Salient description of different analysis zones.
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"IntechOpen Maintains",originalUrl:"/media/original/113"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8463",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Pediatric Surgery, Flowcharts and Clinical Algorithms",title:"Pediatric Surgery, Flowcharts and Clinical Algorithms",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Pediatric Surgery, Flowcharts and Clinical Algorithms is an updated review of some common pediatric surgical problems. The authors of the chapters have made a full review of the selected topics including the basic science facts necessary for the proper understanding of conditions (anatomy, physiology and embryology), such as gastrointestinal disorders, abdominal wall defects, choledochal cysts, and others, with special emphasis on antenatal diagnosis and management.A flow chart (or management algorithm) is included to facilitate decision making in choice of the proper diagnostic tools or the most efficient surgical (or non-surgical) strategy.The book is intended for pediatric surgeons, pediatricians, and researchers in any of the topics included.",isbn:"978-1-78923-996-6",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-995-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-856-6",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78837",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"pediatric-surgery-flowcharts-and-clinical-algorithms",numberOfPages:168,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!1,hash:"23f39beea4d557b0ae424e2eaf82bf5e",bookSignature:"Sameh Shehata",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8463.jpg",numberOfDownloads:8079,numberOfWosCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:5,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:9,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 6th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 27th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 26th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 14th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 15th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"37518",title:"Prof.",name:"Sameh",middleName:null,surname:"Shehata",slug:"sameh-shehata",fullName:"Sameh Shehata",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/37518/images/system/37518.png",biography:"Prof. Sameh Shehata is professor and past chairman of the Pediatric Surgery Department, Faculty of Medicine, University of Alexandria, Egypt. He is the past president of the Egyptian Association of Pediatric Surgeons (EPSA). Dr. Shehata is president-elect of the World Federation of Associations of Pediatric Surgeons (WOFAPS), and the Current president of the IPEG Middle East Chapter.\r\nDr. Shehata is the creator of the technique of laparoscopic traction for the intra-abdominal testis known as Shehata technique, that is widely practiced now in many centers worldwide.\r\nDr. Shehata is the admin of the largest online pediatric surgery forum (The pediatric surgeon’s lounge) and is also among the editorial board of many national and\r\ninternational pediatric surgery journals.",institutionString:"Alexandria University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Alexandria University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1112",title:"Pediatric Surgery",slug:"pediatric-surgery"}],chapters:[{id:"67096",title:"Principles of Fetal Surgery",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85883",slug:"principles-of-fetal-surgery",totalDownloads:827,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Fetal therapy (in utero therapy) is a type of special therapy which aims to prevent or correct congenital anomalies in fetus, and prevents their severe consequences on later fetal development. It includes the use of in utero human fetal stem cell transplantation, fetal gene therapy and gene-editing technology as a new treatment for fetal genetic disorders. It started with open fetal surgery and then significantly advancing with innovations, toward minimally invasive fetal procedures, which are undoubtedly the future of fetal surgery, with the goal of providing the best possible fetal outcome, while minimizing the morbidity and mortality to the mother. The goal of fetal treatments is to decrease both fetal and maternal risks and prevent premature rupture of membranes. Fetal ultrasound and MRI are crucial for successful fetal interventions. Moreover, multidisciplinary fetal teams, including fetal surgeon, ultrasonographer, perinatologist, and anesthesiologist, are essential for optimum care to both mother and fetus. Finally, any new modality of fetal therapy must be thoroughly evaluated in animal models before clinical practice. In this chapter, we discuss the basic principles of fetal surgery, milestones of fetal surgery, specific fetal anomalies that are amenable for fetal surgery, successful fetal surgery criteria and future of fetal surgery.",signatures:"Ahmed Abdelghaffar Helal",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67096",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67096",authors:[{id:"275198",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",surname:"Abdelghffar Helal",slug:"ahmed-abdelghffar-helal",fullName:"Ahmed Abdelghffar Helal"}],corrections:null},{id:"66650",title:"Necrotizing Enterocolitis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85784",slug:"necrotizing-enterocolitis",totalDownloads:2247,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) is the commonest inflammatory gastrointestinal disorder of newborn infants, occurring primarily in premature neonates. Presenting as a medical and surgical emergency, it is associated with significant morbidity and mortality. NEC is characterized by acute intestinal inflammation and necrosis with intramural dissection of gas, pathognomically appearing as pneumatosis intestinalis on radiography. The incidence and mortality, with an inverse relationship to maturation, range between 3–11% and 17–20% respectively. Mortality may be up to 50% in extremely premature infants who require surgery for intestinal perforation or gangrene. The exact etiopathogenesis is unknown. Over 90% of infants are premature and more than 98% are enterally fed. NEC presents with feeding intolerance and abdominal distension, which may rapidly progress to cardiorespiratory decompensation and death in severe cases. Intestinal dysbiosis and its functional and immunological immaturity are proposed to play roles in the pathogenesis. While exact triggers are undetermined, the disease is marked by an anomalous immunological response of enterocytes to inflammation, invoking cytokines and chemokines. NEC is treated with bowel rest, antibiotics, cardiorespiratory support, parenteral nutrition, and blood products transfusion. Approximately 30% of cases require surgery and a significant number of survivors suffer from neurological deficits, intestinal dysfunction, and post surgical short bowel syndrome.",signatures:"Rita Prasad Verma and Archana Kota",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66650",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66650",authors:[{id:"278358",title:"Dr.",name:"Rita P.",surname:"Verma",slug:"rita-p.-verma",fullName:"Rita P. Verma"},{id:"296230",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",surname:"Kota",slug:"archana-kota",fullName:"Archana Kota"}],corrections:null},{id:"65955",title:"Oesophageal Atresia: Drowning a Child in His/Her Own Saliva",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84525",slug:"oesophageal-atresia-drowning-a-child-in-his-her-own-saliva",totalDownloads:801,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Oesophageal atresia (OA) is a congenital anomaly characterised by absence or loss of a segment of the oesophagus. This commonly affects the thoracic portion of the oesophagus, leaving upper and lower oesophageal segments. Loss of the oesophageal luminal continuity leads to impaired in utero swallowing of amniotic fluid as well as postnatal swallowing of saliva and food. Besides the loss of oesophageal continuity, most of the patients tend to have a connection between the trachea and the lower oesophageal segment and a few between the trachea and the upper oesophageal segment, a condition called tracheo-oesophageal fistula (TOF). In view of these, the main principles guiding the definitive surgical management of OA are (1) to disconnect any TOF and (2) to establish a conduit for swallowing, preferably using the native oesophageal segments. This chapter seeks to discuss OA by focusing on the embryology, anatomy and physiology of the oesophagus, stressing on the embryological basis of OA. Other areas to cover include aetiology, pathogenesis, epidemiology, pathologic classification, associated anomalies, pathophysiology, clinical presentation and diagnosis. Further discussion will focus on prognostic classification of patients, management and post-operative complications.",signatures:"Samuel Osei-Nketiah and William Appeadu-Mensah",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65955",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65955",authors:[{id:"273710",title:"Dr.",name:"Samuel",surname:"Osei-Nketiah",slug:"samuel-osei-nketiah",fullName:"Samuel Osei-Nketiah"},{id:"275704",title:"Dr.",name:"Willam",surname:"Appeadu-Mensah",slug:"willam-appeadu-mensah",fullName:"Willam Appeadu-Mensah"}],corrections:null},{id:"69210",title:"Meconium Ileus",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85548",slug:"meconium-ileus",totalDownloads:850,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Meconium ileus is a type of neonatal intestinal obstruction that occurs when abnormally thick meconium impacts in the ileum causing blockage of intestinal flow. Most infants with meconium ileus have cystic fibrosis, a congenital condition characterized by abnormally thick intestinal secretions and pancreatic insufficiency. The pathogenesis of meconium ileus is due to hyperviscous mucus secreted by abnormal intestinal glands, abnormal concentrating processes in the proximal small intestine, and pancreatic enzyme insufficiency. The clinical presentation of meconium ileus is that of abdominal distention, bilious vomiting, and failure to pass meconium. Cases of meconium ileus are usually evaluated with plain abdominal radiograph and contrast enema. Numerous air-filled loops of bowel on the supine view with characteristic absence of air-fluid levels are commonly seen on the radiograph, but the presence of calcification suggests intestinal perforation. Contrast enema examination is useful in cases with microcolon. Uncomplicated meconium ileus obstruction can be relieved by giving one or more dilute diatrizoate sodium enema (with Nacetylcysteine added) under fluoroscopy. Surgery is indicated when there is progressive distention or signs of clinical deterioration despite multiple enemas, as well as in complicated cases like meconium peritonitis, ileal atresia or stenosis, ileal perforation, and volvulus with or without pseudocyst formation.",signatures:"Udefiagbon Omogiade",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69210",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69210",authors:[{id:"273380",title:"Dr.",name:"Omogiade",surname:"Udefiagbon",slug:"omogiade-udefiagbon",fullName:"Omogiade Udefiagbon"},{id:"284652",title:"Dr.",name:"Owolabi",surname:"Oni",slug:"owolabi-oni",fullName:"Owolabi Oni"}],corrections:null},{id:"67769",title:"Pediatric Choledochal Cysts: Unknowns are Decreasing",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84301",slug:"pediatric-choledochal-cysts-unknowns-are-decreasing",totalDownloads:1224,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Choledochal cysts (CCs) are congenital cystic dilatation of extrahepatic and/or intrahepatic bile ducts. CCs are more common in Asian population, the cause is still unknown. Although the etiology is controversial, the main elements in the natural historical emergence of the type I and type IV, which make up the majority of all types, have become clearer. The majority of CCs are diagnosed in childhood. Clinical presentation varies from jaundice in young patients to nonspecific abdominal pain in older, but morbidity increases with complications such as cholangitis, pancreatitis, perforation, hepatitis, liver failure, and malignancy in delayed diagnosed patients. MRCP is considered the current gold standard diagnostic modality that is able to accurately assess biliary anatomy. Although the treatment approach has been formed over the years, it still has not reached the last state. Eventually, the removal of the entire cyst and the reconstruction of the remaining biliary tract to drainage is the current treatment approach. But the dilemma is the way of reconstruction procedure (hepaticoduodenostomy or hepaticojejunostomy). All patients should be followed up for a long period of time, regardless of the surgery method.",signatures:"Hasan Özkan Gezer",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67769",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67769",authors:[{id:"273381",title:"M.D.",name:"Hasan",surname:"Gezer",slug:"hasan-gezer",fullName:"Hasan Gezer"}],corrections:null},{id:"66831",title:"Management of Gastroschisis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85510",slug:"management-of-gastroschisis",totalDownloads:1278,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Gastroschisis (GS) is one of the congenital abdominal wall defects, in which the bowel has prolapsed without a covering through a defect adjacent to (and nearly always to the right of) an otherwise normal umbilicus. Proper management of such cases gives them the opportunity to survive and thrive. In this chapter, simplified flowcharts for the initial management of GS, surgical intra-operative decisions and post-operative active follow-up of such cases will be presented and discussed. The first flowchart will discuss how to deal with a GS case from birth till the operative theatre, while the second flowchart will take the lead to guide the surgeon with the available surgical options and how to choose the suitable one for the case. Finally, the post-operative active follow-up fluid management and possible complications are discussed.",signatures:"Alaa Obeida and Aly Shalaby",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66831",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66831",authors:[{id:"273587",title:"Dr.",name:"Alaa",surname:"Obeida",slug:"alaa-obeida",fullName:"Alaa Obeida"},{id:"276899",title:"Mr.",name:"Aly",surname:"Shalaby",slug:"aly-shalaby",fullName:"Aly Shalaby"}],corrections:null},{id:"66561",title:"Single-Incision Pediatric Endosurgery (SIPES)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85305",slug:"single-incision-pediatric-endosurgery-sipes-",totalDownloads:853,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Most centers advocate laparoscopy in order to minimize the size and the number of skin incisions. Many comparative studies, systematic review, and pooled analysis demonstrate that single-incision laparoscopic surgery (SILS) is comparable to conventional laparoscopic surgery (CLS). However, this review identifies the need for randomized controlled trials to clarify the efficacy of SIPS compared with CLS. SIPES pediatric has gained significant popularity. Longer M OT with SIPES was the main concern in most published series. One study has shown that SIPES in children is safe and feasible when performed by resident doctors in comparison to the fellow. We started SIPES in 2003. It is carried out routinely by trainees and specialists. Interferences and collisions between surgical instruments are worse in SIPES than CLS. These challenges extended the OT. Although the use of flexible laparoscopic instruments instead of straight instruments may overcome these technical difficulties, only straight laparoscopic instruments are currently used in our institution. Our aim is to standardize this approach in pediatric age group. The technique can be imparted satisfactorily to trainees. However, its successful incorporation into surgical training programs will depend on the development of innovative simulation strategies.",signatures:"Enaam Raboei, Ameen Alsaggaf, Yazeed Owiwi, Syed Salahuddin, Alaa Ghallab and Mazen Zidan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66561",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66561",authors:[{id:"290599",title:"Dr.",name:"Ameen",surname:"Alsaggaf",slug:"ameen-alsaggaf",fullName:"Ameen Alsaggaf"},{id:"290600",title:"Dr.",name:"Yazeed",surname:"Owiwi",slug:"yazeed-owiwi",fullName:"Yazeed Owiwi"},{id:"290601",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed",surname:"Salahuddin",slug:"syed-salahuddin",fullName:"Syed Salahuddin"},{id:"290602",title:"Dr.",name:"Enaam",surname:"Raboei",slug:"enaam-raboei",fullName:"Enaam Raboei"},{id:"290868",title:"Dr.",name:"Mazen",surname:"Zaidan",slug:"mazen-zaidan",fullName:"Mazen Zaidan"},{id:"290869",title:"Dr.",name:"Alaa",surname:"Ghallab",slug:"alaa-ghallab",fullName:"Alaa Ghallab"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"2123",title:"Complementary Pediatrics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9a8d394d9989a6dcc3a9a867f0af3a6b",slug:"complementary-pediatrics",bookSignature:"Öner Özdemir",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2123.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"62921",title:"Dr.",name:"Öner",surname:"Özdemir",slug:"oner-ozdemir",fullName:"Öner Özdemir"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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\r\n\tTea is one of the most popular beverages in the world, and the second most consumed after water. Based on evidence from cellular, animal, epidemiological, and clinical studies, tea consumption has been linked to a number of health benefits, including cancer chemoprevention, chronic inflammation, heart and liver disease, diabetes, neurodegenerative disorders, and so on. Despite the fact that not all health advantages have been consistently established, several clinical trial findings have provided tangible data proving green tea's green health benefits, including its cancer-protective effect. Furthermore, the effects of tea processing and storage, as well as additives, on the characteristics and health activity of tea have been also investigated.
\r\n\r\n\tThe aim of the present book "Health Benefits of Tea" will be to combine review and research chapters to elucidate tea's health benefits, including the molecular targets, biological processes, and mechanisms of action involved. Chapters on preserving tea's beneficial properties during processing and storage will also be considered.
",isbn:"978-1-80355-664-2",printIsbn:"978-1-80355-663-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80355-665-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"980632392defa1168f706c4f89ecef90",bookSignature:"Dr. Christophe F.E. Hano and Dr. Samantha Drouet",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11821.jpg",keywords:"Phytochemical Characterization, Polyphenols, Chemical Diversity, Botany, Antioxidant, Cancer Chemoprevention, Chronic Inflammation, Cardiovascular Disease, Liver Disease, Tea Processing, Tea Storage, Additives",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 28th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 26th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 25th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 13th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 12th 2022",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"6 days",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Christophe Hano (h-index 26) is a phytochemist and Assistant Professor at the University of Orleans. His research interests have been in applied plant specialized metabolism and plant biotechnology for nutraceutical, medicinal, and cosmeceutical applications. He has published over 200 scientific papers, reviews, and book chapters in internationally renowned journals, as well as edited one book and many journals topical issues and books on plant specialized metabolism.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Dr. Samantha Drouet is an active member of the French Society of Plant Specialized Metabolism as well as a member of Groupe Polyphenols and the Phytochemical Society of Europe.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"313856",title:"Dr.",name:"Christophe",middleName:"F.E.",surname:"Hano",slug:"christophe-hano",fullName:"Christophe Hano",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313856/images/system/313856.png",biography:"Dr. Christophe Hano is a phytochemist and an assistant professor at the University of Orléans, France. His research interests include plant specialized metabolism and plant biotechnology for nutraceutical, medicinal, and cosmeceutical applications. He has published more than 200 scientific papers, reviews, and book chapters in internationally renowned journals, as well as edited one book and many journal issues.",institutionString:"University of Orléans",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Orléans",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"470083",title:"Dr.",name:"Samantha",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"samantha-drouet",fullName:"Samantha Drouet",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003S7gHFQAZ/Profile_Picture_2022-04-28T09:29:32.jpg",biography:"Dr. Samantha Drouet, Ph.D. in Plant Biochemistry, University of Orleans. During her Ph.D., she worked on the valorization of plant secondary metabolites with pharmaceutical, nutraceutical, or cosmeceutical interests. She is a multidisciplinary researcher with a strong background in green extraction and analytical methods applied to plant polyphenols, elucidation of the biosynthetic mechanisms of secondary metabolites and their exploitation through metabolic engineering approaches as well as evaluation of their biological in vitro activities. She is an active member of the French Society of Plant Specialized Metabolism (Meta-SP) as well as a member of Groupe Polyphenols and the Phytochemical Society of Europe. She has published more than 51 scientific papers, reviews, and book chapters in internationally renowned Journals and Publishers. (Cited 808 times; H=19; i10=31; orcid.org/0000-0003-3318-8831).",institutionString:"University of Orléans",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Orléans",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"347258",firstName:"Marica",lastName:"Novakovic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",email:"marica@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. 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TiO2 is used in industry since 1918 as pigment in paints, paper, plastic, drugs, cosmetics, etc. In the last years, with the beginning of nanotechnology, powder and films of titanium dioxide have been widely studied due to its new properties obtained by decreasing the particles size. The wide range of application is due to its electronic and structural properties, such as high transmittance in the visible, high refractive index (n = 2.6), high photocatalytic activity, and chemical stability. These properties make TiO2 an excellent material for use in photocatalysis, antimicrobial surfaces, self-cleaning and hydrophobic surfaces, photovoltaic cells, gas sensor, photochromic devices, etc. [1].
\nTitanium is the second transition metal on the periodic table and has Ar-3d24s2 distribution. It was discovered in 1791 by the mineralogist William Gregor, in the region of Cornwall, United Kingdom, in the mineral ilmenite (FeTiO3). In 1795, it was isolated by the German chemist Heinrich Klaproth in the form of TiO2 rutile phase. Titanium dioxide can be found in three different crystalline phases: anatase, brookite, and rutile. By thermal treatment, it is possible to convert the anatase and brookite phases in rutile, which is thermodynamically stable at high temperatures. The anatase phase is more reactive, mainly in nanometric dimension, and is frequently used in photocatalytic applications.
\nAs semiconductor, TiO2 can be studied in terms of the energy band theory, whose bandgap energy (3.2–3.6 eV) can be supplied by photons with energy in the near ultraviolet range and whose separation between valence and conduction bands is intrinsically linked with its optical and electronic properties. These bandgap values depend on the particle size, phase, and used dopant, making possible the modulation of these values. In the case of thin films, which traditionally are formed by TiO2 nanoparticles, the thickness also contributes to the modulation of the bandgap values. Several studies are made aiming the best quality of the films and the decrease in the bandgap energy by introduction of dopants in the TiO2 structures to improve the photocatalytic propriety in the visible region of the light [1, 2].
\nThe introduction of dopants in the TiO2 thin film structure such as SiO2, Ag, and Nb, among others, changes its properties expanding the range of possible applications. The methods of preparation also influence significantly its morphology, structure, and texture, modifying its properties. Several methods can be used to obtain thin films such as chemical vapor deposition, sputtering, spray pyrolysis, and sol-gel process. The sol-gel process [3] allows the preparation of thin films with high purity, thermal and mechanical resistance, chemical durability and the control of morphology, composition, thickness, and porosity. Thin film depositions using the sol-gel process can be realized by dip-coating, spin-coating, or spray-coating techniques. These techniques are economically feasible and can be applied to substrates with large surfaces and different forms.
\nThe sol-gel process [3] that leads to the formation of TiO2 films is based on mechanisms of hydrolysis and polycondensation of titanium alkoxides mixed with alcohol and catalytic agents. There are various kinds of Ti alkoxides such as titanium isopropoxide (Ti(O
This mechanism is relatively complex because the reactions occur simultaneously during the process of deposition. In this proposed mechanism, the alkoxide precursor passes by the sequences, oligomer, polymer, and colloid, and it finishes as an amorphous porous solid structure. Thermal treatments are used for the preparation of nanocrystalline thin films. With the use of doping salts in the precursor solutions, the mechanism becomes more complex due to the introduction of other metals in the gel network.
\nThe dip-coating technique [4] consists into dip a substrate in the sol and removes it at constant speed (Figure 1), resulting in an M─O─M oxide network that forms a wet gel film. The network structure, the morphology, and the thickness of the film depend on the contributions of the reactions of hydrolysis and condensation that must occur in approximately the same velocity of substrate withdrawal. Otherwise, the solution may run down the substrate. These properties may be controlled varying the experimental conditions: type of organic binder, the molecular structure of the precursor, water/alkoxide ratio, type of catalyst and solvent, withdrawal speed, and solution viscosity. After the deposition, the gel film is formed by a solid structure impregnated with the solvent, and a drying process can be used to convert the wet gel in a dry porous film. Denser film can be tailored by different temperatures of thermal treatment, leading to films with different specific surface areas and porosities.
\n(a) Dip-coating equipment and (b) substrate withdrawal of the solution for film formation.
The advantage of the dip-coating process is the ease of deposition in substrates of any size and shape, facilitating the industrial process.
\nTiO2 thin films were prepared by sol-gel process [2, 5] using titanium isopropoxide (Aldrich, 98%) as the precursor of titania mixed with isopropyl alcohol and hydrochloric acid in stoichiometric amounts. The precursor solution was kept under agitation at room temperature for 1 h and rested until the viscosity reaches the best value condition, between 2 and 5 cP. The films were prepared using solutions with 2 < pH < 4 and atmosphere relative humidity <40%, since they are opaque and not adherent for other pH and relative humidity values. The films were deposited onto clean substrates (borosilicate glass, steel, silicon, and magnets) at room conditions (25°C, relative air humidity lower than 30%), using a dip-coating equipment with withdrawal speed between 0.2 and 1.5 mm/s. The substrates were washed with standard cleaning method before dipping. After each dip-coating process, the wet films were dried in air for 30 min and thermally treated at temperatures between 100 and 500°C for a range of time (between 10 and 60 min) to convert them into porous or densified oxide films. Depending on the thermal treatment temperature, the films can be amorphous or nanocrystalline. Some samples were submitted at UV-C light (lamp Girardi RSE20B, 254 nm—15 W) to crystallize without increasing the temperature. Crystalline structures were investigated by an X-ray diffraction (incidence angle of 5°) using a diffractometer Rigaku (Geigerflex model 3034). The samples were analyzed by atomic force microscopy (AFM) in an Asylum Research, model MFP-3D-SA, to observe the topography and possible coating defects, such as cracks and peeling. Morphological characterization was evaluated by transmission electron microscopy (FEI TECNAI G2 20 at acceleration tension of 200 kV). Electron diffraction was also used to determine the structure of the crystalline phases. The films were pulled from glass substrates and mounted onto 200 mesh copper grids coated with holey carbon films for examination. The morphology and composition were evaluated by a scanning electron microscope (SEM) FEI Quanta 200 FEG with an energy-dispersive spectrometer (EDS). The transparency and thickness of the films deposited on glasses were verified by the optical transmission spectra measured with an ultraviolet and visible spectrometer (U3010, Hitachi).
\nThe TiO2 films obtained by sol-gel process using the dip-coating technique are transparent, homogeneous, adherent, durable, and free of micro-cracks. Figure 2a shows thin films removed from a glass substrate. The thickness of the films deposited in glass and dried in air can range from 40 to 800 nm for each coating, depending on the withdrawal speed and viscosity. After heating, the film thickness decreases due to the densification process, reaching values between 20 and 300 nm each coating. When the number of coating increased, the thickness can reach 800 nm after calcination without cracks.
\n(a) TiO2 thin films removed from a glass substrate and (b) thickness and refractive index of TiO2 thin films in function of thermal treatment temperature.
After drying, the films are porous when treated at low temperatures, and the density increases as a function of heating temperature and time. The porosity of the films leads to a variation in the refraction index that can change from 1.9 to 2.3 (λ = 550 nm) for porosities between 20 and 5%, respectively. Figure 2b shows an example of the variation of thickness and refractive index in the function of thermal treatment temperature of TiO2 film. When the TiO2 films are deposited in substrates that cannot be thermally treated, such as polymers and cotton, the densification and crystallization can be made by UV light treatment. Figure 3 shows images of TiO2 films heated at 100 and 400°C for 10 min.
\nAtomic force microscopy of TiO2 films heated at (a) 100°C and (b) 400°C.
The film formed after drying at room temperature is amorphous and contains organic contaminants in the network. With increasing in temperature of thermal treatment, the film structure changes to anatase phase around ~300°C and to rutile phase above ~600°C.
\nAccording to the literature, the values of the phase transition of TiO2 can change in some degrees also depending on the type and time of drying, used dopant, and particle size, among others factors. Figure 4 shows typical diffractograms of TiO2 films deposited in glass substrate in two temperatures, generating an amorphous material at 100°C and a nanocrystalline material at 400°C. Figure 5 shows SEM and TEM images of the film and the respective electron diffraction that confirm its anatase phase.
\nXRD patterns of TiO2 thin films heated at (a) 100°C and (b) 400°C.
TiO2 thin film images: (a) SEM image of the film over a glass substrate, (b) and (c) TEM images of the film, and (d) electron diffraction of the film.
TiO2 thin films are used in the confection of optical devices (linear and nonlinear) due to the transparency throughout the visible spectrum, high linear and nonlinear refractive index that change in function of the wavelength, and dielectric properties. Their nonlinearity can make possible operations such as logic, all-optical switching, and wavelength conversion. Their high linear index of refraction can improve optical confinement as waveguide. The optical and electric properties of the thin films made by sol-gel process can be modulated according to the desired application. Figure 6 shows transmittance curves of TiO2 thin films deposited on glass substrates as a function of the number of layers. Each layer measures approximately 60 nm.
\nUV–Vis spectra of the films deposited on (a) both sides of a glass substrate and heated at 100°C: (a) glass, (b) one layer, (c) two layers, (d) three layers, (e) four layers, (f) five layers; (b) one side of the glass substrate and heated at 400°C: (a) one layer, (b) two layers, (c) three layers, and (d) five layers.
By these spectra it is possible to calculate the bandgap of the films using, for example, the Tauc method. The value measured in this case was 3.4 eV, meaning that the photocatalytic activity occurs at a wavelength in the UV region. Several studies are made aiming to reduce the bandgap of the TiO2 anatase phase to the visible region to make it a competitive energy source with application in photocatalysis, solar cells, and artificial photosynthesis.
\nTiO2 films are also used in the preparation of hydrophobic and self-cleaning surfaces in several substrates. Figure 7 shows water drops over the film surface and over the glass substrate surface. The contact angle can be change varying the film porosity and the number of layers, for example.
\nTiO2 thin film deposited on (a) the film surface and on (b) the glass surface.
The TiO2 self-cleaning surfaces have the ability to remove greasy dirt and bacteria from their surfaces due to their photocatalytic property, which promotes the breakdown of fat molecules or destroys the membranes of bacteria. The self-cleaning property is frequently connected to hydrophobic surfaces, because the dusts can be removed by the rolling of the water droplets in the surface.
\nWhen Si alkoxide is mixed with Ti alkoxide to the preparation of precursors of TiO2/SiO2 thin films for utilization of the sol-gel process, the nanocomposites produced can combine or enhance the properties of the well-known pure oxides: TiO2 and SiO2 [6]. These nanomaterials can offer enhanced photocatalytic activities, persistent superhydrophilicity, modulated refractive index, enhanced resistance to corrosion, and superior mechanical properties such as larger mechanical resistance and hardness. The deposition of TiO2/SiO2 thin films in different substrates such as glasses, metals, ceramics, and polymers enables the application of these films in many purposes such as self-cleaning surfaces, antireflection surfaces, anticorrosion protection, wear resistance protection, fungicide and bactericide surfaces, water and air treatment devices, planar waveguides, nonlinear optical devices, etc. The most important fact is that two or more of these applications can be combined in TiO2/SiO2 multifunctional surfaces [7, 8].
\nIn this work, the preparation of TiO2/SiO2 nanocomposite thin films was made using titanium isopropoxide (Aldrich, purity >98%), isopropyl alcohol and hydrochloric acid, to prepare the TiO2 precursor solution and tetraethyl orthosilicate (Aldrich, purity >98%), isopropyl alcohol, hydrochloric acid, and distilled water to prepare the SiO2 precursor solution. The pH of both solutions was maintained in 3. SiO2 precursor solution was refluxed for 24 h at 60°C. Both the prepared solutions were aged for 24 h before the mixture. Then, TiO2/SiO2 precursor solutions with different xTiO2/(100-x)SiO2 molar ratios (x = 0, 20, 40, 60, 80, and 100%) were prepared and stirred for 1 h. The final viscosity of the solutions was maintained in approximately 2.2 cP. The films were deposited on properly clean glass substrates with a constant withdraw speed of 1.0 mm/s at 25°C and relative air humidity about 30%. The drying process occurred at 80°C in air for 10 min. This stage (deposition and drying) was repeated five times for thickness control. Finally, the samples were thermally treated at 500°C for 1 h.
\nThe TiO2 thin films were formed by anatase phase, and the SiO2 thin films were amorphous according to XRD patterns and Raman spectroscopy results. The TiO2/SiO2 thin films are formed by the anatase phase dispersed in a vitreous matrix. The anatase phase is fundamental for the desired applications due to their optical and photocatalytic property. The microstructure, morphology, and texture of the xTiO2/(100-x)SiO2 thin films change substantially due to the mixture of the titanium and silicon oxide, as seen in AFM images of Figure 8.
\n3D topographies of the five-layer xTiO2/(100-x)SiO2 films: (a) TiO2, (b) Si20Ti80, (c) Si40Ti60, (d) Si60Ti40, (e) Si80Ti20, and (f) SiO2.
With the addition of SiO2, the titania nanoparticles remain dispersed in the vitreous matrix, and because of that, TiO2 and SiO2 pure films have higher root-mean-square (RMS) roughness (2.2 and 6.0 nm, respectively) than TiO2/SiO2 films (between 0.2 and 1.2 nm). The surface smoothing, after the mixture of TiO2 and SiO2, resulted in an enhanced hardness that changes to 4.5 GPa for both pure films and to approximately 7.4 GPa for all nanocomposite thin films. These properties are essential for outdoor applications, special windows, glasses of cars, and other vehicles, among others, since the film surfaces can be subjected to intense mechanical wear of air particles. Moreover, TiO2/SiO2 nanocomposite thin films present a persistent superhydrophilicity, which is required for application on self-cleaning surfaces and water/air treatment, promoting a better washing of the contaminants in the surface, which can be obtained with the rain precipitation. These nanocomposites increase the adsorption of pollutants by the surface.
\nThe optical properties of the xTiO2/(100-x)SiO2 films are modulated by Ti/Si rate variation, as seen in Figure 9.
\nOptical properties modulation of the xTiO2/(100-x)SiO2 films: (a) transmittance and (b) refractive index in the function of wavelength.
The possibility to modulate the transmittance and refractive index (n) of the xTiO2/(100-x)SiO2 thin films is essential in applications as antireflection surfaces, filters, and planar waveguides, since this wide variation of n (from 1.45 to 2.18 in visible light) permits the construction of different structural models of devices. The variation in the refraction index in function of incident light wavelength of 2.0–2.8 (Figure 9b) is also very important to the construction of nonlinear optic devices [9].
\nTiO2 exhibits a high energy bandgap (3.2–3.8 eV) which corresponds to UV irradiation with a wavelength smaller than 388 nm. To overcome this limitation, several studies have been performed showing the modification of TiO2 with metal and nonmetal species aiming to extend the light absorption to the visible range and simultaneously increasing the recombination time of the electron-hole pairs formed. In particular, nanocomposite thin films of silver and titania have been of considerable interest since silver nanoparticles can act as electron traps, contributing to electron-hole separation and creating a local electric field capable of facilitating the electron excitation and consequently their photocatalytic properties. The improvement in the photocatalytic properties leads to surfaces with better bactericide, hydrophobicity, and self-cleaning characteristics [10].
\nAg/TiO2 coatings were prepared from alcoholic solution containing titanium isopropoxide and silver nitrate dissolved in a mixture of isopropyl alcohol in several atomic ratios. Acid conditions (pH = 4) were reached after acetic acid addition. This precursor solution was stirred at room temperature during 1 h and submitted to UV-C irradiation (254 nm) treatment in air for 100 min. This procedure has been used to produce metallic Ag from Ag+ ions. The films were deposited onto clean substrates as borosilicate, silicon, 316 L stainless steel, and magnets (NdFeB) with withdrawal speed of 8 mm s−1. After deposition, the coatings with one to five layers were dried in air for 20 min and were thermally treated for 1 h between 100 and 400°C [5, 11].
\nFigure 10 shows the characteristic diffractogram of Ag/TiO2 thin films with five layers deposited on glass and heated at 400°C.
\nXRD patterns of Ag/TiO2 thin films with five layers heated at 100°C and 400°C and deposited on (a) borosilicate and (b) silicon substrates (400°C).
According to XRD patterns, the coatings heated at 400°C show indexed peak characteristic of crystalline metallic Ag and anatase phase (PDF #1-562). The diffractogram of the film heated at 100°C was characteristic of a noncrystalline material, as expected. The substrates of 316 L stainless steel and magnets showed similar XRD patterns. SEM images of Ag/TiO2 heated at 400°C deposited on different substrates are shown in Figure 11.
\nSEM images of Ag/TiO2 heated at 400°C and deposited on (a) borosilicate, (b) magnet, (c) 316 L stainless steel, and (d) silicon substrates.
The structure of the used substrates has induced the formation of nano- and microstructures of metallic silver with different sizes and morphologies supported on the TiO2 thin film surfaces. This formation occurs due to thermal treatment that induces the diffusion of the metal nanoparticles to the film surface. In the borosilicate substrate (Figure 11a), the formation of spherical Ag nanoparticles with a bimodal particle size distribution is observed. When substrates of 316 L stainless steel and magnets (NdFeB) were used, Ag dendrite micro- and nanostructures were formed (Figure 11b and c). A trimodal size distribution is observed for the particles present on the surface of the Ag/TiO2 film deposited on silicon (Figure 11d). Particularly in this film, the Ag particles show dimensions of 5–150 nm.
\nEnergy-dispersive spectra (EDS) shown in Figure 12 has confirmed the elemental composition of the Ag/TiO2 films treated at 400°C deposited on 316 L stainless steel. In this film’s circular, micrometric and submicrometric structures also are observed besides the dendrites mentioned above. Brightness regions on the micrograph are constituted only by Ag, while the other regions are formed by TiO2 matrix in the anatase phase, according to the XRD results. The analyses for the other substrates were similar.
\nSEM-EDS of Ag/TiO2 thin film heated at 400°C and deposited on 316 L stainless steel and EDS spectra from different regions in the surface.
Figure 13 shows AFM images of Ag/TiO2 thin films with one layer deposited on 316 L stainless steel substrate. The surface roughness of the 316 L stainless steel, whose texture is shown in Figure 13a and b, is ~40 nm, a much higher value compared to the roughness value of the borosilicate substrate, which is about 0.20 nm. It is observed that the Ag/TiO2 films deposited on the steel substrates reduce their roughness as a function of the number of layers deposited. With four layers, the roughness value decreases to 7 nm. In addition, the Ag/TiO2 films are formed by silver nanoparticles dispersed on the surface of the TiO2 matrix with sizes between 20 and 50 nm.
\nAFM images of (a and b) 316 L stainless steel and (c and d) Ag/TiO2 thin film deposited on 316 L stainless steel and heated at 400° C (one layer).
The introduction of silver in the TiO2 structure changes their optic properties as can be seen in Figure 14a, represented by the variation of transmittance in the function of wavelength. The bandgap decreases, depending on the amount of silver in the crystalline structure (Tauc method), until values of 1.75 eV depend on the concentration of silver, according to the literature [9].
\n(a) Ag/TiO2 thin film transmittance in the function of wavelength: (a) glass, (b) one layer, (c) two layers, (d) three layers, and (e) four layers. (b) Absorption spectra of (a) TiO2; (b) Ag/TiO2, Ag:Ti = 1:6; and (c) Ag/TiO2, Ag:Ti = 1:100.
Figure 14b shows the absorption spectra of pure and doped TiO2, emphasizing the photonic property of the Ag/TiO2 thin films, with absorption peaks between 490 and 520 nm that changed with the variation of the molar ratio (Ag:Ti). These photonic surfaces provide new possibilities to increase the efficiency of solar energy conversion by confinement of the light, improve bandgap effects, and enhance optical transmission as well as nonlinear optical switching in surface polaritonic structures.
\nOther utilizations of Ag/TiO2 thin films are in hydrophilic/hydrophobic surfaces and in bactericide and fungicide devices [5], since the silver increases the TiO2 efficiency.
\nTraditionally, the niobium is used mainly in the confection of metallic alloys for several industrial applications [12]. However, the use of niobium to produce ceramic materials is increasing in the last few years with several applications into catalysis, supercapacitor, and battery components, among others. The incorporation of the niobium in other material structures, causing substitutional defects, has been studied to improve several material properties, such as TiO2. Examples of applications of Nb-doped TiO2 are its use as photocatalyst, dye-sensitized solar cells, gas sensors, magnetic properties, and transparent conductive oxide (TCO) for several electronic devices.
\nSeveral methods are being used to synthesize and deposit Nb-doped TiO2 thin films in different types of substrates. However, the most used deposition methods are chemical vapor deposition (CVD), sputtering, and sol-gel process. In the sol-gel synthesis of Nb-doped TiO2, the use of mainly two niobium precursors, niobium ethoxide [Nb(OCH2CH3)5], and niobium pentachloride (NbCl5) that are very expensive is reported in the literature [13]. In this work, Nb/TiO2 coatings were prepared from alcoholic solution containing titanium isopropoxide and ammonium-(bisaquo oxobisoxalato) niobate-trihydrate (produced by CBMM, Brazil) dissolved in a mixture of isopropyl alcohol. Acid conditions (pH = 4) were reached after acetic acid addition. The precursor solution was stirred at room temperature during 1 hour and deposited by dip-coating process in clean glass substrates with withdrawal speed between 0.8 and 3.7 mm s−1. After deposition, the coatings with one to five layers were dried in air for 20 min and were thermally treated for 1 h between 100 and 500°C.
\nThe Nb-TiO2 thin films obtained are transparent, adherent, free of micro-cracks, and with visual appearance more homogeneous than the other deposited thin films. The niobium increases the mechanical resistance of the surface.
\nA theoretical study using density functional theory (DFT) showed that the insertion of niobium in the titanium dioxide matrix, causing the substitution of Ti4+ cations for Nb5+ cations, changes its lattice parameters, cell volume, and bandgap [14]. Therefore, the structures of the materials calcined at 500°C were found to be crystalline in the anatase phase (PDF #1-562). The thin films doped with 0.5, 1, and 3% molar ratio Nb:Ti showed a displacement of the 101 and 200 peaks to lower angles, evidencing the substitution of the niobium inside the crystal structure, as shown in Figure 15.
\nXRD patterns of TiO2 thin films with different niobium concentrations, calcined at 500°C.
The increase of niobium content in the thin film promoted a considerable variation in the lattice parameters, whose d101 changed to 3.49 for pure TiO2 and to 3.55 for 3% Nb/TiO2. The crystallite size decreased from 11 to 7 nm, which agreed with the DFT results previously reported.
\nAFM 3D micrographs (Figure 16a and b) show that the TiO2 has larger particle size and RMS roughness of 2.2 ± 0.1 nm, while the 2% Nb/TiO2 film presents a RMS roughness of 0.6 ± 0.2 nm and smaller nanoparticles. All Nb/TiO2 thin films presented different profiles than TiO2 thin films, with smaller nanoparticles and RMS roughness and, therefore, more homogeneity, adherence, and visual quality.
\n3D micrographs of (a) 2% Nb-doped TiO2 and (b) pure TiO2, calcined at 500°C.
UV-Vis spectra seen in Figure 17 show that also it is possible to modulate the transmittance of the thin films as a function of the wavelength to obtain optical filters. All studied films showed similar bandgap values obtained by the Tauc method, between 3.6 and 3.4 eV. The insertion of niobium on the TiO2 structure led to a denser film with higher refractive index and high mechanical resistance.
\nUV-Vis spectra of several TiO2 and Nb/TiO2 thin films with different calcination temperatures and numbers of layers.
The sol-gel deposition parameters such as the density of the precursor solution, concentration of oxides, viscosity, withdrawal velocity, number of dips, and drying temperature influence the characteristics of the films such as thickness, porosity, refractive index, particle size, particle shape, and oxidation degree. Someway, all dopants used improved the quality and the range of application of the TiO2 films. The addition of SiO2 in the TiO2 films changes their mechanical, optical, and surface properties. The addition of Ag increases its photocatalytic activity, improving fungicide and bactericide properties of the films. The hydrophobicity/hydrophilicity change capacity was improved too. The doping with Nb improves the mechanical resistance of the films. All these properties can be applied in the confection of best photocatalytic surfaces to be used in the production of solar energy, self-cleaning surface, and optical and nonlinear optical devices.
\nThe authors would like to thank FAPEMIG, CNPq, and CAPES for their financial support and UFMG’s Microscopy Center for the images.
\nThe shoreline is the physical interface or intertidal margin between land and sea and constitutes one of the 27 global “Geo-indicators” referred by the International Union of Geological Science [1] and International Geographic Data Committee (IGDC). Shoreline change is a dynamic natural process in the coastal areas induced by erosion/accretion that occurs over a range of temporal scales. The morphological evolution of the Hooghly estuary and its coastline is the result of two counteracting transport processes of sediment supply versus removal. When both the processes are balanced an equilibrium is reached. However, most often this balance is disturbed due to the influence of episodic and/or long-term natural forcing and anthropogenic interventions. As a consequence, the shoreline keeps changing its position [2, 3, 4, 5, 6] over a wide temporal scale, from geologic age to short-lived, extreme weather events such as storms and tsunamis. The long-term processes that shape the shoreline include sea-level rise (SLR), altered wind patterns [7], frequency and intensity of storms [7], offshore bathymetric changes [8], high energy swells [9] and supply of fluvial sediment input. In addition, anthropogenic activities
According to Williams [12], the study of shoreline variation and forecast plays an important role in coastal zone management and it becomes more crucial in the context of anticipated climate change and sea-level rise [13]. In this context, one of the key requirements for effective coastal zone management is the availability of accurate position of the shorelines for analysis of changes in the past and future trends. Traditional methods of shoreline delineation include terrestrial surveys using landmarks, aerial photos [14, 15], Global Positioning Systems (GPS), terrestrial Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) or 3D scanners. But they are time-consuming, labour intensive and costly. In contrast the remote sensing data form space platform is more convenient, easy to process and above all freely available in the public domain. Remote sensing data has been extensively used in shoreline change studies because of their synoptic and repetitive coverage, multispectral capabilities enabling contrast between land and water in the infrared portion, and cost-effectiveness [14, 16]. Advanced image processing techniques can be employed on satellite data for precise extraction of the shoreline. Some of the methods used by different researchers include threshold level slicing and image classification technique [17], density slicing of TM band 5 [18], canny edge detection using DN threshold ([19], mean shift segmentation [20], pixel-based segmentation using DN threshold [21], neural network [22], fuzzy logic [23, 24], texture analysis [25], machine learning [26] and incorporation of ancillary spatial data in the classification scheme [27, 28, 29]. Quantitative assessment of the spatio-temporal variation of shoreline at global scale has been carried out by several authors [30, 31, 32]. In this endeavor the twin technologies of Remote Sensing and Geographic Information System has been recognized as the most useful tools for quantifying the historic shoreline change [33, 34] To avoid the discrepancy which might be introduced due to fluctuation of water level Yu et al. [35] have used satellite images obtained at similar tidal heights. Chen and Chang [36] have done the tidal correction using high spatial resolution satellite images and real-time data of tidal level to reduce the impact of tidal level variability on the estimation of coastline change. In India also several studies have been carried out for shoreline change analysis using remote sensing data [37, 38, 39]. Most of the studies have used Digital Shoreline Analysis System [40], a software extension within the ArcGIS tool for measuring, quantifying, calculating and estimating of rate of change from multiple historic shoreline positions at different temporal scales [41, 42, 43, 44]. The change metrics of DSAS are Net Shoreline Movement (NSM), Shoreline Change Envelope (SCE), End Point Rate (EPR), Linear Regression Rate (LRR) and Weighted Linear Regression Rate (WLR) among others. LRR and WLR enable multiple historic shorelines to be used to determine the rate of change by fitting a least-square regression line to all shoreline points for particular transects.
In the present study, Landsat satellite data of 8 temporal intervals between 1973 and 2021 were used for land-water discrimination, generation of shorelines and long-term change rate along with change pattern along the Hooghly estuary. The instantaneous land-water boundary was used as coastline which is relatively simple and can easily be identified using image transformation. The main objectives of the study are i) medium- and long-term changes in the shoreline at high spatial resolution using DSAS ii) to identify the erosion/accretion pattern and iii) to examine the role of change drivers.
The findings of the study will be useful for the managers and engineers to make scientific and rational policies for land use planning, to develop effective coastal protection strategies, predicting capacity for future coastal change due to climate and other drivers and improving impact and vulnerability assessments that include natural human sub-system interactions.
The Hooghly estuary is located in the southernmost part of Indo-Gangetic plain, flanked between East Midnapur (in the West) and South 24 Parganas district (in the East), extending between 21o33′10′′N to 22o13′16′′N latitude and 87o45′00′′ to 88o18′22′′E longitude (Figure 1). The head Bay is a unique deltaic environment comprising a wide continental shelf, complex coastal geometry and high tidal range. Tide domination is indicated by exponentially tapering channels, with funnel-shaped mouths [45]. The region has formed, sculptured and modified due to continuous fluvial action of the Ganga and the Brahmaputra systems, intense tidal hydrodynamic behavior, climatic disturbances and anthropogenic activities [46]. The funnel-shaped estuary has a width of 6 km at its head and 25 km at the mouth, responsible for tidal asymmetry and flow variation leading to bank erosion [47]. The average depth of the water column is only 6 m [48]. The estuary receives 4 tributaries
Index map of the Hooghly estuary.
Geologically the basement of the Bengal basin is a part of the eastern edge of the Indian plate, which is being subducted beneath the China plate along the Sunda subduction zone and Naga-Lushai orogenic belt. The tectonic and depositional history of the Bengal basin has been controlled by several movements during Cretaceous-Tertiary periods. Due to the tectonic activity the Bengal basin has been tilted towards east resulting in successive changes in the course of the Ganga River towards east from the historical past. Due to this shifting, the deltaic region suffers from the paucity of fresh water discharge and sedimentation. Auto compaction of loosely attached sediments and gradual land subsidence is also another prominent geomorphic event occurring in this region [49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54] which mostly remains unnoticed. Morphometrically the Hooghly estuary is the product of continuous fluvial sedimentation in a series of para-deltaic lobe progradation systems developed on the western shelf margin areas and eastern troughs of the Bengal basin caused by the eustatic, isostatic and tectonic forces. The coastline presents various landforms such as tidal/mud flats, sandy beaches (located near Digha, Duttapur, Shyampur, Dadanpatra, Baguranjalpai, Dariapur and Nij Kasba), salt marshes (near Khejuri and at the mouth of Rasulpur river near Nij Kasba) and mangrove marsh (south of Patibunia). A vast extension of the muddy beach is found in South 24 Parganas, especially to the east of Bakkhali. The most striking feature is the development of successive rows of dunes (both Palaeo and Neo dunes) with intervening clayey tidal flats in the south of East Midnapur district between the stretches of Subarnarekha and Hooghly estuary is due to punctuations in the regression of the sea during Holocene [55]. Banerjee and Sen [56] opined that the regression of sea along this coastal tract is around 6000-year BP which resulted in seaward shifting of shoreline and formation of Paleo-dunes. Accordingly, to Niyogi [57], six regular cycles of beach ridges alternating with a variable number of bars are visible in the area, which is indicative of the shifting of shorelines. According to Gaur and Vora [58], the shoreline position was 5–15 km inland from the present shoreline around 6000-year BP. The erosion and accretion patterns clearly show a continued geomorphic sculpturing of the Hooghly coast.
To capture the micro-level variability, alongshore is divided into 7 analysis zones (Figure 2) covering both the west and east bank. The zones in the west bank are delimited by the main inlets which are the freshwater sources, eventually draining into Bay of Bengal. The area delimitation of various zones, constituting transects and shoreline distances is given in Table 1. The west bank is divided into 3 zones whereas the east bank into 4 zones (Table 1). The total length of the coastline studied is 200 km of which 90 km on the western side and 110 km on the eastern side of the estuary. The studied coastline was divided into 1924 number of transects (Tn) separated by 100 m. The number of transects increases from west to east bank in the clockwise direction.
Different analysis zones.
Zone | No of transects (from-to) | Location | Distance (km) |
---|---|---|---|
Zone–1 | 187 (T25-T211) | Pichhabani outlet to Rashulpur river | 19.37 |
Zone–2 | 307 (T218-T524) | Rashulpur river to Haldi river outlet | 31.04 |
Zone–3 | 384 (T534-T917) | Haldi river to the confluence of Rupnarayan and Hooghly River | 39.52 |
Zone–4 | 256 (T919-T1174) | Confluence of Rupnarayan and Hooghly river to Kulpi | 26.23 |
Zone–5 | 280 (T1175-T1454) | Kulpi to Kakdwip | 27.75 |
Zone–6 | 120 (T1455-T1574) | Kakwip to Namkhana | 13.41 |
Zone–7 | 390 (T1575-T1967) | Namkhana to Henry Island | 43.10 |
Salient description of different analysis zones.
The historic shorelines were digitized from Army Map Series (NSS&H, Edition-1, AMS) in 1:250,000 scale surveyed during 1942–1943) number NF-45: 7 (north of study area) and 11 (south of the study area) were used for the coastline change analysis. Besides Survey of India topomaps of 73 N-16, 73O -13,14; 79B - 4; 79C-1,2,6 surveyed during 1967 were also used for generation of high-water level (HWL) coastlines.
Landsat satellite data of 1973 to 2021 have been used for decadal and long-term trend analyses. The data has been selected based on clear sky condition, high tide date and time as well as season. For discrimination of land-water boundary shortwave infrared bands 5 (1.55–1.75 μm) and 7 (2.08–2.35 μm) of Landsat - 4, 5, 7 and bands 6 (1.566–1.651 μm) and 7 (2.107–2.294 μm) of Landsat – 8 (OLI) were used. The details of the satellite data used in the study are given in Table 2.
Satellite/sensor | Path/Row | Date of overpass | Spatial resolution (m) | Overpass time (local time) | Time of high tide (local time) | Tide height (m) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
MSS1 | 149/45 | 17.01.73 | 60 | NA | 09:40 | 4.05 |
MSS3 | 149/45 | 17.01.80 | 60 | 03:52 | 10:33 | 4.59 |
TM4 | 138/45 | 19.01.89 | 30 | 04:03 | 9:08 | 3.45 |
TM5 | 138/45 | 28.01.95 | 30 | 03:43 | 8:54 | 3.85 |
ETM + 7 | 138/45 | 06.03.00 | 30 | 04:23 | 11:15 | 4:73 |
TM5 | 138/45 | 07.01.05 | 30 | 04:17 | 8:14 | 3.81 |
ETM + 7 | 138/45 | 29.01.10 | 30 | 04:22 | 10:17 | 4.38 |
OLI 8 | 138/45 | 09.02.17 | 30 | 04:31 | 9:48 | 4.04 |
OLI 8 | 138/45 | 24.03.21 | 30 | 04:30 | 7:42 | 3.19 |
Details of the satellite data used.
The tide information is pertaining to the Diamond Harbor station.
For the of satellite data tide and current prediction programme
There are seven types of coastline indicators
Where, Rgreen = spectral reflectance of the green band, Rnir = spectral reflectance of near-infrared band and Rswir = spectral reflectance of the shortwave infrared band.
Before applying the water index on Landsat MSS data of 1973, the image was resampled to 30 m spatial resolution to make the resolution comparable with the rest of the datasets. A Boolean approach was used on the NDWI/MNDWI images to create two classes
Historical shoreline behavior was examined using Digital Shoreline Analysis System (DSAS, ver. 5.0), an extension tool of ArcGIS software (developed by the US Geological Survey) which calculates several change statistics
Where e = shoreline uncertainty value.
The errors or uncertainties that arise due to different data sources, time of data acquisition, and the type of shoreline indicator were quantified based on several studies [73, 75]. According to Fletcher et al. [75] and Romine and Fletcher [76] there are two types of uncertainty: positional (seasonal and tidal fluctuations) and measurement (digitizing, pixel and rectification error). The uncertainty for each dataset was worked out considering the data product with due weightage of the quality of each data. The total uncertainty is used to calculate the weight and further working in the DSAS. Different uncertainties are explained below.
Where Es is the seasonal error, Et = tidal error, Ed = digitizing error, Ep = pixel error, and Er = rectification error. The annualized uncertainty (Ua) was calculated using the square root of the sum of the squares of total positional uncertainty for each shoreline divided by the analysis period [75] as is given below.
Various uncertainties in the historical shoreline position between 1948 and 2021 is given in Table 3.
Uncertainty | Positional uncertainty | Measurement uncertainty | Total positional uncertainty | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Es (m) | Et (m) | Ed (m) | Ep (m) | Er (m) | Ut (m) | |
Landsat images | 0 | ±2.12 | ±10 | 0 | ±5 | 11.37 |
SOI topo map | 0 | 0 | ±15 | 0 | ±15 | 21.21 |
Army topo map | 0 | 0 | ±15 | ±15 | ±30 | 33.54 |
Uncertainties associated with shorelines obtained from different sources.
The weight (w) is defined as a function of the variance in the uncertainty of the measurement (e). Weighted Linear Regression Rate (WLR) was computed using the total positional uncertainty values.
It consists of four main steps as is given below.
The date, time and height of tide were calculated using WXTide32 package. The height of tide is governed by the following harmonic equation given in the Manual of Harmonic Analysis and Prediction of Tides, special publication no. 98, US Department of commerce [77].
Where, h is the height of tide at any time t.
H0 = the mean height of water level above datum used for prediction.
Hn = the mean amplitude of any constituent An.
fn = the factor for reducing mean amplitude to year of prediction.
an = the hourly speed of constituent An.
t = the time, in hours, reckoned from beginning of year or prediction.
(V0 + u)n = the Greenwich equilibrium argument of constituent An when t = 0.
Kn’ = the modified epoch of constituent An.
N = the number or constituents used for the particular station.
In this equation except
Cluster analysis is a technique used to classify cases into groups that are relatively homogeneous within themselves and heterogeneous between each other, based on a defined set of variables [78, 79]. Hierarchical agglomerative clustering using the Ward linkage method was followed in the present study. In this method, clusters are merged to reduce the variability within the cluster. At every stage the average similarity of the cluster is measured. A case is selected to enter the cluster if the inclusion in the cluster produces the least increase in the error. The number of the cluster centres was determined from ‘Scree diagram’ in which ‘distance coefficients’ are plotted against the ‘stages’. The point at which there is a significant jump in the distance values was considered as the ‘elbow’ of the ‘Scree plot’. The numbers of clusters were decided as the number of cases minus the step of the elbow. Once the clustering is done, K-mean classification is performed for all the transects using the number of cluster centres from ‘Scree plot’. K-mean classification assign cluster membership and distance from the cluster centre to each case. Distance of the cluster centres are determined by using Euclidean distance as is given below:
Where
The 200 km stretch of the study region has varied beach types including wide sandy beaches to mudflat, the mixture of sand and mud, mangrove wetlands as well as open mixed jungle at the backdrop of sandy/muddy beaches. The considerable length of the shorelines has embankments (Table 4). The western bank consists mainly of sandy and muddy beaches whereas the east bank predominantly consists of a muddy and mangrove systems with intermittent gap areas where the beach is absent. Zone-wise brief description of the beach configuration is given below.
Statistics | 1973–1980 | 1980–1989 | 1989–1995 | 1995–2000 | 2000–2005 | 2005–2010 | 2010–2017 | 2017–2021 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | −14.32 | −15.43 | 1.69 | −43.00 | 39.79 | −7.64 | 42.06 | 70.67 |
sd | 200.03 | 86.59 | 77.90 | 110.99 | 122.09 | 100.35 | 135.17 | 162.57 |
Max | 1386.98 | 566.43 | 681.41 | 629.64 | 1141.27 | 908.46 | 1000.23 | 1057.30 |
Min | −404.98 | −527.71 | −293.49 | −1061.84 | −313.23 | −478.47 | −519.50 | −180.76 |
Mean shoreline change (m) over different time intervals.
The large difference in the shoreline position was observed within each time interval and among different intervals. The dynamics of the shoreline are mainly due to disequilibrium in the morphological state and northward tapering nature of the estuary coupled with plausible subsidence due to auto-compaction of the Holocene sediments. One commonality among all the time intervals is the large variation in the seaward end of both the banks (Figure 3). During 1995–2000 and 2005–2010, the overall variation in the shoreline position is minimum. In comparison to the east bank west bank has more variation except for 1973–1980. Considering all the temporal intervals between 1973 and 2021 average recession is maximum in 1995–2000 (− 43 m ± 110.99) especially due to erosion in the southern part of the east bank of the estuary. In contrast, there is an increasing trend in the seaward extension of the shoreline since 2010. Between 2017 and 2021 the average accretion is 70.67 m (± 162.57). The maximum accretion length was 1386 m at T1486 (south-west of Kalinagar) in 1973–1980 whereas maximum erosion was −1062 m at T1865 (west of Fraserganj) during 1995–2000 (Table 4).
Shoreline changes recorded at different transects over different temporal intervals.
The percentages of transects recorded aggradation or recession is given in Figure 4. From the figure, it is apparent that the proportion of aggradation and erosion does not match over the time intervals. The percentage of the transects exhibiting erosion was comparable during 2000–2005 (29%), 2010–2017 (30.20%) and 2017–2021 (27.81%). There was an abrupt increase in the erosion by 69.91% in 2010–2017. In general, there is a decreasing trend of erosion, especially after 2000 (Figure 4).
Percentage of transcets showing erosion at different time intervals.
Figure 5 depicts how each zone contributes to the total shoreline change. Between 1973 and 2021, zone 5 contributed maximum towards erosion. Other zones that contributed marginally to erosion include zone 7 and zone 6. Zone 6 showed consistent erosion in all the intervals except for 1973–1980. Very high annualized aggradation of 69.17 m and 29.93 m was recorded in zone 1 and 2 respectively over the entire period of 1973–2021.
Contribution of each zone towards erosion / accretion at different time intervals (Z represents the zones).
It is interesting to note that while comparing the coastline of 2021 with respect to 1948 (not used in the DSAS), there is a significant recession (∼900 m) in the zone 2 (between Talpati Khal and Kaldalmari) and in the zone 3 (near Horkhali) by about 600 m. In the east bank, most significant erosion is noticeable in zone 5, between Jadabnagar and Tilakmandal chak. The maximum landward retreat recorded was 2700 m near Uttar Chandannagar. On the other hand, accretion was observed in the south of zone 1 and 2 as well as in the north of zone 6. Quantitative analysis of the coastline change in this region has been carried out by Bandyopadhyay et al. [82], Raju et al. [83], Jana et al. [84], Rudra [85], Chakraborty [49] and Das et al. [86] along with their underlying mechanism. They have opined that beach erosion is attributed to various causes such as decrease of sediment supply from rivers, land subsidence, and interruption of longshore sediment transport by man-made structures. As the sea level rises, it causes waves to act on higher parts of the beach profile, resulting in enhanced erosion. If the sandy beaches disappear as a result sea-level rise, waves and storm surges, it will impact higher areas along the coastline [87].
Jana and Bhattacharya [88] used multi-resolution Landsat satellite imagery of 1972–2010 for shoreline change study along the 65 km long coastal stretch located between Rashulpur (Purba Medinipur) and Subarnarekha (Balasore) estuarine complex. The authors revealed that about 23 km of coastline recorded accretion, which was observed on several beaches such as at Talsari, Udaipur and Haripur, which were not affected by anthropogenic activities.
The shoreline change rates were computed by linear regression and end point rate method at a lateral spatial interval of 100 m along the coast. The rates of changes of shoreline at different transect points estimated by EPR and LRR methods are given in Figure 6. Large variation in net shoreline movement and change rates were observed in the study region among various analysis zones (Table 5). Considering long term change between 1973 and 2021 four of the zones
The rate of change of shoreline by WRR and EPR method.
Zones | SCE | NSM | EPR | WLR |
---|---|---|---|---|
Zone-1 | 740.83 ± 359.22 | 553.34 ± 298.84 | 11.48 ± 6.20 | 9.45 ± 6.22 |
Zone-2 | 391.0 ± 263.97 | 239.42 ± 307.19 | 4.97 ± 6.38 | 3.47 ± 4.89 |
Zone-3 | 170.61 ± 128.57 | −16.81 ± 137.25 | −0.35 ± 2.85 | 0.24 ± 3.28 |
Zone-4 | 81.31 ± 41.47 | 36.91 ± 54.96 | 0.77 ± 1.14 | 0.36 ± 0.93 |
Zone-5 | 249.19 ± 150.22 | −137.22 ± 206.24 | −2.85 ± 4.28 | −3.02 ± 3.54 |
Zone-6 | 668.09 ± 351.75 | −5.18 ± 456.16 | −0.11 ± 9.47 | −4.35 ± 5.36 |
Zone-7 | 303.21 ± 259.99 | −2.30 ± 210.13 | −0.05 ± 4.36 | −0.38 ± 4.47 |
Zone-wise average shoreline change envelope (SCE), net shoreline movement and change rate by EPR and WRR method.
Although, the net shoreline movement (NSM) values are less in zones 3, 6 and 7 but the shoreline change envelope records large variation which indicates that the inter-annual fluctuation is very high in these zones and morphodynamic processes are very active.
Based upon the rate of erosion/accretion by WRR method, the transects were grouped into 7 classes (Table 6). From the table, it is evident that most of the shoreline (more than 73.33% by WRR and 69.95% by EPR) exhibit erosion/accretion rate between −5 and + 5 m yr.−1. Low erosion rate (< 1.0 m/yr) was exhibited by 13.46% and 11.43% of the shoreline in WRR and EPR method respectively (not presented in the table). The proportion of very high erosion (<−10 m yr.−1) and aggradation (>20 m yr.−1) is limited to less than 2% of the shoreline. The spatial distribution of different change classes by WRR method is given in Figure 7a. It can be seen from the figure that in the west bank only one segment exhibits high erosion (−10 to −5 m yr.−1) whereas in the east bank at least 6 segments (east of Kharibaria) show high erosion. This area exhibits has a large difference between low and high tide lines. While comparing with the Army Series map of 1948, it was found that there is a significant landward movement of shoreline between 1948 and 1973. In the east bank, there is no area under high erosion in zone 4, however, in zone 5, 6, and 7 considerable area along the shoreline is under high to very high erosion state. There are 3 distinct stretches near Uttar Chandannagar, Ramganunagar, Madhusudanpur and Lakshimipur. Close observation with the Army toposheet of 1948 reveals that there is an extensive recession in this area. The Rangatala island which used to be an integral part of the east bank has almost reduced to half between Kulpi and Madhusudanpur. The southern half of zone 6 has a high to very high rate of erosion between Budhakhali and north or Namkhana. The zone 7 is punctuated by two major areas of high erosion i) in the west of Edward creek, dominated by mangrove swamp and open mixed jungle and ii) in the east of Henrys island. In contrast to erosion, high to very high aggradation (> 20 m yr.−1) is recorded between south of Gopalpur to Junput dominated by a wide sandy beach and inter-tidal difference. High aggradation is also observed in the south of the Rashulpur river confluence. In zone 2 high rates of accretion is observed in the north of Rashulpur river and east of Nij Kasba. In the east bank, there is no area of high accretion except in zone 7, near Lakshmipur dominated by mangrove swamps. This observation is in good agreement while comparing with the Army topo map of 1948.
Class | Range | WRR method | EPR method | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
No of transects | % of total transects | No of transects | % of total transects | ||
1 | < −10 | 37 | 1.92 | 28 | 1.45 |
2 | −5 to −10 | 187 | 9.71 | 204 | 10.60 |
3 | −5 to +5 | 1411 | 73.33 | 1346 | 69.95 |
4 | 5 to 10 | 166 | 8.62 | 121 | 6.28 |
5 | 10 to 15 | 77 | 4.00 | 130 | 6.75 |
6 | 15 to 20 | 29 | 1.50 | 71 | 3.69 |
7 | > 20 | 17 | 0.88 | 24 | 1.24 |
Different classes of erosion/accretion rates and their contribution to the shoreline.
Shoreline changes a) rate of erosion/accretion (m yr.−1) and b) change pattern.
To understand the temporal pattern of change direction, transects were grouped into two categories
Type | Description | Change direction | No of transects | % of total shoreline |
---|---|---|---|---|
CE | Consistent erosion | -ve | 36 | 1.87 |
ME | Mostly erosion | -ve | 706 | 36.69 |
RE | Recent erosion | -ve | 10 | 0.52 |
MA | Mostly accretion | +ve | 571 | 29.68 |
RA | Recent accretion | +ve | 87 | 4.52 |
ALT | Alternate | mixed | 8 | 0.42 |
TREA | Trend reversal (erosion to accretion) | +ve | 91 | 4.73 |
OTH | Others | mixed | 415 | 21.57 |
Temporal change pattern of shoreline behavior and their contribution.
Some of the transects that recorded both high erosion rate (more than 5 m yr.−1) and consistent erosion are located in the north of Sibkalinagar (T1372-T1374), south of Budhakhali near Ghiya Khal (T1520-T1533), south of Nadabhanga Khal (T1552-T1557) and north of Duaragra Gang in zone 6 (T1569-T1574).
Although, shoreline change analysis quantifies rates and directions of change, further analyses are needed to resolve distinct modes of coastal system behavior. Traditional shoreline changes analyses quantify the rate and direction of change by analyzing multi-date/historical data. However, there are some commonalities in terms of coastal system behavior. The Hierarchical agglomerative clustering was performed using the change matrix of all 8 temporal intervals to define the distinct coastal change behavior. Clustering was done using the Ward method which computes the sum of squared distance within the clusters and aggregates the clusters with the minimum increase in the overall sum of squares. The distance coefficients were plotted against the stage to generate a ‘Scree diagram’ (Figure 8). The number of clusters in the present study was 5 which was used for K-mean clustering. The cluster centres and the distances between cluster centres are given in Tables 8 and 9 respectively.
Scree diagram defining the optimum number of clusters using elbow rule.
Temporal intervals | Clusters | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | |
1973–1980 | −44.37 | −52.95 | −64.31 | 926.40 | 193.82 |
1980–1989 | −6.50 | −64.44 | −51.74 | −76.24 | 226.13 |
1989–1995 | −.32 | 24.22 | 1.62 | −57.19 | 82.35 |
1995–2000 | −25.80 | −89.62 | −35.18 | −50.58 | −931.35 |
2000–2005 | 27.71 | 97.21 | −14.32 | −59.69 | 941.45 |
2005–2010 | −21.90 | 85.34 | 48.19 | −83.01 | −3.82 |
2010–2017 | 32.63 | −28.49 | 464.74 | −87.87 | 22.23 |
2017–2021 | 12.53 | 341.60 | 445.03 | −54.35 | 109.87 |
Various cluster centres.
Cluster | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | — | 369 | 619 | 991 | 1335 |
2 | 369 | — | 521 | 1087 | 1278 |
3 | 619 | 521 | — | 1249 | 1476 |
4 | 991 | 1087 | 1249 | — | 1572 |
5 | 1335 | 1278 | 1476 | 1572 | — |
6 | — | 369 | 619 | 991 | 1335 |
Distance between cluster centres.
The clusters captured a unique pattern of change at a temporal scale (Table 8). Among all the transects, 79.15% are represented by cluster 1 and only 0.94% by cluster 5. In clusters 1, 2 and 3 most of the transects show a balancing act of aggradation and erosion at different temporal intervals. The transects that recorded consistent erosion (Figure 7) were found in cluster 1 only. In cluster 4, erosion is dominant, while in cluster 5 accretion is dominant in most of the time span. The mean displacement of the shoreline in cluster 1 is −3.25 m and the maximum is 99.25 m in cluster 3, constituting only 4.80% of the total transects. All the clusters show aggradation in terms of their mean displacement values except cluster 1.
Beach profile morphology and coastline, change over a range of time and spatial scales. The short-term variability occurs over a period of days to a month as a result of i) episodic events (storms) ii) medium-term variability over several months (e.g., winter summer wave change) to several years (e.g., due to regional climate variability, engineering intervention and prevailing sedimentary processes) and iii) long term variability that occurs over a period of a decade to a century, associated mainly with climate change impact; and very long term millennial-scale evolution as a result of quaternary sea-level changes [89]. Broad-scale analysis of changes in shoreline position has the potential to highlight the role of regional forcing on large-scale coastal behavior, e.g., long-term tidal cycles [90] or sea level rise [4]. Shoreline change analysis is also useful to identify notable ‘hotspots’ of contrasting behavior [91, 92]. The Hooghly estuarine shoreline analyses studied here comprehend synthesis of historical shoreline change over 48 years supported by limited ground observations. The data has been analyzed at high spatial resolution (100 m, alongshore interval) along the entirety of a 200 km shoreline. In the area evidence for strong met-ocean forcing is ostensibly compelling. The phenomena of erosion and accretion are largely regulated by littoral current patterns and sediment influx from different rivers and the adjacent Bay of Bengal. The shoreline of this 200 km stretch has different configurations from the sandy beach to muddy swamp punctuated by anthropogenic footprints including brick kilns, aquaculture ponds, protective embankments and beach nourishment treatments. Beach nourishment projects and coastline protection structures can result in an artificial accretion of coastline in a short period [93]. Large variations exist in shoreline position within the same year and also among different years indicate the disequilibrium in the morphological state. There could be several external factors responsible for shoreline change including sea level rise, changes in the wave climatology and storm intensity as well as changes in the catchment characteristics due to deforestation and land degradation which results in higher sediment load in the terrestrial run-off. In contrast to surface runoff, engineering intervention through the construction of dams and barrages also makes the estuary sediment starved. In long-term perspective, temporal data of PSMSL (Diamond Harbor and Haldia) reveals that the sea level is rising at the rate of 2.41 and 3.02 mm yr.−1 respectively. The sea surface temperature induced El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) has a significant role in global atmospheric circulation influencing the temperature and precipitation. The irregular pattern of El Nino and La Nina triggers rainfall variability over the Indian sub-continent. In recent years strong La Nina and very strong El Nino have been witnessed in 2010–2011 and 2015–2015 respectively. The monsoon rainfall variability has a direct relation with terrestrial run-off and estuarine water level. Since 1951 there were 8 strong to very strong El Nino and 7 strong types of La Nina years. The storm surges are another strong forcing factor in a short temporal scale that can change the shoreline configuration. Although, the frequency of cyclonic storms is declining over the Bay of Bengal but the intensity is increasing. Extremely severe cyclonic storms of 2019 and 2020 are the best examples causing extensive damage to the coastline embankments. Karunarathna et al. [89] found single storms or storm clusters predominantly change the supra tidal and inter-tidal part of the beach profile and that beach erosion volumes are strongly correlated to the power of the storm. Once the astronomical tides coincide with storms, extreme sea level occurs resulting in large-scale inundation and damage to the coastal structures. Besides warming of sea surface relative, sea level change can also happen due to vertical land motion that can result from glacial isostatic adjustment, tectonic processes, coastal subsidence and uplift caused by anthropogenic factors. High-frequency and short temporal scale sea level variability due to seiches, meteotsunamis are frequently under-represented in sea level studies and yet contribute to the extreme sea levels which are of great research interest and importance to coastal dwellers [94]. In general, coastal landforms affected due to short-term perturbations
Most of the west bank of Hooghly estuary is prograding at the rate of 0.24 m yr.−1 in zone 3 to as high as 9.45 m yr.−1 in zone 1. Whereas recession is pre-dominant in the east bank, especially in zone 5, 6 and 7 accounting −0.38 to −4.35 m yr.−1. In general, aggradation dominates over erosion. Large variation in the shoreline change envelope in zone 3, 6 and 7 reveals an active morphodynamic process. The different suite of behaviors in recent intra-decadal scale suggests that forcing of coastal change can be interpreted as a form of the time-dependent complex response of the kind envisaged by Schumm and Lichty [97] whereby changes over shorter time scale, are inherently associated with tighter cause-effect linkages at smaller spatial scales, and broader trends emerge over longer time-scales. Additionally, the phenomena of erosion and accretion are largely regulated by littoral current patterns and sediment influx from different rivers and the adjacent Bay of Bengal. The west bank of the estuary having sandy inter-tidal plain is aggrading over longer time scale whereas several areas in the east bank of muddy beaches record the high rate of erosion. The temporal pattern of erosion/accretion has been captured using the direction of change in each time interval. Some portions of the shorelines especially north of Kakdwip and Namkhana recorded a consistent high rate of erosion (> −5 m yr.−1) over each interval. Although, only 1.87% of the area of the shoreline showed consistent erosion for all the time intervals but together with ‘mostly erosion’ type it constitutes 38.56% which is alarming. These areas need to be protected from anthropogenic intervention and to be stabilized by rejuvenating protective embankments or vegetative barrier. Contrasting modes of prograding stretch adjacent to retreating stretch can be found in close proximity, particularly in zone 1 and 2, which suggests that local influences may be particularly important. Both these transitions in behavior suggest localized net littoral fluxes of sand and gravel from the north of estuary to the south-west. These localized instances of coupled behavior have led to a distinct net change in regional shoreline planform over a longer time scale. Some of the stretches of the shoreline exhibit distinct change of cuspate foreland from rounded to sharp apex especially north of Jhikarkhali and Madhusudanpur, north of Kakdwip. Erosion at the north and progradation at the west and south-west, illustrates south-west transport of sediments over the studied time scale whereas diffusive behavior dominated decadal-scale shoreline change.
The inter-temporal analysis using spatial smoothing windows of 1000 m showed that there is no consistent association between convexities/concavities and the erosion/accretion. Some concave stretches of shoreline exhibit erosional signatures, whilst others are accretional. The convexity of the shoreline near Horkhali (in the west bank) increased over time but decreased near Madhusudanpur on the east coast, however near Kakdwip and Patibunia the convexity remained almost unchanged over the years. Some of the concave stretches of the shoreline showed seaward accretion in the west bank, e.g., at Nij Kasba. The eroding sediments move parallel to the coast by alongshore currents from north to south direction and are expected to deposit around the concave coast owing to the lower current velocity [93]. As a result, the coastline can advance to the ocean around these regions. Several studies claim that a concave-shaped coastline tends to exhibit accretion while a convex-shaped coastline tends to exhibit erosion [93]. However, in the present study, several concave stretches of the east coast exhibited landward retreat of coastline typically along the Rangafala channel near Lakshmipur, between Ghiya Khal and Duraragra Gang (north of Namkhana) and small patches in Patibunia island. Presumably, both diffusive and anti-diffusive (unstable) behavior is operational [98] which are likely to change as the shoreline planform adjusts in response to the consequent patterns of erosion and deposition.
With the anticipated increase in global mean temperature by about 0.5°C, the thermal expansion and melting of ice caps and glaciers are inevitable [13] but this effect may be masked by inlet dynamics and coastal engineering projects even over extended time periods. However, the implication is that sea level rise is a secondary but inexorable cause of beach erosion in such areas which may lead to high-energy swells to reach further up the beach and redistribute sand offshore. Apart from the external and natural forces there are alarming uncontrolled anthropogenic activities which have imposed excessive pressure on the coastal landuse and exacerbating beach erosion problems along the Hooghly estuary. This will have ominous implications for ever-increasing coastal population and associated livelihood [99]. There is a need for decoupling the long-term forces from the anthropogenic effects and projecting the future scenario of coastal changes for effect coastal planning and enforcement.
The study of historical evolution and sculpturing of the coastal areas of Hooghly estuary in terms of short and longer time scale has significant importance in evaluating the criticality in shoreline change. The findings of the present study revealed that geospatial techniques are very useful for analyzing and predicting shoreline dynamics. The short- and long-term changes have been estimated using the DSAS extension tool of ArcGIS. The tool enables the calculation of several change metrics and also the rate of changes from time-series shoreline positions and helps in determining the zones of erosion and accretion. The variation is higher in the west bank than east bank except for 1973–1980. Considering the entire study period average recession is maximum in 1995–2000 (−43 m ± 110.99) especially due to erosion in the southern part of the east bank of the estuary. Zone 5 contributed maximum towards erosion, however, in general, there is a decreasing trend of erosion, especially after 2000. While comparing with 1948-topomaps there is a significant recession (∼900 m) in zone 2 (between Talpati Khal and Kaldalmari) and in zone 3 (near Horkhali) by about 600 m. On the east bank, the most significant erosion is noticeable in zone 5, between Jadabnagar and Tilakmandal chak. The maximum landward retreat recorded was 2700 m near Uttar Chandannagar. The shoreline erosion is attributed to various causes such as decrease of sediment supply from rivers after construction of barrages in the upstream, land subsidence due to natural compaction or extraction of ground water, interruption of longshore sediment transport by man-made structures and dredging operation to maintain the navigation channel. In contrast, there is an increasing trend in the seaward extension of the shoreline since 2010. Between 2017 and 2021 the average accretion is 70.67 m (±162.57). Very high annualized aggradation of 69.17 m and 29.93 m was recorded in zone 1 and 2 respectively over the study period. The shoreline change rate computed using WLR method reveals that zone 1, 2, 3 and 4 show the positive change (aggradation) which varies between 0.24 m yr.−1 (zone 3) to as high as 9.45 m yr.−1 (zone 1). The very high recession was found in the east bank in zone 6 (− 4.35 m yr.−1), followed by zone 5 (−3.02 m yr.−1). More than 73% area of the shoreline exhibits erosion/accretion between −5 and 5 m yr.−1. The proportion of very high erosion (< −10 m yr.−1) and aggradation (> 20 m yr.−1) is limited to less than 2% of the shoreline. The temporal change pattern was examined using change direction in each time interval. About 1.87% of the shoreline shows consistent erosion in which at all the time-interval the direction of change was negative and an additional 36.69% constitutes of mostly eroded, characterized by erosion in at least 5 epochs. There is no area where consistent accretion was observed. In about 4.37% of the shoreline trend reversal from erosion to accretion has been observed. The change rate and pattern maps generated in the study will be helpful for policy makers to prepare a strategic coastal management plan and for future policy intervention. It is suggested that there should have a regular monitoring mechanism of this estuarine region to keep watch on the shoreline change and triggering factors and regulatory purpose.
The authors are thankful to the Chief General Manager, RRSCs (NRSC) for his keep interest and sustained support to carry out this study. Thanks, are also due to earthexplorer.usgs.gov for providing satellite data freely to the user community.
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This technique is called power over fiber (PoF). Besides the advantages of optical fiber (immunity to electromagnetic interferences and electrical insulation), the employment of a PoF scheme can eliminate the energy supplied by metallic cable and batteries located at remote sites, improving the reliability and the security of the system. Smart grid is a green field where PoF can be applied. Experts see smart grid as the output to a new technological level seeks to incorporate extensively technologies for sensing, monitoring, information technology, and telecommunications for the best performance electrical network. On the other hand, in telecommunications, PoF can be used in applications, such as remote antennas and extenders for passive optical networks (PONs). PoF can make them virtually passives. 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