\r\n\tThere will be a chapter on secondary causes of sexual dysfunction disorders related to diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and obesity. A chapter on remedial measures to enhance sexual activity and maintain human relationships will be discussed. As there is a growing number of cancer survivors a chapter on cancer-related sexual dysfunction will be welcomed for including it.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:null,pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"b988fda30a4e2364ee9d47e417bd0ba9",bookSignature:"Dr. Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11889.jpg",keywords:"Sex, Sexual Response Cycle, Erection, Premature Ejaculation, Libido, Orgasm, Painful Intercourse, Psychological, Female, Lack of Desire, Erectile Disorders, Pain Disorders",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 8th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 6th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 5th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 23rd 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 22nd 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dhastagir Sultan Sheriff is a life member of the European Society for Human Reproduction and Early Human Development, Association of Physiologists and Pharmacologists of India, member of the National Academy of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, and resource person for UNESCO for Medical and Bioethics. 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While motherhood is often a positive and fulfilling experience, for too many women, it is associated with suffering, ill-health and even death. Maternal mortality is the death of a woman during pregnancy and within 42 days of delivery irrespective of the gestational age and site of the pregnancy. Maternal mortality ratio is the number of maternal deaths per 100,000 live births while maternal mortality rate is the number of maternal deaths per 100,000 women of reproductive age. The maternal mortality ratio is a key performance indicator for efforts to improve the health and safety of mothers before, during, and after childbirth per country worldwide. 94% of all maternal deaths occur in developing countries [1].
With almost 200 million inhabitants, Nigeria is Africa’s most populous country. Nigeria is also the country where nearly 20% of all global maternal deaths happen. Between 2005 and 2015, it is estimated that over 600,000 maternal deaths occurred in Nigeria [2]. To enable reduction of maternal mortality worldwide, maternal mortality reduction in Nigeria must be tackled.
The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), aimed at transforming our world through the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development,” are an intergovernmental set of 17 aspiration Goals with 169 targets [3]. The United Nations in 2015 committed to accelerating the progress made in reducing newborn, child and maternal mortality by ending all such preventable deaths before 2030. This commitment aimed at ensuring universal access to sexual and reproductive health-care services, including for family planning, information and education. By 2030, the UN SDG target is to reduce the global maternal mortality ratio to less than 70 per 100,000 live births. This is largely impossible in the face of the weak health systems operational in developing countries. Urgent strides must be made if the goals are to be attained in countries with weak health systems.
Health systems. A health system, sometimes referred to as healthcare system, is the organization of people, institutions, and resources that deliver health care services to meet the health needs of target populations. A good health system delivers quality services to all people, when and where they need them. The exact configuration of services usually varies from country to country, but in all cases requires a robust financing mechanism; a well-trained and adequately paid workforce; reliable information on which to base decisions and policies; well-maintained facilities and logistics to deliver quality medicines and technologies. A well-functioning health system responds in a balanced way to a population’s needs and expectations by: improving the health status of individuals, families and communities, defending the population against what threatens its health, protecting people against the financial consequences of ill-health, providing equitable access to people-centred care [4].
Human resources for health. The health workforce is central to achieving health. A well performing workforce is a skilled workforce that is responsive to the needs and expectations of people, is fair and efficient to achieve the best outcomes possible given available resources and circumstances. Countries are at different stages of development of their health workforce but common concerns include improving recruitment, education, training and distribution; enhancing productivity and performance; and improving retention. This requires: arrangements for achieving sufficient numbers of the right mix (numbers, diversity and competencies), payment systems that produce the right kind of incentives, regulatory mechanisms to ensure system wide deployment and distribution in accordance with needs, establishment of job related norms, deployment of support systems and enabling work environments, mechanisms to ensure cooperation of all stakeholders (such as health worker advisory groups, donor coordination groups, private sector, professional associations, communities, client/consumer groups).
With relation to childbirth, the skilled birth attendant is the focal human resource to prevent maternal deaths. A skilled birth attendant is a midwife, physician, obstetrician, nurse or other health care professional who provides essential and emergency health care services to women and their newborns during pregnancy, childbirth and the postpartum period. The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends as an indispensable intervention for improving maternal and perinatal outcomes in low-income countries, women’s ready access to evidence-based maternal and perinatal care delivered by a skilled birth attendant [5]. Consultation on improving measurement of the quality of maternal, newborn and child care in health facilities [6]. Standards for improving quality of maternal and newborn care in health facilities.
The best markers of maternal and perinatal health and wellbeing are seen in countries with the highest rates of skilled maternal health attendance even after controlling for other extra parameters of development [7]. Nigeria presently has the second highest number of maternal and perinatal deaths in the world [8].
Poor access to maternal and perinatal health services is the major factor that puts women at increased risk of adverse maternal and perinatal outcomes. Women die during pregnancy and delivery when skilled maternal care is lacking. Evidence shows that unskilled delivery dramatically increases the risk of maternal and perinatal death [9, 10, 11]. The most common direct causes of maternal mortality are obstetric hemorrhage, pregnancy-induced hypertension, obstructed labour, unsafe abortion and puerperal infection [6]. Known interventions for preventing these direct causes of maternal mortality include the following interventions: family planning to prevent unwanted and unintended pregnancies, prenatal care to promote early screening and identification of pregnancy complications and thus manage accordingly to prevent morbidity and mortality, emergency obstetric care using effective medications and treatment regimens to reduce fatalities from obstetric complications such as eclampsia, ruptured uterus, obstructed labour, retained placenta, abruptio placenta, antepartum hemorrhage, postpartum hemorrhage, abnormal lie in labour, fetal distress in labour, skilled birth attendant (SBA) at childbirth (to effectively manage potential complications of childbirth), and postnatal care (to promote maternal recovery, infant feeding practices and the health of the newborn baby). Despite these known interventions for preventing maternal deaths, it is worrisome that women continue to use traditional birth attendants who are unable to provide these interventions. Accordingly, this lack of intrapartum care by the SBA with the basic knowledge about aseptic technique, manual and pharmacological uterotonics, basic antibiotics, and magnesium sulfate, results in preventable maternal mortality.
Care during childbirth. Nigeria currently has the second highest absolute number of maternal and perinatal deaths in the world. More often than not, women who die during pregnancy, or have perinatal deaths, are women who did not receive antenatal care, women who during childbirth had their deliveries with an unskilled birth attendant or women who delivered at home alone. The evidence is out that unskilled delivery dramatically increases the risk of maternal deaths. National data from the Demographic Health Survey indicate that only about 65% of Nigerian women receive antenatal care during pregnancy, while less than 33% are attended to by skilled birth attendants (SBA) at the time of delivery. The World Health Organization defines a traditional birth attendant (TBA) as: “a person (usually a woman) who assists a pregnant woman at childbirth, and who initially acquired her skills delivering babies by herself or working with other TBAs”. Estimates indicate that between 60 and 90% of births in some parts of sub-Saharan Africa are assisted by TBAs, with countries such as Chad, Niger and Nigeria reaching extremely high proportion of TBA-attended deliveries [12]. In sittings where the number of skilled birth attendants are inadequate to meet the needs of the community, calls have been made for empowering the TBAs with health information and skills to enable them improve their practice and prevent maternal deaths. Prevention of maternal deaths is through the provision of essential and emergency health care services during pregnancy, childbirth and the postpartum period.
This chapter utilizes qualitative research methodology and discusses the challenges of preventing maternal deaths in a setting where women routinely utilize traditional birth attendants. The reasons for the persistence of the traditional birth attendants are examined.
Investigators from the Medical Women’s Association of Nigeria Rivers State Branch, as part of efforts to improve outcomes of gestational diabetes mellitus, implemented a research that screened 20,000 pregnant women for hyperglycaemia in Pregnancy. The study was conducted in 42 communities in five local government areas (LGAs) in Rivers State. Rivers State is one of the 36 states of Nigeria, situated in the oil-rich region of the country known as the Niger Delta. The LGAs included in the study were Ahoada East LGA, Khana LGA, Obio-Akpor LGA, Okrika LGA, and Port Harcourt City LGA. Social mobilization officers of the various LGAs, Local Government Agency for the control of HIV AND AIDs (LACA) officers, Women Leaders, and Medical Officers of Health assisted in getting the TBAs. The discussions with the pregnant women centred on why the women choose to attend the TBA home, while the discussions with the TBAs centred on their level of education, where the TBAs conduct the childbirth, what they do to retain the patronage of parturient amongst other questions.
The ethical approval for this study was obtained from the Research Ethics Committee of the University of Port Harcourt. Consent was obtained from the Ministry of Health, Primary health care board, chairmen of the selected Local Government areas, advisory counselors on health of the concerned LGAs and medical officers of health of the various LGAs. Informed consent was obtained from the women before beginning the interactions.
In-depth interviews and 10 group discussions were carried out in the five LGAs; one each per pregnant women and one each per TBAs. The pregnant women ranged in age from 25 to 42 years (median = 31 years) while the TBAs ranged in age from 34 to 67 years (median = 44 years). A large proportion of the pregnant women had secondary level of education while the TBAs had no formal education. The pregnant women patronized the TBAs because they were close by, they were cheaper and they were allowed to pay in installments.
About a third of the TBAs claimed God showed them in the dream that they should conduct childbirth. A quarter said they had longed to be nurses but could not afford formal training as nurses, so they opted to be TBAs and learnt from already practicing TBAs. Another quarter said they were trained as auxiliary nurses but decided to set up TBA practice. The rest were cleaners in maternity units, retired health workers or family members to thriving TBAs practice.
Majority of the TBAs conducted the childbirth in their personal bedrooms. They did not have a separate facility while some TBAs had a separate room for conducting childbirth and a few had facilities such as a two-bedroom apartment. To maximize patronage by parturient, the TBAs responded that they sang and danced, cooked pepper soup and collected fees in installments. The TBA wished that government would employ them as health care providers.
Childbirth-related complications constitute major drivers to the increasing burden of death and disability. The direct causes of deaths during childbirth (maternal deaths) are eclampsia, obstetric hemorrhage, obstructed labour, sepsis, abruptio, and ruptured uterus. To avert these medical conditions during childbirth requires skilled care. Yet our women continue to patronize these unskilled birth attendants because of poverty, ignorance and cultural acceptance. Our interaction with the pregnant women revealed they go to TBAs because they are closer to them, they are allowed to pay their bills in installments and because they pet them—singing and dancing for them. Pregnant women want easy access to care. Stakeholders must take this into cognizance and strategize to save lives. Our interaction with the TBAs reveal they are uneducated and unable to provide the requisite care needed to prevent maternal mortality and morbidity. A large proportion of the TBAs had no formal education and had no idea of the treatment or management of childbirth related complications. This is similar to the findings by Ofili and Okojie as far back as in 2005 [13]. The scourge of TBAs has been a long-standing challenge for maternal health improvement in Nigeria and countries of Africa and Asia. In an editorial in 2014, Okonofua and Ogu [14] posited that interventions based on provision of social safety nets in terms of cost reduction, transport provision and conditional cash transfers for women who seek hospital delivery would likely be effective in increasing the proportion of women delivered by skilled birth attendants in the population of women who patronize TBAs because of lack of transportation. Poverty underlies the patronage of TBAs—Women’s inability to pay for services at government or private facilities offering quality care. During the index discussions, women reiterated that they utilized the TBAs because it was cheaper for them. Poverty is real and cannot be waved off. Economic empowerment is part of the solution to reducing maternal mortality.
Some have made calls for the integration of TBAs into the provision of quality care during childbirth, yet despite these calls, the practitioners are mostly uneducated. They are largely women who desire to look after pregnant women but were either unable to afford orthodox education fees or were unable to gain admission into training schools. The lax nature of health services in developing countries like Nigeria has enabled the TBA to exist as an unskilled provider of health service—service here being the care of pregnant women and care of parturients during childbirth. There is an obvious need for more skilled attendants at childbirth. The estimated 2 per 1000 persons currently available in Africa is a far cry from the approved expected. Thus, the unmet need for skilled birth attendants is filled by the TBAs. However, the TBAs is ill-equipped and cannot prevent morbidity and mortality during childbirth. Some have equally called for a ban of TBAs. Will government banning TBAs be the solution to the scourge of TBAs? A 2012 study in the western part of Nigeria found more than 77% of users of TBA opposed the banning of TBA services [15]. A recent study from Malawi found that a ban on TBA patronage markedly aggravated the barriers pregnant women faced in attempting to access healthcare during childbirth [16].
The “care” rendered by the TBA in the face of ruptured uterus, obstetric hemorrhage, malpresentation, eclampsia, and obstructed labour will not prevent or treat the complications of childbirth which results in morbidity or mortality. Accordingly, a TBA without the knowledge and skills to utilize and implement aseptic techniques, uterotonics, antibiotics, anticonvulsants, blood transfusion will basically cause preventable maternal and perinatal mortality. We reiterate that only long-term action, backed up by political commitment and adequate investments, will lead to the transformative changes required to attain sustainable results in developing the health workforce [17]. For a truth; there can be no health without a workforce. A clear lesson learned so far is the need to move away from piecemeal approaches and short-term solutions; retraining TBAs to be aware of danger signs in pregnancy and childbirth will not improve outcomes if they continue to try to provide care that they are incapable of providing. A TBA cannot transform into a skilled birth attendant. The basic foundation gained during the training in medical and nursing school is missing. The implementation of an effective intrapartum-care strategy is an overwhelming priority in the quest to prevent maternal deaths. Therefore, concerted efforts to support and strengthen existing healthcare systems to provide skilled emergency obstetric care is imperative. A health facility intrapartum-care strategy is the best scenario to reduce the high rates of maternal mortality. Delivery in a health facility with a skilled birth attendant who can ensure clean environment and delivery technique to prevent puerperal infections and optimize childbirth outcomes. The Partograph is essential for labour surveillance to detect early complications and avoid prolonged and obstructed labour. Active management of third stage of labour with oxytocics is imperative to prevent postpartum hemorrhage. The ability to use magnesium sulfate in the management of eclampsia, antibiotics to prevent puerperal sepsis, delivery of operative interventions such as cesarean sections and hysterectomy where applicable saves lives. Here, skilled assistance to a woman during labour and childbirth, including supportive companion where feasible, detects complications early. This detection of maternal complications early and referral of all parturient with maternal complications early prevents all-causes of maternal mortality. In the same vein, early detection of newborn complications and prompt referral of all newborns with complications prevents neonatal morbidity and mortality. Simple procedures such as resuscitation of the newborn with at least an ambu-bag, adequate newborn warmth, hygienic cord care, early breastfeeding through advice promoting early and exclusive breastfeeding ensures survival of the newborn. Pre-arranged organized transport to referral facilities is crucial to prevent all-causes of mortality. These intrapartum interventions are crucial for the reduction of mortality and morbidity during childbirth. Despite the skilled birth attendance challenge by personnel shortages and persistent financial, transport, and geographic barriers, TBAs are not trained, equipped or able to manage obstetric emergencies.
In our interaction with the TBAs, their prayer was that government employs them. They craved our intervention to government to incorporate and integrate TBAs into the health Workforce by employing them as health assistants who will be paid salaries/remuneration. This may well be the solution to the scourge of women delivering with an unskilled attendant. The TBAs can be employed by government and paid for ensuring that all pregnant women are guided to the health facilities to deliver with skilled attendants. There may be a workable strategy—a situation where government employs the TBAs to act as health promotion officers—they could undergo a one-month training to learn about the danger signs of pregnancy and childbirth and how to effectively enable referrals. The education about the danger signs of pregnancy and childbirth is to enable them see the impracticability of them attempting to provide skilled care. Their employment as health promotion officers will be to assist the pregnant women to a health facility with available skilled attendants. Bryne and Morgan [18] in their systematic review showed that building the interpersonal and communication skills of formal health workers to improve their interactions with TBAs is a mechanism for integration and raises TBA referrals and skilled birth attendance.
Thus, training health workers to collaborate effectively with TBAs and women as applied in Peru [19] and by Mullany and Colleagues [20] increased skilled birth attendance substantially from 37 to 95% and from 5 to 48.7%, respectively. In the same vein, integrating TBAs into the formal health sector without first engendering community participation may be ultimately detrimental to the continuum of care as seen in Malawi [16]. Thus the Primary Health Care Development Agency as the arm of government charged with ensuring primary health care should as a matter of urgency do more and decimate the way forward. Too many women have died in their inability to afford skilled birth care during childbirth. As the TBAs home is the first port of call by numerous pregnant women, the healthcare management board should take charge and ensure that appropriate care is delivered at the relevant health facilities with skilled attendants. Emergency ambulances and transportation of the pregnant woman/TBA Pair should be deployed to quickly bring them to the appropriate health facilities.
Furthermore, efforts should be put in place to enable and sustain the training of skilled birth attendants such as midwives and doctors. Medical Schools and Universities such as the Ondo State University of Medical sciences should be encouraged, supported and funded to produce health personnel. Only long-term action, backed by political commitment and adequate investments, will lead to the workforce required to improve maternal health and prevent morbidity and mortality during childbirth.
Poverty, ignorance and cultural acceptance continue to fuel pregnant women’s use of traditional birth attendants. The traditional birth attendants are ill-equipped to prevent maternal mortality or manage obstetric complications. We advocate that the traditional birth attendants are employed by government and remunerated for ensuring that all pregnant women are guided to the health facilities to deliver with skilled attendants. Medical Schools and Universities should be funded to produce the requisite skilled health workforce/manpower. Women’s economic empowerment, health workers improved welfare, government increased commitments for functioning health facilities are some interventions needed to prevent maternal death. Only long-term action, backed by political commitment and adequate investments, will lead to the workforce required to improve maternal health and prevent morbidity and mortality during childbirth.
The authors are grateful to the Medical Women’s Association of Nigeria, Rivers State Branch; the World Diabetes Foundation for WDF16-1347 Gestational Diabetes Mellitus Program in the Niger Delta; and the Medical Officers of Health in the respective Local Government Areas, Rivers State, Nigeria: Ahoada East LGA, Khana LGA, Obio-Akpor LGA, Okrika LGA, and Port Harcourt City LGA.
Ferroelectric materials have been recognized as one of the focal points in condensed matter physics and material science for over 50 years. This is the most exciting material used in the electronics industry possessing switchable spontaneous polarization with the direction of applied field stress. These ferroelectrics exhibit substantial piezoelectricity as well. Accordingly, these materials are widely exploited as ultrasonic devices, sensors, actuators, energy storage, memory components, and noticeably more consumer electronics products. At the next level up, modern electronics have taken the charge of electronics miniaturization with the nano-dimensional system including thin film and ultra-thin films precisely placed in the electronics circuit [1]. In the last few decades, the advancement in voltage-modulated scanning probe microscopy techniques, exemplified by piezoresponse force microscopy (PFM) and associated spectroscopies, opened a driveway to make use of ferroelectrics on a single-digit nanometer level. Current research in the United States and other nations is pushing the limits of miniaturization to the point that structures only hundreds of atom-thick will be commonly manufactured [2]. This high-precision microelectronics assembly is achieved by scaling down the materials in accord. Nevertheless, the performance of the ferroelectric material is related to the way they are structurally confined undoubtedly due to structure–property alliance. Whilst the dimensional downscaling of the ferroelectric materials from bulk to nanoscale boost the possibilities to endure the boxing up of increased numbers of components into single electronics integrated circuit, the functional properties are suppressed as the material goes down to the critical dimension. The theoretical studies on the nano-dimensional system including thin films and ultra-thin films have shown that ferroelectricity persists down to the nanoscale. However, the experimental approach at this scale revealed the disappearance of the ferroelectric switching phenomena as the critical size of the crystal in the ferroelectric system is reached. For example, 80% of the dielectric and piezoelectric properties of perovskite ceramics are suppressed compared to their bulk counterpart as the material is scaled down to ∼10 nm [3]. A bulk-like ferroelectricity with finite-size modifications has been observed in nanocrystals as thin as 25 Å crystalline ferroelectric polymer films [4, 5, 6], 100 Å perovskite films [7] and as small as 250 Å in diameter ultrafine nanoparticles [8]. These outcomes can be elucidated as the bulk ferroelectricity is stamped out by surface depolarization energies and inferred that the bulk transition is limited by minimum critical dimension. This is noted as the scaling effect. It occupies a prominent place in the research area as our limited intuition for the nanoworld and comprehensive knowledge of structure–property relations often lag behind technological advances. Since nanostructuring of ferroelectric materials ends up with the appearance of their critical size limit, below which the essential ferroelectric parameters cannot be sustained, a completely contrasting behavior has been observed in hafnium based thin films which displayed an unconventional form of ferroelectricity in thin films with a thickness of only a few nanometers. This allows the construction of nanometer-sized memories and logic devices. Until now, however, it is an unsolved mystery how ferroelectricity could turn-out at this scale. A study reported by scientists at the University of Groningen, Netherland revealed that migrating oxygen atoms (or vacancies) are supposed to be responsible for the distinguished polarization switching phenomena in a hafnium-based capacitor [9]. Likewise, Bune et al. [10] have reported the near-absence of finite-size effect in two monolayer crystalline Langmuir–Blodgett film of P(VDF-TrFE) ferroelectric polymer. This contrasting behavior of ferroelectrics increased the curiosity of the scientific community in this stream. Although, well-developed theories exist for bulk materials, the extrapolation of these theories to thin films and nanostructures is frequently ambiguous. Hence understanding the dimensional system and going into the issues with scaling and size effect is crucial and is the central challenge for the ferroelectrics-based electronics community.
The chapter is aspired to understand the fundamental mechanism underlying ferroelectric behavioral patterns in polymer and ceramics systems as it is scaled down to a critical dimensional range attractive for a variety of technological applications. This knowledge would be beneficial for the current ferroelectric materials as well as for designing new materials with even a cut above electroactive property. The chapter is divaricated into six sections. Section 1 introduces the topic of our discussion. Section 2 talks about the theoretical framework for the scaling effect in the ferroelectric system. Section 3 discusses about how material functional properties are depleted in nano-confined perovskite ferroelectric system including phase transition temperatures, spontaneous polarization, coercive field and piezoelectric coefficient. Next are the possible causes for the observed scaling effect. Section 5 explores the scaling effect in ferroelectric polymer thin films with special emphasis on PVDF and its copolymers. The fundamental ferroelectric polarization switching mechanism for nanostructures is introduced and the models for thin films at the nanoscale are reviewed in Section 6. The nucleation-limited-switching (NLS) model based on region-to-region switching kinetics for polymer thin films will be highlighted. Finally, the observed results will be summarized and the future outlook for ferroelectric nanostructures are discussed. We clarify here that the goal of this chapter is not to review all the work in the vast field of ferroelectrics but rather to provide a scholastic presentation for the readers through the use of select case studies and authors experience in the field.
The more is the challenge for developing nano-scaled devices, the more is the challenge to sustain their ferroelectricity at this scale. To capture the comprehensive knowledge in the versatility of ferroelectricity as the material is scaled down, particularly at the nanoscale, a theoretical framework is exceedingly advantageous. The first-principle density functional theory (DFT)-based modeling and simulations plays a significant role as the fundamental properties could be envisioned and act as guidelines in the design of ferroelectric nanostructures. For the last decade, it has been successfully implied to various ferroelectric bulk crystals as well as nanostructures. According to first-principle density functional theory, ferroelectricity is analyzed in two possible ways [11]: (a) calculation of total energy by solving ground state problem for a given potential, (b) computation of linear response (LR). This is done by discovering the lowest order changes in ground state energy as the potential changes. The former provides the knowledge about the parameters which is the first derivative of total energy such as stress or electric polarization while the latter computes the properties corresponding to the second and third derivatives of total energy such as phonons, dielectric, piezoelectric and other compliances. In the perovskite ferroelectrics oxides, the transition metal is in
On the edge of the ferroelectrics class is the ABO3 oxides (where ‘A’ and ‘B’ are two cations, often of different sizes, and O is the oxygen atom that bonds to both ions) occurring in the perovskite structure. Typical materials that crystallize in the perovskite structure having technological importance are ferroelectric
where
Following the JKD scaling theory, Xu et al. [32] investigated the ferroelectric properties in 20–330 nm of (0 0 1)- and (1 1 1)-oriented PbZr0.2Ti0.8O3 ceramics system. The change in the spontaneous polarization and the coercive field by lowering the dimension of thin PZT thin-film is delineated in Figure 1. Likewise, Venkata et al. [33], Hong et al. [34] also confirmed the falling of field-induced polarization behavior with the downscaling in perovskite polycrystals and ferroelectric nano-thin films respectively (Figure 1). It has been observed that (0 0 1)-oriented PZT film followed the JKD scaling while (1 1 1)-oriented heterostructures (∼<165 nm) deviated from the expected scaling. The first principle DFT calculation attributed this deviation to the formation of a lower energy barrier phase for switching which eventually reduces the domain-wall energy and exacerbates the deviation.
Variation of (a) perovskite polycrystals [
However, defying the general hypothesis on the scaling effect in perovskite ceramics, an increase in long-range ferroelectric order is observed in NaNbO3 by Juriji et al. [35] in 2017 as the material was scaled down below 0.27 μm which was attributed to the existence of intra-granular stresses induced during the formation of non-180° domain walls as the grain dimension is reduced. Recently, Lorenzo et al. [36] successfully developed an unusual ferroelectric orthorhombic phase (
Ferroelectric instability is a consequence of a delicate balance between short-range and long-range dipolar interactions. These interactions are definitely perturbed in nanostructures. With the downscaling of ferroelectrics to nanoscale, the surface to volume ratio is changed, the short-range forces are altered at the surfaces and interfaces while long-range character is influenced by the limitation in finite sizes of the material. One of the critical issues in downscaling the perovskite ferroelectrics is the distortion of the ferroelectric phase such as orthorhombic or tetragonality (c/a) in crystals. It is noted that tetragonality in PbTiO3 crystals were rapidly decreased to 1 as it was scaled down to 7 nm [24] following the relation:
However, this explanation was not appropriate as the theoretical calculations pushed the limit of fabrication of perovskite ferroelectrics as thin as ∼15 nm [10, 16]. The origination of scaling and size effect is still not realized although two important explanations were suggested: (a) the distinctive intrinsic properties of nanoparticles smaller than critical dimension, (b) generation of local depolarization field due to the surface ions arresting the ferroelectric phase. The development of the depolarization field is a consequence of extrinsic effects such as electrical boundary conditions and electrode screening effect. It is the key issue in analyzing the ferroelectric domain structures, Further, the strain and the electrical polarization in ferroelectrics are coupled phenomena, therefore any misfit strain affairs change the spontaneous polarization of the material. Hence the materials are responsive to mechanical boundary conditions as well. The boundary conditions cognate with the contact situation between the surface of the ferroelectric film and the electrode, play a prominent role in the scaling effect of thin-films. The suppression of spontaneous polarization by instigating the surface and interfacial charges offsetting the normal component of the polarization, creates a depolarization field [38]. In a few cases, the depolarization electrical energy guided the retention of polar crystals by electrode screening effect [39]. The latter is associated with the perfect screening of the electrode and depolarization phase, thereby stabilizing the ferroelectric phase and its resulting properties [13]. While in other cases, it is completely considered for destabilizing the ferroelectric domains [17, 21, 40]. The size of the ferroelectric crystals strongly influences the magnitude of the depolarization field. The scaling of ferroelectrics to their critical dimensional range, being the surface charge remains constant, increases the voltage developed per unit length which induces the depolarization-field-induced scaling effect. The latter is eminent in thin films, when present strongly influences the ferroelectric domains. Further, with the reduced film thickness, rational growth is promoted that leads to strong mechanical boundary conditions, contributes to the scaling effect in ferroelectrics. Factors such as lattice mismatch in epitaxial grown thin films, the difference in the properties of the substrate and the ferroelectric film or growth-related strain generated during the fabrication process creates mechanical boundary conditions. It is associated with the substrate-induced stress/strain that is not only coupled with the spontaneous polarization but strongly influences the array of ferroelastic domains, if present. For example, if the polarization vector switches ferroelastically between [0 0 1] and [1 0 0] directions, then biaxial compression perpendicular to the polar axis will stabilize that orientation and increases the phase transition temperature. However, when these strain effects are overlaid on the scaling effect, the process is supposed to be reversed [41, 42]. Therefore, it is notable that mechanical boundary condition functions along with the intrinsic scaling effect [3]. In bulk ceramics, mechanical boundary conditions are created at the grain boundaries and developed a spontaneous dipole. Apart from surface/ferroelectric film interfaces, the other factors that strongly influence the scaling effect in ferroelectrics are the volume of domain walls and grain boundaries in the lower-dimensional scale of ferroelectric system. The extreme reduction in thin-films/grain size lessen the number of stable domain configurations and eventually mobility of domain boundaries decreases which resulted in low permittivity of the system [3]. Besides, crystal imperfections, doping effect, grain boundaries, microstructures, etc., are interlinked to the processing condition [43] may influence the scaling effect in perovskite ferroelectrics and requires independent assessment.
Ferroelectric polymers such as poly(vinylidene fluoride) and its copolymer systems have evinced the distinguishing properties in lower-dimensional structures. Their nanostructures are emphasized as electrospun nanofibers [44], anodic aluminum oxide-templated nanotubes [45] and the 2D Langmuir–Blodgett (LB) nanofilm [46]. Few reports have also described the PVDF-nanosphere [47]. For example, Zhengguo et al. [48] reported the formation of P(VDF-TrFE) nanoparticles with sizes of 60–100 nm using a solution method with the successful application in low band-gap polymer photovoltaic devices. Mostly, these polymers are analyzed in the form of thin films [49, 50, 51]. Unlike ferroelectric ceramics, the polymer ferroelectrics are semicrystalline (amorphous and crystal parts are intertwined) in nature, therefore the ferroelectricity in the polymer is strongly affected by the interaction between the crystalline and amorphous interface. This is known as the nanoconfinement effect [52], according to which the dipole switching in polymer ferroelectrics largely depends on the local electric field in the crystals. Definitely, these interactions are perturbed as the dimensionality of the polymer ferroelectrics goes down to the lowest possible range. As a consequence, the crystal orientations are varied that eventually influences the functional properties of the material. In the bulk form, P(VDF-TrFE, 70:30) exhibited the first-order ferroelectric to paraelectric phase transition temperature
The schematic representation of polarization switching in one and ten monolayer of P(VDF-TrFE) LB film (replotted taking the Ref. [
Electric polarization is the first-order framework of ferroelectric transitions, whose non-zero value apprehends the ferroelectric phase from the paraelectric one. The phenomenon of macroscopic polarization reversal with the external field stress is termed polarization switching. The kinetics for the same was contrasting for the lower-dimensional system compared to its bulk counterpart. Ferroelectric materials including bulk ceramics, spin-coated epitaxial oxide thin film or the Langmuir–Blodgett polymer thin films, consist of widely distributed domains. Earlier studies have shown that polarization switching is a complex inhomogeneous phenomenon involving domain nucleation and growth. This process can be realized in terms of Kolmogorov–Avrami framework of inhomogeneous phase transformation, [72] where polarization is associated with the lower energy phase. At the macroscopic level, typically two frameworks have been observed in partially polarized ferroelectric materials: (a) the whole material may experience an identical polarization or (b) the presence of spatial inhomogeneous polarization. The second situation is practically observed in ferroelectric P(VDF-TrFE) thin films. Devonshire was the first scientist to develop a theory on polarization switching on barium titanate ceramics system based on Landau mean-field phase transition [73]. Later on, the theory was improved with the consideration of Ginzburg spatial inhomogeneity framework and termed as Landua–Ginzburg–Devonshire (LGD) theory [5, 74]. According to this theory, the free energy for macroscopic polarization which is considered as order parameter is expanded as Eq. (4).
where α, β and γ are the Landau coefficients and
The computed P-E relation for P(VDF-TrFE) using Landau-Devonshire theory [
In the computed P–E relation (Figure 3), the author theoretically explained an unstable region between point a and b and proposed that the polarization switching as a consequence of lowering the free energy of the system. Nevertheless, a gap always persists between the theoretical and experimental values. For example, the field for minimal polarization was computed in the order of magnitude in GV/m while it is typically 50 MV/m, as verified experimentally. The explanation of polarization switching based on nucleation and multidomain [75, 76], is labeled as
However, the nanosized polymer ferroelectric P(VDF-TrFE) LB thin films (within the critical thickness) exhibited a critical behavior, a homogeneous non-domain switching of polarization is observed [5]. Gaynutdinov et al. [71] demonstrated that polarization switching kinetics for 54 nm thick film of P(VDF-TrFE) copolymer were subjectively different from the 18 nm thick film. While bulk-like properties exhibited the nucleation and domain growth as the cause of polarization switching, 18 nm thick film exhibited purely intrinsic switching kinetics with a true threshold field. Vizdrik et al. [76] simulated the switching kinetics in P(VDF-TrFE) LB film with thickness of 30 monolayer. It was observed that the film experienced a pronounced slowing of polarization switching over six orders of magnitude in close proximity of coercive field which is distinct from the extrinsic switching that lacks true coercive field with increased field or temperature. The extrinsic switching is associated with the activation of nucleation and is a function of frequency. If the nucleation is non-existing, a very high coercive field is required to obtain the uniform polarization in ferroelectric crystal ideally, typically known as intrinsic switching and the associated threshold field is known as the intrinsic coercive field. Also, the intrinsic switching is not possible below the intrinsic coercive field as the constituent crystal dipoles are exceedingly harmonized and they tend to switch coherently or not at all. This type of switching is specifically observed in ultrathin P(VDF-TrFE) LB films. The reduced thickness of LB films apparently takes the edge off nucleation volume and therefore prohibits the occurrence of extrinsic switching. Notably, intrinsic switching process takes larger time (>1 s) as compared to extrinsic switching (works in microseconds) observed in thicker films and at lower field. Paramonova et al. [77] validated the intrinsic homogenous switching in PVDF/PVDF-TrFE Langmuir–Blodgett (LB) films using the molecular dynamic simulation method. Further, the intrinsic coercive field is independent of film thickness in PVDF-based LB film below ∼15 nm, evincing the absence of finite size scaling below 15 nm [78, 79]. However, critical thickness for the intrinsic switching may vary in different polymer films because of diverse molecular structures. Theoretical modeling is a constructing way in guiding research for the dimensional effects in ferroelectricity. The nanoscale ferroelectrics constituted the switching kinetics contesting between extrinsic and intrinsic switching mechanism. These mechanisms are associated with the film thickness, as the film thickness increases, domain mechanism carry the way, else the nucleation-independent switching mechanism is endured [80].
Ferroelectrics with reduced dimension has exciting applications in modern electronics system, especially in medical engineering and material technologies [81]. The first challenge conveyed by nanoscale ferroelectrics for device application is the stability of ferroelectric properties at the desired ultralow-dimensional range. For the last few decades, tremendous effort, both theoretically and experimentally have been implied for finding stable ferroelectricity in nanoparticles at their maximum reduced dimensions. However, setting aside the academic cliché, the real scenario probably deals with the lacking of crucial steps toward the real-mass commercialization of nanoscale ferroelectrics. The science and technology of nano and ultra-nanoscale ferroelectrics is in infant stage. Numerous fundamental issues are still unsolved hampering the real-mass commercialization. It is expected that with the proper selection of material-system, minimizing intrinsic and extrinsic effects and the advancement in nanoscale characterization techniques, the possibility of scaling and size-effects could be minimized.
This chapter dealt with the ferroelectric phenomena emphasizing important functional parameters, such as phase transition temperature (
All authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support from the KIRAN Division, Ministry of Science and Technology, Department of Science and Technology (DST), Government of India through Project No. SR/WOS-A/PM-75/2018 (G) and Science and Engineering Research Board (SERB), Department of Science and Technology (DST), Government of India through Project No. EMR/2016/005281.
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be constructed as a potential conflict of interest.
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There are several ways to apply robust optimization and the choice of form is typical of the problem that is being solved. In this paper, the basic concepts of robust optimization are developed, the different types of robustness are defined in detail, the main areas in which it has been applied are described and finally, the future lines of research that appear in this area are included.",book:{id:"6587",slug:"nature-inspired-methods-for-stochastic-robust-and-dynamic-optimization",title:"Nature-inspired Methods for Stochastic, Robust and Dynamic Optimization",fullTitle:"Nature-inspired Methods for Stochastic, Robust and Dynamic Optimization"},signatures:"José García and Alvaro Peña",authors:[{id:"227809",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia",slug:"jose-garcia",fullName:"Jose Garcia"},{id:"240407",title:"Dr.",name:"Alvaro",middleName:null,surname:"Peña",slug:"alvaro-pena",fullName:"Alvaro Peña"}]},{id:"51131",doi:"10.5772/63785",title:"Survey of Meta-Heuristic Algorithms for Deep Learning Training",slug:"survey-of-meta-heuristic-algorithms-for-deep-learning-training",totalDownloads:3160,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:"Deep learning (DL) is a type of machine learning that mimics the thinking patterns of a human brain to learn the new abstract features automatically by deep and hierarchical layers. DL is implemented by deep neural network (DNN) which has multi-hidden layers. DNN is developed from traditional artificial neural network (ANN). However, in the training process of DL, it has certain inefficiency due to very long training time required. Meta-heuristic aims to find good or near-optimal solutions at a reasonable computational cost. In this article, meta-heuristic algorithms are reviewed, such as genetic algorithm (GA) and particle swarm optimization (PSO), for traditional neural network’s training and parameter optimization. Thereafter the possibilities of applying meta-heuristic algorithms on DL training and parameter optimization are discussed.",book:{id:"5165",slug:"optimization-algorithms-methods-and-applications",title:"Optimization Algorithms",fullTitle:"Optimization Algorithms - Methods and Applications"},signatures:"Zhonghuan Tian and Simon Fong",authors:[{id:"1952",title:"Dr.",name:"Simon",middleName:null,surname:"Fong",slug:"simon-fong",fullName:"Simon Fong"},{id:"186166",title:"MSc.",name:"Zhonghuan",middleName:null,surname:"Tien",slug:"zhonghuan-tien",fullName:"Zhonghuan Tien"}]},{id:"51209",doi:"10.5772/62472",title:"A Review and Comparative Study of Firefly Algorithm and its Modified Versions",slug:"a-review-and-comparative-study-of-firefly-algorithm-and-its-modified-versions",totalDownloads:2941,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:24,abstract:"Firefly algorithm is one of the well-known swarm-based algorithms which gained popularity within a short time and has different applications. It is easy to understand and implement. The existing studies show that it is prone to premature convergence and suggest the relaxation of having constant parameters. To boost the performance of the algorithm, different modifications are done by several researchers. In this chapter, we will review these modifications done on the standard firefly algorithm based on parameter modification, modified search strategy and change the solution space to make the search easy using different probability distributions. The modifications are done for continuous as well as non-continuous problems. Different studies including hybridization of firefly algorithm with other algorithms, extended firefly algorithm for multiobjective as well as multilevel optimization problems, for dynamic problems, constraint handling and convergence study will also be briefly reviewed. A simulation-based comparison will also be provided to analyse the performance of the standard as well as the modified versions of the algorithm.",book:{id:"5165",slug:"optimization-algorithms-methods-and-applications",title:"Optimization Algorithms",fullTitle:"Optimization Algorithms - Methods and Applications"},signatures:"Waqar A. Khan, Nawaf N. Hamadneh, Surafel L. Tilahun and Jean\nM. T. Ngnotchouye",authors:[{id:"180330",title:"Dr.",name:"Surafel",middleName:null,surname:"Tilahun",slug:"surafel-tilahun",fullName:"Surafel Tilahun"},{id:"180784",title:"Dr.",name:"Waqar Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"waqar-ahmed-khan",fullName:"Waqar Ahmed Khan"},{id:"185148",title:"Dr.",name:"Nawaf",middleName:null,surname:"Hamadneh",slug:"nawaf-hamadneh",fullName:"Nawaf Hamadneh"},{id:"185149",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean M. T.",middleName:null,surname:"Ngnotchouye",slug:"jean-m.-t.-ngnotchouye",fullName:"Jean M. T. 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While the Fourier transform creates a representation of the signal in the frequency domain, the wavelet transform creates a representation of the signal in both the time and frequency domain, thereby allowing efficient access of localized information about the signal.",book:{id:"10065",slug:"wavelet-theory",title:"Wavelet Theory",fullTitle:"Wavelet Theory"},signatures:"Karlton Wirsing",authors:[{id:"325178",title:"Dr.",name:"Karlton",middleName:null,surname:"Wirsing",slug:"karlton-wirsing",fullName:"Karlton Wirsing"}]},{id:"54366",title:"Solution of Differential Equations with Applications to Engineering Problems",slug:"solution-of-differential-equations-with-applications-to-engineering-problems",totalDownloads:6859,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Over the last hundred years, many techniques have been developed for the solution of ordinary differential equations and partial differential equations. While quite a major portion of the techniques is only useful for academic purposes, there are some which are important in the solution of real problems arising from science and engineering. In this chapter, only very limited techniques for solving ordinary differential and partial differential equations are discussed, as it is impossible to cover all the available techniques even in a book form. The readers are then suggested to pursue further studies on this issue if necessary. After that, the readers are introduced to two major numerical methods commonly used by the engineers for the solution of real engineering problems.",book:{id:"5513",slug:"dynamical-systems-analytical-and-computational-techniques",title:"Dynamical Systems",fullTitle:"Dynamical Systems - Analytical and Computational Techniques"},signatures:"Cheng Yung Ming",authors:[{id:"191017",title:"Dr.",name:"Cheng",middleName:null,surname:"Y.M.",slug:"cheng-y.m.",fullName:"Cheng Y.M."}]},{id:"56538",title:"Stochastic Resonance and Related Topics",slug:"stochastic-resonance-and-related-topics",totalDownloads:1713,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The stochastic resonance (SR) is the phenomenon which can emerge in nonlinear dynamic systems. In general, it is related with a bistable nonlinear system of Duffing type under additive excitation combining deterministic periodic force and Gaussian white noise. It manifests as a stable quasiperiodic interwell hopping between both stable states with a small random perturbation. Classical definition and basic features of SR are regarded. The most important methods of investigation outlined are: analytical, semi-analytical, and numerical procedures of governing physical systems or relevant Fokker-Planck equation. Stochastic simulation is mentioned and experimental way of results verification is recommended. Some areas in Engineering Dynamics related with SR are presented together with a particular demonstration observed in the aeroelastic stability. Interaction of stationary and quasiperiodic parts of the response is discussed. Some nonconventional definitions are outlined concerning alternative operators and driving processes are highlighted. The chapter shows a large potential of specific basic, applied and industrial research in SR. 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Consequently, the purpose in this chapter is to join my complex probability paradigm to the analytic prognostic of buried petrochemical pipelines in the case of linear damage accumulation. 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The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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