Geometrical and operating parameters of the plain bearing.
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More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
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The diabetes epidemic is expected to affect approx. 592 people by the year 2035. The urgency to prevent the largest diabetes epidemic in history has now assessed multiple risk factors involved with induction of Type 3 diabetes connected to various chronic diseases. Insulin resistance and brain aging now indicate neuron vulnerability to mitophagy associated with the diabetes pandemic expected in 2050 [1, 2]. Diabetes and its connections autoimmunity [3] have become important to mitophagy, metabolic disease with relevance to the nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) epidemic.
An association between various genes and the immune system [4, 5] has been proposed to be involved with the regulation of life-span in various species. Immune gene activation has been associated with brain aging [6] with the critical involvement of inflammation in the development of neuro-degeneration. Autoimmune disease, drugs and immunosenescence are related to the chronic disease epidemic with uncontrolled release of inflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor α and interleukin-6 [7, 8]. Major interests to determine human longevity require the assessment of nutrition and diet with relevance to the control of inflammatory cytokines that are associated with age-related changes in the immune system and the induction of diabetes, NAFLD and neurodegeneration.
Appetite control with relevance to immuno-metabolism has become critical to the treatment of NAFLD. The major defect in global chronic disease is autoimmune disease with defective adipose tissue and liver interaction involved with the release of inflammatory cytokines and adipo-cytokines relevant to toxic immune reactions that involve the pancreas, brain, heart, thyroid, kidneys and reproductive organs. Appetite control and autoimmune disease are connected to anti-aging genes with relevance to irreversible programmed cell death in various cells and tissues. Immune competence changes over a human’s life span with a process known as immunosenescence [9, 10]. In man multiple theories of aging have been proposed with the immune theory of aging that involve abnormal inflammatory responses that contribute to the induction of chronic diseases [11].
In various communities in the developing and developed world the understanding of the ingestion of a healthy diet and hepatic fat metabolism has become of critical importance to the treatment diabetes that is now linked to various organ diseases. In the world [12] transition to healthy diets has become urgent to prevent insulin resistance, autoimmune disease and NAFLD. The liver is the major organ for the metabolism of dietary fat and after consumption of a meal in healthy individuals the fat is rapidly metabolized by the mitochondria in the liver.
A diet rich in fat and sugar that lead to fat deposition in the liver can be referred to as liver steatosis. The defect in the liver fatty acid metabolism is possibly related to mitochondrial dysfunction and a careful calorie controlled diet may reverse liver steatosis. As mitochondrial apoptosis occurs steatohepatitis may be associated with liver inflammation. Steatohepatitis may induce NAFLD that may then progress to severe inflammation and liver cirrhosis. In obesity and diabetes the metabolism of a fat meal by the liver is defective with associated hyperglycemia and hyperinsulinemia. Food restriction [13] and appetite control are vital to the treatment of NAFLD with hepatic fat metabolism connected to insulin resistance, autoimmune disease and mitophagy [14].
Insulin treatment in diabetes has provided information that approx. 30% of patients are involved with insulin treatment or plan to start insulin with insulin regimens [15] associated with various insulin doses and failure of oral anti-diabetic medications. Type 2 diabetes mellitus is characterized by hyperglycemia, insulin resistance, and impairment of insulin secretion [16]. The impairment of insulin secretion is related to hyperglycemia, high serum low-density lipoprotein cholesterol concentrations and low serum high-density lipoprotein cholesterol concentrations with relevance to cardiovascular disease [17]. The relative importance of impaired insulin release and insulin resistance in the pathogenesis of Type 2 diabetes has been evaluated and may be connected to NAFLD. NAFLD may be connected to autoimmune disease and mitophagy associated with impairment in insulin secretion and cardiovascular disease [18, 19, 20]. In Type 1 diabetes the use of insulin therapy has been assessed with the critical importance to reduce hyperglycemia, severe hypoglycemia and the development of long-term complications [21, 22, 23]. Insulin therapy should be carefully evaluated in Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes with relevance to reduction in plasma glucose levels [24]. Interference in hepatic glucose production [24, 25] or interference with increased glucose uptake by the liver may be sensitive to repression of glucose related genes associated with the induction of glucolipotoxicity, NAFLD and insulin resistance. Exercise and insulin therapy [26] may reduce glucolipotoxicity and NAFLD but with the aging process the pathogenetic loop [27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32] that involve hyperglycemia, hypercholesterolemia and hyperinsulinemia may be associated with autoimmune disease, mitophagy and programmed cell death of various cells and tissues [18, 19, 20]. The role of diet, lifestyle, stress, sleep and circadian disorders [33] may inactivate the anti-aging gene Sirtuin 1 (Sirt 1) with relevance to insulin therapy and induction of NAFLD associated with the pathogenetic loop (Figure 1) and uncontrolled inflammation of cells and tissues [18, 19, 20].
Diabetes and the pathogenetic loop associated with inflammation, age related diseases and neurodegeneration involve inactivation of the anti-aging gene Sirtuin 1 (Sirt 1) associated with mitochondrial apoptosis in various species and man.
Insulin resistance is involved early in alterations of nuclear, subcellular and cell membrane function that lead to cell transformation without reversible changes with accelerated cell apoptosis [34]. In 2050 the predicted global diabetes pandemic [1, 2] has accelerated scientific research to determine the identification of novel genomic pathways such as the anti-aging gene Sirt 1 that may provide new knowledge with relevance to accelerated cell apoptosis and inactivated insulin therapy. In Type 2 diabetes and Type 1 diabetes various genes and genetic loci have been reported to be involved in the development of diabetes [35]. Novel genes [36] have been identified that are involved with autoimmune disease [18, 19, 36, 37] and glucolipotoxicity with irreversible immune complications relevant to NAFLD, diabetes [3] and the pathogenetic loop. The discovery of the anti-aging gene Sirt 1 now has become important to the treatment of diabetes with insulin therapy in Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes connected to Sirt 1 activation in the pancreas with relevance to insulin release [38] with Sirt 1 associated with mitochondrial biogenesis (Figure 1) and cell survival in various tissues [38, 39]. The inactivation of Sirt 1 [39] in humans leads to the pathogenetic loop in diabetes and implicates nutritional and environmental factors in the induction of programmed cell death.
Sirt 1 is a nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) dependent class III histone deacetylase (HDAC) that targets transcription factors such as p 53 to adapt gene expression to metabolic activity and the deacetylation of nuclear receptors indicate its critical involvement in insulin resistance and autoimmune disease [18]. In situ hybridization analysis has localized the human Sirt 1 gene to chromosome 10q21.3 [18]. Calorie restriction is essential for Sirt 1 transcriptional regulation with other factors such as diet and lifestyle critical for the prevention of insulin resistance and NAFLD. Sirt 1 is an acute phase protein involved with neuron proliferation [18] and its regulation of the suprachiasmatic nucleus is involved with control of the circadian rhythm [18]. The circadian rhythm and immune system are closely connected to the immune response. Nutritional interventions that are controlled by the consumption of a low calorie diet indicate the maintenance of connections between Sirt 1 and other anti-aging genes such as Klotho, p66shc (longevity protein) and FOXO1/FOXO3a that are connected to programmed cell death [36]. Sirt 1 and transcriptional regulation of anti-aging genes are critical to mitophagy (Figure 1) and neurodegenerative disease with accelerated brain aging connected to NAFLD and diabetes [19, 36].
The connections between NAFLD and diabetes have become of central importance to the expected diabetes pandemic by the year 2050 [1, 2]. NAFLD in diabetic individuals may completely inactivate insulin therapy with defective insulin dose regimens and failure of oral anti-diabetic medications. The defect in the liver fatty acid metabolism is possibly related to mitochondrial dysfunction associated with severe liver inflammation and steatohepatitis that may induce NAFLD that may then progress to severe inflammation (NASH) and liver cirrhosis. Insulin therapy has been used to improve liver function but with NAFLD, high dose insulin therapy may be unsuccessful with liver inflammation [40, 41, 42] associated with uncontrolled hyperglycemia and mitochondrial apoptosis (Figure 2). Insulin therapy with insulin dose and oral anti-diabetic medications should be re-evaluated to improve hepatocyte mitochondrial biogenesis with relevance to reversal of liver disease connected to hyperglycemia and NAFLD in various Type 1, Type 2 and Type 3 [35, 39] diabetics.
Indian spices have become important as a diabetes technology and its use in diabetes has become of concern. Indian spices such as curcumin and cinnamon associated with glucose control in diabetics but excessive curcumin or piperine may inactivate insulin therapy associated with hyperglycemic induced mitochondrial apoptosis in the brain and the periphery.
The connections between Sirt 1 and insulin resistance have accelerated in recent years with Sirt 1 as a calorie sensitive gene is now implicated in insulin resistance and to the important to glucose dependent insulin secretion with protection of pancreatic β-cell mass [43, 44, 45, 46]. Sirt 1 may be involved in silencing insulin resistance by regulation of specific proteins involved in insulin action [47]. Anti-inflammatory actions in adipocytes involve Sirt 1 repression and inflammation [48, 49] associated with the adipose-liver defect [49, 50] and the induction of NAFLD. Sirt 1 dysfunction in the brain leads to systemic insulin resistance [51] with close links to Type 3 diabetes and NAFLD [52, 53]. In Sirt 1 knockout mice increased adipose tissue mass has been connected to NAFLD [33]. The expression of Sirt 1 protein has a molecular weight (Mol Wt) of 81 kda with Mol Wt variation (81–110 kda). Insulin therapy to prevent NAFLD requires insulin dose/antidiabetic medication calculation to release the Sirt 1 acute phase protein [18, 37]. Sirt 1 is essential to prevent inflammation and Sirt 1 inactivation may induce NAFLD that may corrupt pancreas function. Insulin therapy and plasma Sirt 1 levels may allow mitochondrial biogenesis to be assessed with relevance to therapeutic glucose control in Type 1, 2 and 3 diabetics. It is unclear if inactivation of insulin therapy is associated with mitophagy and the induction of NAFLD and various organ diseases [52]. Appetite control [13, 18] is now critical to the maintenance of mitochondrial biogenesis and insulin therapy with overeating [13] connected to inactivation of insulin therapy and linked to the severity of the diabetic condition.
Indian spices have become important as a diabetes technology [54] with Indian spices such as curcumin and cinnamon associated with glucose control in diabetics (Figure 2). The event of insulin therapy as the primary therapy in diabetes technology has raised concern with relevance to the consumption of Indian spices as a secondary technology [55]. Indian spices consumed over many years are not cleared from the body and may bind to cells and receptors with excess Indian spices that may associate with insulin receptors related to altered insulin actions and inactivated insulin therapy. In normal individuals consumption of cinnamon and curcumin may inactivate the biological activity of insulin [54, 55] with Indian spices as the secondary treatment for glucose control in the brain and the periphery. Drugs such as anti-obese drugs [56] and novel drugs [57] are now of critical importance to NAFLD and insulin therapy. Insulin therapy and the use of various therapeutic drugs in diabetes have been linked to the treatment of organ dysfunction [35, 57, 58, 59] in diabetes. The use of Indian spices should be reassessed in various populations to prevent interference with drug/insulin therapy (Figure 2) or with caffeine effects [60] relevant to the treatment of NAFLD and diabetes. The mixing of spices such as curcumin, turmeric and black pepper in coffee should be discouraged and may contribute to the transcriptional dysregulation of Sirt 1 and induction of mitochondrial apoptosis relevant to diabetes and the pathogenetic loop [27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32].
Genomic medicine in the treatment of cardiovascular disease and diabetes [19, 37] has now accelerated in various communities. Peripheral nutrition is essential early to prevent neurodegeneration (Type 3 diabetes) that lead to uncontrolled peripheral glucose homeostasis. Type 3 diabetes is associated with suprachiasmatic nucleus defects with the abnormal maintenance of brain and whole body glucose metabolism in various species and man [20]. Nutritional therapy in diabetics now need to involve the use of Sirt 1 activators [61] to prevent the effects of various Sirt 1 inhibitors that accumulate in the blood plasma that repress Sirt 1 expression in cells and tissues. A dose of 4 g/day of phosphatidylinositol [62] is essential with insulin therapy to prevent hyperglycemia, NAFLD and other neurodegenerative diseases. Sirt 1 inhibitors such as excess palmitic acid (cream, cheese), alcohol and drugs (suramin and sirtinol) should be carefully controlled to prevent inactivation of insulin therapy. Sirt 1 activators such as pyruvic acid, leucine and magnesium are critical with relevance to insulin therapy. Diabetic individuals with Indian spice consumption (Figure 3) over years need to be carefully evaluated with relevance to plasma Sirt 1 inhibitors, xenobiotics [63], caffeine content [60], drug therapy, bacterial lipopolysaccharides (LPS) and mycotoxins [62] that may interfere with insulin/oral medication therapy. The importance of genomic medicine may indicate that the immune system may malfunction [37] early with relevance to poor nutrition of food quality with irreversible organ disease manifestations. Biotherapy and the immune system [37, 61] may be critical to insulin therapy and connected to insulin resistance and NAFLD. Appetite control and essential food components [64] may be essential to maintain the immune system with autoimmune disease associated with appetite dysregulation and poor food quality. Specific mitochondrial nutrients [65] with insulin therapy need to be consumed to prevent severe mitophagy and organ disease.
Poor food quality and core body temperature defects will inactivate Sirt 1 and induce insulin resistance and NAFLD. Sirt 1 inhibitors such as xenobiotics, caffeine/Indian spice over-consumption and magnesium deficiency may lead to the diabetes pandemic with high doses of phosphatidylinositol essential to maintain insulin therapy and prevent the induction of NAFLD.
Food quality with relevance to stroke, synaptic plasticity and neurological diseases has become important to diabetic individuals with essential maintenance and prevention of brain diseases by insulin therapy. Unhealthy diets that contain LPS, mycotoxins and xenobiotics can induce NAFLD with inactivation of insulin therapy. In the developing world increased plasma LPS levels (Figure 3) have raised concern with relevance to induction of metabolic and neurodegenerative diseases [66, 67]. Antibiotic resistance with relevance to antimicrobial drug use should be carefully controlled to prevent excessive release of LPS from the debris of gram negative bacteria [68]. Food preparation should be carefully assessed to prevent end products such as LPS and patulin that may persist in contaminated food [63, 69]. LPS and patulin may inactivate Sirt 1 [62] with relevance to insulin resistance and NAFLD. Xenobiotics [63] in air, food and water may inactivate insulin therapy (Figure 3) with increased xenobiotic levels associated with mitochondrial apoptosis.
Core body temperature (Figure 3) and insulin therapy are closely connected and dysregulation of core body temperature may induce NAFLD. The discovery of the heat shock gene Sirt 1 [70] has indicated that careful body temperature control is critical to prevent autoimmune disease and mitochondrial apoptosis. Sirt 1 and its inactivation are associated with increased heat shock protein 70 with relevance to natural killer cell activation and mitochondrial apoptosis. Nutritional therapy and core body temperature are essential to maintain insulin therapy in diabetics with relevance to mitophagy and programmed cell death. The event of heat shock protein 70 disturbances may lead to kidney injury [71] and associated with chronic kidney disease and neurodegeneration in diabetes.
The analysis of various plasma biomarkers with insulin therapy [72] has become of major interest to NAFLD development, therapeutic strategies [73, 74, 75, 76, 77] and diabetes research. Essential measurements of plasma Sirt 1 and heat shock protein levels need to be determined to indicate core body temperature defects with relevance to inactivation of insulin therapy. Tissue analysis of anti-aging genes [18, 33, 54] need to be conducted to determine the role of insulin therapy with relevance to reversal of NAFLD [18, 33, 35, 49, 55, 68, 69] with connections to inflammation and metabolic diseases. Plasma assays of inflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor alpha, interleukin-1 and interleukin-6 [10, 11] need to be assayed with effective insulin therapy. The major limitation with insulin therapy is to correlate the dose of insulin injected with plasma biomarkers [78] that maintain mitochondrial biogenesis associated with the prevention of NAFLD (Figure 4). The use of antimicrobials [79] with insulin therapy should be carefully controlled to prevent increased release of gram negative bacteria LPS end products that may interfere with glucose homeostasis and induce NAFLD. Plasma LPS should be measured with antimicrobial use in individuals on insulin therapy. The connections between the antimicrobial activity, immune system and nitric oxide homeostasis involve Sirt 1 and connected to toxic immune reactions [80].
Complications of insulin therapy in diabetes lead to irreversible mitophagy and programmed cell death with relevance to defective Sirt 1 expression in diabetic individuals. Conventional clinical biochemistry tests do not indicate nuclear-mitochondria defects associated with autoimmune disease and mitophagy but lipidomic tests may be relevant to insulin therapy and Sirt 1 analysis.
The geriatric population in many communities is associated with insulin resistance, Sirt 1 repression and nuclear-mitochondria defects relevant to NAFLD. Sirt 1 measurement in the plasma, cytoplasm and nucleus are essential to determine the relevance of insulin therapy and mitochondrial apoptosis when compared to the validity of various diagnostic tests and plasma analytic measurements. In many biomarker laboratories the comprehensive assessment of various biomarkers may not be correlated with insulin therapy with mitophagy the inevitable cellular defect in geriatric individuals. Analysis of plasma biomarkers (Figure 4) and tissue samples may indicate a primary autoimmune reaction related to a defective nuclear-mitochondria interaction.
Insulin therapy and its use should be carefully revised with relevance to conventional plasma tests that do not indicate cellular mitophagy and toxic immune reactions associated with diabetes [81, 82]. Previous studies [83, 84] with the assessment of the role of insulin on cytokines, lymphocytes and macrophages do not assess Sirt 1’s role in toxic immune reactions and mitophagy. Recent studies have shown that molecular lipid biomarkers from lipidomic analysis [85, 86, 87, 88] may determine diabetes severity. The role of insulin therapy with relevance to lipidomic biomarkers may integrate routine plasma biomarker testing with relevance to cellular Sirt 1 expression and plasma Sirt 1 analysis (Figure 4).
Insulin treatment has been evaluated in diabetes but the global NAFLD epidemic that is expected to reach between 20 and 30% of the worldwide communities will now be connected to diabetes pandemic and the pathogenetic loop. Insulin therapy has been assessed with relevance to improvement in inflammatory conditions but the defect in the anti-aging gene Sirt 1 and diabetic mitophagy still persists with the induction of NAFLD and various organ diseases. Insulin therapy with Indian spice consumption requires reassessment to avoid over-consumption of Indian spices that may inactivate insulin therapy and mitochondrial biogenesis. Food quality, appetite control and core body temperature are critical to maintain insulin therapy with unhealthy diets linked to NAFLD and diabetes. Genomic medicine and Sirt 1 activators are essential to maintain insulin therapy in the developing world with toxic immune reactions important to NAFLD. Insulin therapy may not reverse the nuclear-mitochondria defect that is relevant to global organ disease and various plasma biomarkers.
This work was supported by grants from Edith Cowan University, the McCusker Alzheimer’s Research Foundation and the National Health and Medical Research Council.
NAFLD | nonalcoholic fatty liver disease |
Sirt 1 | Sirtuin 1 |
LPS | bacterial lipopolysaccharides |
Tribology is the science that studies the interactions of two surfaces in motion with respect to each other. It encompasses the associated technique and all of the friction and wear sectors, including lubrication. She studies the interactions between contact surfaces, but also those of solids, liquids and gases present between these surfaces, such as hydrodynamic plain bearings.
\nThe hydrodynamic bearings allow the various parts of the mechanical devices to move easily while ensuring reliability that eliminates any risk of rupture or premature wear. When the operating conditions are severe (high or rapidly changing loads, high frequency of rotation), working under a turbulent regime (like the turbojet), it becomes difficult to achieve this double objective without the help of powerful digital prediction models.
\nFriction is one of the most answered physical phenomena in hydrodynamic bearings. This is the reason why a new concept of bearings was invented, the aim of which is to minimize the losses of material and energy linked to wear and friction; it is therefore to manufacture mechanical systems with textured surfaces to improve the efficiency and life of the machines. The aim of this study is to better predict the effect of tribological behavior as well as the effect of turbulent flow behavior in the textured and non-textured hydrodynamic bearing.
\nConstantinescu has developed the phenomenon of turbulence in lubrication between years 1962 and 1965 [1, 2], Elrod and Ng in 1967 [3, 4, 5], are presented a linearized turbulent lubrication theory based on eddy-viscosity concept of Boussinesq and Reichardt’s formulation, including the treatment of turbulent shear and pressure gradient flows in thin films. This theory can be applied to the journal bearings by assuming that the turbulent flow field in the clearance space can be represented by the small perturbations on the turbulent Couette flow. The first studies on determining the Reynolds number, which expresses the ratio, changed inertial forces and viscous forces in the field of bearings, were made by Fantinos and colleagues [6].
\nIn 2005 Braunetiere [7], show that a number of theories for the turbulent lubrication film exist which are based on various well-established models of turbulent flow. Solghar and Nassab (2013) [8] carry out a study in to assess the turbulent thermohydrodynamic (THD) performance characteristics of an axially grooved finite journal bearing [8, 9]. They are mentioned in their research that the bearing of the operating characteristics are significantly changed by increasing the Reynolds number.
\nAt the moment, little is known about the effect of variations in the profile of the bushing and on its performance. Surface texturing is expected to make a significant contribution to future bearing technologies.
\nIn 2011, Ivan Krupka and al [10] presents an experimental and numerical study on the superficial textures effect of the lubricated contact, for the transitional phase. This study is done in order to observe the lubricant film behavior between two surfaces of a disc coated with chrome and a steel ball. According to their study, they showed that lubricant produced from the micro-dents helps to separate rubbing surfaces.
\nTala-Ighil, Fillon and Maspeyrot in 2011 [11] indicated the effect of textured area on the performances of a hydrodynamic journal bearing. They examined the texture location effect on the hydrodynamic performance hydrodynamic of the journal bearing. Their results show that the most important characteristics can be improved through an appropriate arrangement of the textured area on the contact surface.
\nIn 2014, Pratibha and Chandreshkumar [12], present an experimental study on the effect of the bearing surface texture and the profile pressure distribution in hydrodynamic performance of journal bearing. Their study shows that with the increase of the radial loads and at the constant velocity, the increase of maximum pressure is significant in textured journal bearing, in contrast, this pressure is less important for a non-textured journal bearing and with the increase of velocity and at constant radial load.
\nIn 2015 Zhang and al [13], present a numerical study of surface texturing for improving tribological properties of ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene. Ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE). Smooth UHMWPE surfaces are used for total joint replacements; however, smooth surface contacts have been shown to be inadequate in friction reduction and/or anti-wear.
\nUddin and Liu present in 2016 [14], present design and optimization of a texture shape (star-like) for to improve the tribological performance. The triangle form of the texture tends to reducing the friction. A star-like texture consisting of a series of triangular pikes is positioned around the texture center’s proposed. The increasing theses triangular shape, produce the increases the film pressure and on the other hand the reduction of the friction.
\nIn 2016, Shahab Hamdavi, H. H. Ya and T. V. V. L. N. Rao [15], presented a research on the surface texturing effect on hydrodynamic performance of journal bearings. The authors study the effect of partially textured surface of long journal bearing on the pressure distribution. The results show that, applying partial surface texture has a positive and remarkable effect on operating characteristics of the bearings.
\nIn 2017, Sedlaček and al [16], studied the geometry effect and the sequence of the surface texturing process in contact on the tribological characteristics. They tested the behavior of surfaces with and without hard coating for different textures shapes: pyramid, cone and concave. The authors have shown that pyramidal textures cause significant results for tribological behavior. Deposition of textured surface coating tends to reduce friction over that achieved for uncoated textured surface.
\nWang et al. presented the study in 2018 [17] on lubrication performance of journal bearing with multiple texture distributions. They are able to compare two shaped concave textures and convex texture on a bearing lubrication performance. Their results show that the bearing load capacity is reduced by the concave spherical texture, but enhanced by the convex texture; both the concave and convex textures have a very slight influence on the friction coefficient. In the same year, Ji and Guan [18], analyses the effect of the micro-dimples on hydrodynamic lubrication of textured sinusoidal surfaces and rough surfaces. In order to characterize the non-textured surfaces, sinusoidal waves were used. Their results show that, the effect of roughness of the textured surface on the hydrodynamic pressure is significant and the load carrying capacity decreases with the increase of the roughness ratio because the roughness greatly suppresses the hydrodynamic effect of dimples.
\nIn 2019, Manser et al. [19] studied the hydrodynamic journal bearing performance under the combined influence of textured surface and journal misalignment. This study is a numerical analysis is performed to test three texture shapes: square “SQ,” cylindrical “CY,” and triangular “TR,” and shaft misalignment variation in angle and degree. The Reynolds equation of a thin viscous film is solved using the finite difference’s method. Their results show that the micro-step bearing mechanism is a key parameter, where the micro-pressure recovery action present in dimples located at the second angular part of the bearing (from 180° to 360°) can compensate for the loss on performances caused by shaft misalignment, while the micro-pressure drop effect at the full film region causes poor performances.
\nThe pressure field is determined by the resolution of the generalized Navier-Stokes equation according to the classical assumptions in the (O\n
Schematization of plain bearing. (a) Non-textured plain bearing. (b) Textured plain bearing.
The continuity equation can be expressed by the relationship (1) [20].
\nwhere \n
\nEq. (1) can also be written as follows:
\nThe Navier-Stokes equation can be defined in the following form (2003):
\nWith
For fluids in a rotating frame with constant angular velocity ω source term B can be written as follows:
\n\nEq. (1) can also be expressed in the form:
\n\n
Considering the Z axis as the axis of rotation, the components of B can be expressed as follows:
\nThe finite volume method used to solve the continuity and Navier-Stokes equations consists in subdividing the physical domain of the flow into elements of more or less regular volumes; it converts the general differential equation into a system of Algebraic equations by relating the values of the variable under consideration to the adjacent nodal points of a typical control volume. This is achieved by integrating the governing differential equation into this control volume.
\nThe main step of the finite volume method is the integration of governing equations for each control volume [20]. The algebraic equations deduced from this integration make the resolution of the transport equations simpler. Each node is surrounded by a set of surfaces that has a volume element. All the variables of the problem and the properties of the fluid are stored at the nodes of this element.
\nThe equations governing the flow are presented in their averaged forms in a Cartesian coordinate system (x, y, z):
\n\nEqs. (6) and (7) can be integrated into a control volume, using the Gaussian divergence theorem to convert volume integrals to surface integrals as follows:
\nThe next step is to discretize the known m’s of the problem as well as the differential operators of this equation. All these mathematical operations will lead to obtaining, on each volume of control, a discretized equation that will link the variables of a cell to those of neighboring cells. All of these discretized equations will eventually form a matrix system. Considering an element of an isolated mesh, Figure 2.
\nIntegration point in an element of a control volume control.
After the discretization and rearrangement of Eqs. (8) and (9) the following forms will be obtained:
\nThe method of pressure interpolation in pressure-velocity coupling is similar to that used by Rhie and Chow (1982). This method is among the methods that best save memory space and computation time. If the pressure is known, the discretized equations are easily solved [20]:
\nwhere:
\nThe physical quantity
where
These functions are also us5ed for the calculation of various geometric quantities, such as positions, coordinates of the integration point (ip), surfaces and different vectors. Form equations are also applicable for Cartesian coordinates, in which case they can be written in the following way:
\nThe shape functions are also used to evaluate the partial derivatives of the flow terms on the control surfaces and for each direction, the general formula of the different flows is as follows:
\nThe integration of the pressure gradient (P) on the control volume in the Navier-Stokes equations involves the evaluation of the following expression:
\nwhere:
\nFor the improved treatment of fluctuations induced by turbulence in the motion of a particle of fluid, there are three methods of approach to address the notion turbulence. The first method is to decompose the field of velocity and temperature in a mean component and a turbulent fluctuation, to make a variety of models are now available, ranging from the simple model equation to zero to complex (model of the constraint equations Reynolds RMS).
\nThe second is a method in which all the structures of turbulence (macro and micro-structures) are solved directly and models the effect of small structures by models more or less simple, so-called sub-grid models. This method is known as the large eddy simulation (Large Eddy Simulation, LES). The third method is a hybrid approach combines the advantages qm large eddy simulation (LES), with good results in highly separated zones, and model Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS), which are most effective in areas close to the walls. The method is called (Detached Eddy Simulation, DES).
\nOne of the most prominent turbulence models, the (k-epsilon) model, has been implemented in most CFD codes [20]. It has proven to be stable and numerically robust and has a well-established regime of predictive capability; the model offers a good compromise in terms of accuracy and robustness. This turbulence model uses the scalable wall-function approach to improve robustness and accuracy when the near-wall mesh is very fine.
\nThe k-ε model introduces two new variables into the system of equations. The continuity equation is following forms:
\nand the momentum equation becomes:
\nwhere
The
where
where
With \n
The values of
where
The term 3
The purpose of this study is to highlight the behavior of the turbulent fluid flow fluid on the operating characteristics as well as the hydrodynamic behavior of a plain bearing This study is simulated by the CFD calculation code, which provides accuracy, reliability, speed and flexibility in potentially complex flow areas. Integrating the Reynolds equation on each control volume to derive an equation connecting the discrete variables of the elements that surround it, all of these equations eventually form a matrix system.
\n\nFigure 3 illustrates the 3-D structure of the plain bearing with fluid and solid regions are shown. The supply holes are presented in a simplified manner without affecting the accuracy of the model. A tetrahedron element is adopted in the oil supply holes of the fluid region, and a hexahedral element is adopted in domain fluid. A hexahedral element is also applied to the solid region such as the bearing and the shaft (Figure 4).
\n3D structure of the non-textured plain bearing. (a) Non-textured bearing. (b) textured bearing.
Mesh of the plain bearing. (a) Non-textured bearing. (b) textured bearing.
The geometrical and operating parameters of the plain journal bearing is presented in the Table 1. As well as, parameters of the lubricant are showed in Table 2.
\nItem | \nValue | \n
---|---|
Bearing diameter (mm) | \n100 | \n
Shaft diameter (mm) | \n99.91 | \n
Bearing length (mm) | \n70 | \n
Radial clearance (mm) | \n0.09 | \n
Pad thickness (mm) | \n4 | \n
Feed port diameter (mm) | \n14 | \n
Feed groove length (mm) | \n70 | \n
Rotating velocity N (rpm) | \n11,000–- 21, 000 | \n
Radial load W (N) | \n2000–20- 10, 000 | \n
Supply temperature ambiaente Ta (°C) | \n40 | \n
Supply pressure Pa (MPa) | \n0.08 | \n
Geometrical and operating parameters of the plain bearing.
Item | \nValue | \n
---|---|
Lubricant type | \nPMA3 | \n
Density ρ (kg/m3) | \n800 | \n
Specific heat capacity C (J/kg. K) | \n2000 | \n
Kinematic viscosity at 40 °C υ1 (mm2/s) | \n17.,49 | \n
Kinematic viscosity at 80 °C υ2 (mm2/s) | \n8,003 | \n
Parameters of the lubricant.
Boundary conditions of the numerical model of the plain bearing are shown in Figure 5, definite as follows: 1: the rotating speed is applied to the outer wall surface of the shaft; 2: the inner wall surface of the bushing is stationary; 3: the domain is simulated by the fluid region. The slip of the interface is ignored; 4: the oil supply pressure is 0.08 MPa and supply temperature is 40°C, are set in oil supply holes; 5: the two ends of the plain bearing domain, and the pressure is set to one bar; and is considered as symmetry.
\nBoundary conditions.
The setting is done by a graphical interface. The mesh used is a mixed mesh which understood elements of tetrahedral type with 6 nodes and hexahedral elements with 8 nodes. It’s necessary to choose an appropriate mesh, consequently, a mesh independence study is carried out, and calculation results are shown in Figure 6. When the nodes number is greater than 4815, the evolution of the pressure stabilizes in the angular coordinate 205° of the plain bearing. Therefore, the number of nodes chosen for this numerical analysis corresponds to a number of nodes equal to 4815. The nodes number for textured bearing is 65,172. Convergence criterion of the numerical results is calculated for a maximum number of iterations of 1000 iterations with a convergence criterion of the order of 10−4. The solution converges when the residuals reach 10−4. However, in some cases it is necessary to push the calculations to 10−6.
\nEvolution max pressure according to the nodes number of the shaft mesh.
Surface texturing of the bushing is a technique used to improve the load capacity of various tribological conjunctions, as well as to reduce frictional losses. The texture spherical shape of diameter rx = 3 mm and the depth of ry = 0.5 mm, the axial distance between the textures d = 10 mm and their angular offsets α = 10°, (Figure 7).
\nTextured bushing parameters.
In this section, we will carry out a comparative study between two models of turbulence: k-ε model for turbulence in the vicinity of the walls and the RMS model (Reynolds shear stress) for turbulence in the vicinity and far from the walls. Figure 8 illustrates the pressure distribution along the median plane of the plain bearing, for the k-ε model and the RMS model. Both models give the same pressure distribution. Since we are interested in examining the distribution of pressure, of the friction torque between the fluid and the internal surface of the bearing, we used the k-ε model for the numerical analysis carried out in this study.
\nPressure evolution for k-epsilon model and Reynolds shear stress (RMS).
To demonstrate the effect of the radial load on the operating performance of the non-textured and textured hydrodynamic plain bearing, such as pressure, fluid flow velocity and friction torque, the radial load is varied (W1 = 2000 N, W2 = 5000 N, W3 = 7000 N and W3 = 9000 N). The initial operating conditions of the bearing re a supply temperature Ta = 40° C, supply pressure Pa = 0.08 MPa and the rotational speed of the shaft equal to 11,000 rpm with a Reynolds number of Re = 3622.64 to ensure the turbulent regime.
\n\nFigure 9 illustrates the distribution of the pressure along the median plane for non-textured and textured bearing, for different radial loads. The graph shows that increasing the load from 2000 N to 9000 N leads to an increase in pressure. Significant pressures are obtained for a bearing subjected to a radial load of 9000 N. This increase reaches 65 per cent for a textured bearing. Also for a no textured bearing, the increase in pressure will reach 81 per cent by varying the radial load from 2kN to 9kN. The curves also indicate that the maximum pressure is noted in the angular position from 160° to 175°, on the other hand, in the angular coordinates at 200°, the noted pressure is lower than the supply pressure, indicating the existence rupture zones of the oil film. The rupture zones of the oil film are observed in the angular positions between 190° and 335° and also between 300° and 350°. The values of circumferential pressure are significant for a textured bearing with respect to those recorded for a non-textured bearing (Figure 10).
\nCircumferential pressure for different radial load N = 11,000 rpm (Re = 3622.64 turbulent regime).
Pressure evolution for different radial load N = 11,000 rpm.
The fluid flow velocity according to the angular position of the plain bearing, for different radial loads is presented in Figure 11. The maximum flow velocity is noted for a textured plain bearing working under a radial load of 9000 N and which is of the order of 61 m/s, on the other hand is of the order of 36 m/s for non-textured plain bearing. The increase in the radial load which reacts on the bearing causes the increase in the flow velocity. This increase is estimated at 21 per cent for textured bearing and estimated at 29 per cent for non-textured bearing (Figure 12).
\nEvolution of the fluid flow velocity according the angular position for different radial load N = 11,000 rpm (Re = 3622.64 turbulent regime).
Velocity evolution for different radial load N = 11,000 rpm.
The fluid friction torque or “viscous” friction is a particular friction force, which is associated with the movement of an object in a fluid (air, water, etc.). It is at the origin of energy losses by friction for the object moving in the fluid. The friction torque is calculated by integrating the shear stresses at the surface of the shaft or of the bushing, the shear stresses in the fluid are given by derivation the fluid velocity in the radial and tangential direction. Therefore, there is an empirical relationship between the flow velocity of the fluid and the friction torque, for this we obtain the same distribution for the fluid flow velocity and the friction torque along the median plane of the hydrodynamic bearing.
\nThe friction torque along the circumference of the textured bearing is illustrated in Figure 13. The important values are noted for a radial load of 9000 N, the maximum value of the friction torque is of the order of 17.93 N.m for a textured bearing, and is the order of 10.83 N.m for non-textured bearing. These maximum values are noted in the angular positions at 180° and 195°. The increase in the radial load from 2000 N to 9000 N leads to an increase in the friction torque of 21 per cent and 29 per cent respectively for a textured and non-textured bearing.
\nFriction torque in the median plane for different radial load N = 11,000 rpm (Re = 3622.64 turbulent regime).
\nFigure 14 shows the pressure distribution along the bearing circumference, for four shaft rotation speeds (11,000 rpm, 14,000 rpm 17,000 rpm and 21,000 rpm). The supply conditions used for this numerical analysis are Ta = 40°C and Pa = 0.08 MPa. The radial load is 10,000 N. This rotational speed gives respectively a Reynolds number of Re = 3622.64, Re = 4687.53, Re = 5187.6 and Re = 6752.54, which indicates that the regime is turbulent.
\nCircumferential pressure for different rotational velocity W = 10 KN (turbulent regime).
The curve clearly shows that the maximum pressure is positioned at angular coordinates from 140° to 160°, while at angular positions between 170° and 200°, the pressure is lower than the supply pressure, which indicates the existence of the rupture zone of the oil film. It can also be said that increasing the rotational speed causes a slight decrease in pressure, this decrease being estimated at 24 per cent. The significant pressure is recorded for a very high rotation speed, which is of the order of 21,000 rpm.
\n\nFigure 15 shows the pressure distribution as a function of the angular position for a textured and non-textured bearing for a radial load of 10,000 N and a rotation speed of 14,000 rpm. The curve clearly shows that the pressure distribution along the median plane of the bearing is different in the case of a non-textured bearing and a bearing with a textured surface; the difference is estimated at 8.5 per cent (Figure 16).
\nCircumferential pressure according the angular coordinate of the non- textured and textured bearing W = 10 KN, N = 14,000 rpm (Re = 5187.6 turbulent regime).
Distribution circumferential of the pressure for differents rotational velocity.
\nFigure 17 illustrates the variation of flow velocity in the circumferential direction of the plain bearing, to a feed temperature of 40°C and feed pressure of 0.08 MPa. The shaft rotational speed varies from 11,000 rpm to 21,000 rpm (Turbulent regime) and a radial load of 10,000 N. The curve shows that the rotational speed leads to an increase in the fluid flow velocity. The increase reached 39 per cent. The flow velocity is significant for a bearing which rotates at a speed of 21,000 rpm (Re = 6752.54), on the other hand it is less important for a rotational speed of 11,000 rpm (Re = 3622.64). The significant value of the fluid flow velocity is noted for a textured plain bearing which is the order of 89.56 m/s. On the other hand, for a non-textured plain bearing, the maximum value of the fluid flow velocity is only of the order of 56.37 m/s.
\nFluid flow velocity evolution according angular position angular for different rotational speed W = 10 KN (turbulent regime).
For the different of the fluid flow velocity (Figure 18), has the same variation for the case of plain bearing without texture and a textured plain bearing. This speed takes a maximum value at the angular coordinate of 200° of the bearing. The difference between the fluid flow velocity for a non-textured and textured plain bearing is of the order of 38 per cent (Figure 19).
\nFluid flow velocity according angular position of the non-textured and textured bearing W = 10 KN, N = 14,000 rpm (Re = 5187.6 turbulent regime).
Distribution circumferential of the fluid flow velocity for differents rotational velocity.
For the evolution of the friction torque as a function of the angular coordinates of the non-textured and textured plain bearing by varying the rotational speed of the shaft from 11,000 to 21,000 rpm and for a radial load of 10,000 N, is presented in Figure 20. The increasing the rotational speed causes a slight increase in the friction torque, this increase is of the order of 2 per cent. The important values are obtained for a rotational speed of 21,000 rpm; the maximum value of the friction torque is also positioned at the angular coordinate of 200°. The significant value of the friction torque for a non-textured plain bearing is of the order of 16 N.m, on the other hand for a textured plain bearing is 26 N.m.
\nFriction torque in median plane for different rotational speed W = 10 KN (turbulent regime).
\nFigure 21 illustrates the variation of friction torque along the circumferential non-textured and textured plain bearing. The evolution of the friction torque along the angular bearing position has the same shape for the two cases studied, the difference is estimated at 38 per cent at the 200° level.
\nFriction torque in the median plane of the non-textured and textured bearing W = 10 KN, N = 14,000 tr/min (Re = 5187.6 turbulent regime).
This numerical study presents the evolution of the fluid flow for turbulent regime in hydrodynamic plain bearings with a non-textured and textured surface, in order to improve the hydrodynamic lubrication and tribological performance of plain bearing, using the finite volume method, such as pressure, friction torque and fluid flow velocity.
\nThe results obtained for the textured plain bearing were compared to the non-textured plain bearing, the main conclusions drawn from this study are:
The pressure distribution according to the angular position for the textured and non-textured plain bearing for the radial load of 10,000 N and the speed of rotation of 14,000 rpm has the same appearance for the two cases studied; the difference is estimated at 8.5%.
The rupture zones of the oil film are observed in several angular positions at 190° and 300° for a plain bearing with textured surface, on the other hand for a plain bearing without texture, the rupture zone is positioned only in the angular position at 190°. This rupture of the oil film is due to the drop in pressure below the supply pressure.
The evolution of the friction torque, along the angular position, has the same distribution for the non-textured and the textured plain bearing, the difference is estimated at 38%.
The flow velocity of the fluid in the plain bearing takes a maximum value at the angular position of 165°. The difference between the flow velocity for a non-textured and textured plain bearing is estimated of 38%.
It should be emphasized, however, that the conclusions we give here are only valid for the cases we have studied, and that they are not independent of the characteristics of the plain bearing and of the lubricant.
\nThe numerical results show that the most significant hydrodynamic characteristics such as pressure, flow velocity of the fluid and friction torque, are significant for the textured plain bearing under rotational velocity of 21,000 rpm and radial load 10,000 N compared to the results obtained for a non-textured plain bearing.
\nWhen one is interested in plain bearings operating under severe conditions, that is to say for the turbulent regime, the hydrodynamic pressures sometimes reach several hundred mega Pascal’s.
\nThe authors declare no conflict of interest.
source term
\nradial clearance
\neccentricity
\nbearing length
\nshaft radius
\nbush radius
\nrotational velocity [rpm]
\npressure [Pa]
\nposition vector [m]
\nperipheral speed [m/s]
\nvelocity according x, y, z axis [m/s]
\nradial load [N]
\nReynolds number
\nrelative eccentricity
\nFlow factor [°]
\ndynamic viscosity [Pa.s]
\nturbulent dynamic viscosity [Pa.s]
\nshaft angular speed [rad/s]
\nturbulence kinetic energy
\ndensity [kg/m3]
\nInterne
\nIndice du point d’intégration
\nspécifique
\nthéorique
\nutile
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