Technology knowhow and use.
\r\n\tSome of them are potential hazards caused by novel (bio)technologies, such as nanoparticles or process-related toxicants. Others are well-known hazards that climate change and new trends in food consumption have now moved under the spotlight. Some are due to the deliberate adulteration of food for economic reasons, that is strongly affecting the global market.
\r\n\tFood scientists are strongly involved in tackling this global challenge, supported by novel technologies and ICT-based tools. On one hand, innovative analytical approaches, mainly based on omics science and big data, may offer a great support for hazard characterization and risk assessment. On the other hand, early warning tools are strongly needed to efficiently support risk management and avoid food losses.
\r\n\tAlthough many contaminants are regulated worldwide and routine control plans ensure the compliance of food before entering our plate, scientists are now focusing their research not only on single compounds, but mainly on a cocktail of toxicants thanks to biomonitoring and imaging techniques. This change in the approach will lead to a new design of risk assessment within few years.
\r\n\tBesides traditional players, like scientists and policy-makers, also agro-food companies are investing efforts and resources in the identification and assessment of emerging risks, to meet consumer’s demand of safer food and prevent misleading communication.
\r\n\tIt is clear that the food safety scenario is rapidly changing, driven by innovation and big data. This book intends to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview on the methodological advances the scientific community has brought about to face emerging risks and new trends.The main emerging risks will be covered, and methodological improvements will be outlined. Strategies in management and communication will be described. New market trends and consumers’ behavior leading to a change in the future scenario, will be discussed.
The East and Central Africa (ECA) subregion is projected to getting warmer and wetter by the end of this century. Temperatures are projected to increase by about 2°C and rainfall by about 11% by 2050 [1, 2]. It is therefore possible that the subregion could be food self-sufficient because of climate change. As unfamiliar as this counter-narrative might seem, climate change presents an opportunity for the subregion to think and act differently, to change the way it views growth and interacts with the environment, and to choose a different path toward sustainable development. The Zero Hunger by 2025 target set by African Heads of State is achievable. However, this will only be possible if countries in the subregion invest 10% of their GDP in agriculture and target to grow the sector by 6% as proposed by the African Unions’ Comprehensive Africa Agricultural Development Programme (CAADP) in 2003. So how does the subregion get there? By making substantial investments in Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA). Climate-Smart Agriculture, if adopted, has the potential to usher in a new era of clean and sustainable growth for the subregion.
Climate-Smart Agriculture is an applied set of farming principles and practices that increases productivity in an environmentally and socially sustainable way (adaptation), strengthens farmers’ capacities to cope with the effects and impacts of climate change (resilience), conserves the natural resource base through maintaining and recycling organic matter in soils (carbon storage), and as a result reduces greenhouse gas emissions (mitigation) [3]. This approach also aims to strengthen livelihoods and food security, especially of smallholders, by improving the management and use of natural resources and adopting appropriate methods and technologies for the production, processing and marketing of agricultural goods [1, 3, 4, 5]. However, for agricultural systems in the subregion to achieve CSA objectives, including improved food security and rural livelihoods as well as climate change adaptation and mitigation, they need to take a landscape approach; they must become ‘Climate-Smart Landscapes.’ Climate-Smart Landscapes (CSL) operate on the principles of integrated watershed management (IWM) while explicitly incorporating adaptation and mitigation into their management objectives [1, 4].
For 3 years, the Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization (KALRO), Rwanda Agricultural Board (RAB), Eritrea’s National Agricultural Research Institute (NARI), Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research (EIAR), Artelia Madagascar (AMG) and Madagascar’s Centre National de Recherché Applique au Developpement Rural (FOFIFA) implemented a regional project on improving agricultural water productivity using this approach. The project sought to combat food insecurity, poverty and climate change by increasing the availability and productivity of water in smallholder rain-fed and irrigated agriculture at both farm and landscape levels.
The project was implemented from 2010 to 2013 in five countries namely Kenya, Rwanda, Eritrea, Madagascar and Ethiopia with financial support from the Association for Strengthening Agricultural Research in East and Central Africa (ASARECA) and her partners. Due to positive results from this project, a second phase was launched in 2014 and implemented up to 2015 in three more countries (Uganda, Sudan and Burundi) with the aim of up-scaling ‘best bet’ CSA technologies from the first phase and establishing more CSL. This chapter seeks to highlight some of the benefits of CSL and its potential in the region with a view to encouraging governments to invest in this noble approach to agricultural development in order to combat food insecurity, poverty and climate change.
To establish and successfully promote and sustain climate-smart agricultural landscapes that could generate important synergies for agricultural production, climate adaptation and mitigation, as well as other livelihood and environmental objectives at farm and landscape scales, the following activities were undertaken.
Two watersheds measuring about 100 km2 were identified in each country by all stakeholders during the national stakeholders’ consultative workshops conducted prior to project inception. The two watersheds were selected based on the extent of their degradation, potential to benefit from improved water management, their vulnerability to climate variability and change, and their food security and poverty levels. Mwania and Kalii watersheds in Machakos and Makueni counties, respectively, were selected for Kenya; Karama and Muse-Bivumu in Nyamagabe and Bugesera districts, respectively, in Rwanda; Adulala and Ketchema in Ethiopia; Amadir and Molqi in Eritrea; and Ankazomiriotra and Avaratrambolo in Mandoto and Manjakandriana districts, respectively, in Madagascar (Figure 1).
Location of climate-smart landscapes in Kenya, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Rwanda and Madagascar.
These watersheds were all densely populated, highly degraded, food insecure and very prone to high climatic stresses. They therefore presented huge opportunity for CSL to improve agricultural production, resilience and income of their communities through the use of appropriate and available CSA technologies. The sites also had many agricultural development initiatives which complemented CSL efforts. They also had a lot of secondary data on climate, land and water resources, crop production and demographic trends which facilitated long-term planning and accurate simulation of climate change impacts. Finally, they had good land tenure systems which allowed farmers to invest in long-term and capital-intensive CSA practices such as drip irrigation, agroforestry, CA, terracing and water pans across the landscapes.
A comprehensive baseline study was conducted at the start of the project to capture the socioeconomic situation, resource availability, average production and income, adaptation, mitigation, biodiversity conservation and risk management approaches of village households before the project. This was done to generate indicators for monitoring the impact of CSA interventions up-scaled across the landscapes by the project and to encourage investment in CSL.
The project established Innovation platforms in each watershed in which all stakeholders with interest in the watershed were brought together and made part of the project implementation team. They were briefed on the objectives of CSL to secure their buy-in. This was done to consolidate resources, share knowledge, build coalitions and pool investments. The stakeholders were drawn from the watershed communities, local administration, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), government departments, religious groups, donor agencies, agrodealers and financial institutions. They were all involved in landscape planning, project implementation and progress monitoring for CSL objectives, as well as others. Landscape management plans with clearly defined roles and responsibilities were developed to guide this process.
As indicated before, the project adopted the CSL approach to resolve the problem of land degradation, food insecurity and poverty in the six watersheds. Climate-Smart Landscapes, like the IWM approach, link production, conservation and livelihood objectives of people with a stake in a given landscape/watershed. It provides a framework for integrating technical, economic and social knowledge in identifying constraints and in supporting planning and decision-making to achieve sustainable solutions. Through this approach, numerous CSA technologies were evaluated and promoted across landscapes using field demonstrations, field days, farmer exchange visits and trainings. The technologies were selected by farmers based on their ease of adoption, investment required and ability to make best use of increased water availability. These included conservation agriculture (CA), agroforestry, manure management, water harvesting, terracing, mulching, drought-tolerant crops, proper agronomy, high-productivity crop varieties and use of weather-based agroadvisories.
Capacity of communities was strengthened to enhance adoption and utilization of CSA technologies. The project held numerous meetings to sensitize stakeholders on the benefits of CSA and CSL. Field experiments were also conducted to demonstrate the complete portfolio of CSA interventions and to generate more scientific evidence to support CSA. The project, private sector and local governments also organized regular training sessions for farmers on good agricultural practices.
To attract more interest and investment in CSL, the project developed a comprehensive monitoring framework which captured the multiple benefits of CSL which included yield improvements, food and energy security, adaptation, mitigation, human health, biodiversity conservation and other ecosystems services. Farmers also maintained a daily diary of their farm activities and worked with the project staff to monitor and evaluate the progress of their chosen interventions. These results were digitized and analyzed by researchers and discussed by all stakeholders at the end of every crop season.
Participatory videos on success stories and testimonials from the pilot landscapes were screened in nearby watersheds to spread the message of CSL. Success stories were also widely publicized through local, national and international media. The project also organized regular farmer field days and exchange visits to motivate farmers, address their questions and improve on existing strategies.
Food security is a major challenge for the East and Central Africa (ECA) subregion. ECA is among the few regions in the world where yields have been stagnant over the past 50 years, leading to a decline in per capita food production and malnutrition. From the baseline surveys conducted at project inception, many households in all the five countries experienced serious food insecurity for many months in a year. In Kenya, for instance, over 50% of the household in both watersheds lacked sufficient food to feed their families and relied on food aid. The situation was the same in Ethiopia, Madagascar and Eritrea where over 44, 45 and 55%, respectively, of the households were food insecure. However, through project intervention, productivity in all the watersheds/landscapes increased significantly and most watershed communities are now food secure. In Kenya, for instance, by embracing forecast-based farming, tied ridging, seed priming, improved agronomic practices, improved crop varieties, and micro-dosing among other technologies, farmers posted good yields throughout the project period despite most seasons being bad. Maize yields ranged from 1.2 to 3.2 t ha−1 compared to baseline yield of less than 0.5 t ha−1 (Figure 2). Hence, most households (hh) in the two watersheds, 3600 hh or over 90%, are food secure.
Effect of CSA interventions on maize yields in Kenya.
In Madagascar, adoption of improved rice varieties increased rice yields from 2 to 4 t ha−1 while onion yields increased from 10 to 25 t ha−1 due to prudent management of water and other inputs. As a result, communities in Ankazomiriotra and Avaratrambolo watersheds are now 60% food secure. In Eritrea, sorghum yields increased from 0.6 t ha−1 at project inception to 1.5–2 t ha−1 due to soil and water conservation (SWC) initiatives.
A dominant feature of the ECA is widespread poverty and malnutrition. Majority of the people in the subregion, including all the watersheds, live in abject poverty. In Machakos and Makueni counties in Kenya, for instance, about 52 and 64% of the population, respectively, live below the poverty line (on less than US$ 1 per person per day). However, through CLS approach, the situation in all the watersheds improved markedly. In Ethiopia, for instance, farmers in Adulala were able to harvest 102 kg of honey worth about US$ 568 in one season from 10 out of 28 beehives set up by the project. About 22 households benefitted from these proceeds, and the income is bound to increase with time as more hives get colonized. Farmers in Adulala also managed to harvest and sell pasture/grass worth US$ 10,749 from the hillside rehabilitation activity. A total of 720 farmers benefitted from these proceeds.
In Madagascar, watershed communities are now able to earn additional income of about US$ 2500 ha−1 yr−1 from the sale of onions and potatoes during off-season due to prudent management of water and other inputs. Similarly, in Eritrea, each of the 66 out of 480 households who adopted agroforestry was able to earn about US$ 450 in just 6 months from the sale of
Low adoption of productivity-enhancing technologies has widely been blamed for low agricultural productivity in sub-Saharan African. From the baseline surveys conducted in the five countries, most farmers were knowledgeable about CSA practices but did not adopt and use them. In Mwania watershed in Kenya, for instance, 77 and 87% of farmers were knowledgeable about irrigation and tied ridges but only 18 and 16% practiced the technologies, respectively. However, awareness and use of terraces were the highest in both sites with 98.9 and 87.1% in Mwania and Makindu, respectively (Table 1).
Technology | Knowledge (%)** | Usage (%)** | Mwania | Makindu | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Knowledge (%) | Usage (%) | Knowledge (%) | Usage (%) | |||
Conservation farming | 72.4 | 44.8 | 68.9 | 31.2 | 75.1 | 58.3 |
Irrigation | 81.9 | 30.6 | 76.8 | 18 | 86 | 43.2 |
Mulching | 66.1 | 32.2 | 75.2 | 27.3 | 58.9 | 37 |
Terraces | 98.9 | 87.1 | 98.8 | 98.1 | 99 | 76.1 |
Tied ridges | 74.1 | 41.1 | 87 | 16 | 74.1 | 66.2 |
Water harvesting | 85.3 | 53.8 | 91.6 | 62.4 | 80.1 | 45.1 |
Technology knowhow and use.
Significance at p ≤ 0.01.
The low level of adoption of terraces in Makindu was due to the relatively flat landscape compared to Mwania. Landscape at Mwania is hilly, and slopes often exceed 25%, making it essential to use structures such as terraces. Similarly, high level of adoption of irrigation and tied ridges in Makindu compared to Mwania was due to availability of water and ease with which it could be applied. Tied ridging is labor intensive, and this could be the reason behind low usage of this technology in both Mwania and Makindu locations. Various models have been used to deliver these technologies to farmers with very minimal success. However, through the CSL approach adopted by this study, several CSA technologies were up-scaled with very positive results. In Kenya, for instance, out of 198 farmers trained on terracing to conserve soil and water and improve productivity, over 700 constructed them on their farms and realized very good maize yields. Similarly, of the 146 farmers trained on pitting to harvest runoff and grow fodder, over 600 managed to dig over 50,000 pits on their farms and plant Napier grass for their livestock. The extra adopters learnt from their neighbors who attended the trainings. As a result, huge tracts of degraded land have been rehabilitated and over 100 tonnes of pasture produced compared to zero at inception. Farmers have been able to sell them and earn extra income.
Majority of the technologies adopted were mainly for soil and water conservation (SWC) and were preferred because of their perceived benefits. The benefits included decreased runoff and erosion (81%), increased water infiltration (56%), improved soil moisture conditions (48%) and improved soil physical properties (38%) as shown in Table 2. A study conducted in the two landscapes/watersheds to compare the rate of adoption of these and other CSA technologies between male- and female-managed farms established that there was no difference in the adoption rate between male- and female-managed farms in the two watersheds; however, male-managed farms preferred capital-intensive technologies such as irrigation while female-managed farms adopted labor and capital-reductive technologies such as conservation agriculture [6].
Benefits | Mwania | Makindu | Mean |
---|---|---|---|
Decreased runoff and erosion (%) | 78 | 83 | 81 |
Increased water infiltration (%) | 26 | 86 | 56 |
Improved soil moisture conditions (%) | 43 | 53 | 48 |
Improved soil physical properties (%) | — | 75 | 38 |
Benefits of investments in SWC technologies.
Finally, farmers in Rwanda and Kenya established nurseries and planted over 1.5 million tree seedlings on their farms to improve the environment and generate income.
The high level of adoption of CSA practices in landscapes/watersheds across the countries clearly indicates that available CSA technologies are acceptable to farmers if the same are tailored to meet the needs and requirements of the farmers with due consideration to their biophysical and socioeconomic conditions compared to generalized recommendations targeting a given agroecology or administrative unit. Another important finding of this work is that mobilizing communities and enhancing their capacity to better understand the tangible and intangible benefits from CSL and CSA interventions has much bigger impact than dealing with individual farmers. The landscape/watershed committees and innovation platforms established under this project played a vital role in increased adoption of CSL in all target countries.
In a nutshell, the potential for CSL approach and its benefits in the region are huge. However, to successfully transit from CSA to CSL: (1) all stakeholders in a given watershed/landscape must be involved in the planning, implementation and monitoring of this transition; (2) a comprehensive monitoring framework that clearly indicates the socioeconomic and environmental benefits of CSL must be developed, and the results communicated to stakeholders regularly to attract more investment in CSL; (3) the sites must have many ongoing agricultural development initiatives to complement and reduce the cost of establishing CSL; a lot of secondary data on climate, land and water resources, crop production and demographic trends to facilitate long-term planning and accurate simulation of climate change impacts; and good land tenure systems to enable farmers invest in long-term and capital-intensive CSA practices; (4) massive civic education and capacity building are required to educate stakeholders on the benefits of CSL; (5) ready market must be available to absorb increased agricultural yields from CSL; and (6) landscape communities must embrace weather-based agroadvisories to minimize risks posed by climate variability and promote investment in CSL.
The authors are grateful to ASARECA and her partners for the financial support. We are also grateful to the landscape/watershed communities and other stakeholders in the five countries for participating in this study.
Food products usually showed the colloidal systems as emulsions, foams, gels, and dispersions. They are multicomponent systems containing different types of ingredients. Therefore, researches about food colloid are important; but first, we must be answered to below questions before starting. (1) How the physical properties of structure, stability, and rheology are influenced by the ingredient composition and formulation conditions? (2) How the interactions between various kinds of dispersed entities (e.g., particles, droplets, and bubbles) and macromolecules (proteins and polysaccharides) influence behavior in bulk fluid phases and at solid and liquid interfaces (air-in-water or oil-in-water)?
For these aims, many types of research are annually carried out for the understanding of how different classes of food ingredients control the physicochemical mechanisms determining overall stability and textural properties. Information on these model systems determined the reliable data about these colloidal systems, but not very reliant, because in the food products numerous components exist which influenced the quality and stability of final products. One of the main objectives of the colloid-based approach is the control of biopolymer interactions with the objective of fabricating well-defined nanoscale structures for controlled destabilization of colloidal systems [1, 2].
It should be noted that based on many papers presented at the 13th European Food Colloids Conference, almost all researches are focusing on four main areas: (i) structure and rheology of protein gels; (ii) properties of adsorbed protein layers; (iii) functionality from protein-polysaccharide interactions; and (iv) oral processing of food colloids. But nowadays, the behavior of dispersed systems within the human digestive systems has emerged as a major topic of research interest. Another outstanding influence on future food colloids research has a strong biomedical emphasis (the topic of controlled release and nutrient delivery) [3]. The development of colloid-based strategies to control delivery of nutrients during digestion in gastrointestinal is very important.
In this chapter, the progress in the field of ingredients, microstructure, and stability of food colloidal systems are discussed. Moreover, the application of new structured functional ingredients for the design of novel colloidal matrix (such as multilayer interfaces, multiple emulsion, gel-like emulsions, and so on) are reviewed. In this further, we will discuss: (i) classification and functions of colloidal systems in food; (ii) types of colloidal systems in food; and (iii) stability of colloidal systems.
A colloid system is a type of mixture in which one part is dispersed constantly throughout another. Colloid systems are usually formed when one part is dispersed through another, but does not combine to form a solution. Therefore, there are many types of colloidal systems that depend on the form of the two parts mixed together.
A colloidal system contains two separate phases: a dispersed phase (or internal phase) and a continuous phase (or dispersion medium). The part which is dispersed is known as the dispersed phase and is suspended in the continuous phase. Colloidal systems in food can be classified into different groups based on the states of matter constituting the two phases. Food colloids are sols, gels, emulsion, and foam. For example, egg white foam is a simple colloid system. Air bubbles (disperse phase) are trapped in the egg white (continuous phase) resulting in a foam. The detailed classification of colloidal systems in food is shown in Table 1 [4].
System | Minor phase | Major phase | Products |
---|---|---|---|
Sol | Solid | Liquid | Raw custard, unset jelly |
Gel | Liquid | Solid | Jelly and jam |
Emulsion | Liquid | Liquid | Mayonnaise, milk |
Solid emulsion | Liquid | Solid | Butter, margarine |
Foam | Gas | Liquid | Whipped cream, whisked egg white |
Solid foam | Gas | Solid | Meringue, bread, cake, ice cream |
Colloidal systems in food.
Food colloids give structure, texture, and mouth-feel to many different food products; for example, jam, ice cream, mayonnaise, etc. Food colloid contains hydrocolloid that provides thickening, gelling, emulsifying, and stabilizing properties in food products [5].
Food hydrocolloids are high molecular weight hydrophilic biopolymers used as functional constituents in the food processing to modify microstructure, texture, flavor, and shelf-life. The term “hydrocolloid” comprises all the numerous polysaccharides that are obtained from plants, seaweeds, and microbial sources, as well as modified biopolymers made by the chemical or enzymatic treatment of starch or cellulose. One of the key functional roles of food hydrocolloids is in the preparation of emulsions and in the control of emulsion shelf-life. Most hydrocolloids can behave as stabilizers (stabilizing additives) of oil-in-water emulsions, but sole a few of them can act like emulsifiers (emulsifying agents). The second functionality needs considerable surface activity at the oil-water interface, and therefore the capability to favor the development and stabilization of fine droplets throughout and next emulsification [6, 7].
The most part of colloids are stable, but the two phases may separate during a period of time due to an increase in temperature or through physical force. Furthermore, they may become unstable after freezing or heating, especially if they contain an emulsion of fat and water. The details of the instability of food colloids are reviewed in further part.
A sol can be defined as a colloidal dispersion in which a solid is the dispersed phase and liquid is the continuous phase. Gravy stirred custard and other thick sauces are some of the examples. While jelly is formed, gelatin is scattered into a liquid and heated to make a sol. As the solution cooks, protein molecules unwind developing a network which traps water and creates a gel.
If corn flour is mixed with water and heated, the starch granules absorb water till they rapture, after that starch granule disperses in the water and the mixture becomes more viscous and makes a gel after cooling. Additional types of gel are formed with pectin and agar. Pectin, a form of carbohydrate found in fruit, is used in the production of jam to help it set. Agar is a polysaccharide extracted from seaweed which is capable of forming gels. If a gel is allowed to stand for a time, it starts to “weep.” This loss of liquid is known as syneresis. The proper ratio of the ingredients is necessary to achieve the desired viscosity of the sols at a certain temperature.
Sols can be transformed into gels as a result of a reduction in temperature. In pectin gels, the pectin molecules are a major phase and the liquid is the scattered phase, whereas in pectin sol, the pectin molecules are a minor phase and the liquid is a major phase. Sols can be made as an initial step in the creation a gel. Jams and jellies produced using pectin are traditional cases that make a sol before the preferred structure.
Numerous natural and processed foods involve either relatively or entirely as emulsions or have been in an emulsified form at some time through their fabrication containing milk, cream, butter, margarine, fruit beverages, soups, batters, mayonnaise, cream liqueurs, sauces, desserts, salad cream, ice cream, and coffee whitener.
Emulsion products exhibit a wide variety of different physicochemical and organoleptic characteristics in appearance, aroma, texture, taste, and shelf-life. The processing of an emulsion-based food product with specific quality features is influenced by the selection of suitable raw materials (e.g., water, oil, emulsifiers, thickeners, minerals, acids, bases, vitamins, flavors, colorants, etc.) and processing situations (e.g., mixing, homogenization, pasteurization, sterilization, etc.).
An emulsion involves two immiscible phases (typically oil or water), with one of the liquids scattered as fine sphere-shaped droplets in the other. A system which contains oil droplets dispersed in an aqueous phase is termed an oil-in-water or O/W emulsion (e.g., mayonnaise, milk, cream, soups, and sauces). A system which involves water droplets scattered in an oil phase is termed as a water-in-oil or W/O emulsion (e.g., margarine, butter, and spreads) [8].
Multiple (or double) emulsions are multipart liquid dispersion systems well-known too as emulsions of emulsions, in which the droplets of one scattered liquid (water-in-oil or oil-in-water) are more scattered in another liquid (water or oil, correspondingly), making W/O/W or O/W/O. The innermost scattered droplets (hereafter called inner droplets or just droplets, while the droplets of the multiple emulsion will be named, for simplicity, the drops) in the multiple emulsion are disconnected from the external liquid phase by a film of another phase.
Although multiple emulsions are an emerging technology, only a few industrial products based on multiple emulsions exist in the marketplace. The main application of multiple emulsions is a protection system for the controlled release of active compounds. In the food industry, W/O/W emulsions are able to increase the solubility of specific active materials, solubilize oil-insoluble ingredients, and serve as protecting liquid reservoirs for molecules sensitive to outside environmental reactivity including oxidation, light, and enzymes, and act as entrapment reservoirs for covering off flavors and odors.
Applications in the cosmetics trade include aqueous preparations that provide a good “feel” and slow release of active materials or flavors, deposition of water-soluble agents onto the skin from wash-off systems. Most applications are related to the pharmaceutical industry, such as enhancing the chemotherapeutic effect of anticancer drugs, drug immobilization, treatment of drug overdoses, and protecting insulin from enzymatic degradation. However, the size of the droplets and the thermodynamic instability is a significant drawback of this technology. It seems that double-emulsion technology can now be applied in various areas, mainly in food, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals [9, 10].
Emulsions are suggested as carriers of plant antioxidants in food systems that are discussed deeply in Chapter 2. In fact, plant antioxidants due to the natural sources and health-promoting product are very attractive in food science. So, information about the structure of plant antioxidants, degradation of them in food systems, physical and chemical stabilities of these systems are important for study in the future. In Chapter 3, the application of nanoemulsion in food science is discussed. Nanoemulsion is very attracting due to the advances of nanotechnology in the recent years. Nanoemulsion has been applied in functional foods and pharmaceutical industries. Therefore, nanoemulsion production with a novel technique and its stability is very important.
In general, emulsions are thermodynamically unstable and therefore tend to breakdown over time due to various physicochemical mechanisms. Therefore, stabilizers are used in emulsion formulations for improving their long-term stability, such as emulsifiers, texture modifiers, ripening inhibitors, and weighting agents. Emulsifiers (such as small molecule surfactants, phospholipids, proteins, polysaccharides, and other surface-active polymers) are typically amphiphilic molecules that have both hydrophilic and hydrophobic groups on the same molecule.
The most important polysaccharide emulsifiers in food applications are Arabic gum, modified starches, modified cellulose, pectin, and some galactomannans. The role of the emulsifier is to adsorb at the surface of the freshly formed fine droplets and so prevent them from coalescing with the near droplets to form larger droplets again. Mayonnaise is an example of a stable emulsion of oil and vinegar, when egg yolk (lecithin) may be used as an emulsifying agent.
Emulsions are usually formulated by a single type of emulsifier. But, in some cases, the quality and functional properties of emulsions can be improved by using a combination of several emulsifiers rather than the individual alone. Each of them has a unique molecular and physicochemical characteristic that can be applied for modulation the interfacial properties of emulsion droplets.
Novel or improved functional attributes can often be obtained by using emulsifier mixtures rather than single emulsifiers, for example, enhancements in antioxidant activity, flavor encapsulation, nutraceutical delivery, or textural attributes. Due to the increasing demand for clean-label products, utilization of natural emulsifier’s mixtures can be recommended [11]. In addition, the new technique to conjugate proteins with polysaccharide by Maillard reaction arising in the controlled dry heating between the ℇ-amino groups of proteins and the reducing end carbonyl groups of polysaccharides are established. The most remarkable characteristic of the resultant protein-polysaccharide conjugates is the outstanding emulsifying attributes which are preferred in comparison to commercial emulsifiers [12].
Moreover, wet-heating has been adopted to prepare protein-polysaccharide conjugate. Wet-heating mostly shortens the reaction time to only several hours at high temperature and short reaction time limits the Maillard reaction to initial stage to provide better browning control [13, 14].
Foams consist of small bubbles of gas (frequently air) scattered in a liquid, for example, egg white foam. As liquid egg white is whipped, air bubbles are included. The mechanical action leads albumen proteins to unfold and make a network, entrapping the air. If egg white is heated, protein coagulates and moisture is driven off. This creates solid foam, for example, a meringue. Ice cream, bread, and cake are other instances of solid foams.
Recent interest from researches is the application of structural design principles for the fabrication of edible colloids with novel functional properties. This research activity is driven forward by an increasing recognition within the food industry of the value of colloidal systems as delivery vehicles for nutrients and flavor compounds.
In Chapter 5, the role of electrostatic and steric forces in food colloids and their stability are discussed. Based on biopolymer interaction, a combination of protein and polysaccharide functionality for production of the novel biopolymer with enhanced functional properties is deeply studied. Proteins and polysaccharides are two groups of hydrocolloids that are widely used in food formulations simultaneously. These macromolecules are known to play important physicochemical roles, such as thickening, stabilizing, gelling, emulsifying properties, etc., in food products. Interactions between two hydrocolloids play an important role in the structure and stability of processed foods and depend not only on the physicochemical properties of proteins or polysaccharides alone [15–17].
Nowadays, the intelligent manipulation of protein and polysaccharide interactions provides opportunities for the design of new ingredients and interfacial structures with applications in the food and pharmaceutical industries.
So, food scientists can control the microstructure, texture, and shelf-life of edible colloidal systems with attention to theirs. Protein-polysaccharide interactions could play a key role in the nanoscale engineering of novel foods designed to address the widespread health concerns associated with obesity problem and the release of specific nutrients [18].
In addition, nowadays multilayer interfaces are very interested in food industries. Multilayer interfaces in food colloids typically consist of adsorbed layers of proteins and polysaccharides made by the sequential or simultaneous deposition of oppositely charged macromolecules at the surface of emulsion droplets [19].
With the advancement of nanotechnology in different fields such as food industry, some researchers studied various nanoencapsulation techniques for controlled and protection of some bioactive ingredients including pharmaceuticals and food bioactive components with the high bioavailability. Based on the main applied ingredients/equipment for the formulation of encapsulation systems, nanocarriers are classified into five groups: (1) lipid-based nanocarriers (such as nanoemulsions, nanoliposomes, and nanolipid carriers); (2) nanostructured colloids nanocarriers (such as caseins, cyclodextrins, and amylose); (3) nanocarriers produced by special equipment such as electro-spinning/spraying, nanospray dryer, and micro/nanofluidics systems; (4) biopolymers nanoparticles nanocarriers (such as single biopolymer nanoparticles, biopolymer-biopolymer complexation, nanogels of alginates, whey, soy proteins, and chitosan, nanotubes, or nanofibrils); and (5) miscellaneous nanocarriers (such as nanoparticles made from chemical polymers, nanostructured surfactants, inorganic nanoparticles, and nanocrystals). Hence, it is possible to choose appropriate nanodelivery systems based on the solubility and predicted functionality of bioactive components.
In last few years, there has been many published studies on the nanoencapsulation of different food ingredients such as phenolic compounds and antioxidants, natural food colorants, antimicrobial agents and essential oils, minerals, flavors, essential fatty acids and fish oil, and vitamins [20]. Active compounds such as antioxidants and antimicrobials are added into the food formulation for aims of quality loss and microbial safety management. But there are limitations such as pro-oxidation in lipid foods and compliance of regulatory maximum allowable concentration. Therefore, controlled release packaging (CRP) is a novel technology that is applied for the package with release active compounds in a controlled trend to improve safety and quality for food products during storage. Research in controlled release packaging focused on released systems such as active compounds from the package, non-releasing antimicrobials or antioxidants, oxygen absorbers, and free-radical scavengers those grafted on to packaging materials [21].
One developing area in the application of colloidal dispersions is the manufacture of functional foods. Functional foods are becoming progressively favorite among consumers as the result of improved knowledge of functional components and their influence on human wellbeing and biological functions. The customers would like to overcome health problems such as cardiovascular problems and obesity through consuming foods rather than drugs. The plan of functional foods for the delivery of nutraceuticals and micronutrients is a great technological challenge. Colloidal delivery systems are actually found in nature. Casein, for example, is a very illustrative instance of a natural colloidal delivery system for calcium. In milk, calcium is cleverly “engineered” into porous casein colloidal elements of sizes lesser than approximately 500 nm [22]. In Chapter 4, the nanostructured colloids in various areas of food science are discussed.
Nanostructured colloids can be naturally present in food or they can be synthetically manufactured. Some examples of natural nanostructured colloids include casein micelles and β-lactoglobulin in milk, and in the case of synthetically manufactured colloids are metal oxide nanoparticles and clay. Synthetically manufactured nanostructures are added to enhance solubility, improve bioavailability, biologically active compounds protection, increasing shelf-life, color, flavor, and add nutritional value.
The industrial sciences have been of great attention to the development of new bio-based structures with potential in innovative applications. Structures with gel-like behavior are usually used in the cosmetic, pharmaceutical, and food industries for the aim of controlling the physical properties of final products. In the food industry, words like oleogels and organogels have been increasingly used. Oleogels are new emulsion-based structure that can be used to control phase separation and decrease the mobility and migration of the oil phase, providing solid-like properties without using high levels of saturated fatty acids as well as to be a carrier of bioactive compounds. In this area, it can be used as the food grade and bio-based structurants for producing edible oleogels with fat replacement and structure-tailoring functionality [23].
IntechOpen Compacts provide a mid-length publishing format which bridges the gap between journal articles, book chapters and monographs, and cover content across all scientific disciplines. Compacts are the preferred publishing option for brief research reports on new topics, in-depth case studies, dissertations, or essays exploring new ideas, issues or broader topics on the research subject.
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