ionela Daniela",surname:"Popescu",slug:"ionela-daniela-popescu",fullName:"Ionela Daniela Popescu"},{id:"216227",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",surname:"Mihai",slug:"simona-mihai",fullName:"Simona Mihai"},{id:"233495",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandra",surname:"Eugenia Bastian",slug:"alexandra-eugenia-bastian",fullName:"Alexandra Eugenia Bastian"},{id:"242747",title:"Dr.",name:"Gisela",surname:"Gaina",slug:"gisela-gaina",fullName:"Gisela Gaina"}],corrections:null},{id:"65173",title:"Immunogenetic and Immunotherapy in Tuberculosis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83030",slug:"immunogenetic-and-immunotherapy-in-tuberculosis",totalDownloads:848,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTb). TB causes mortality of millions of people every year. Mycobacterium bovis Bacillus Calmette Güerin (BCG) is the only officially approved vaccine that protects against miliary TB and children but fails to protect in adulthood presumably because of the lack of long lasting immunological memory. The problem is even more aggravated because of the emergence of multidrug-resistant strains. Therefore, immunogenetics and immunotherapy of antimycobacterial immunity are complex and poorly characterized. However, several studies either in the mouse model or in vitro, using derived dendritic or macrophages derived from PBMCs or human cell lines, have shown that Th1 type cellular immune response represented by IFN-γ, IL-12 in conjunction with IL-17, and IL-23 are key players of the immune protection to M. tuberculosis. It is known that under different settings type I IFNs promote bacterial virulence and disease exacerbation, since a study with active TB patients was concomitant with a dominant neutrophil-driven interferon inducible gene pattern. Furthermore, in an independent cohort of TB patients, ex vivo experiments with BMDCs (bone marrow–derived dendritic cells) and myeloid from lung showed that there is a cross action between the components of IL-1β, eicosanoid pathways (prostaglandin, lipoxins, and leukotrienes) in active TB, while excessive type I IFNs and IL10 induction, concomitant with an inhibition of iNO3 and prostaglandin, could be found. These responses could be used as a therapeutic target instead of any other treatment based on antibiotics. Furthermore, the work from us has demonstrated that interferon alpha plus BCG vaccine protects against mycobacterial infections through modulating the Th1-type cellular immune response, iNOs, and IL-1β production. These immunomodulatory properties of interferon alpha could influence the outcome of the innate and acquired host immune responses in tuberculosis.",signatures:"Gloria Guillermina Guerrero Manriquez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65173",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65173",authors:[{id:"263373",title:"Dr.",name:"Gloria Guillermina",surname:"Guerrero Manriquez",slug:"gloria-guillermina-guerrero-manriquez",fullName:"Gloria Guillermina Guerrero Manriquez"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5975",title:"Physiology and Pathology of Immunology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b31eea21dfa90b753604f34bf1c0b8a5",slug:"physiology-and-pathology-of-immunology",bookSignature:"Nima Rezaei",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5975.jpg",editedByType:"Edited 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The first information on the importance of genetic diversity begins with Darwin, which emphasizes the importance of variations in the process of adaptation to natural habitat. In the process of surviving species that can adapt to changing environmental conditions and the disappearance of others, the factors that caused them were researched and the definition of alleles was first used by Mendel, who is considered the father of heredity. Alleles do not only create the source of similarities and differences between progenies, but also makes it possible for species with high genetic diversity to continue their evolutionary process by adapting to different conditions. A biochemical approach to genetic diversity was presented by the introduction of isoenzyme techniques in the mid-1960s. In the following years, the discovery of the structure of DNA and its DNA-based examination of diversity has enabled scientists to reach accurate information about genetic diversity, gene flow, and the origins of species. According to the “Neutral Theory of Molecular Evolution” first introduced by Motoo Kimura in 1968, many of the evolutionary changes arise from the genetic drift of the neutral mutant alleles. Greater than 100 bp insertion/deletion is rapidly removed by natural selection that has caused a great change and damage to the DNA. According to the neutral hypothesis, mutations that occur with smaller changes are harmless mutations. They are protected in the evolutionary process by contributing to the formation of genetic diversity. Most of the polymorphisms are kept in a population by mutation and random genetic drift [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7].
\nThe genetic difference between individual of a species is the basis for evolution and adaptation. If all of the individuals were genetically identical, species could not be survived under changing environmental conditions such as drought and salinity. It is known that there is a positive correlation between fertility and viability with population size and genetic variation. For this reason, regardless of whether the existing genetic diversity is beneficial, it should be considered that it poses a potential against rapidly changing environmental conditions [8, 9]. Loss of genetic diversity will adversely affect the ability to deal with environmental change in the evolutionary process. It is anticipated that, particularly small and isolated populations will be more affected by this loss [4]. Although loss of genetic diversity has been thought to be a threat to rare species for a long time, it has also been found to be effective on widespread species with large populations [4, 10, 11]. Furthermore, the fertility and viability rate of populations with reduced genetic variability and loss of valuable alleles, especially as a result of self-destruction, is diminishing. Random genetic drift changes the frequency of alleles between generations. The frequency of some of the alleles may decrease while the other allele may become more common. Naturally occurring mutations also support this process. The genetic variation among individuals is the basis for the evolutionary change of species, populations, and progeny. Evolutionary change requires modifications of genes or gene combinations. The functions of the existing alleles are altered by mutation or recombination. Appropriate mutations can help the organism better use the current environment. Alleles that are previously neutral or have little effect on the reproduction success of individuals may suddenly become important. Obtaining useful genetic variations through natural mutations is a very slow process. In the future, it is impossible to predict which alleles will be necessary for a survival. For this reason, populations and species with high genetic variation are more likely to have alleles that may be necessary for adaptation to changing conditions. Generally, natural populations have the variation to be expressed in the case of the change of selection pressure. The basis of plant breeding is also based on this genetic variation. By artificially altering the selection pressure, some alleles come forward and populations gain new features. Since there is a positive correlation between population size and genetic diversity [12], decreasing population size or limiting gene flow between subpopulations may cause a reduction in genetic diversity [13]. Genetic drift with a positive role in the evolutionary process [3], inbreeding, mating between close relative individuals, reduction of viability and fertility of individuals in the population may cause effects such as the reduction of heterozygote, allelic losses, and some alleles become fixed in the population. As a result, genetic variation will be lost in populations [9, 12, 14]. Many populations are so small that genetic drift, a random process, has an important influence on the number of alleles that will be transferred to future generations. The useful alleles transferred from previous generations may be lost as a result of genetic drift [1]. Two main consequences of genetic drift; (a) different alleles frequencies between generations are irregular and (b) the genetic diversity of the populations is lost. At the beginning, rare alleles will disappear and the mean heterozygote will decrease over time. While genetic diversity within populations decrease, genetic differences between populations may increase or decrease depending on whether the random genetic drift in different populations in the same or opposite direction. This loss will continue until the gene pool is stabilized for an allele or until a balance is established between loss of genetic variation and genetic variation through mutations. The loss of both rare alleles and heterozygotes, which cause the decrease in genetic diversity in the population, will decrease in an inverse proportion to the effective population size (Ne). The population size (Ne), which helps to determine the demographic structure of the population, makes it possible to predict the change in genetic diversity. Population size is an important factor that increases the genetic diversity of individuals’ intra-species and between taxa. Besides genetic diversity of non-endangered species is higher than endanger species [6, 15, 16, 17]. Only a small amount of gene flow may be sufficient to prevent the loss of genetic diversity in a population. Especially, the accumulation of mutations with small deleterious effects in the alleles may reduce the viability and fertility of the populations. These mutations never reach high frequencies in large populations of sexual reproduction. The selection pressure prevents these harmful alleles to become widespread. However, in isolated small populations, the frequency of these harmful alleles may increase and be fixed by chance, if genetic drift may be stronger than natural selection. When a harmful mutation is stabilized in the genetic construct, it causes the population size to decrease and other harmful mutations to be fixed [18]. While the destructive effect of detrimental mutations affect large populations, thousands of years later, can be seen in minutes in small populations. This event, known as mutation meltdown, reduces the size of the population depending on the accumulation of detrimental mutations. The mutation meltdown, is a genetic problem, especially for small populations of endangered species, occur depending on mutation characteristics, demographic characteristics of the mutation and population, and the relationship between mutations and their adaptation [19, 20]. Species or populations suffering from the genetic bottleneck disappear over time. Adaptation can sometimes be a rapid process involving a single gene. In cases when the positive selection is strong, the best allele is fixed in the relevant locus and the adaptation process is terminated unless a better allele is generated by mutation or a new allele is introduced into the population by gene flow. This does not occur in polygenic characters. Genetic drift has a significant impact on the protection of genetic diversity and the amount of genetic variation among populations. Genetic drift as well as mutations, selection, and gene flow are factors contributing to genetic diversity. Sometimes, however, subspecies can occur as a result of gene flow, and which can adversely affect fertility or cause outbreeding depression [9, 21].
\nWhen damage occurs in DNA due to a physical, chemical, or biological agent, molecular systems recognize and repair this damage. When this mechanism is unsuccessful, mutation occurs in the organism [22]. Mutagenesis, a consequence of errors in DNA repair, is a mutation-producing process. Hereditary changes that occur naturally and suddenly, which are not caused by recombination and segregation, are called mutations [23]. Mutations that lead to the formation of new individuals, species, and genera are considered as the most important factors of evolution since they can be transferred to future generations [24]. Mutations that occur in somatic cells are not transferred to future generations, but they are important for vegetative produced species. Mutation-derived individuals are called “mutants” [23]. Natural mutants formed in the evolutionary process are one of the most important factors contributing to the formation of species. The rate of spontaneous mutations in higher plants is quite low (10−5–10−8) [25]. Mutations occur more frequently in some regions of the genome. For example, in almost all organisms, the mutation rate in GC regions is higher than in AT regions [26]. While deleterious or neutral mutations that form a part of the mutations that occur in the natural process may disappear in the evolutionary process, the protected mutants may have desirable agricultural characteristics or easily adapt to changing environmental conditions [25]. The first document relating to mutant selection belongs to the year 300 BC. The description of various wild and cultivated mutants was made by Linnaeus in the second half of the 1700s [23]. Although hereditary variations have been observed and used for thousands of years, the mechanism of heredity was first revealed by Mendel [27]. Johanssen’s research on seed index of common beans in 1913 can be considered as the first to prove the presence of natural mutations with small effects. In 1924, Baur emphasized that the accumulation of these small mutations in the genome over the years had an impact on the evolution process [28]. Mutation term was first used by de Vries at the beginning of the 1900s. The first evidence of mutation breeding work, which will gain a new perspective on plant breeding, was obtained in 1927 in
Mutations can occur in spontaneously or under different influences of various mutagens. For this reason, there are various classifications made by different researchers [2, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33]. Yüce et al. [34] classified mutations into two main categories as genomic and plasmon mutations. Genome mutations; (1) “gene mutations” resulting from genetic changes, (2) “Chromosomal mutations” formed by chromosome aberrations or chromosomal changes, (3) “Ploidy mutations” resulting from genome and chromosome number changes, (4) Mutations created by transposition elements, and (5) Mutations resulting from somaclonal and gametoclonal variations were classified as five subgroups. Mutations occurring in the genetic material of mitochondria and plastids in the cytoplasm are classified as “plasmon mutations” in a single heading [34].
\nGene mutations are structural gene changes in DNA that occur through different mechanisms such as deletion, insertion, and substitution. Intercalar substances, ultraviolet rays, alkylating compounds, and free radicals cause gene mutations [33, 34].
\nChromosome mutations are genetic changes that are generally caused by deletion, duplication, inversion, and translocation mechanisms and are larger than gene mutations [33, 34].
\nPloidy mutations are divided into two main groups as polyploidy and aneuploidy. The smallest ploidy level is the haploid in the gametes, containing n chromosomes. Eukaryotes contain diploid (2n) chromosomes in cell nuclei. Cells that contain more than two genomes in the nucleus are called polyploids. Polyploidy are very common in plant kingdom and are naturally seen in important cultivated plants such as wheat, cotton, potato, banana, and coffee. These species, which contain more than two alleles in terms of genetic structure, display a richer genetic variability. Aneuploidy is the number of chromosome changes that occur as an increase or decrease in the number of chromosomes. In this case, individuals with fewer or more chromosomes than normal chromosomes are formed [34, 35].
\nTransposon elements are the mobile genetic elements found in the genome and cause mutation due to their ability to displace within the genome [36, 37].
\nSomaclonal and gametoclonal variants, another source of mutations, are genotypic or phenotypic differentiations in somatic or gametic cells, which are formed by hormones used in tissue culture media [34, 38, 39].
\nSpontaneous mutations caused by disruptions in the functioning of molecular mechanism in the cell, the main source of genetic diversity [40]. In every generation, 10−5–10−6 mutation rate per gamet cell occurs. This ratio can vary between genes and even by regions within the genes [41]. Although mutations occur infrequently, when considered as a whole genome, it plays an important role in the change of genetic diversity. Because mutations occur at randomly, and it cannot know which one of the gene copies will mutate in diploid or polyploid organisms [22].
\nSpontaneous mutations have been the basis for the beginning of agriculture and for humankind to pass on a settled life. Self-changing hereditary features have made the dormancy period reduced in species such as peas, wheat, and barley. In addition, the loss of bitterness was formed in almond, linden, watermelon, potato, eggplant, cabbage, and various hazelnut species. All these developments have made these products suitable for human consumption. Another spontaneous mutation was the formation of parthenocarpy in grape and banana (Table 1). Naturally occurring mutations have led humans to work on induced mutations [42].
\nUseful properties acquired by spontaneous mutations in evolutionary processes in plants (Table was directly taken from Mba [42]).
When it considered the changing environmental conditions and population growth, it is necessary to increase agricultural products approximately 70% in near future [43]. However, breeding trials for the development of desirable agricultural characteristics cause genetic bottleneck. Genetic resource erosion in plants will also lead to the loss of useful genes that would potentially create for breeding studies [44]. Induced mutations may help regain lost traits due to reasons, such as stress factors in the evolutionary process. These genotypes, exempted by the ethical and legal limitations faced of genetically modified products, can be identified by advanced molecular techniques. Thus, the variation of the mutants with the new phenotypes revealed can provide a different perspective for plant breeding studies [45]. Mba et al. [46], referring to the importance of landrace and wild varieties as important genetic resources in breeding strategies, proposed that artificial mutation of putative parental materials in order to create new alleles controlling the desired characters for the twenty-first century “smart” crop varieties [42].
\nThere is a 125-year history of studies on induced mutation. It was determined that X-ray, alpha, beta, and gamma rays are the source of radiation, with different studies in 1895–1900. In 1897–1908, the first studies were carried out to investigate the effects of radiation on plants in 1901 and 1911, it is proved that mutation was induced by chemicals at the first time. In 1904 and 1905, Hugo de Vries suggested that radiation promoted artificial mutation. In 1910, Thomas Hunt Morgan did his first mutation experiments with
Today, there are 3222 commercial mutant varieties according to the IAEA data. The countries where the most mutant species are released are China (810), Japan (481), and India (330). According to this data, the highest mutant cultivation rate is in Asia continent [47]. When the products are examined, the percentage of mutant varieties by mutation breeding are constituted of 49.5% cereal, 21.9% ornamental plants and flowers, 15% legume, 2.4% fruit nuts, 2.4% vegetable crops, 2.3% fiber crop, 2.1% oil crops, 1.2% forage crops, 0.6% root-tuber crops, 0.4% herbs, 0.2% medicinal plants, and 2% other crops [48].
\nMutations can be induced by biological, chemical, or physical factors as well as spontaneous [40]. In breeding studies, physical and chemical mutagens are generally preferred, but mutations also can be generated by biological agents such as viruses and bacteria. While X-rays, γ-rays, fast neutrons, ultraviolet (UV) rays, beta particles, alpha particles, protons, and ion beams are used as physical mutagens, as chemical mutagens; alkylating agents, azide, hydroxylamine, antibiotics, nitroso compounds, acridines, and base analogs are used for mutagenesis [32, 47]. However, “insertional mutagenesis” and “site-directed mutagenesis” methods, which give more precise results in parallel with progress in genome and sequencing studies, are predicted to be used more widely in future mutation breeding studies [49, 50]. Mutant plants were mostly developed using physical mutagens. Physical mutagens are preferred to chemical mutagens for reasons such as ease of use, low cost, and nontoxicity. In particular, gamma and X-rays are the most commonly used mutagens. About 64% of the mutant plants obtained with the physical mutagens were improved using gamma rays [51, 52, 53].
\nDifferent plant parts such as seed, meristem, callus, and anther can be used in induced mutation studies. Mutation studies begin with the initial phase, called M0, where different plant materials are used. Each generation of the mutation continues in the form of M1, M2, M3,…. When a seed is used as the starting material, homohistont generation is obtained at the M2 stage, while the number of cycles may increase in mutagenesis using vegetative tissues. Screening and selection starts with the first homohistont generations. Once these stages are completed, experiments are carried out to release the mutants obtained, or they can be used as parents in breeding programs [23].
\nInduced mutation studies were initially conducted only in field conditions. Tissue culture studies, began with cell culture at the beginning of the twentieth century, have become widespread parallel to the development of technology and have enabled the rapid and disease free reproduction of many plant species.
Stages of mutation breeding (Figure was directly taken from Jankowicz-Cieslak et al. [
Numerous studies have been carried out for enriching genetic variation by plant-induced mutation and using this variation to the benefit of humankind (Figure 2). Some of these studies were conducted in order to create polymorphism by removing genetic bottleneck. In this way, new hybrid groups can be formed. Genetic diversity is also important for breeding programs and the sustainable use of genetic resources [58]. Genetic variation obtained from induced mutation has contributed to modern plant breeding. Studies conducted by mutation breeding can be summarized under the titles of biotic and abiotic stress tolerance, improving plant nutritional properties, and increasing polymorphism. Barakat and El-Sammak [59] in
LD50 values of two common bean cultivars (figure was directly taken from Ulukapi and Ozmen [
Mutations naturally occurring in the evolutionary process led to the formation of new genotypes. Mutations that occur in nature spontaneously have been modeled for humankind in order to increase the genetic diversity, which is narrowed as a result of natural selection and classical breeding studies. Thus, induced mutation studies have begun. Mutation induction studies, which provide new alleles to the genome by different methods, contribute to the increase of genetic diversity. The increase in genetic variation will increase the chance of survival of species in changing biotic and abiotic conditions. Genetic diversity is not only important for the continuity of species, but also improves the quality criteria of plants, which are raw materials of many industrial products such as food, pharmaceutical, textiles, etc., in these sectors.
\nThe authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Visual information from the eyes generates vast amounts of data for the human brain to process, and provides us with unparalleled clarity and insight into the world we live in. Imaging with terahertz (THz) radiation is a research field that has gained a lot of interest and is in the process of moving from research laboratories to commercial applications [1, 2, 3, 4]. As such, the THz research field has grown so much that it has become impossible for a single human to be able to keep track of all developments [4]. Nevertheless, it is possible to outline why there is great interest and potential in THz imaging technology. Most non-conductive materials and non-polar liquids are THz transparent, useful for non-invasive inspection of many multi-component or buried systems, such as paintings [5], electronic circuits [6], space shuttle panels [7] and carbon-fiber composites [8]. Other possibilities are the measurement of picosecond processes in semiconductors [9], quality control of pharmaceutical tablets [10] and non-invasive detection of explosive substances [11]. A plethora of fundamental material resonances, such as phonons, rotations of molecules and precessions of spins, are observable and controllable by THz radiation [12]. Bio-medical applications are highly alluring most notably because the THz photon energies are non-ionizing and high-water sensitivity gives rise to label-free diagnosis of diseases that alter water content, such as cancer [13] and diabetic foot syndrome [14]. There is also the possibility of damaging or repairing DNA with intense THz radiation [15].
With so many possible applications, the reason why THz radiation is barely used outside of laboratories is due to costs of current THz technology. In particular to imaging, the technology is either too expensive, too slow or sacrifices some detection capability (such as picosecond temporal resolution). This is because materials which are suitable for efficient THz detection simply do not exist. This has resulted in THz detector arrays normally working in either narrowbands [16] or needing cryogenic temperatures for sensitive detection [17]. However, microbolometer arrays have very large bandwidths at room temperature operation [18] and when combined with digital holography they can measure both the amplitude and phase of THz radiation [19, 20]. Unfortunately bolometers achieve frequency resolution with a frequency selective source and they do not offer picosecond temporal resolution. This is acceptable for some applications such as detecting concealed weapons, however for applications where time gated detection is used, for example in extracting depths of painting coatings in original art works [5], it becomes unfeasible. An another imaging technique is to project a THz image on an electro-optic crystal then use visible light CCD arrays to spatially map-out the THz field incident onto the crystal [21, 22]. This does not sacrifice the temporal resolution offered time-domain THz spectrometers, however this needs a regen-amplified Ti:Sapphire laser which makes the whole system big and expensive and has prevented the widespread adoption of this technology despite its capabilities. These imaging techniques are all far-field, apart from [21], meaning that they fail to see detail below
The aforementioned imaging approaches are the standard imaging techniques, relying on a detector array or raster scanning, however there is another alternative. Namely, using a spatially modulated light beam and a single-pixel detector to obtain an image [30]. Approaches based on this technique are commonly called
Single-pixel imaging theory concerns itself with obtaining an image of a scene using a detector that can only measure the total amplitude emanating from the scene. The simplest idea is to raster scan an aperture across the field-of-view, building the image pixel by pixel. However, as the aperture is made smaller and smaller, the signal reaching our detector is reduced. We could increase the light incident onto our detector and overcome detector-noise by simultaneously scanning more apertures during each measurement, an idea that originates with Yates in 1935 [32]. In Figure 1(a) we show the main principle of this idea; we have a light beam that is spatially modulated which propagates through an object and onto a detector with no spatial resolution. It is of the utmost importance that in each measurement we know which apertures were open and which were closed. Without this information we could never reconstruct an image of the object. Each measurement is the dot product of the spatial encoding mask and the transmission function of the object, which is mathematically expressed as
(a) Imaging with a single-element detector. An encoding mask spatially encodes a beam of radiation, then the beam passes through an object and onto the single-element detector. (b) Spatial encoding masks, where the first, second, third and fourth coloumns were constructed from Sylvester Hadamard, cyclic Hadamard, random and Fourier matrices respectively. The green triangle in the cyclic mask is there as a visual guide. (c) 2D image transform examples. Figure (a) was extracted from reference [
where
where the rows of matrix
The Sylvester-Hadamard matrices are binary, meaning that they are easily implemented, specifically with digital micromirror devices which are relatively cheap and have switch rates upto 20 kHz. The reconstruction technique can also be efficiently calculated by just doing the Fast Hadamard-Walsh transform, meaning one does not need to store
The Cyclic-Hadamard matrices, also known as Paley Type I and type II Hadamard matrices as they were first discovered by Paley in 1933 [36], are orthogonal and circulant matrices made of 1 s and -1 s. This means they have large noise robustness, easy binary implementation and they are constructed by having one vector,
Random masks constructed from Bernoulli matrices, or Gaussian random matrices, can also be made from 1 s and -1 s making for easy implementation using binary spatial light modulators. However, these matrices are not directly invertible and using a pseudo-inverse can create stability problems. Therefore convex minimization algorithms are usually used for image reconstruction [30, 31]. The main benefit of this masking approach is that is can be used for undersampling which can greatly reduce the total measurement time at the expense of complicated calculations. References [37, 38] were the first theoretical investigation and one can obtain their reconstruction scripts from reference [39], although reference [40] also freely provides their MATLAB scripts for another minimization algorithm called TVAL3 [41]. These algorithms can be slow, hence a mention needs to be given to reference [42] where Kowarlz et al. creates a pseudo-inverse matrix via Fourier-domain regularization that is able to recover images of quality similar to the slow minimazation algorithms, however with faster calculations based on matrix multiplication methods. Note, they also provide their MATLAB and Python scripts freely on github [43].
Fourier masks are those derived from the Fourier matrix. However, as this is just linear algebra representation of the Fourier transform and we are measuring real images (without imaginary numbers), then we do not need to measure the negative Fourier frequencies as they are just the complex conjugate of their positive frequency counterpart. The Fourier matrix is also orthogonal meaning it has noise robustness equal to the Hadamard matrices as well efficient image reconstruction algorithms, simply the Fast Fourier Transform. These masks, however, are not binary but require grayscale values which limits their deployability. Binary spatial modulators can accomplish this either by temporal dithering, at the expense of slower switch-rates, or by spatial dithering, which creates some quantization errors [34]. Nevertheless, these masks benefit from extensive literature based on the Fourier Transform and various image compression algorithms that can be reversed for image-undersampling procedures.
In this single-pixel imaging modality, the most crucial part is to create a spatially modulated beam. In this respect for the THz regime there are four main methods that can be employed; by creating a physical mechanical mask, by changing the electrical conductivity of a material via the injection/depletion of charge carriers, by controlling the refractive index of liquid crystal cells and by creating a spatially varied beam directly at the THz generation stage.
Creating a physical mask to modulate THz radiation has the great advantage that this is the easiest in terms of manufacturing with great modulation depth,
There is another modulation technique that falls in this mechanical category. Namely, mirror arrays where each mirror can be individually addressed. Such arrays already exist for the visible light regime in the form of digital micromirror arrays (DMD). However, DMD mirrors are with dimensions around 10
Schematic of a single pixel of the THz-SLM for normally incident terahertz waves. The pixel is composed of mirrors that are arranged in 4 rows and 8 columns. (a) OFF-state for a bias voltage of 0 V. all mirrors are inclined and incident terahertz radiation (red) is diffracted away (blue) from the transceiver. (b) ON-state for a bias voltage of 37 V. all mirrors are pulled down to the substrate and incident terahertz radiation (red) is reflected (blue) into the transceiver. (c) Schematic cross-sectional view of an unreleased mirror. The base of the mirror adheres to the parylene C, while the part to be released sits on the poly-Si. (d) Schematic cross-sectional view of a released mirror. The base of the mirror adheres to the parylene C, while the released part is inclined due to residual stress in the Cr-Cu-Cr mirror material. (e) Modulation contrast of the THz-SLM. The contrast exceeds a value of 0.5 for a working range from 0.97 THz to 2.28 THz with a maximum contrast of 0.87 at 1.38 THz. (f) Linear dependence of the detected modulated electric field on the number of switched-ON rows in the THz-SLM. (g) Linear dependence of the detected modulated electric field on the number of switched-ON columns in the THz-SLM. Figure reprinted from reference [
The main principle with this THz modulation technique is based upon the Drude model dielectric function [48, 49].
where
Optical based spatial THz-light modulators are currently the best in terms of achieved switch-rate, operational frequency and ease of implementation. Their switch-rate and operational frequencies are both similar to the electrical modulators in that they also rely on modifying the charge carrier density in some material. However, as they use optical light to achieve this, their experimental implementation is very different and due to the current state of visible-light SLMs they are much easier to be implemented. One starts by patterning a visible light beam and then projecting this spatial pattern onto a semiconductor, thereby creating areas that experience large optical excitation and other areas which are left in their ground state. This in turn creates a spatially varying conductivity/absorption profile on the surface of the semiconductor, and thus if a THz beam passes through this surface then the inverse spatial pattern from the visible-light beam is imparted onto the THz beam. The optical excitation can come in two forms, pulsed and continuous wave. For both cases, the carrier concentration is described by
for carrier generation rate
For continuous wave excitation one needs to consider the photo-carrier generation, recombination and diffusion dynamics within the semiconductor. The steady-state equilibrium carrier concentration within the semiconductor is given by [48].
where
(a) Carrier density (in arbitrary units) for different carrier lifetimes, shown by the colored numbers in ms, as we switch a continuous wave source on and off. (b) Illustration of imaging setup: Using a digital micromirror device and a lens, a pump pulse is spatially structured and projected onto a silicon wafer. This spatially modulates a coincident THz pulse. This THz pulse then passes through an object and is measured on a single-element THz detector. Inset is an optical image of a resolution test target (cartwheel) manufactured from gold on a 6
For pulsed optical-excitation probed by a synchronous THz pulse, Eq. (5) changes because the THz pulse can travel through the spatially photopumped region a few picoseconds after photoexcitation and for
Electrical based modulators are likely to be the long-term future solution for spatial THz modulators because they have very little fundamental limitations. Namely, the maximum switch-rates are limited by the carrier recombination rates meaning they can potentially achieve megahertz switch rates, provided the RC constants of the devices are taken into account, especially with electrically tunable materials such as graphene [58, 59]. Their size is determined by photolithographic manufacturing technologies, which is already orders of magnitudes smaller than the THz wavelengths meaning that pixel sizes can be highly subwavelength. In fact, sometimes THz modulation structures can be too large for some commercial photolithographic systems. They are fully self-contained and compact, which is their main advantage over the optical based modulators (see
One of the first demonstrations of this modulation technique was by Kleine-Ostmann et al. in 2004 [60] where they electronically depleted carriers from a GaAs/AlGaAs interface, achieving about 3% modulation across a broadband frequency range of 0.1 to 2 THz. Since then there have been numerous attempts at improving the modulation depth, see references [61, 62] for recent reviews. These efforts have included enhancing the interaction between the THz wave and the charge carrier regions by metamaterial structures [63, 64]. Others have recently used graphene as the modulator [65, 66]. Using metamaterials or Fabry-Perot type resonances to enhance the modulation depth has the trade-off of reducing the working frequencies of the modulator. A further note is that subwavelength grating structures can enhance the THz modulation over a broadband range [58] for the correct THz polarization.
In 2014 C. M. Watts et al. created an electrical based THz-SLM in reference [67], and Figure 4(a) shows their experimental schematic and part (b) shows an image of their SLM. They electrically change the THz absorption of a 2
(a) Schematic of the single-pixel imaging process utilizing an SLM. An image is spatially modulated by the metamaterial and the resulting radiation is sent to the single-pixel detector. (b) Photograph of the SLM (courtesy of K. burke, Boston College media technology services); total active area of the SLM is (4.8 mm
Another innovative approach to single-pixel imaging is to create a spatially patterned beam at the generation step, rather than generate a homogeneous beam that is then spatially modulated, which has the benefit of not needing a THz-SLM. For the terahertz regime, this can be accomplished by three possible ways. First, having an array of photoconductive antennas [70, 71, 72], however this approach suffers from antenna cross-talk and inefficiency problems arising from the small working-area of the antennas whilst occupying a large area. Further, such antennas arrays have only been used as detectors. The second method is to use an electro-optic (EO) crystal that converts visible-light to THz frequencies via non-linear polarization effects [73]. The generation of THz radiation is localized to where the visible light is, hence projecting a spatially varying light beam will generate a THz-beam with the same spatial features. This idea was implemented by references [74, 75] where they used a used a SLM to pattern an 800 nm femtosecond pulse and project that onto a ZnTe crystal. The third method is similar to the second one, with the difference being the use of a spintronic THz emitter instead of an electro-optic crystal. Here the inverse spin Hall effect is used to generate an ultrafast current transient that generates the THz radiation [76, 77, 78]. The spatial patterning is again done by a visible-light SLM since the THz generation is again localized to areas where the optical-pump was shined upon. This was demonstrated by Chen et al. in reference [79].
The similarities between the spintronic and electro-optic crystal approaches are that they both require femtosecond pulses with mJ/cm
Figure 5(a) shows the experimental setup of reference [79] which uses the spintronic emitter array approach. Note that the EO crystal approach is identical in that you only have to replace the spintronic emitter with the EO crystal and remove the magnetic field, then place the object as close as possible to the emitter array. One should note that the use of the second DMD in Figure 5(a) is only to correct the phase front induced by first DMD, which can also be achieved by the technique shown in the supplementary information of reference [82]. The spintronic emitter is nanometer thick hence Chen et al. was able to resolve metallic lines 6
(a) Schematic of the GHOSTEAM system. The spintronic THz emitter array (STEA) is excited by two-DMD-encoded fs laser pulses and generates spatially coded THz pulses. An object “CAEP” was placed in the near-field region (
Liquid crystal modulators work by the re-orientating the material molecules under an applied voltage. As the molecules are oblong, this changes the refractive index that an electro-magnetic wave experiences. Therefore these devices are great for phase modulation giving the greatest freedom in the values that the sampling matrix can take. In other words, they can theoretically project a Fourier matrix that has grayscale complex-values. Note that complex valued masks can be used in conjunction with an intensity only detector to obtain an image that has phase and amplitude information [83]. A liquid crystal based SLM for THz was computationally studied [84]. However, the re-orientation of the molecules is a slow process, and in the visible light regime liquid crystal displays are typically limited to below 100 Hz switch rates. Due to the longer THz wavelengths, thicker layers of liquid crystals are needed resulting in even slower switch rates. For this reason, liquid crystal spatial modulators for THz radiation have been limited mostly to applications where slow switching speeds are acceptable such as dynamically controllable lenses [85, 86], absorption [87] or polarization control [88].
The first demonstration of a single-pixel THz camera that uses a multi-pixel modulation approach3 was in 2008 by Chan et al. [89]. Therein the authors showed amplitude and phase imaging was possible. Since Chan showed single-pixel THz imaging with metallic masks [89], most publications up until now have focused on improving the implementation by showing proof-of-concept modulation/generation techniques as opposed to potential applications. Shortly after in 2009 spectroscopic imaging was demonstrated [90]. The next experiment was in 2012 by Shen et al. [46] where they used a spinning disc with random masks, but it should be noted that their experiment used an infrared and a THz source whilst using the same SLM. The first demonstration of an optical based SLM was by Shrekenhamer et al. in 2013 [49]. The same group then published an electrical based SLM for single-pixel THz imaging in 2014 [67]. The next developments showed in 2016 that such imaging systems can detect a sub-wavelength fissure (8
The potential applications and capabilities of single-pixel THz cameras are directly determined by the THz source and detector, rather than the technique used to impart a spatial pattern in a beam of THz radiation. As such, it is unlikely for there to be a single-solution for all practical applications. Therefore, it is valuable to discuss where each of the techniques in
The metallic/physical based masks, employed in
Modifying the Drude plasma frequency of a semiconductor via injection/depletion of charge carriers has great potential for compact integration of the entire imaging system, as long as electrical gating is used as it negates the need for an extra pump-laser. The drawback is that to ensure modulation depth over a large frequency range the Drude plasma frequency has to be sufficiently modified. For example, after photoexcitation of silicon if
Direct generation of a spatially varying THz beam,
Although the first experimental implementations of single-pixel cameras can be traced back to 1976 [97], such imaging approaches were not widely studied or implemented in the commercial world. The reason is that the serial measurement of such ideas can not compete with parallel data acquisition of imaging arrays. Further, compressed sensing techniques began gaining mainstream attention in 2006 after two publications [37, 38]. This coincides with the development of visible light spatial modulators thereby allowing the implementation of the ideas in references [37, 38]. Whilst inherently slower than imaging arrays, these single-pixel cameras are much more robust and easier to implement in areas where imaging array technology is unavailable. In particular, the terahertz frequency regime.
This book chapter began by outlining the current state of THz cameras. Then it discusses the background theory of single-pixel imaging techniques. Most of the chapter was dedicated to discussing the current state of spatial THz-light modulators for use in single-pixel THz imaging in
The most advanced THz-SLM at present are those based on optical excitation of semiconductors,
Ultimately, the development of single-pixel THz cameras is likely to proceed with optical modulators being used in university laboratories to optimize the algorithms and methodologies used in image recovery as well as synchronization of all the equipment. Simultaneously there will be an effort to develop electrical based array modulators that have fast-switch rates and large modulation depth over a broadband frequency range. Then the miniaturization of such modulator arrays will start and it is likely that at this point such commercially available THz-SLMs will become available from new specialized start-up companies. Spatially-generated THz beams will likely remain only in laboratories for fundamental studies of different systems, but are unlikely to be used for industrial and commercial applications mostly due to the requirement of pump powers of
This work was partially supported by the Research Grants Council of Hong Kong (project numbers 14206717 and 14201415), The Hong Kong Innovation and Technology Fund (project number ITS/371/16), The Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (grant number EP/S021442/1), and the Royal Society Wolfson Merit Award (EPM).
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Atomic force microscope
Printed Circuit Board
Field-programmable gate array
Spatial light modulator
Terahertz
Electro-optic
Signa-to-noise ratio
Digital micromirror device
Vanadium Dioxide
Charge Coupled device
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(2) Depletion of norepinephrine or serotonin in the amygdala and hypothalamus and local injections of norepinephrine and serotonin receptor antagonists into the central amygdala inhibited the HPA axis responses to neural stress. Norepinephrine and serotonin agonists injected into the amygdala caused an increase in HPA axis activity. The activation of the amygdala facilitated the in vivo release of serotonin from the paraventricular nucleus following electrical stimulation of the brainstem raphe nuclei. (3) Electrical stimulation of the amygdala impaired the glucocorticoid negative feedback action following neural stressful stimuli probably via a decrease in hippocampal corticosteroid receptors.",book:{id:"5485",slug:"the-amygdala-where-emotions-shape-perception-learning-and-memories",title:"The Amygdala",fullTitle:"The Amygdala - Where Emotions Shape Perception, Learning and Memories"},signatures:"Joseph Weidenfeld and Haim Ovadia",authors:[{id:"190851",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Haim",middleName:null,surname:"Ovadia",slug:"haim-ovadia",fullName:"Haim Ovadia"},{id:"192823",title:"Prof.",name:"Joseph",middleName:null,surname:"Weidenfeld",slug:"joseph-weidenfeld",fullName:"Joseph Weidenfeld"}]},{id:"32399",doi:"10.5772/36092",title:"Brain Energy Metabolism in Health and Disease",slug:"brain-energy-metabolism-in-health-and-disease",totalDownloads:9168,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:null,book:{id:"1592",slug:"neuroscience-dealing-with-frontiers",title:"Neuroscience",fullTitle:"Neuroscience - Dealing With Frontiers"},signatures:"Felipe A. Beltrán, Aníbal I. Acuña, María Paz Miró and Maite A. Castro",authors:[{id:"107041",title:"Dr.",name:"Maite A",middleName:null,surname:"Castro",slug:"maite-a-castro",fullName:"Maite A Castro"},{id:"109692",title:"Mr.",name:"Felipe A",middleName:null,surname:"Beltran",slug:"felipe-a-beltran",fullName:"Felipe A Beltran"},{id:"109695",title:"Mr.",name:"Aníbal",middleName:"I.",surname:"Acuña",slug:"anibal-acuna",fullName:"Aníbal Acuña"},{id:"109696",title:"Ms.",name:"Maria Paz",middleName:null,surname:"Miro",slug:"maria-paz-miro",fullName:"Maria Paz Miro"}]},{id:"32393",doi:"10.5772/34852",title:"The Neurochemical Anatomy of Trigeminal Primary Afferent Neurons",slug:"the-neurochemical-anatomy-of-trigeminal-primary-afferent-neurons",totalDownloads:4747,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:null,book:{id:"1592",slug:"neuroscience-dealing-with-frontiers",title:"Neuroscience",fullTitle:"Neuroscience - Dealing With Frontiers"},signatures:"Nikolai E. 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In particular, many neuroimaging studies find that the amygdala fails to activate in response to negative stimuli in individuals with PTSD. Several technical and design issues may explain disparate results regarding amygdala reactivity in PTSD. However, biological and symptom-based factors emerge as possible mediators of amygdala function in PTSD, leading to the conclusion that symptoms of emotional disengagement and dissociation are associated with amygdala hyporeactivity, and symptoms of hypervigilance/hyperarousal and problems with fear conditioning and extinction are reflected by amygdala hyperactivity. Therefore, treatment of PTSD should take into account the nature of amygdala dysfunction in the individual to optimize treatment outcomes.",book:{id:"5485",slug:"the-amygdala-where-emotions-shape-perception-learning-and-memories",title:"The Amygdala",fullTitle:"The Amygdala - Where Emotions Shape Perception, Learning and Memories"},signatures:"Gina L. Forster, Raluca M. Simons and Lee A. Baugh",authors:[{id:"145620",title:"Dr.",name:"Gina",middleName:null,surname:"Forster",slug:"gina-forster",fullName:"Gina Forster"},{id:"195109",title:"Dr.",name:"Raluca",middleName:null,surname:"Simons",slug:"raluca-simons",fullName:"Raluca Simons"},{id:"195110",title:"Dr.",name:"Lee",middleName:null,surname:"Baugh",slug:"lee-baugh",fullName:"Lee Baugh"}]},{id:"55211",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68618",title:"The Amygdala and Anxiety",slug:"the-amygdala-and-anxiety",totalDownloads:3030,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"The amygdala has a central role in anxiety responses to stressful and arousing situations. Pharmacological and lesion studies of the basolateral, central, and medial subdivisions of the amygdala have shown that their activation induces anxiogenic effects, while their inactivation produces anxiolytic effects. Many neurotransmitters and stress mediators acting at these amygdalar nuclei can modulate the behavioral expression of anxiety. These mediators may be released from different brain regions in response to different types of stressors. The amygdala is in close relationship with several brain regions within the brain circuitry that orchestrates the expression of anxiety. Recent developments in optogenetics have begun to unveil details on how these areas interact.",book:{id:"5485",slug:"the-amygdala-where-emotions-shape-perception-learning-and-memories",title:"The Amygdala",fullTitle:"The Amygdala - Where Emotions Shape Perception, Learning and Memories"},signatures:"Sergio Linsambarth, Rodrigo Moraga-Amaro, Daisy Quintana-\nDonoso, Sebastian Rojas and Jimmy Stehberg",authors:[{id:"144923",title:"Dr.",name:"Jimmy",middleName:null,surname:"Stehberg",slug:"jimmy-stehberg",fullName:"Jimmy Stehberg"},{id:"194182",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Rodrigo",middleName:null,surname:"Moraga-Amaro",slug:"rodrigo-moraga-amaro",fullName:"Rodrigo Moraga-Amaro"},{id:"194183",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Sergio",middleName:null,surname:"Linsambarth",slug:"sergio-linsambarth",fullName:"Sergio Linsambarth"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"54675",title:"The Key Role of the Amygdala in Stress",slug:"the-key-role-of-the-amygdala-in-stress",totalDownloads:2966,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Several data highlighted that stress exposure is strongly associated with several psychiatric disorders. The amygdala, an area of the brain that contributes to emotional processing, has a pivotal role in psychiatric disorders and it has been demonstrated to be highly responsive to stressful events. Here we will review evidences indicating how the amygdala changes its functionality following exposure to stress and how this contributes to the onset of anxiety disorders.",book:{id:"5485",slug:"the-amygdala-where-emotions-shape-perception-learning-and-memories",title:"The Amygdala",fullTitle:"The Amygdala - Where Emotions Shape Perception, Learning and Memories"},signatures:"Diego Andolina and Antonella Borreca",authors:[{id:"190318",title:"Dr.",name:"Diego",middleName:null,surname:"Andolina",slug:"diego-andolina",fullName:"Diego Andolina"},{id:"192832",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Borreca",slug:"antonella-borreca",fullName:"Antonella Borreca"}]},{id:"55211",title:"The Amygdala and Anxiety",slug:"the-amygdala-and-anxiety",totalDownloads:3027,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"The amygdala has a central role in anxiety responses to stressful and arousing situations. Pharmacological and lesion studies of the basolateral, central, and medial subdivisions of the amygdala have shown that their activation induces anxiogenic effects, while their inactivation produces anxiolytic effects. Many neurotransmitters and stress mediators acting at these amygdalar nuclei can modulate the behavioral expression of anxiety. These mediators may be released from different brain regions in response to different types of stressors. The amygdala is in close relationship with several brain regions within the brain circuitry that orchestrates the expression of anxiety. Recent developments in optogenetics have begun to unveil details on how these areas interact.",book:{id:"5485",slug:"the-amygdala-where-emotions-shape-perception-learning-and-memories",title:"The Amygdala",fullTitle:"The Amygdala - Where Emotions Shape Perception, Learning and Memories"},signatures:"Sergio Linsambarth, Rodrigo Moraga-Amaro, Daisy Quintana-\nDonoso, Sebastian Rojas and Jimmy Stehberg",authors:[{id:"144923",title:"Dr.",name:"Jimmy",middleName:null,surname:"Stehberg",slug:"jimmy-stehberg",fullName:"Jimmy Stehberg"},{id:"194182",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Rodrigo",middleName:null,surname:"Moraga-Amaro",slug:"rodrigo-moraga-amaro",fullName:"Rodrigo Moraga-Amaro"},{id:"194183",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Sergio",middleName:null,surname:"Linsambarth",slug:"sergio-linsambarth",fullName:"Sergio Linsambarth"}]},{id:"32387",title:"The Mystery of P2X7 Ionotropic Receptor: From a Small Conductance Channel to a Large Conductance Channel",slug:"the-mystery-of-p2x7-receptor-from-a-small-channel-to-a-big-pore",totalDownloads:2442,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"1592",slug:"neuroscience-dealing-with-frontiers",title:"Neuroscience",fullTitle:"Neuroscience - Dealing With Frontiers"},signatures:"R.X. Faria, L.G.B. Ferreira and L.A. Alves",authors:[{id:"76663",title:"Prof.",name:"Luiz A.",middleName:null,surname:"Alves",slug:"luiz-a.-alves",fullName:"Luiz A. Alves"},{id:"76674",title:"Mr.",name:"Leonardo",middleName:null,surname:"Braga",slug:"leonardo-braga",fullName:"Leonardo Braga"},{id:"79615",title:"Dr.",name:"Robson",middleName:null,surname:"Faria",slug:"robson-faria",fullName:"Robson Faria"}]},{id:"32399",title:"Brain Energy Metabolism in Health and Disease",slug:"brain-energy-metabolism-in-health-and-disease",totalDownloads:9168,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:null,book:{id:"1592",slug:"neuroscience-dealing-with-frontiers",title:"Neuroscience",fullTitle:"Neuroscience - Dealing With Frontiers"},signatures:"Felipe A. Beltrán, Aníbal I. Acuña, María Paz Miró and Maite A. 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The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 12th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. 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His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. 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Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7123",title:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7123.jpg",slug:"current-topics-in-neglected-tropical-diseases",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Alfonso J. 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He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. 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Then take a masters degree in science in Germany (Animal breeding). Take a doctorate in animal science at the UANL.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"309250",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Quaresma",slug:"miguel-quaresma",fullName:"Miguel Quaresma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309250/images/9059_n.jpg",biography:"Miguel Nuno Pinheiro Quaresma was born on May 26, 1974 in Dili, Timor Island. He is married with two children: a boy and a girl, and he is a resident in Vila Real, Portugal. He graduated in Veterinary Medicine in August 1998 and obtained his Ph.D. degree in Veterinary Sciences -Clinical Area in February 2015, both from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro. He is currently enrolled in the Alternative Residency of the European College of Animal Reproduction. 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After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"283019",title:"Dr.",name:"Oudessa",middleName:null,surname:"Kerro Dego",slug:"oudessa-kerro-dego",fullName:"Oudessa Kerro Dego",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/283019/images/system/283019.png",biography:"Dr. Kerro Dego is a veterinary microbiologist with training in veterinary medicine, microbiology, and anatomic pathology. Dr. Kerro Dego is an assistant professor of dairy health in the department of animal science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. He received his D.V.M. (1997), M.S. (2002), and Ph.D. (2008) degrees in Veterinary Medicine, Animal Pathology and Veterinary Microbiology from College of Veterinary Medicine, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia; College of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, the Netherlands and Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Canada respectively. He did his Postdoctoral training in microbial pathogenesis (2009 - 2015) in the Department of Animal Science, the University of Tennessee, Institute of Agriculture, Knoxville, Tennessee. Dr. Kerro Dego’s research focuses on the prevention and control of infectious diseases of farm animals, particularly mastitis, improving dairy food safety, and mitigation of antimicrobial resistance. Dr. Kerro Dego has extensive experience in studying the pathogenesis of bacterial infections, identification of virulence factors, and vaccine development and efficacy testing against major bacterial mastitis pathogens. Dr. Kerro Dego conducted numerous controlled experimental and field vaccine efficacy studies, vaccination, and evaluation of immunological responses in several species of animals, including rodents (mice) and large animals (bovine and ovine).",institutionString:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",institution:{name:"University of Tennessee at Knoxville",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"251314",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Gardón Poggi",slug:"juan-carlos-gardon-poggi",fullName:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/251314/images/system/251314.jpeg",biography:"Juan Carlos Gardón Poggi received University degree from the Faculty of Agrarian Science in Argentina, in 1983. Also he received Masters Degree and PhD from Córdoba University, Spain. He is currently a Professor at the Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, at the Department of Medicine and Animal Surgery. He teaches diverse courses in the field of Animal Reproduction and he is the Director of the Veterinary Farm. He also participates in academic postgraduate activities at the Veterinary Faculty of Murcia University, Spain. His research areas include animal physiology, physiology and biotechnology of reproduction either in males or females, the study of gametes under in vitro conditions and the use of ultrasound as a complement to physiological studies and development of applied biotechnologies. Routinely, he supervises students preparing their doctoral, master thesis or final degree projects.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Valencia Catholic University Saint Vincent Martyr",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"309529",title:"Dr.",name:"Albert",middleName:null,surname:"Rizvanov",slug:"albert-rizvanov",fullName:"Albert Rizvanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309529/images/9189_n.jpg",biography:'Albert A. Rizvanov is a Professor and Director of the Center for Precision and Regenerative Medicine at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University (KFU), Russia. He is the Head of the Center of Excellence “Regenerative Medicine” and Vice-Director of Strategic Academic Unit \\"Translational 7P Medicine\\". Albert completed his Ph.D. at the University of Nevada, Reno, USA and Dr.Sci. at KFU. He is a corresponding member of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences, Russian Federation. Albert is an author of more than 300 peer-reviewed journal articles and 22 patents. He has supervised 11 Ph.D. and 2 Dr.Sci. dissertations. Albert is the Head of the Dissertation Committee on Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Genetics at KFU.\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9427-5739\nWebsite https://kpfu.ru/Albert.Rizvanov?p_lang=2',institutionString:"Kazan Federal University",institution:{name:"Kazan Federal University",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"210551",title:"Dr.",name:"Arbab",middleName:null,surname:"Sikandar",slug:"arbab-sikandar",fullName:"Arbab Sikandar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210551/images/system/210551.jpg",biography:"Dr. Arbab Sikandar, PhD, M. Phil, DVM was born on April 05, 1981. He is currently working at the College of Veterinary & Animal Sciences as an Assistant Professor. He previously worked as a lecturer at the same University. \nHe is a Member/Secretory of Ethics committee (No. CVAS-9377 dated 18-04-18), Member of the QEC committee CVAS, Jhang (Regr/Gen/69/873, dated 26-10-2017), Member, Board of studies of Department of Basic Sciences (No. CVAS. 2851 Dated. 12-04-13, and No. CVAS, 9024 dated 20/11/17), Member of Academic Committee, CVAS, Jhang (No. CVAS/2004, Dated, 25-08-12), Member of the technical committee (No. CVAS/ 4085, dated 20,03, 2010 till 2016).\n\nDr. Arbab Sikandar contributed in five days hands-on-training on Histopathology at the Department of Pathology, UVAS from 12-16 June 2017. He received a Certificate of appreciation for contributions for Popularization of Science and Technology in the Society on 17-11-15. He was the resource person in the lecture series- ‘scientific writing’ at the Department of Anatomy and Histology, UVAS, Lahore on 29th October 2015. He won a full fellowship as a principal candidate for the year 2015 in the field of Agriculture, EICA, Egypt with ref. to the Notification No. 12(11) ACS/Egypt/2014 from 10 July 2015 to 25th September 2015.; he received a grant of Rs. 55000/- as research incentives from Director, Advanced Studies and Research, UVAS, Lahore upon publications of research papers in IF Journals (DR/215, dated 19-5-2014.. He obtained his PhD by winning a HEC Pakistan indigenous Scholarship, ‘Ph.D. fellowship for 5000 scholars – Phase II’ (2av1-147), 17-6/HEC/HRD/IS-II/12, November 15, 2012. \n\nDr. Sikandar is a member of numerous societies: Registered Veterinary Medical Practitioner (life member) and Registered Veterinary Medical Faculty of Pakistan Veterinary Medical Council. The Registration code of PVMC is RVMP/4298 and RVMF/ 0102.; Life member of the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Alumni Association with S# 664, dated: 6-4-12. ; Member 'Vets Care Organization Pakistan” with Reference No. VCO-605-149, dated 05-04-06. :Member 'Vet Crescent” (Society of Animal Health and Production), UVAS, Lahore.",institutionString:"University of Veterinary & Animal Science",institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"311663",title:"Dr.",name:"Prasanna",middleName:null,surname:"Pal",slug:"prasanna-pal",fullName:"Prasanna Pal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311663/images/13261_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Dairy Research Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"283315",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"El-Gendy",slug:"samir-el-gendy",fullName:"Samir El-Gendy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRduYQAS/Profile_Picture_1606215849748",biography:"Samir El-Gendy is a Professor of anatomy and embryology at the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University, Egypt. Samir obtained his PhD in veterinary science in 2007 from the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University and has been a professor since 2017. Samir is an author on 24 articles at Scopus and 12 articles within local journals and 2 books/book chapters. His research focuses on applied anatomy, imaging techniques and computed tomography. Samir worked as a member of different local projects on E-learning and he is a board member of the African Association of Veterinary Anatomists and of anatomy societies and as an associated author at local and international journals. Orcid: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6180-389X",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"246149",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Kubale",slug:"valentina-kubale",fullName:"Valentina Kubale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246149/images/system/246149.jpg",biography:"Valentina Kubale is Associate Professor of Veterinary Medicine at the Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. Since graduating from the Veterinary faculty she obtained her PhD in 2007, performed collaboration with the Department of Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Denmark. She continued as a post-doctoral fellow at the University of Copenhagen with a Lundbeck foundation fellowship. She is the editor of three books and author/coauthor of 23 articles in peer-reviewed scientific journals, 16 book chapters, and 68 communications at scientific congresses. Since 2008 she has been the Editor Assistant for the Slovenian Veterinary Research journal. She is a member of Slovenian Biochemical Society, The Endocrine Society, European Association of Veterinary Anatomists and Society for Laboratory Animals, where she is board member.",institutionString:"University of Ljubljana",institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"258334",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Fonseca-Alves",slug:"carlos-eduardo-fonseca-alves",fullName:"Carlos Eduardo Fonseca-Alves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/258334/images/system/258334.jpg",biography:"Dr. Fonseca-Alves earned his DVM from Federal University of Goias – UFG in 2008. He completed an internship in small animal internal medicine at UPIS university in 2011, earned his MSc in 2013 and PhD in 2015 both in Veterinary Medicine at Sao Paulo State University – UNESP. Dr. Fonseca-Alves currently serves as an Assistant Professor at Paulista University – UNIP teaching small animal internal medicine.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Paulista",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"245306",title:"Dr.",name:"María Luz",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia Pardo",slug:"maria-luz-garcia-pardo",fullName:"María Luz Garcia Pardo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/245306/images/system/245306.png",biography:"María de la Luz García Pardo is an agricultural engineer from Universitat Politècnica de València, Spain. She has a Ph.D. in Animal Genetics. Currently, she is a lecturer at the Agrofood Technology Department of Miguel Hernández University, Spain. Her research is focused on genetics and reproduction in rabbits. The major goal of her research is the genetics of litter size through novel methods such as selection by the environmental sensibility of litter size, with forays into the field of animal welfare by analysing the impact on the susceptibility to diseases and stress of the does. Details of her publications can be found at https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9504-8290.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Miguel Hernandez University",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"350704",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Camila",middleName:"Silva Costa",surname:"Ferreira",slug:"camila-ferreira",fullName:"Camila Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/350704/images/17280_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Veterinary Medicine at the Fluminense Federal University, specialist in Equine Reproduction at the Brazilian Veterinary Institute (IBVET) and Master in Clinical Veterinary Medicine and Animal Reproduction at the Fluminense Federal University. She has experience in analyzing zootechnical indices in dairy cattle and organizing events related to Veterinary Medicine through extension grants. I have experience in the field of diagnostic imaging and animal reproduction in veterinary medicine through monitoring and scientific initiation scholarships. I worked at the Equus Central Reproduction Equine located in Santo Antônio de Jesus – BA in the 2016/2017 breeding season. I am currently a doctoral student with a scholarship from CAPES of the Postgraduate Program in Veterinary Medicine (Pathology and Clinical Sciences) at the Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRRJ) with a research project with an emphasis on equine endometritis.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"41319",title:"Prof.",name:"Lung-Kwang",middleName:null,surname:"Pan",slug:"lung-kwang-pan",fullName:"Lung-Kwang Pan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41319/images/84_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"125292",title:"Dr.",name:"Katy",middleName:null,surname:"Satué Ambrojo",slug:"katy-satue-ambrojo",fullName:"Katy Satué Ambrojo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/125292/images/system/125292.jpeg",biography:"Katy Satué Ambrojo received her Veterinary Medicine degree, Master degree in Equine Technology and doctorate in Veterinary Medicine from the Faculty of Veterinary, CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in Valencia, Spain.Dr. Satué is accredited as a Private University Doctor Professor, Doctor Assistant, and Contracted Doctor by AVAP (Agència Valenciana d'Avaluació i Prospectiva) and currently, as a full professor by ANECA (since January 2022). To date, Katy has taught 22 years in the Department of Animal Medicine and Surgery at the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in undergraduate courses in Veterinary Medicine (General Pathology, integrated into the Applied Basis of Veterinary Medicine module of the 2nd year, Clinical Equine I of 3rd year, and Equine Clinic II of 4th year). Dr. Satué research activity is in the field of Endocrinology, Hematology, Biochemistry, and Immunology in the Spanish Purebred mare. She has directed 5 Doctoral Theses and 5 Diplomas of Advanced Studies, and participated in 11 research projects as a collaborating researcher. She has written 2 books and 14 book chapters in international publishers related to the area, and 68 scientific publications in international journals. Dr. Satué has attended 63 congresses, participating with 132 communications in international congresses and 19 in national congresses related to the area. Dr. Satué is a scientific reviewer for various prestigious international journals such as Animals, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Veterinary Clinical Pathology, Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, Reproduction in Domestic Animals, Research Veterinary Science, Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research, Livestock Production Science and Theriogenology, among others. Since 2014 she has been responsible for the Clinical Analysis Laboratory of the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University Veterinary Clinical Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"201721",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatrice",middleName:null,surname:"Funiciello",slug:"beatrice-funiciello",fullName:"Beatrice Funiciello",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201721/images/11089_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated from the University of Milan in 2011, my post-graduate education included CertAVP modules mainly on equines (dermatology and internal medicine) and a few on small animal (dermatology and anaesthesia) at the University of Liverpool. After a general CertAVP (2015) I gained the designated Certificate in Veterinary Dermatology (2017) after taking the synoptic examination and then applied for the RCVS ADvanced Practitioner status. After that, I completed the Postgraduate Diploma in Veterinary Professional Studies at the University of Liverpool (2018). My main area of work is cross-species veterinary dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"291226",title:"Dr.",name:"Monica",middleName:null,surname:"Cassel",slug:"monica-cassel",fullName:"Monica Cassel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/291226/images/8232_n.jpg",biography:'Degree in Biological Sciences at the Federal University of Mato Grosso with scholarship for Scientific Initiation by FAPEMAT (2008/1) and CNPq (2008/2-2009/2): Project \\"Histological evidence of reproductive activity in lizards of the Manso region, Chapada dos Guimarães, Mato Grosso, Brazil\\". Master\\\'s degree in Ecology and Biodiversity Conservation at Federal University of Mato Grosso with a scholarship by CAPES/REUNI program: Project \\"Reproductive biology of Melanorivulus punctatus\\". PhD\\\'s degree in Science (Cell and Tissue Biology Area) \n at University of Sao Paulo with scholarship granted by FAPESP; Project \\"Development of morphofunctional changes in ovary of Astyanax altiparanae Garutti & Britski, 2000 (Teleostei, Characidae)\\". She has experience in Reproduction of vertebrates and Morphology, with emphasis in Cellular Biology and Histology. She is currently a teacher in the medium / technical level courses at IFMT-Alta Floresta, as well as in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Animal Science and in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Business.',institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"442807",title:"Dr.",name:"Busani",middleName:null,surname:"Moyo",slug:"busani-moyo",fullName:"Busani Moyo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gwanda State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"439435",title:"Dr.",name:"Feda S.",middleName:null,surname:"Aljaser",slug:"feda-s.-aljaser",fullName:"Feda S. Aljaser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"423023",title:"Dr.",name:"Yosra",middleName:null,surname:"Soltan",slug:"yosra-soltan",fullName:"Yosra Soltan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"349788",title:"Dr.",name:"Florencia Nery",middleName:null,surname:"Sompie",slug:"florencia-nery-sompie",fullName:"Florencia Nery Sompie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sam Ratulangi University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"428600",title:"MSc.",name:"Adriana",middleName:null,surname:"García-Alarcón",slug:"adriana-garcia-alarcon",fullName:"Adriana García-Alarcón",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428599",title:"MSc.",name:"Gabino",middleName:null,surname:"De La Rosa-Cruz",slug:"gabino-de-la-rosa-cruz",fullName:"Gabino De La Rosa-Cruz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428601",title:"MSc.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Campuzano-Caballero",slug:"juan-carlos-campuzano-caballero",fullName:"Juan Carlos Campuzano-Caballero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"95",type:"subseries",title:"Urban Planning and Environmental Management",keywords:"Circular Economy, Contingency Planning and Response to Disasters, Ecosystem Services, Integrated Urban Water Management, Nature-based Solutions, Sustainable Urban Development, Urban Green Spaces",scope:"