\r\n\t \r\n\tRecently in 2019, International Council on Systems Engineering (INCOSE) has released the latest version of the “Guidelines for the Utilization of ISO/IEC/IEEE 15288 in the Context of System of Systems (SoS) Engineering” to industry for review and comments. The document was developed under the Partner Standards Development Organization cooperation agreement between ISO and IEEE, as it was approved by Council Resolution 49/2007. This document provides guidance for the utilization of ISO/IEC/IEEE 15288 in the context of SoS in many domains, including healthcare, transportation, energy, defense, corporations, cities, and governments. This document treats an SoS as a system whose elements are managerially and/or operationally independent systems, and which together usually produce results that cannot be achieved by the individual systems alone. This INCOSE guide book perceives that SoS engineering demands a balance between linear procedural procedures for systematic activity and holistic nonlinear procedures due to additional complexity from SoS perspectives. \r\n\tThe objective of this book is to provide a comprehensive reference on Systems-of-Systems Engineering, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis (MS&A) for engineers and researchers in both system engineering and advanced mathematical modeling fields. \r\n\tThe book is organized in two parts, namely Part I and Part II. Part I presents an overview of SOS, SOS Engineering, SOS Enterprise Architecture (SOSEA) and SOS Enterprise (SOSE) Concept of Operations (CONOPS). Part II discusses SOSE MS&A approaches for assessing SOS Enterprise CONOPS (SOSE-CONOPS) and characterizing SOSE performance behavior. Part II focuses on advanced mathematical application concepts to address future complex space SOS challenges that require interdisciplinary research involving game theory, probability and statistics, non-linear programming and mathematical modeling components.
\r\n
\r\n\tPart I should include topics related to the following areas: \r\n\t- SOS and SOS Engineering Introduction \r\n\t- Taxonomy of SOS \r\n\t- SOS Enterprise (SOSE), SOSE CONOPS, Architecture Frameworks and Decision Support Tools
\r\n
\r\n\tPart II should address the following research areas: \r\n\t- SOS Modeling, Simulation & Analysis (SOS M&SA) Methods \r\n\t- SOS Enterprise Architecture Design Frameworks and Decision Support Tools \r\n\t- SOS Enterprise CONOPS Assessment Frameworks and Decision Support Tools.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:null,pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"677fbbd5fc2550e8be540f40c0969a62",bookSignature:"Dr. Tien Manh Nguyen",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7772.jpg",keywords:"Autonomy of Constituents, Operational Independence, Taxonomy, Acquisition Classification, SOS Enterprise Architecture Design, Decision Support Tools, State Modeling, SOS Simulation Methods, DOD Architecture Framework, Enterprise System Engineering, SOS Enterprise CONOPS, Satellite Operations (SATOPS)",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 31st 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 21st 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 20th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 9th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 8th 2020",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"15 days",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"210657",title:"Dr.",name:"Tien",middleName:"Manh",surname:"Nguyen",slug:"tien-nguyen",fullName:"Tien Nguyen",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210657/images/system/210657.jpg",biography:"Dr. Tien M. Nguyen received his M.A. in Mathematics, and his Ph.D. in Applied Mathematics from the Claremont Graduate University; M.S.E.E. in Communication Systems Theory from University of California San Diego; and B.S.E. in Electronics and M.S.E. in Electromagnetic Field Theory from California State University Fullerton (CSUF). He also completed all course requirements and passed the comprehensive exam for his M.S.E.E. in Digital Signal Processing from California State University Long Beach. Dr. Nguyen is an expert in Satellite Operations (SATOPS), Satellite Communications (SATCOMs), advanced mathematical modeling for complex systems-of-systems, sensing and communication networks.\nCurrently, he serves as Adjunct Research Professor at CSUF, Mathematics Dept. Concurrently, he is also with the Aerospace Corporation, serving as a Sr. P.E. in Space System Group Program Office, Space System Architect Division, Global Partnerships Subdivision. He has more than 13-years of service at Aerospace, and prior to his current position; he has served as Sr. Engineering Specialist, Sr. Project Lead, Section Manager, Associate Director, Interim Director, and Principal Technical Staff (the highest technical level at the corporation). At Aerospace, he invented HPA linearizer, GMSK synchronizers and developed advanced optimization techniques using game theory for achieving affordable and low-risk acquisition strategy. Prior to CSUF, he had also held a Research Assistant Professor at the Catholic University of America in concurrent with The Aerospace Corporation positions. \nHe was a Engineering Fellow from Raytheon, where he had 10-year of services at Raytheon, serving as Program Area Chief Engineer, Program Chief Engineer, PI, Technical Director, Program Manager, Lead Architect and Lead System Engineer for many advanced programs and pursuits related to sensing and communication networks. At Raytheon, he invented radar-communication technology and gun barrel detector using millimeter-wave. Previous to Raytheon and Aerospace Corporation, Dr. Nguyen was with NASA/JPL for more than 11-years, where he served as the NASA delegate to the international Consultative Committee for Space Data System (CCSDS). Many of his works on RF and Modulation were adopted as the CCSDS standards for USB waveforms and space RF systems. At JPL he invented QPSK phase ambiguity resolver and developed innovative optimization technique for simultaneous range-command-telemetry operation. He built the first laser lab and automated manufacturing lab when he was with ITT Technical Services in the early ’80s. \nHe has published more than 250 technical reports and papers. His work has appeared in NASA TechBrief, textbook, Open Access Book, SIAM Publication, CCSDS Blue Book, and Wiley & Sons Encyclopedia of Electrical and Electronics Engineering. He was selected as a Vietnamese-American Role Model by KCSI-TV, Channel 18 in 2002, and Recognition Honoree at 50-Year Celebration of CSUF in 2007. He received numerous Raytheon, Aerospace and NASA awards, and Air Force commendations. He holds 16 patents. His biography has been listed in Marquis Who’sWho in Science and Engineering in America.",institutionString:"The Aerospace Corporation",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"California State University, Fullerton",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"11",title:"Engineering",slug:"engineering"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"305835",firstName:"Ketrin",lastName:"Polesak",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/305835/images/9351_n.png",email:"ketrin@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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1. Introduction
\n
In recent years, multirotor unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) have attracted many researchers and became a growing interest in the academic and industrial research. In this chapter, our study focuses on quadrotor UAVs due to its ability to fly in restricted areas. The quadrotor has four rotors controlled by four rotors. Quadrotors have specific characteristics that allow the execution of applications that would be difficult or complex compared with other flying machines. A key issue in making multirotor UAV vehicles feasible and efficient is the control design, consisting of a navigation system, position and attitude control. This chapter concerns the nonlinearity character of the UAV vehicles and focuses on the position and attitude controllers. One of scenarios that could be achieved by the quadrotor is autonomous navigation. Implementing such a mission requires the measurement of the components of vehicle state (position, linear velocity, orientation angles and angular velocity) from GPS sensors. Most of the control schemes that have been introduced in the literature rely on the available full state of feedback using definition of an observer or rely on the estimation of velocity of the vehicle by means of derivation of the successive measurements from the used sensors such GPS, etc. [1–3]. However, an additional disturbance may occur in the control loop as a result of the use of the observer. It is also important to validate first convergency of the observer. In addition, the stability of closed loop of complete system controlled by observer has to be assured through checking the compatibility of observer frequency and controller frequency [4]. In this estimation method, the errors produced by GPS may approach several meters, and in reality, velocity measurement error is growing fast by the induced measurement noise along with numerical integration. Few researchers have solved the problem of linear velocity estimation without the use of GPS, and some of them considered combination and artificial vision and the inertial sensors [5, 6].
\n
In [7], the authors proposed a global exponential observer with a complete order to ensure a continued trajectory of a helicopter (VTOL). To reduce the size of the estimated state vector, a reduced observer introduced in [8], the linear velocity of the quadrotor has been estimated using a complete or partial measure of the acceleration such that the asymptotic stability of the error is obtained. Some other forms of observers have been introduced such as adaptive observer [9], and this approach provided an estimation of the velocity of quadrotor UAV from acceleration measurements calculated by the inertial system, but this method has disadvantages of slow convergence of the estimated parameters. While the sliding mode observer used in [10] has shown not only the ability to estimate the velocity of quadrotor but also showed its robustness against the external disturbances. The other technique used in the literature to estimate the linear velocity is the filters, and one of these filters is extended Kalman filter that widely applied to nonlinear dynamical systems. In this case, the principle is to use the standard equations of Kalman filter for nonlinear model linearized by Taylor formula of first order and the states of systems can be estimated from the noise measurements. These kinds of filters have been used to estimate the states of quadrotor [11].
\n
In this paper, we propose an approach to solve the problem of position tracking of quadrotor UAV when the linear velocity measurements are unavailable. The proposed controller provides a hierarchical design of the system using assign inner loop for position control and outer loop for attitude control. Each loop has its own control algorithm. The resulting outer control loop, which is based on backstepping, has a simple structure. The inner control loop is based on nonlinear filter-based control design with the aim of estimating the linear velocity of quadrotor.
\n
This paper is organized as follows. In Section 2, the dynamic model of quadrotor UAV is introduced. Section 3 presents the design of position controller based on the nonlinear dynamic model using nonlinear filter-based approach. In Section 4, the attitude controller of rotational system is presented. In Section 5, the overall closed loop system stability is analysed, and simulation results are shown in Section 6.
\n
\n
2. Quadrotor dynamic model
\n
The quadrotor UAV is modelled as a rigid body of mass m∈R and of matrix of inertia I∈R3x3(I=dia(I1,I2,I3)). The equations of motion can be described by two reference frames: first one is the reference frame (I) combined with the unit vector basis (e1,e2,e3) and second one is the body frame (B) fixed on the quadrotor UAV and combined with vector basis (e1b,e2b,e3b) (see Figure 1). The kinematic and dynamic equations of motion for the quadrotor expressed in the body-fixed reference frame can be described as [12]. The dynamic model is derived using Newton-Euler formalism in the body fixed frame B.
where η=[x,y,z]T represents the position of the centre of mass of the quadrotor, these positions are expressed relatively with respect to an inertial frame and Θ=[ψ,θ,φ] represents the three Euler angles (yaw, pitch, roll) that define the orientation of the quadrotor in space. V=[vx,vy,vz]T∈R3 and Ω∈R3 denote the linear and angular velocities expressed in the body-fixed frame B. bv represents the external force disturbance expressed in the inertial frame I. m is the mass of the quadrotor, If∈R3×3 denotes a positive definite inertia matrix relative to the inertial frame I. The vector f,τa∈R3 denotes the external force and torque expressed in B. The external force is aligned with the z−axis and can be written as f=−G+Te3, where G∈R3 is the gravity vector defined as G=mgRTe3 where g∈R denotes the gravitational acceleration and e3=[0,0,1]T is the unit vector in the inertial frame. T denotes the total thrust produced by the four rotors given as T=k∑14ωi2 where ωi being the speed of the rotor i, k is the thrust factor and it is a positive proportional constant parameter depending on the density of air, the radius, the shape, the pitch angle of the blade and other factors. Ga∈R3 contains gyroscopic couples, due to the rotational motion of the quadrotor and the four rotors which is given by Ga=∑14Ir(Ωe3)(−1)i+1ωi where Ir denotes the moment of inertia. The generalized moments on the Θ variable are as follows.
where l denotes the distance from the rotor to the centre of mass of the quadrotor. Using Euler angles parameterization and "XYZ" convention, the airframe orientation in space is given by a rotation matrix R from B to I, where R∈SO3 is expressed as follows:
The four rotors of quadrotor, rotating at angular velocities omegai, produce the four forces fi=kωi2, pointed upward, where i = 1,2,3,4, and ki are positive constants. These four forces constitute the total thrust T along z axis. Therefore, the distributed forces and moments from four actuator motors for the quadrotor are given by:
\n
[Tτψτθτφ]=[1111−l0l00l0−lc−cc−c][f1f2f3f4]E4
\n
where c is the drag coefficient. Since the quadrotor UAV is under-actuated system, the design of control inputs for this kind of systems is a challenging topic.
\n
\n
4. Control problem formulation
\n
In this work, we aim to design control laws for the total thrust T and torques τa allowing the quadrotor UAV to track a desired trajectory ηd=[xd,yd,zd] and desired heading ψd. The set of trajectory and their derivatives are smooth enough so that they are uniformly continuous and bounded. The linear velocity is assumed to be not available for feedback and only the position and acceleration are therefore accessible by the translational subsystem. However, we want to design a global feedback control law in the absence of measurements of linear velocity that guarantee the position, heading and velocity tracking errors that are bounded and converge asymptotically to zero.
\n
eψ=ψ−ψd,eη=η−ηd,e˙η=v−vdE5
\n
The main goal of this paper is to solve the position control problem; meanwhile, guaranteeing all closed-loop signals are bounded and the corresponding constraints of the attitude system are violated. In the following, we will introduce the methodology of control design to achieve our objectives.
\n
\n
5. Control design procedure
\n
The equations of motion (2) of quadrotor defined in the previous section can be rewritten as
\n
Σ1(η˙=vv˙=1mRe3T−gezE6
\n
Σ2(R˙e3=RS(Ω)e3Θ˙=K(Θ)ΩΩ˙=−Ω×(IΩ)−Ga+τaE7
\n
The dynamic model above is separated into two dynamic systems; translational dynamic system Σ1 and rotational dynamic system Σ2. These two systems are chosen completely coupled by the rotation vector Re3 and total thrust vector T as shown in Figure 2. In our methodology, we adopt a hierarchical controller design for the entire system dividing it into translational and rotational dynamics subsytems as it is shown in Figure 2. In this design, we assign the outer loop for the position controller and the inner loop for the attitude controller. The control design procedure can be summarized in the following two points:
\n
In the design of the position controller, we propose a nonlinear filter to estimate the linear velocity tracking error rather than having its feedback measurement and design the intermediate position control from which we can calculate the desired value of the total thrust and also extract the desired orientation that will be considered as a reference for the rotational dynamics loop.
For the attitude controller, backstepping technique and control design with a barrier Lyapunov function have been applied due to the fact that the dynamic of Σ2 is in the form of “strict feedback” system, which is appropriate for such a controller. The virtual control laws for angular velocities resulting from applying backstepping technique are obtained αΩ = [αr, αp, αq] to ensure the asymptotic convergence of followed rotation angles errors to zero, from the torques. Then, the four rotational speed signals can be calculated by the transformation matrix R.
\n
Figure 2.
Control architecture.
\n
We will introduce barrier Lyapunov function (BLF) to design the attitude tracking controller. This function is designed to avoid the constraints (singularity points) that may occur in the rotation angles, roll, pitch and yaw and to produce a feasible initial condition for torques control.
\n
Definition. A barrier Lyapunov function is a scalar function V(x), defined with respect to the system x˙=f(x) on an open region D containing the origin, that is continuous, positive definite, has continuous first-order partial derivative at every point of D, has the property V(x)→∞ as x approaches the boundary of D and satisfies V(x(t))≤b∀t≥0 along the solution of x˙=f(x) for x(0)∈D and some positive constant b [13].
\n
Lemma 1. For any positive constant kb1, let Z1=z1∈R:z1<|k1|⊂R and N:=Rl×Z1⊂Rl+1 be open sets [13].
\n
Consider the system
\n
ζ˙=h(t,ζ)E8
\n
where ζ:=[ω,z1]T∈N, and h:R+×N→Rl+1 is piecewise continuous in t and locally Lipschitz in z, uniformly in t, on R+×N. Suppose that there exist functions U:Nl→R+ and V1:Z1→R+, continuously differentiable and positive definite in their respective domains, such that
\n
V1(z1)→∞asz1→z1→±kb1E9
\n
σ1(∥ω∥)≤U(ω)≤σ2(∥ω∥)E10
\n
where σ1 and σ2 are class k∞ functions. Let V(ζ):=V1(z1)+U(ω) and z1(0) belong to the set z1∈(−kb1,kb1). If the inequality holds:
\n
V˙=∂V∂ζh≤0E11
\n
then z1(t) remains in the open set z1∈(−kb1,kb1)∀t∈[0,∞).
\n
Proof. The conditions on h ensure the existence and uniqueness of a maximal solution ζ(t) on the time interval [0,τmax), according to [14]. This implies that V(ζ(t)) exist for all t∈[0,τmax).
\n
Since V(ζ) is positive definite and V˙≤0, we know that V(ζ(t))≤V(ζ(0)) for all t∈[0,τmax). From V(ζ):=V1(z1)+U(ω) and the fact that V1(z1) and U(ω) are positive functions, it is obvious that V1(z1(t)) is also bounded for all t∈[0,τmax). As a result, it is known from Eq. (9) that |z1|≠±kb1. Based on the z1(0)<|kb1|, We can figure out that z1(t) remains in the set z1<|kb1| for all t∈[0,τmax).
\n
Accordingly, there exist a compact set K⊆N such that the maximal solution of Eq. (8) satisfies ζ(t)∈K for all t∈[0,τmax). Based on [14], we conclude that ζ(t) is defined for all t∈[0,∞) and hence z1(t)∈(−kb1,kb1)∀t∈[0,∞).
\n
5.1. Position control design
\n
To design the position control for the dynamics of translational subsystem Eq. (6) that accomplish our control goal when no linear velocity measurements are available, we have considered a nonlinear first-order filter to estimate the tracking error of the linear velocity. The classification of the designed filter is output feedback controller [15]. It is designed with hyperbolic tangent function to ensure boundedness of thrust vector. The form of the filter can be written as
\n
v=q+Bηeq˙=−Atanh(v)E12
\n
where A and B are two diagonal matrices.
\n
Next section presents an explanation of operation of selected filter and simple simulation example.
\n
5.1.1. Filter principal design
\n
The main idea of our designed filter is inspired from a simple first-order linear high-pass filter [16].
\n
q(jω)x1(jω)=βjω−βE13
\n
To interpret the filter in frequency domain, we introduce the variable s=jω and replace this variable in Eq. (13), which yields
\n
sq=β(x1+q)E14
\n
where
\n
q=βx1s−β
\n
extracting the term (x1+q), we get
\n
(x1+q)=x1+βx1s−β=sx1s−βE15
\n
\n
5.1.2. Intermediate position control design
\n
The goal of this part is to design an intermediate control that ensures the convergence of position tracking and velocity errors to zero.
\n
limt→0∥η−ηd∥=0,limt→0∥v−vd∥=0E16
\n
The choice of vector input U=[ux,uy,uz]T=1mRe3T leads easily to extract the desired orientation since it constitutes the link between the position dynamics and attitude dynamics. This can be formulated as
\n
U=1mRe3T=−kptanh(ηe)−kdtanh(v)+η¨d+gezE17
\n
where kp and kd are two column vectors that contain three elements which will be defined by the proof of stability of position controller. The boundedness of Eq. (17) must be taken into consideration.
\n
∥U∥=∥Tm∥=∥−kptanh(ηe)−kdtanh(v)+η¨d+gez∥E18
\n
considering
\n
∥U∥=∥Tm∥≤kp+kg+kdE19
\n
such that: kg≤∥η¨d∥+g. So, the selected positive variables of kp,kd, kg guaranteeing the vector thrust to be bounded.
\n
To show the stability of closed loop position system with the controller Eq. (19), we will introduce it later in the Appendix A.
\n
\n
\n
5.2. Attitude control design
\n
The control of the attitude system is implemented to ensure the asymptotic convergence of desired orientation. we exploited the two interconnected blocks: block of virtual control αΩ=[αr,αp,αq]T and block of torque control τa=[τφ,τθ,τψ]. Consider the subsystem (6, Σ2)
\n
Θ˙=k(Θ)ΩE20
\n
which describes the rotation system, the angular velocity vector Ω and torque vector τa that can be restated as
\n
Σ2=(Θ˙=f1(Ω)Ω˙=f1(Ω,τ)E21
\n
Thus, the virtual angular velocity control laws were introduced to produce a zero error of the derivative of angular position Θ˙=[e˙φ,e˙θ,e˙ψ] and to obtain the appropriate torque for the control system. From Eq. (20), we define the angular velocity tracking error vector eΩ=[ep,eq,er]T. where
We choose an appropriate barrier Lyapunov function for roll and pith angles. And this is not needed for the yaw angle since it has singularity-free condition and we can use a single quadratic function to derive its control law.
\n
The augmented Lyapunov function can be stated as:
\n
V1=12eψ2+12logkφ2kφ2−eφ2+12logkθ2kθ2−eθ2E26
\n
and its time derivative is
\n
V˙1=eψe˙ψ+eφe˙φkφ2−eφ2+eθe˙θkθ2−eθ2E27
\n
So, the virtual control law for the angular velocity is derived as follows:
It is obvious that Eq. (29) has negative terms and these terms can stabilize the system only if the conditions |eφ|<kφ,|eθ|<kθ∀kφ>0andKθ>0 are met. These conditions will be met using Lemma (1). The other positive terms have to be cancelled and this will be done in the next. Now, backstepping control algorithm was applied to the partial of rotation system to control the input torque τa. The stability of rotation closed loop system is proved. We define the angular velocity error and its derivative:
\n
Ωe=Ω−αΩE30
\n
Ω˙e=Ω˙−α˙ΩE31
\n
Consider the following positive definite Lyapunov function candidate:
To show the effectiveness of the proposed control algorithm, we have introduced the simulation results. In order to test the overall system using Matlab simulink, the quadrotor UAV modelled as a rigid body of mass m=1.169Kg with inertial matrix I=dia(col(0.024,0.024,0.032))Kg.m2, k=1.41×10−5, c=1.84×10−6, Ir=7.81×10−5Kg.m2 and l=0.2125m. The numerical simulation results have been obtained using Runge-Kutta’s method with variable time step 0.001s. The desired trajectory is given by xd(t)=0,ydt=0,zd(t)=−(1−et10),ψd(t)=π4for20≤t≤30with initial conditions x(0)=0,y()=0,z(0)=0,ψ(0)=0. The controller gains are as follows: A=[40,40,40]T,B=[30,30,30]T,kp=[160,160,160]T,kd=[20,20,20]T,kφ=4,kθ=8,kψ4,ke=[7,7,7]T. The obtained results are shown in Figures 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9.
\n
Figure 3.
Position tracking.
\n
Figure 4.
Position tracking error.
\n
Figure 5.
Estimated velocity tracking.
\n
Figure 6.
Estimated velocity tracking error.
\n
Figure 7.
Attitude tracking.
\n
Figure 8.
Attitude tracking error.
\n
Figures 3, 4, 5 and 6 show the three components of the position and estimated velocity tracking errors. Figures 7 and 8 illustrate the attitude tracking and its tracking errors. To show the quadrotor’s position tracking, a 3D plot of the quadrotor’s position with desired trajectory is given in Figure 9.
\n
Figure 9.
3D trajectory of the quadrotor UAV (dashed blue) with the desired trajectory (red).
\n
\n
7. Conclusion
\n
In this work, we addressed the trajectory tracking problem of quadrotor UAV without linear velocity measurements. The presented algorithm was based on a separate translational and rotational control design, and the overall closed loop system showed a global asymptotic stability. Exploited the nature structure of the model, the controller is designed in a hierarchical manner by considering the separation between the translational and orientation dynamics. In the first phase of our control design, the linear velocity measurement has been avoided with the introduced nonlinear filter without using any observer. During this phase, the position controller computes the total thrust, considered as input for translational dynamics, and the desired orientation. In the second phase of our control design, barrier Lyapunov function has been employed to design the control torque that ensuring the tracking of the desired attitude derived at first phase of the control design. The stability of the closed loop system has been investigated and the simulation results have been provided to show the good performance of the proposed algorithm. Our next work will be to accomplish real time experiments for the proposed algorithm.
\n
\n
Appendix
\n
Stability analysis of position control without velocity measurements
\n
Considering the dynamic equations of translational system (6, Σ1), the dynamics of acceleration error can be rewritten as
\n
η¨e=1mRe3T−ge3−η¨dE39
\n
The closed loop of position system is obtained by substituting the control intermediate vector U to the dynamics of acceleration.
where kdm,kpm,am,bm are the minimum values of the vectors kd,kp,A,B, respectively, and kDM,kPM,AM,BM are the maximum values of these vectors. In order to simplify the stability study of the above equation, we assume that both minimum and maximum values are equal. So, the expression (44) can be rewritten in the following matrix form:
Now, we define the parameters kd,kp,A,B so as to ensure that the terms Q1,Q2,β1,β2 are positive definite. To achieve that, the inequality of linear matrix method is applied. For Q1 > 0, this is equivalent to
Now, we calculate the total thrust and the desired orientation. As it is presented previous, the control vector U=Rde3Tm can be written in the standard form as
\n
T2m2=UTUE64
\n
which is equivalent to
\n
T=ux2+uy2+uz2E65
\n
Using Eq. (17), the vector Rde3 can be calculated as
\n\n',keywords:"Quadrotor UAV, Tracking Control, Nonlinear Filter, Backstepping, Unknown linear velocity measurement",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/51026.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/51026.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51026",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51026",totalDownloads:940,totalViews:137,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"October 12th 2015",dateReviewed:"February 10th 2016",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"September 8th 2016",readingETA:"0",abstract:"This chapter deals with the position control of quadrotor unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) when quadrotor’s linear velocity is unavailable. We propose a hierarchical tracking controller for quadrotor UAV. The proposed controller does not require measurements of linear velocity of quadrotor. A nonlinear filter that avoids the need for measurements of linear velocity has proposed such that a global stability result is obtained for the position tracking error. However, backstepping based on barrier Lyapunov function has been used for the attitude controller. The control design is achieved by means of the hierarchical control, that is, design the position controller and attitude controller separately. This allows us to choose different nonlinear techniques for each controller.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/51026",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/51026",book:{slug:"recent-progress-in-some-aircraft-technologies"},signatures:"Yassine Jmili, Nuradeen Fethalla, Jawhar Ghomam and Maarouf\nSaad",authors:[{id:"179087",title:"Prof.",name:"Jawhar",middleName:null,surname:"Ghommam",fullName:"Jawhar Ghommam",slug:"jawhar-ghommam",email:"jawhar.ghommam@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"179582",title:"MSc.",name:"Yassine",middleName:null,surname:"Jimli",fullName:"Yassine Jimli",slug:"yassine-jimli",email:"jmili.yacine@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"179583",title:"Dr.",name:"Nurradeen",middleName:null,surname:"Fathallah",fullName:"Nurradeen Fathallah",slug:"nurradeen-fathallah",email:"nour32004@yahoo.com",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Quadrotor dynamic model",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Quadrotor forces and moments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Control problem formulation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Control design procedure",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"5.1. Position control design",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"5.1.1. Filter principal design",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"5.1.2. Intermediate position control design",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"5.2. Attitude control design",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10",title:"6. Numerical simulation results",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"7. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"Appendix",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nT. Hamel, R. Mahony, R. Lozano, and J. Ostrowski. Dynamic modelling and configuration stabilization for an x4-flyer. In Proc. of the 15th Triennial World Congress of the International Federation of Automatic Control, Barcelona, 21–26 July 2002.\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nJ.M. Pflimlin, P. Soueres, and T. Hamel. Position control of a ducted fan VTOL UAV in crosswind. International Journal of Control, 80(5):666–683, 2007.\n'},{id:"B3",body:'\nM.-D. Hua, T. Hamel, P. Morin, and C. Samson. A control approach for thrust-propelled underactuated vehicles and its application to VTOL drones. IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control, 54(8):1837–1853, 2009.\n'},{id:"B4",body:'\nS. Bertrand, T. Hamel and P-L. Helene (2009). Stabilization of Scale Model Vertical Take-off and Landing Vehicles without Velocity Measurements, Aerial Vehicles, Thanh Mung Lam (Ed.), InTech, DOI: 10.5772/6469. Available from: http://www.intechopen.com/books/aerial_vehicles/stabilization_of_scale_model_vertical_take-off_and_landing_vehicles_without_velocity_measurements.\n'},{id:"B5",body:'\nT. Cheviron, T. Hamel, R. Mahony, and G. Baldwin. Robust nonlinear fusion of inertial and visual data for position, velocity and attitude estimation of UAV. In 2007 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, pp. 2010–2016, April 2007.\n'},{id:"B6",body:'\nE. Rondon, S. Salazar, J. Escareno, and R. Lozano. Vision-based position control of a two rotor VTOL mini UAV, John Wiley & Sons, Inc, pages 191–208, 2013.\n'},{id:"B7",body:'\nK.D. Do, Z.P. Jiang, and J. Pan. On global tracking control of a VTOL aircraft without velocity measurements. IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control, 48(12):2212–2217, December 2003.\n'},{id:"B8",body:'\nM. Boutayeb, E. Richard, H. Rafaralahy, H. Souley Ali, and G. Zaloylo. A simple time-varying observer for speed estimation of UAV. In 17th IFAC World Congress, page CDROM, Seoul, South Korea, July 2008.\n'},{id:"B9",body:'\nK. Benzemrane, G.L. Santosuosso, and G. Damm. Unmanned aerial vehicle speed estimation via nonlinear adaptive observers. In American Control Conference, 2007. ACC’07, pp. 985–990, July 2007.\n'},{id:"B10",body:'\nT. Madani and A. Benallegue. Sliding mode observer and backstepping control for a quadrotor unmanned aerial vehicles. In American Control Conference, 2007. ACC ’07, pp. 5887–5892, July 2007.\n'},{id:"B11",body:'\nB. Landry. Planning and control for quadrotor flight through cluttered environments. Master’s thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, 2014.\n'},{id:"B12",body:'\nL. Luque-Vega, B. Castillo-Toledo, and A.G. Loukianov. Robust block second order sliding mode control for a quadrotor. Journal of the Franklin Institute, 349(2):719–739, 2012. Advances in Guidance and Control of Aerospace Vehicles using Sliding Mode Control and Observation Techniques.\n'},{id:"B13",body:'\nK.P. Tee, S.S. Ge, and E.H. Tay. Barrier Lyapunov functions for the control of output-constrained nonlinear systems. Automatica, 45(4):918–927, 2009.\n'},{id:"B14",body:'\nEduardo D. Sontag, Mathematical Control Theory: Deterministic Finite Dimensional Systems. Second Edition, Springer, New York, 1998.\n'},{id:"B15",body:'\nM.S. de Queiroz, D.M. Dawson, S.P. Nagarkatti, F. Zhang, “Lyapunov-based control of mechanical systems”, Boston, MA, USA: Birkhauser, 2000.\n'},{id:"B16",body:'\nS. Bertrand. Commande de drone miniature a voilure tournante. Ph.D. thesis, Universite de Nice Sophia Antipolis, 2007.\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Yassine Jmili",address:"nour32004@yahoo.com",affiliation:'
Department of Electrical Engineering, Ecole de Technologie Superieure, Montreal, Canada
Department of Electrical Engineering, Ecole de Technologie Superieure, Montreal, Canada
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Boguslavsky",authors:[{id:"109029",title:"Prof.",name:"Josif",middleName:null,surname:"Boguslavskiy",fullName:"Josif Boguslavskiy",slug:"josif-boguslavskiy"}]},{id:"28808",title:"Influence of Forward and Descent Flight on Quadrotor Dynamics",slug:"influence-of-forward-and-descent-flight-on-quadrotor-dynamics",signatures:"Matko Orsag and Stjepan Bogdan",authors:[{id:"21850",title:"Dr.",name:"Stjepan",middleName:null,surname:"Bogdan",fullName:"Stjepan Bogdan",slug:"stjepan-bogdan"},{id:"112769",title:"Mr.",name:"Matko",middleName:null,surname:"Orsag",fullName:"Matko Orsag",slug:"matko-orsag"}]},{id:"28809",title:"Advanced Graph Search Algorithms for Path Planning of Flight Vehicles",slug:"advanced-graph-search-algorithms-for-path-planning-of-flight-vehicles",signatures:"Luca De Filippis and Giorgio Guglieri",authors:[{id:"110942",title:"Dr.",name:"Luca",middleName:null,surname:"De Filippis",fullName:"Luca De Filippis",slug:"luca-de-filippis"},{id:"117083",title:"Prof.",name:"Giorgio",middleName:null,surname:"Guglieri",fullName:"Giorgio Guglieri",slug:"giorgio-guglieri"}]},{id:"28810",title:"GNSS Carrier Phase-Based Attitude Determination",slug:"gnss-carrier-phase-based-attitude-determination",signatures:"Gabriele Giorgi and Peter J. G. Teunissen",authors:[{id:"116970",title:"Prof.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Teunissen",fullName:"Peter Teunissen",slug:"peter-teunissen"},{id:"116988",title:"MSc.",name:"Gabriele",middleName:null,surname:"Giorgi",fullName:"Gabriele Giorgi",slug:"gabriele-giorgi"}]},{id:"28811",title:"A Variational Approach to the Fuel Optimal Control Problem for UAV Formations",slug:"a-variational-approach-to-the-fuel-optimal-control-problem-for-uav-formations",signatures:"Andrea L’Afflitto andWassim M. Haddad",authors:[{id:"109152",title:"Mr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"LAfflitto",fullName:"Andrea LAfflitto",slug:"andrea-lafflitto"},{id:"137973",title:"Prof.",name:"Wassim M.",middleName:null,surname:"Haddad",fullName:"Wassim M. Haddad",slug:"wassim-m.-haddad"}]},{id:"28812",title:"Measuring and Managing Uncertainty Through Data Fusion for Application to Aircraft Identification System",slug:"measuring-and-managing-uncertainty-through-data-fusion-on-target-identification",signatures:"Peter Pong and Subhash Challa",authors:[{id:"109333",title:"Mr.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Pong",fullName:"Peter Pong",slug:"peter-pong"},{id:"142023",title:"Prof.",name:"Subhash",middleName:null,surname:"Challa",fullName:"Subhash Challa",slug:"subhash-challa"}]},{id:"28813",title:"Subjective Factors in Flight Safety",slug:"subjective-factors-in-flight-safety",signatures:"Jozsef Rohacs",authors:[{id:"114528",title:"Prof.",name:"Jozsef",middleName:null,surname:"Rohacs",fullName:"Jozsef Rohacs",slug:"jozsef-rohacs"}]},{id:"28814",title:"Power Generation and Distribution System for a More Electric Aircraft - A Review",slug:"more-electric-aircraft",signatures:"Ahmed Abdel-Hafez",authors:[{id:"112126",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:"AbdElmalek",surname:"Abdel-Hafez",fullName:"Ahmed Abdel-Hafez",slug:"ahmed-abdel-hafez"}]},{id:"28815",title:"Power Electronics Application for More Electric Aircraft",slug:"power-electronics-application-for-more-electric-aircraft",signatures:"Mohamad Hussien Taha",authors:[{id:"111999",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamad",middleName:null,surname:"Taha",fullName:"Mohamad Taha",slug:"mohamad-taha"}]},{id:"28816",title:"Key Factors in Designing In-Flight Entertainment Systems",slug:"key-factors-in-designing-in-flight-entertainment-systems",signatures:"Ahmed Akl, Thierry Gayraud and Pascal Berthou",authors:[{id:"10153",title:"Prof.",name:"Thierry",middleName:"Henri",surname:"Gayraud",fullName:"Thierry Gayraud",slug:"thierry-gayraud"},{id:"10766",title:"Dr.",name:"Pascal",middleName:null,surname:"Berthou",fullName:"Pascal Berthou",slug:"pascal-berthou"},{id:"111784",title:"Prof.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Akl",fullName:"Ahmed Akl",slug:"ahmed-akl"}]},{id:"28817",title:"Methods for Analyzing the Reliability of Electrical Systems Used Inside Aircrafts",slug:"analyze-methods-of-reliability-of-electrical-systems-",signatures:"Nicolae Jula and Cepisca Costin",authors:[{id:"115164",title:"Prof.",name:"Nicolae",middleName:null,surname:"Jula",fullName:"Nicolae Jula",slug:"nicolae-jula"},{id:"116674",title:"Prof.",name:"Costin",middleName:null,surname:"Cepisca",fullName:"Costin Cepisca",slug:"costin-cepisca"}]},{id:"28818",title:"Automatic Inspection of Aircraft Components Using Thermographic and Ultrasonic Techniques",slug:"automatic-inspection-of-aircraft-components-using-thermographic-and-ultrasonic-techniques",signatures:"Marco Leo",authors:[{id:"109814",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",middleName:null,surname:"Leo",fullName:"Marco Leo",slug:"marco-leo"}]},{id:"28819",title:"The Analysis of the Maintenance Process of the Military Aircraft",slug:"the-analysis-of-the-maintenance-process-of-the-military-aircraft-",signatures:"Mariusz Wazny",authors:[{id:"115049",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Wazny",fullName:"Mariusz Wazny",slug:"mariusz-wazny"}]},{id:"28820",title:"Review of Technologies to Achieve Sustainable (Green) Aviation",slug:"review-of-technologies-to-achieve-sustainable-green-aviation",signatures:"Ramesh K. Agarwal",authors:[{id:"38519",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramesh K.",middleName:null,surname:"Agarwal",fullName:"Ramesh K. Agarwal",slug:"ramesh-k.-agarwal"}]},{id:"28821",title:"Synthetic Aperture Radar Systems for Small Aircrafts: Data Processing Approaches",slug:"synthetic-aperture-radar-systems-for-small-aircrafts-data-processing-approaches",signatures:"Oleksandr O. Bezvesilniy and Dmytro M. Vavriv",authors:[{id:"117110",title:"Dr.",name:"Oleksandr",middleName:null,surname:"Bezvesilniy",fullName:"Oleksandr Bezvesilniy",slug:"oleksandr-bezvesilniy"},{id:"117117",title:"Prof.",name:"Dmytro",middleName:null,surname:"Vavriv",fullName:"Dmytro Vavriv",slug:"dmytro-vavriv"}]},{id:"28822",title:"Avionics Design for a Sub-Scale Fault- Tolerant Flight Control Test-Bed",slug:"avionic-design-for-a-sub-scale-fault-tolerant-flight-control-test-bed-",signatures:"Yu Gu, Jason Gross, Francis Barchesky, Haiyang Chao and Marcello Napolitano",authors:[{id:"116275",title:"Dr.",name:"Yu",middleName:null,surname:"Gu",fullName:"Yu Gu",slug:"yu-gu"},{id:"117375",title:"Mr.",name:"Francis",middleName:null,surname:"Barchesky",fullName:"Francis Barchesky",slug:"francis-barchesky"},{id:"117376",title:"Dr.",name:"Haiyang",middleName:null,surname:"Chao",fullName:"Haiyang Chao",slug:"haiyang-chao"},{id:"117377",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcello",middleName:null,surname:"Napolitano",fullName:"Marcello Napolitano",slug:"marcello-napolitano"},{id:"117379",title:"Mr.",name:"Jason",middleName:null,surname:"Gross",fullName:"Jason Gross",slug:"jason-gross"}]},{id:"28823",title:"Study of Effects of Lightning Strikes to an Aircraft",slug:"study-of-effects-of-lightning-strikes-to-an-aircraft",signatures:"N.I. Petrov, A. Haddad, G.N. Petrova, H. Griffiths and R.T. Waters",authors:[{id:"109170",title:"Dr.",name:"Nikolai",middleName:"I",surname:"Petrov",fullName:"Nikolai Petrov",slug:"nikolai-petrov"},{id:"116925",title:"Prof.",name:"A",middleName:null,surname:"Haddad",fullName:"A Haddad",slug:"a-haddad"},{id:"116927",title:"Dr.",name:"H",middleName:null,surname:"Griffiths",fullName:"H Griffiths",slug:"h-griffiths"},{id:"116928",title:"Mrs.",name:"Galina",middleName:null,surname:"Petrova",fullName:"Galina Petrova",slug:"galina-petrova"},{id:"116929",title:"Prof.",name:"R.T.",middleName:null,surname:"Waters",fullName:"R.T. Waters",slug:"r.t.-waters"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"62481",title:"Blockchain and Digital Currency in the World of Finance",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79456",slug:"blockchain-and-digital-currency-in-the-world-of-finance",body:'\n
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1. Introduction
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Electronic money is not a new phenomenon. Trade over the Internet has increased the use of new technologies, thereby increasing the demand for new electronic payment methods. What really is new is electronic payment in retail and use of the Internet as new monetary market. Today, money becomes ready information on the microprocessor or in the database. Without a doubt, the purpose of such an instrument is to improve the efficiency of the traditional payment method. At this moment, there are still no clear standards in the Blockchain mechanism and therefore we do not know the boundaries, so participants can easily communicate without the presence of a regulator. Behind Blockchain technology is the universal Internet currency, which in turn raises many questions about the utilization of the advantages and risks/damages that would be arisen from the application.
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High-tech enables payment evolution and global competition. But still the ambiguities surrounding the use of the digital currency leave enough space for the analysis of its unreserved acceptance, trust and anticipation, which are the main driver for the spread of the network. More precisely, the spread of the network requires interdependence of demand, which means the Network, must reach the minimum required volume before it reaches a balance. The minimum volume of the network is called “critical mass”. Therefore, the objective attitude is the future of the digital currency in the moment is still unsolved issue due to the existence of “critical mass”.
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This chapter underlines the technology adoption in the presence of network externalities. Payment innovations that involve the creation of a network between the manufacturer and the consumer are product that inevitably involves network externalities that must touch the critical mass of the user before it starts to use it successfully. Network externalities exist due to the average consumer benefits from such an instrument, only if other consumers and traders use the same payment instrument.
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Further, the chapter explores financial privacy which is very sensitive issue in using digital currency (or cryptocurrency). The analysis explores what are the private choices versus political rules. Success evolution of e-money requires building safety payments through three criteria—standardization, compatibility and innovation.
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The diffusion that digital currency brings in the modern era expands the antitrust issues related to network externalities and global competition between most explored world currencies. This is the reason to include a review of social costs and benefits, as possible risks of using digital currency. These mean that in order to remain compatible with each other, all users should use software that meets the same rules. Therefore, all users and developers have a strong incentive to protect this consensus and set up a regulator.
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At the end, the chapter examines the question—are there prospects of taking hand in hand the technology revolution and monetary evolution without risks in the real world?!
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2. Overview of the IT revolution and innovations related to money
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The online trade increased the use of new technologies, and thus increased the demand for new electronic payment methods. This began especially in the mid-1990s with the information revolution, the decline in computer prices and the networking of the same. Cohen introduces the term “change the geography of money” [1]. This term occurs as a result of the electronic payment in retail and use of the Internet as a new monetary market. Due to the information revolution, a new electronic payment method has been introduced, known as electronic cash, e-bag, e-currency, digital currency, digital money or digital cash. Without a doubt, the purpose of such an instrument is to improve the efficiency of the traditional payment method.
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Bitcoin is a digital currency whose value varies according to the worldwide customer acceptance. This is primarily due to the fact that, unlike the standard currencies we use, such as the dollar or the euro, which are regulated by central banks, for Bitcoin there is no regulation. Therefore, transactions with Bitcoin are considered more private and anonymous due to the open system and no existence of a regulatory body and/or intermediary in the performance of transactions.
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Transactions are carried out using cryptographic protection, and their execution is done through a network of public electronic books called “ledgers”. For verification of transactions, it is necessary to have specific hardware and software that users can set up and after a certain number of transactions they receive a proportion of Bitcoin. In this way, it is also performed an additional commissioning of this digital currency.
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2.1. Development of e-payment and digital currency
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From the aspect of the development of e-payment method, digital currency is not physically printed by the Central Bank. For now, digital currency is considered with its own rules of the game. In the literature, all those who support the use of Bitcoin underscore the characteristic as a currency that does not cause financial crises. Namely, the view is that banks can print more money to cover their national debt, thus devaluing their currencies, Bitcoin does not function in such a way.
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Electronic payment method exists from the 1960s, i.e. from the development of Electronic Funds Transfer (EFT), which became more sophisticated and applicable in a growing number of countries [2]. EFT implies the application of computer and telecommunication technology in payment. This method was used by banks and other financial institutions to exchange and transfer a large amount of money on a national and international level. The basis for the operation of EFT is that the money moves through a network as a substitute for cash or checks to execute a transaction. In this way, the time for paying should be shortened and the transaction costs reduced. The use of EFT has significantly increased with the emergence and acceptance of ATMs, which allow money transfer at the point of sale (EFTPOS). EFT is considered as first degree in the electronization of transactions.
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In the early 1980s, thanks to the development of network technology, the costs of telecommunications and data processing were reduced, and electronic payments became more useful with the appearance of credit and debit cards, which for several years (after their appearance) became the most popular electronic small transaction tool. Also, the development of encryption has played a major role in successful card payments. This innovation is considered as a second degree in the electronization of transactions.
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The growth and acceptance of card payments had negative consequences for the traditional way of payment. Many countries have made a move from the use of paper instruments, such as cash and checks, to the use of electronic instruments. For the first time in many countries, the number of checks payments has been reduced. Namely, checks as a very popular payment instrument loose the market role, thereby reducing their use [3].
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2.2. e-Payment and transaction costs
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In classical trade payments require at least one buyer and one seller, both having to have accounts in banks that are connected through clearing houses. Payments with traditional instruments such as checks require intervention of a financial intermediary like bank. Payment with e-money is similar to the traditional scheme—there are two parties—one or two banks. However, the whole process becomes more efficient and easier. The transaction does not require any code and cannot exceed the previously defined amount. If the amount that is on the chip is fully spent, the card can be automatically refilled at the merchant, without charging any fees, thanks to the special POS mechanism [4].
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Once the chip is full, the user does not need to require an ATM or an exact amount of cash. Additionally, the problem of stealing or losing money is reduced to a minimum. An e-money transaction does not require an intermediary at present because the money expressed in units (called bits) is electronically transferred from the buyer to the seller. The amount of money that has been paid is prepared at the seller’s terminal, i.e. his account is transferred to the financial institution from time to time.
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Payment with e-money reduces transaction costs, and time is shortened compared to other forms of payment. Humphrey and colleagues estimate that the cost of using electronic money amounts to one third to half of the cost of paying paper money. When all transactions in one country would be carried out electronically, it would be possible to save more than 1% per year BDP.
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2.3. A brief history of digital currency
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From the era of barter economy, metal and coins to gold and silver, continuing to the modern monetary systems and checks, and ending with the latest developments in the global currency, such as the introduction of cryptocurrency like Bitcoin, have passed centuries. Each type of money plays a crucial role in transactional activities in some period of time. As human society and markets developed in particular, there was a need for more sophisticated instruments for the exchange of goods. In this regard, the introduction of cryptocurrency revolutionized the international payment system in a size that only a few years ago was unimaginable. The cryptocurrency is a digital or virtual currency that uses cryptography for security. Cryptocurrency is hard to forge because of this security feature. The determining characteristic of cryptocurrency, and probably the most attractive, is its organic nature as the fact that it is not issued by any central authority. Cryptocurrencies have their own advantages and disadvantages. The main benefits of using cryptocurrencies are that they transfer the funds more easily between two parties in the transaction [5]. These transactions are facilitated through the use of public and private keys for security purposes. These fund transfers are carried out with minimal processing costs, allowing users to avoid the large fees for online transactions charged by most banks.
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There are two reasons for the emergence of electronic money and digital currencies. The first, according to the Austrian School of Economic Analysis money is a “social institution” subject to the already initiated institutional change and is interpreted as a consequence of a spontaneous evolution that should overcome the shortcomings of the swap and the double coincidence of desires [6, 7]. Today e-money is the last stage of this development and represents an additional degree of institutional change [8].
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Their main role is to support online e-commerce, enable transactions, reduce their costs, or replace the payment of money and coins in retail. The second reason for the emergence of e-money is the information revolution, which is characterized by the integration of electronic information processing and telecommunication technologies, which reduces the geographical differences by means of which information can be transmitted to the whole world. The information revolution has changed the financial sector, making payment modes more secure and more efficient, giving an additional reason for the emergence of new monetary innovations [9].
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Unlike the information revolution, the emergence of e-money is a new way of processing information for transferring purchasing power. Many financial innovations are not a new form of money, but a different way of using existing money in transactions [10]. Regardless of the consequences of the mentioned technological development, the nature of the money is still identical i.e. money serves as a means of exchange, as an asset and as a value. The nature of the money will never change, so the money will remain only an intermediary in the exchange of goods and services. e-Money card is a different payment method that allows electronic transfer of the value from the card to the terminal or from the card in the wallet, both in real time and through networks [11]. It is considered that e-money is the most important achievement that transfers the predetermined monetary value so it can be used for more transactions of lesser value. e-Pocket consists of a microcomputer that contains information about the monetary value that can be used. It is a higher degree of technological development compared to magnetic tape cards. Also, the e-pouch is more secure, which can reduce deception because cards with a chip can be more difficult to abuse than magnetic tape cards.
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2.4. Reasons for Blockchain occurrence
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Although cash is a quick and efficient payment method, the disadvantages of its use are numerous. Keeping cash is followed with many costs, including fraud, money loss, depositing, as well as the costs associated with managing money in financial institutions.
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The purpose of e-money is replacing the cash in transactions of small values, thus avoiding its shortcomings, for example French experience with Moneo. Moneo is designed to reduce the cost of keeping cash and purchasing power to be temporarily transferred in a more efficient manner. This structure should be applied to various retail transactions of lesser value in order to eventually become a substitute for cash.
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Moneo offers great advantages for consumers and retailers. Benefits for consumers are: greater transaction speed and potential benefit in the form of a discount on future purchases. Consumers do not have to have an exact amount of cash each time. There will be many mistakes in cash recovery. The owners of the Moneo card should carry fewer bank cards, especially if the features of debit and credit cards are included, and thus they would feel more secure [12]. Traders would receive cash before sending material goods or services, loyalty to customers would increase, the process of payment at the place of purchase would be speeded up, thereby reducing the processing costs of the transaction itself. If the benefit of using Moneo cards would be greater than the cost, retailers could pay to customers to use such a card [11].
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If we make comparison between Moneo and POS, it turns out that the former has significant advantages over the POS. Namely, debit and credit cards are not as effective a payment method for low value transactions as transaction-related costs become higher for retailers and buyers, and e-money can be used with much lower costs. Paying for e-money is followed by much lower costs compared to other payment methods, primarily credit and debit cards. Another argument that accompanies the Moneo card is that it has a newer encryption technology compared to other cards, which increases security and limits the possibility of fraud. Because Moneo does not require any authorization or identification of the buyer, it allows additional reduction in transaction costs. The new technology of digital payments and currencies will allow real property to be used as a means of exchange.
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How much e-money will be used depends largely on the motivation of its publishers, consumers and traders [13, 14, 15]. Consumers’ demand will depend on the advantages and disadvantages of e-money in the form of payment, issuers’ fees, consumer confidence in the use of e-money, ease of use, merchants’ readiness to accept e-money. Motivation for the issuers covers the revenues from the collected fee from card users (traders and consumers), income from investing the remaining amount of money, i.e. for banks—issuers, savings of less retained cash, in the range in which e-money replaces cash). Potential shortcomings for publishers can be expected costs for future regulation. The willingness of retailers to accept e-money is closely related to the fee that will be charged by publishers or operators. For consumers and retailers the most important will be their willingness to embrace new technology. Most researchers believe that the use of e-money will be moderate in the short and medium term, while in the long run e-money can be very widespread.
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3. The potential of cryptocurrency
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There are different and confronted opinions regarding the future of cryptocurrencies in general. The optimistic view of the use of cryptocurrencies is supported by the fact that they easily transfer funds between two parties in the transaction. These transactions are facilitated by the use of public and private keys for security purposes. These fund transfers are made with minimal processing costs, allowing users to avoid large fees charged by most banks. In addition, many countries have begun to accept Bitcoin as a valid currency. In particular, countries that aim to get rid of cash have a very friendly approach to encryption. The argument that the promoters use for Bitcoin is the market capitalization of Bitcoin, ether and other cryptocurrencies, claiming that the cryptocurrency market has become very large and powerful, and the ban would be expensive for each country. Today, the total value of all cryptocurrencies has reached a record of value of more than $ 390 billion. This means that the market value of cryptocurrencies is greater than the value of the Citigroup. The new record was reached in December when the most famous cryptocurrency Bitcoin grew to $ 19,000.
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Among other significant cryptocurrencies are Ripple and Ethereum. The cryptocurrency Ripple, designed for banks and global money transfers, has seen a major feat in the value of its digital currency that has risen in recent months. On December 10, the company had a market capitalization of just over $ 9 billion. In the end of December, its market value rose to a mere 51%, with a total value of $ 18.1 billion. Today it is worth $ 39 billion. Ripple’s cryptocurrency is adopted by banks and other financial institutions. These companies believe that Ripple’s system offers better prices and is more secure than other digital currencies, including Bitcoin. It allows users to send, receive and hold any currency in a decentralized way through the Ripple network. The company has a positive cash flow relationship and owns a huge shop on the XRP (Ripple Market), which is periodically released on the market. Investors who believe that cryptocurrencies can reach peak, are looking for others that could provide a greater return in the long run. However, the company has made some significant milestones in recent months. By the end of October 2017, Ripple licensed its Blockchain technologies to more than 100 banks. Its real attraction is the Ripple XRP system, which is ideal for banks because of its liquidity, speed and efficiency since the transaction lasts only 4 seconds, like no other cryptocurrency transaction.
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However, the support for cryptocurrencies like Ripple is certainly superfluous and is something that should be understood by potential buyers and sellers because it gives those financial institutions a much higher level of control over Ripple than most other cryptocurrencies in the market. Bitcoin, Ethereum and other cryptocurrencies are completely decentralized, meaning that no one has real control over the network, Ripple’s nodes are handled by Ripple Labs. These independent servers do not have to provide calculations for work evidence, such as Bitcoin, nodes simply validate transactions by themselves like traditional banks. Although the value of the Ethereum is not like Bitcoin, it is great for trading, and some of its more advanced features give exciting potential for the future.
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Ethereum functions as well as most other cryptocurrencies. Ethereum token—Ether, works similar like Bitcoin. You can buy and sell with confirmation of transactions that are handled through the block. It is completely decentralized, without bank securing of the certificates needed to check the transactions. “Diggers” around the world fulfill this role by running powerful calculation algorithms. Completing these algorithms, the gob is rewarded with Ether, much like digging a Bitcoin that rewards with Bitcoin. As far as Ethereum and Bitcoin have some similarities, however, both platforms have different goals. Bitcoin is a strictly digital currency, designed to function as a means of payment or a warehouse with value, Ethereum takes a greater approach. Ethereum functions as a platform through which people can use ether tokens to create and execute applications and more importantly smart deals. Smart contracts are contracts written in the code, which the creator transfers to the block. Each time one of those contracts is executed, each node of the network executes it, set to Blockchain [16]. Thus, it is preserved in the public book, theoretically protected from evidence. Like other cryptocurrencies, Ethereum is prone to wild fluctuations in value. While Ethereum has risen high late, it is also susceptible to falls as well as other cryptocurrencies. Ethereum whether it is strong enough to survive a long run, or is a short-lived trend, remains on time.
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From here we will conclude what are the advantages of the cryptocurrencies [17]:
No inflation—the maximum number of coins is strictly limited (for example, 21 million in Bitcoin). Since there are neither political forces nor corporations that can change this order, there is no possibility of developing inflation in the system.
Peer-to-peer cryptocurrency network—in such networks there is no master server, which is responsible for all operations. The exchange of information (in this case—money) is between 2 and 3 or more software customers. All installed by programmers-users who are part of the network. Each client stores a record of all transactions executed and the number in each wallet. Transactions are made from hundreds of distributed servers. Neither banks nor taxes, nor governments can control the exchange of money between.
Unlimited possibilities for a transaction—each of the wallet holders can pay to everyone, anywhere and any amount. The transaction cannot be controlled or prevented, so you can make transfers anywhere in the world wherever a user is placed with a wallet.
No borders—payments made in this system are impossible for cancelation. Coins cannot be forged, copied or spent twice. These opportunities guarantee the integrity of the field system.
Decentralization—there is no central controlling authority in the network, the network is alluded to all participants, each computer crypto-valued member is a member of this system. This means that the central government has no power to dictate rules to cryptocurrency owners. And even if some part of the network goes offline, the payment system will continue to function steadily.
Anonymity—completely anonymously and at the same time completely transparent. Each company can create an infinite number of crypto address addresses, regardless of name, address, or any other information.
Transparency—Bitcoin stores the history of transactions that have ever happened. It is called a sequential block of blocks or a blockhead. The block keeps information about everything. So, if the company publicly uses the Bitcoin address for example, then everyone can see how much Bitcoin is owned. If the address of the company is not publicly confirmed, then nobody will ever know that it belongs to this company. For full anonymity, companies use the unique bitcoin address for each transaction.
Bitcoin’s open digging code applies the same algorithms used in online banking. The only difference in online banking is the disclosure of information to users. All information about the transaction in the BTC network is shared (like, when), but there is no data for the recipient or the sender of the currencies (no access to the owner’s personal data).
Transaction speed—the ability to send money everywhere and everyone within minutes after the network of the crypto-currency will process the payment.
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4. The omission and risks of cryptocurrencies
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Cryptocurrency opponents argue that cryptocurrencies are highly unstable, can be used for money laundering or financing illegal activities. In this regard, Humphrey, for example, is giving reasons why the cryptocurrency is not a viable electronic currency [18] . He notes that Bitcoin is illiquid and has shown price volatility and that the discounted monetary value of Bitcoin is zero. Further, he notes that the currency does not have a central issuer, and that there is no financial or economic basis for its creation. They are:
Strong instability—almost all the ups and downs of the value of some cryptocurrencies. This instability creates the problem in the short term.
Difficult to understand—crypto-valves are relatively new and come with a learning curve. People end up investing without proper knowledge and are losing money for something they have not learned.
Lack of knowledge—people are not aware of how to use cyberattacks and hence be exposed to hackers. The technology is somewhat complex and therefore we need to educate ourselves before investing.
There is no way to cancel the payment—if you’re mistaken for someone using the cryptocurrency, then there is no way to get a refund of the amount paid. All you can do is asking the person to return the funds and if your request is denied, then just forget the money.
Major risks for investing in cryptocurrencies that need to be considered in the medium and long term.
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Many experts believe that the list of deficiencies in crypto-voltages is much longer and related to the risk of money laundering, terrorist financing and other illegal activities, the lack of a central publisher, which means that there is no legal formal guarantee person in the case of bankruptcy, and the like. Although it is very difficult to predict, many academics and professionals in this topic argue that the future of cryptocurrency is bright because it will remove trade barriers and intermediaries, reduce transaction costs, thereby boosting trade and the economy.
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5. Anticipation of Bitcoin acceptance and “critical mass”
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Analyzing the process of money accepting, shows that money is usable as individuals believe that others will be used them for different needs in society. Krueger believes that individuals will accept the e-money system as long as its value is compounded and not reduced drastically [19]. The fact that the individual accepts the money stems from what others accept. Anticipating factor is the key determinant of accepting money. Acceptance, trust and anticipation are the basic factors that enable the spread of the network. However, these factors are not enough because the size of the network also requires interdependence of demand, which means that the network must reach the minimum required size before it reaches a balance. Economides and Himmelberg such a minimal magnitude of the network determinate as “critical mass” [20]. Oliver defined the critical mass as “a smaller segment of the population that wants to make a big contribution to collective action, while most work little or nothing” [21]. A critical mass or starting base plays a key role in the development of the network.
\n
Electronic money cards, like other innovations that involve creation of a network between the manufacturer and the consumer, are a product that inevitably involves the network externality must touch the critical mass of the user before starting to use it successfully. The indicated phenomenon in literature is called a two-sided market. The development of the payment instrument first depends on two types of externalities associated with their application and use. The outsourcing of the network exists because the average consumer benefits from such an instrument, only if other consumers and traders use the same payment instrument. Additionally, the total benefit from the use of e-money card exceeds the usage limit realized by the individual consumer. By accessing one user to the network, the benefits for other users are increased.
\n
Thus, the user’s critical mass will be achieved when the demand-side dependency between retailers and consumers will not be more economically significant, i.e. when the expectations of the consumer benefit will not significantly change depending on the new members of the network [22]. Consumer benefits will increase when more merchants accept the new payment instrument, while the commercial benefit will increase if consumers use the new instrument more often. Additionally, the attractiveness of such an instrument can be reduced due to the incompatibility and competitiveness of the composition, as in the case of video recorders a few decades ago [23].
\n
The use and distribution of the network is a complex issue because the interdependence of demand will remain an obstacle until the network reaches a critical mass, either independently or with the help of a regulator. According to the analyses of Katza and Shapira the growth of the network in its nature can be self-fulfilling [24]. Accomplish a critical mass in using Blockchain is not easy because traders must invest in special POS devices to be able to use e-money; and consumers will have to use e-money in a retail transaction as a substitute for coins and paper money. The goal of this problem is to convince a large number of users to start using e-money.
\n
One of the reasons that few people use this payment method is precisely the habit of using cash for a retail transaction. At the same time, the banks’ habits in carrying out a transaction may be the reason for the slow implementation of new insurances. Consumers gained confidence in financial intermediaries over time, and therefore did not get used to doing a transaction without their presence. Therefore, consumers are not ready for change. More consumers need more time to get to know the functioning of the new payment system. Accordingly, most of them would look forward to seeing the development of the situation because they want to gain more confidence before accepting innovation. As each phenomenon goes through stages of development, it is possible to expect further progress and an economy without cash using the digital economy.
\n
\n
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6. Technology adoption in the presence of “network externalities”
\n
The use of e-money is a complicated phenomenon and firstly depends on the interactions between users of products and services.
\n
According to Schmalensee the network can be defined as a composition of directly or indirectly coupled nodes [25]. Schmalensee considered that the main hallmark of the network is the fact that there is a network externality. The above concept is often applied in economic literature; also often appears in the literature on industrial organizations and public finances [20, 26].
\n
From a user’s perspective, Bitcoin is a mobile application or a computer program that provides personal money, Bitcoin, and allows users to send and receive Bitcoins through them. This is the way how Bitcoin works for the most users. The network of Bitcoin is sharing a public book called “block chain”. This book contains any transaction ever processed, allowing the user’s computer to verify the validity of each transaction. The authenticity of each transaction is protected by digital signatures and corresponds to the sent address, allowing for all users to have complete control over the sent Bitcoins from their own Bitcoin addresses. So, anyone can perform processing of transactions using computer with specialized hardware, and earn Bitcoins for this service.
\n
The term “network externalities” refers to the product or service to get better value for consumers, as many people use them and thus continuously increases the number of network users (a significant proportion of the value of the products or network refers to its other participants). This concept has positive spiral. It is often mentioned in relation to products used in digital technology, i.e. with products whose use significantly increases with the increase in the number of consumers.
\n
Farrell et al., for the first time presented the Economic Analysis of the Network Outsourcing [24, 27]. They classified the network externalities into two groups-direct and indirect. Direct network externalities exist when increasing the size of the network increases the number of other users with whom it can be completely “communicated”. In such a network there are inactions and complementarity between users of the same product or service. Indirect network externalities exist when increasing the size of the network increases the supply of products or services available for network users.
\n
Network externality introduces dynamic elements for network users when deciding on entering the network, as well as for manufacturers of such products when making a production decision [16]. Consumers in the decision to enter the network must take into account the size of the network for the future. The companies are motivated to invest in building a network from which they would make a lease later.
\n
\n
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7. Financial privacy: could Bitcoin hide the criminals?
\n
Five years ago Bitcoin showed the opportunity for being anonymous. But this is changing starting with Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and other law enforcement, for example. The biggest part of Bitcoin users are law-abiding people motivated by privacy concerns. Also there are people that see the anonymity as a tool for financial crime. This was a reason to show attempt for virtual currency regulation. It’s well known that Governments are grappling with the virtual currencies as it continues to gain popularity. So, in 2013 the U.S. Department of Treasury issued Guide how to use digital currency and money transmitters. In that time was taken some steps for Bitcoin regulation, meaning that cryptocurrency should be threaten as a taxable property. Conducting transactions in digital currencies has emerged as one of the preferred payment methods because it provides anonymity and privacy. At the begging as it previous mention in the text, digital currency was subject of interest for criminals.
\n
Bitcoins are transferred between transacting parties without an intermediary, thus offering providing level of privacy and anonymity. A public ledger contains the transactions as cryptographic representations, but no personal information is recorded. Exchanging Bitcoins in a transaction is much like exchanging cash, but through the Internet. In attempting to regulate digital currencies is that doing so dismantles a technology that fosters privacy. Regulation erodes the privacy linked with digital currency. Think of it as transacting in an account that is protected by strong secrecy laws. In order to regulate those transactions, the system has to eliminate the secrecy. Regulation of digital currencies would undermine the system as an enabler of privacy and reduce its appeal. Users who seek the opportunity of privacy in digital currencies will look to other venues to conduct their business, in countries with less regulation. But the consequence of regulation of digital currency will be enabling privacy violations because in such a circumstances business and individuals have to share information with the government and others [28]. These potential risks of having no regulation for digital currency distract many users in the world because there is no confidence [29].
\n
A regulatory framework for digital currencies is more than need for public protection and combating criminal activities. However, caution should be exercised to avoid stifling the development of an innovative technology. Regulation of digital currencies should be sufficiently balanced with privacy, business development and innovative technology.
\n
\n
\n
8. The way forward: technology revolution and monetary evolution
\n
\n
8.1. Key success factors
\n
The current cryptocurrency market is highly competitive and fragmented. Experts identified more factors that will determinate and rise the attractiveness and confidence in using cryptocurrency [30]:
\n
The cryptocurrencies should be:
Cost effective to issue
Available immediately
Governed and regulated
Instantly liquid—liquidity should be instantly generated or generated
on demand
Secure and immutable—cannot be double spent
Trusted—backed by a lender of last resort (e.g. a central bank)
Free from fractional reserve banking in its crypto-form
Transparent with transaction finality (directly or remotely)
Add purpose to economic activity (commerce) and have sustainable value
Have standards to enable interoperability
Be legitimate—a competent authority to impose these standards
\n
Cryptocurrencies will undoubtedly benefit market participants.
Immediate asset availability—the cryptocurrency will be available immediately for consumers and businesses to spend, without any waiting period.
Immediate access to liquidity—the cryptocurrency will be highly liquid—liquidity generated instantly on demand.
Free up working capital—the need for banks to hold reserves will be minimized as the money held for use as reserves will be available for other purposes thus optimizing intraday liquidity.
Transaction efficiency—cryptocurrency transactions are fast and immediate—they improve efficiency by cutting out the middle man and avoiding lengthy back-office reconciliation processes.
Transaction security—central bank-issued cryptocurrency transactions can be tracked protecting security. Security is also enhanced as there is no double spending.
Over and above these benefits, a central bank-issued cryptocurrency can have a much larger impact on the wider economy and for all market participants because it can:
Boost economic growth—a central bank issued cryptocurrency can permanently boost economic growth.
Act as an enabler for mobile and digital commerce—it can replace current immediate payment models by delivering the currency into the market in a more immediate, efficient and effective manner.
Ensure stability in the financial system—a cryptocurrency can help maintain financial stability and provide policy makers with more effective tools to smooth out financial booms and busts. In periods of high inflation for fiat currencies, banks can hold cryptocurrencies, thus protecting their wealth.
Work as a crypto-reserve currency—commercial banks can keep a portion of their reserves in cryptocurrency rather than in fiat currency, thus complementing the fractional reserve banking system.
Effectively monitor the supply of money—a central bank issued cryptocurrency can help policy makers control the amount of money in the economy, as well as the supply of the cryptocurrency. This is currently not possible as banks create money by using deposits as loans.
Lower costs—cryptocurrencies will enable the banking system to cut the costs of bank-note issuance, circulation and handling. In addition, transaction costs will be significantly reduced especially for cross border transactions.
Allow for traceability—transactions in central bank issued cryptocurrencies can be tracked, and simultaneously ensure that the users information remains protected, thus protecting privacy. A central bank issued currency follows KYB and KYC procedures which will allow the central bank to identify users when there is a need to.
\n
Taking in an account that in the world of digital currency is needed regulation, increasing the attractiveness of using cryptocurrencies is found in support by central bank. The central bank with its authority and confidence that it has from the market participants, needs to do some reforms in the moment of deploying a cryptocurrency [31].
\n
At the beginning, central bank is the most relevant factor to define the framework and standards for all participants. Regarding this, central bank can create and give policy guidance where all players will know policy and regulation very clear. Central bank following KYB and KYC procedures ensures control of financial criminal. In the moment when central bank issued cryptocurrency under legal framework it will have the status of legal tender.
\n
The role of central banks raises more for all users in the economy. In the traditional way, central bank has no direct connection with consumers, which is a big difference when central bank issued cryptocurrency and has direct link with market participants.
\n
\n
\n
\n
9. Conclusion
\n
The chapter was intended to provide an analysis for the use of cryptocurrencies in general and especially Bitcoin. The research has shown that the future of cryptocurrencies can be bright if some institutional-formal conditions are met. The advantages of using cryptocurrencies in trade facilitation, cost reduction and others are recognized by the majority of academics. Bitcoin and other cryptocurrencies have the potential to replace traditional and new payment methods. But in order to achieve this and become the dominant force in the global payment system, they must provide a distinctive individual value, deal with and overcome a number of critical challenges, such as formal regulatory issues. It is unlikely to happen in a short period of time. Also, banks should carefully consider the technology underlying these cryptocurrencies as a potential generic new way of transferring ownership of the value over the long term. On the other hand, we have seen that cryptocurrencies as a new rise in society constitute a new way of transparent and fluid flow of resources that can spur every economy.
\n
The advances in information and communication technology enabled the development of new forms of electronic payment, both in the real world with card products and in the virtual world (software products). The reason for the growing prevalence of these products is precisely their great perceptions compared to the traditional way of payment. However, statistics confirm that the evolution of e-money is in the initial phase, and that cash is still the most important form of payment for retail transactions. Cash has not yet been replaced by any form of electronic payment. One of the reasons is precisely the fact that e-money is a rather sophisticated form of payment that requires some investment in new technology among retailers, as well as developing new experiences among the users. Therefore, the use of electronic money does not extend significantly.
\n
Because Bitcoin is controlled by all users, and they are free to choose the software of their choice. Therefore, in order to maintain compatibility, users must change this, that is, they should use software that meets the same rules. Only Bitcoin can work properly with a complete consensus among all users. Ripple enabled us to look at how banks began to use it, in order to become more polyclinic in their work. The Ethereum has enabled us to get to know the extra possibilities of cryptocurrencies through Smart Arrangements. They could relieve individuals of the limitations of the legal system and big business.
\n
Taking in account the success of cryptocurrencies, there is opinion that consumers, consortiums or large financial institutions would not be successful in launching cryptocurrencies. Further, here is believed that its success will be greater if the digital currencies are lunched by central banks. So, we should be thinking in using this tool more efficiency for the world economy, supportive than understanding them as possibility to disrupting the financial system. More detail, central bank has the authority to bring participants together and will increase the attractiveness of fiat money for exchange in clearing, payments and settlement. In this moment some experts asked two question according cryptocurrency and central banks. The first is linked with the deepness and preciseness of policy and economic implications of launching a central bank-issued cryptocurrency. The second issue is focused on impact of central bank-issued cryptocurrency on the banking system.
\n
\n\n',keywords:"Blockchain, digital currency, network externalities, critical mass, technology, payment evolution",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/62481.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/62481.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62481",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62481",totalDownloads:574,totalViews:2,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"February 15th 2018",dateReviewed:"June 12th 2018",datePrePublished:"November 5th 2018",datePublished:"August 28th 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"High-tech enables payment evolution and global competition. The ambiguities surrounding of the digital currency still leave enough space for the analysis of its unreserved acceptance, trust and anticipation, which are the main driver for the spread of the network. Banks should carefully consider the technology underlying these cryptocurrencies as a potential generic new way of transferring ownership of the value over the long term. The chapter provides an analysis of the use of cryptocurrencies in general, especially Bitcoin as the technology adoption in the presence of network externalities. The objective attitude is the future of the digital currency in the moment is still unsolved issue due to the existence of “critical mass”. Further, the chapter explores financial privacy which is very sensitive issue in using digital currency (or cryptocurrency) and discuss about private choices versus political rules. The research has shown that the future of cryptocurrencies can be bright if some institutional-formal conditions are met due to the fact that success evolution of e-money requires building safety payments through three criteria–standardization, compatibility and innovation.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/62481",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/62481",signatures:"Tatjana Boshkov",book:{id:"7228",title:"Blockchain and Cryptocurrencies",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Blockchain and Cryptocurrencies",slug:"blockchain-and-cryptocurrencies",publishedDate:"August 28th 2019",bookSignature:"Asma Salman and Muthanna G. Abdul Razzaq",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7228.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"206443",title:"Dr.",name:"Asma",middleName:null,surname:"Salman",slug:"asma-salman",fullName:"Asma Salman"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"246137",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tatjana",middleName:null,surname:"Boshkov",fullName:"Tatjana Boshkov",slug:"tatjana-boshkov",email:"tatjana.boshkov@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Overview of the IT revolution and innovations related to money",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Development of e-payment and digital currency",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. e-Payment and transaction costs",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3. A brief history of digital currency",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.4. Reasons for Blockchain occurrence",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"3. The potential of cryptocurrency",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"4. The omission and risks of cryptocurrencies",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"5. Anticipation of Bitcoin acceptance and “critical mass”",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"6. Technology adoption in the presence of “network externalities”",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"7. Financial privacy: could Bitcoin hide the criminals?",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"8. The way forward: technology revolution and monetary evolution",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"8.1. Key success factors",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14",title:"9. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Cohen BJ. The Future of Money, Chapter Seven. Princeton: Princeton University Press; 2004\n'},{id:"B2",body:'Bounie D, Abel F. Les déterminants de la détention et de l’usage des instruments de paiement: éléments théoriques et empiriques. Revue d’Economie Financière. 2006;83:159-173\n'},{id:"B3",body:'European Central Bank. The Blue Book. Bucharest: European Central Bank; 2005\n'},{id:"B4",body:'Baddeley M. Using E-cash in the new economy: An economic analysis of micropayment systems [online]. Journal of Electronic Commerce. 2004;5(4):239-253\n'},{id:"B5",body:'David P. Positive feedbacks and research productivity in science: Reopening another black box. In: Grandstrand O, editor. Economics of Technology. London: Elsevier Science; 1994. pp. 65-89\n'},{id:"B6",body:'Menger C. On the origin of money. Economic Journal. 1892;2(83):239-255\n'},{id:"B7",body:'von Hayek F. Denationalisation of Money: An Analysis of the Theory and Practice of Concurrent Currencies. Londres: Institute of Economic Affairs; 1976\n'},{id:"B8",body:'Schmitz SW. The institutional character of electronic money schemes: Redeemability and the unit of account. In: Latzer M, Schmitz SW, editors. Carl Menger and the Evolution of Payment Systems: From Barter to Electronic Money. Cheltenham, UK and Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar; 2001\n'},{id:"B9",body:'Goodhart CAE, Krueger M. The impact of technology on cash usage. The Magazine of De La Rue. 2001;(4):9-11\n'},{id:"B10",body:'White LH. The technology revolution and monetary evolution. In: Dorn JA, editor. The Future of Money in the Information Age. Washington, D.C.: CATO Institute; 1996\n'},{id:"B11",body:'Chakravorti S, Victor L. Payment instrument choice: The case of prepaid cards. Economic Perspectives. 2006;2Q:29-44\n'},{id:"B12",body:'Gerald S. The Electronic Purse: An Overview of Recent Development and Policy Issues. Bank of Canada; 1996\n'},{id:"B13",body:'BIS. Implications for Central Banks of the Development of Digital Money. Basel: Bank of International Settlements; 1996\n'},{id:"B14",body:'BIS. Survey of Developments in Electronic Money and Internet and Mobile Payments. Basel: Bank of International Settlements; 2004\n'},{id:"B15",body:'BIS. Statistics on Payment and Settlement Systems in Selected Countries. Basel: Bank of International Settlements; 2006\n'},{id:"B16",body:'Klenow JP. Evidence on Learning and Network Externalities in the Diffusion of Home Computers. Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis and NBER; 2002\n'},{id:"B17",body:'Centi JP. Currency competition and the monetary union. Unpublished PhD dissertation. Aix-Marseille University; 1979\n'},{id:"B18",body:'Humphrey D, Kim M, Vale B. Realizing the gains from electronic payments: Costs, pricing and payment choice. Journal of Money, Credit and Banking. 2001;33(2):216-234\n'},{id:"B19",body:'Krueger M. Toward a moneyless world. In: Paper Prepared for the International Atlantic Economic Conference Vienna; March 16-23, 1999\n'},{id:"B20",body:'Economides N, Himmelberg C. Critical mass and network evolution in telecommunications. In: Brock G, editor. Toward a Competitive Telecommunication Industry: Selected Papers for the 1994 Telecommunications Policy Research Conference. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum; 1995. pp. 47-63\n'},{id:"B21",body:'Oliver PE, Marwell G, Teixeira R. A theory of the critical mass. I. Interdependence group heterogeneity, and the production of collective action. American Journal of Sociology. 1985;91:522-556\n'},{id:"B22",body:'Osterberg W, Thomson J. Network externalities: The Catch-22 of retail payment innovations. In: Economic Commentary. Federal Reserve Bank of Cleveland; 1998\n'},{id:"B23",body:'Stavins J. Effect of consumer characteristics on the use of payment instruments. Federal Reserve Bank of Boston New England Economic Review. 2001:20-31\n'},{id:"B24",body:'Katz ML, Shapiro C. Technology adoption in the presence of network externalities. Journal of Political Economy. 1986;94:822-841\n'},{id:"B25",body:'Schmalensee R. On antitrust issues related to networks. In: Testimony Before the Federal Trade Commission, Hearings on Global Competition/High-Tech Innovation, December 1. 1995\n'},{id:"B26",body:'Economides N. Economics of networks. International Journal of Industrial Organization. 1996;14:673-700\n'},{id:"B27",body:'Farrell J, Saloner G. Standardization, compatibility and innovation. RAND Journal of Economics. 1985;16:70-83\n'},{id:"B28",body:'Iwai K. 1997. Evolution of money. In: Paper Presented at the Workshop on Evolution and Economics; Certosa di Pontignano, Siena\n'},{id:"B29",body:'Stavins J. A comparison of social costs and benefits of paper check presentment and ECP with truncation. New England Economic Review (July/August). 1997;12:27-44\n'},{id:"B30",body:'Rahn RW. The future of financial privacy: Private choices versus political rules. In: The Future of Money and Financial Privacy, Chapter 6. 2000\n'},{id:"B31",body:'Mokyr J. Are we living in the middle of an industrial revolution? Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City Economic Review. 1999;(14):31\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Tatjana Boshkov",address:"tatjana.boshkov@gmail.com",affiliation:'
Goce Delcev University, Shtip, Macedonia
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Your Author Service Manager will inform you of any items not covered by the OAPF and provide exact information regarding those additional costs before proceeding.
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For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
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The Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) is payable only after your full chapter, monograph or Compacts monograph is accepted for publication.
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OAPF Publishing Options
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1,400 GBP Chapter - Edited Volume
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4,000 GBP Compacts Monograph - Short Form
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*These prices do not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT as long as provision of the VAT registration number is made during the application process. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
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Services included are:
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An online manuscript tracking system to facilitate your work
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XML Typesetting and pagination - web (PDF, HTML) and print files preparation
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Discoverability - electronic citation and linking via DOI
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Permanent and unrestricted online access to your work
What isn't covered by the Open Access Publishing Fee?
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If your manuscript:
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Exceeds 20 pages (for chapters in Edited Volumes), an additional fee of 40 GBP per page will be required
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If a manuscript requires Heavy Editing or Language Polishing, this will incur additional fees.
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Your Author Service Manager will inform you of any items not covered by the OAPF and provide exact information regarding those additional costs before proceeding.
\n\n
Open Access Funding
\n\n
To explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication, go to our Open Access Funding page. IntechOpen offers expert assistance to all of its Authors. We can support you in approaching funding bodies and institutions in relation to publishing fees by providing information about compliance with the Open Access policies of your funder or institution. We can also assist with communicating the benefits of Open Access in order to support and strengthen your funding request and provide personal guidance through your application process. You can contact us at oapf@intechopen.com for further details or assistance.
\n\n
For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
\n\n
Added Value of Publishing with IntechOpen
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Choosing to publish with IntechOpen ensures the following benefits:
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Indexing and listing across major repositories
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Long-term archiving Visibility on the world's strongest OA platform
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Live Performance Metrics to track readership and the impact of your chapter
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Dissemination and Promotion
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Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
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Personal support during every step of the publication process
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+84,800 citations in Web of Science databases
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Currently strongest OA platform with over 130 million downloads
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