Endothermic peaks (Td) and denaturation enthalpies (DH) of whole muscles treated with NaCl and/or TPPa-c Means within a column having different letters are significantly different (p < 0.05).(Pighin et al., 2008)
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"3161",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"As the editor, I feel extremely happy to present to the readers such a rich collection of chapters authored/co-authored by a large number of experts from around the world covering the broad field of guided wave optics and optoelectronics. Most of the chapters are state-of-the-art on respective topics or areas that are emerging. Several authors narrated technological challenges in a lucid manner, which was possible because of individual expertise of the authors in their own subject specialties. I have no doubt that this book will be useful to graduate students, teachers, researchers, and practicing engineers and technologists and that they would love to have it on their book shelves for ready reference at any time.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-7619-82-4",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4558-5",doi:"10.5772/3033",price:159,priceEur:175,priceUsd:205,slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",numberOfPages:692,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!0,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",publishedDate:"February 1st 2010",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",numberOfDownloads:156638,numberOfWosCitations:606,numberOfCrossrefCitations:200,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:31,numberOfDimensionsCitations:391,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:31,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:1197,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 1st 2009",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"January 22nd 2009",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 28th 2009",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 27th 2009",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"August 26th 2009",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",middleName:"P",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4782/images/system/4782.jpg",biography:"Bishnu P. Pal is Professor of Physics at Mahindra École\nCentrale Hyderabad India since July 1st 2014 after retirement\nas Professor of Physics from IIT Delhi; Ph.D.’1975 from IIT\nDelhi; Fellow of OSA and SPIE; Senior Member IEEE;\nHonorary Foreign Member Royal Norwegian Society for\nScience and Arts; Member OSA Board of Directors (2009-\n11); Distinguished Lecturer IEEE Photonics Society (2005-\n07).",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Delhi",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"754",title:"Optical Engineering",slug:"optical-engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"8425",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",doi:"10.5772/39547",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",totalDownloads:5130,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:19,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Bishnu Pal",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/8425",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/8425",authors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],corrections:null},{id:"8426",title:"Application Specific Optical Fibers",doi:"10.5772/39548",slug:"application-specific-optical-fibers",totalDownloads:10120,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Bishnu P. 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Simionescu, Associate Prof. Agneta Simionescu and Dr. Leslie Sierad",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10254.jpg",keywords:"Perfusion Bioreactors, Devices, Cardiovascular Engineering Bioreactors, Pulsatility, Orthopedic/Musculoskeletal Engineering, Compression, Nutrient and Gas Exchange, Sterilization, Safety, Assembly, Data Collection, Parameter Control",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 18th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 16th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 15th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 5th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 4th 2021",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Dan Simionescu is the Harriet and Jerry Dempsey Professor of Bioengineering and Director of the Biocompatibility and Tissue Regeneration Laboratories at the Clemson University, Clemson, SC, he has published more than 95 peer-reviewed papers.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Dr. Agneta Simionescu published and presented multiple peer-reviewed papers and patents in the field of cardiovascular engineering (HI=16) and received several presentation awards, in addition, she has built a variety of bioreactors for a heart valve, myocardial and vascular studies in her lab.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:"Dr. Leslie Sierad is the Founder and President of Aptus Bioreactors whos goal is to provide sophisticated cardiovascular bioreactor systems to researchers all around the world, to date, the company has leased or sold 26 cardiovascular bioreactor systems to 8 different research groups on 3 continents.",coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"66196",title:"Dr.",name:"Dan",middleName:"T.",surname:"Simionescu",slug:"dan-simionescu",fullName:"Dan Simionescu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/66196/images/system/66196.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dan Simionescu is the Harriet and Jerry Dempsey Professor of Bioengineering and Director of the Biocompatibility and Tissue Regeneration Laboratories at the Clemson University, Clemson, SC. He has published more than 95 peer-reviewed papers in highly ranked journals such as Circulation, Cardiovascular Pathology, American Journal of Pathology, Tissue Engineering, and Biomaterials and has more than 180 peer-reviewed conference proceedings presented worldwide. Dr. Simionescu’s general research interests include cardiovascular biology, pathology, and regeneration using scaffolds, stem cells and bioreactors. His current interest is preclinical validation of translational tissue engineering approaches and is being generously funded by the NIH and the biomedical industry for his efforts in the field of cardiovascular biology, pathology, and regenerative medicine.",institutionString:"Clemson University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Clemson University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"271763",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Agneta",middleName:null,surname:"Simionescu",slug:"agneta-simionescu",fullName:"Agneta Simionescu",profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/a043Y00000eYgRLQA0/Co2_Profile_Picture-1585495771381",biography:"The co-editor's short CV, as specified on the book preparation formMy research interests are in the area of cardiovascular tissue engineering, particularly in the host response to implanted tissue engineering products. Akin to the pathological modifications noticed in grafts implanted in diabetic patients, my group showed that collagen and elastin-based scaffolds implanted in diabetic animals were also adversely remodeled. Currently, my work focuses on understanding the mechanisms underlying diabetes-related complications that occur in implanted tissues, in order to develop viable tissue engineered grafts that could withstand these complications. I published and presented multiple peer reviewed papers and patents in the field of cardiovascular engineering (HI=16) and received several presentation awards. I serve as a grant reviewer for NIH and AHA and for several prominent journals. In my lab I have built a variety of bioreactors for heart valve, myocardial and vascular studies. Using these bioreactors we develop models for vascular complications in diabetes, using an optimized vascular bioreactor.",institutionString:"Clemson University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Clemson University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"320322",title:"Dr.",name:"Leslie",middleName:null,surname:"Sierad",slug:"leslie-sierad",fullName:"Leslie Sierad",profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/a043Y00000eYgRLQA0/Co1_Profile_Picture-1584980719011",biography:"As the Founder and President of Aptus Bioreactors, one of my primary goals is to advance the fields of Biomedical and Tissue Engineering so clinical applications can one day be made. I hold a PhD degree in Bioengineering from Clemson University and have been involved with bioreactor development since my graduate work in the lab.\r\nAptus Bioreactors’ historic role in that advancement is to provide sophisticated cardiovascular bioreactor systems to researchers all around the world. To date, we have leased or sold 26 cardiovascular bioreactor systems to 8 different research groups on 3\r\ncontinents. Currently we are preparing for a significant shift in focus from providing bioreactor equipment to performing the research necessary to bring a tissue-engineered heart valve to the market. I have extensive experience designing and developing bioreactor systems for decellularizing, seeding, and testing heart valves, blood vessels, and other tissues for regenerative medicine applications, as highlighted by the company activities and the numerous patent issued and pending in the field.\r\nI have experience servicing multiple types of projects from many principal investigators, which has required coordination between multiple service provider and customer groups in broad geographical and technical areas. These collaborations have been forged between groups on the same campus as well as between universities in multiple nations.\r\nOver many years participating in the leadership of various professional and philanthropic groups, I have also had many opportunities to mentor, train, and advance those under my supervision.\r\nMy technical background in the field of bioreactors and my experience in leading a diverse team has directly fueled my ability\r\nand desire to serve in this capacity in cooperation with the other members of this team-based book project.",institutionString:"Aptus LLC",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"11",title:"Engineering",slug:"engineering"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"301331",firstName:"Mia",lastName:"Vulovic",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/301331/images/8498_n.jpg",email:"mia.v@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5682",title:"Physiologic and Pathologic Angiogenesis",subtitle:"Signaling Mechanisms and Targeted Therapy",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"847efcb8c059798ea2a963d9578de2f5",slug:"physiologic-and-pathologic-angiogenesis-signaling-mechanisms-and-targeted-therapy",bookSignature:"Dan Simionescu and Agneta Simionescu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5682.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"66196",title:"Dr.",name:"Dan",surname:"Simionescu",slug:"dan-simionescu",fullName:"Dan Simionescu"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"830",title:"Vasculogenesis and Angiogenesis",subtitle:"from Embryonic Development to Regenerative Medicine",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1c8f85e5c4786ba9d585dfcdef77aa2e",slug:"vasculogenesis-and-angiogenesis-from-embryonic-development-to-regenerative-medicine",bookSignature:"Dan T. 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Thus, new technology and automatic equipments are used in combination to well-known methodologies in order to improve the study of the constituents of a given sample. Several methodologies are usually carried out in combination, especially when composition and functionality of food compounds are studied.
Meat and meat products are mainly composed of water, proteins, lipids, minerals and carbohydrates (Bender, 1992). Most sensory and functional properties depend on the quantity and quality of these compounds. In the last years, several studies aimed its efforts on the improvement of sensory quality of meat products by means of the incorporation of additives (Szerman et al., 2012).
At present, ready-to-cook and pre-cooked foods are installed in life. Regarding meat market,
The
Regarding meat proteins, it is known that they have a widely range of size between approximately 20 kDa to 3,000 kDa (Warris, 2000). Among them, high molecular weight proteins display a key role in conferring functional properties to meat (Warris, 2000). Its approach usually represents a challenge at the laboratory. Myosin, actin, titin and nebulin are four of the major proteins of the skeletal sarcomere, and possibly the most important myofibrillar proteins having interactions with each other in the muscular tissue. Myosin (aprox. 540 kDa) and actin (aprox. 43 kDa) are the most noticeable contractile proteins of the thick and thin filaments, respectively (Clark et al., 2002). Titin (aprox. 3,000 kDa) and nebulin (aprox. 800 kDa) are two of the giant myofibrillar proteins, acting as protein rulers by regulating the assembly of myosin and actin filaments in the sarcomere (Wang, 1996). At present, several methods from different sources have been reported for their isolation. However, most of them are complex, tedious and mainly focused on the isolation of one protein at a time.
Currently, electrophoresis represents one of the most and reliable methods used in studying meat proteins in the laboratory. It does not require expensive equipment and its outcomes allow to be analyzed by means of several techniques like densitometry and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), among others. In general terms, electrophoresis refers to the migration of charged particles in a particular medium under the influence of an electric field. It constitutes a powerful and broadly used method for the analysis of complex mixtures of analytes from different sources. Separated molecules can be visualized by means of specific staining. One remarkable advantage is that the dried support medium can be finally kept as a permanent record. It has been stated that the migration rate (cm/s) of a given particle submitted to electrophoresis relies on several factors related to the shape, charge and size of the particle and to the electrical field strength and the temperature of the system as well. Thus, the mobility of the particle –migration rate per unit of field strength (V/cm)- results directly proportional to net charge of the particle and inversely proportional to its molecular size at a given viscosity of the electrophoretic support (Karcher & Landers, 2006). Several support mediums had been described. Among them, polyacrylamide gels (PAGE) offer several advantages when compared to others matrixes, especially when proteins mixtures are been analyzed (Karcher & Landers, 2006). In this case, protein separation takes place on the basis of charge-to-mass-ratio and molecular size. The addition of sodium dodecyl sulphate to the system (SDS) denatures proteins conferring to them a constant charge-to-mass ratio. Thus, under described conditions, proteins separation only depends on its relative molecular weights (MW). Gradient SDS-PAGE is usually recommended when proteins mixture spans wide MW range. In this case, the decreasing pore size also contributes to sharpen the proteins bands.
A great deal of attention has been paid to the most important proteins of the myofibrillar system because of their potential role in meat processing. Several authors have succeeded in the isolation and/or enrichment of some of these proteins (Ho et al., 1994; Pan & Damodaran, 1994; Wang, 1982; Wang & Greaser, 1985). Nevertheless, most of the described methodologies use to be difficult to carry out because of their complexity, associated in part with the exerted interactions among these proteins throughout the myofibrils (Houmeida et al., 1995; Linke et al., 2002).
The purpose of the present chapter is to compile own published data which illustrate the usefulness of electrophoresis analysis in meat research, either used alone or in combination to other techniques. The first part describes a simple methodology to simultaneously co-enrich myosin, actin, titin and nebulin from beef muscles. It is believed that the described method will provide enriched myofibrillar proteins, which could be used for more specific analysis, like microscopy studies, immunological and/or differential scanning calorimetric analysis. The second component of this chapter is focused on the study of the effect of saline additives on muscle proteins structure to improve meat quality. Since DSC has become one of the most useful techniques for studying the thermal behavior of components of biological systems, its approach in combination to SDS-PAGE is also described. The methodologies used provide useful information in order to explain the improvement of sensorial properties observed in meat treated with saline additives and submitted to
Beef
The separation of myofibrillar proteins of
Partial isolation of proteins was achieved by means of ammonium sulfate salt precipitation, using four different saturation ranges: 0–20, 20–40, 40–60 and 60–100 g/L. After each precipitation step, protein solution was centrifuged at 23,000 x g for 20 min at 4 C. The resulting precipitate was resuspended in SDS buffer (3% SDS, 10% glycerol, 1 mM EDTA, 5 mM DTT, 10 mM Tris-HCl, pH 8.0), and the saline extract was dialyzed overnight against buffer SDS (nitrocellulose membrane, MWCO: 12–14 kDa). Discontinuous SDS-PAGE (see details below) was used to monitor the protein composition of each precipitate.
SDS-PAGE analysis conducted according to Laemmli (1970) with some modifications was performed in order to monitor the protein profile of extracts and to continue the isolation of proteins. Electrophoresis was run in a lineal gradient of acrylamide concentration (3–12%) in a Mini Protean III system (Bio-Rad), at constant voltage (130 V) during 90 min. For comparison purposes, stacking and resolving gel solutions were prepared both with and without glycerol (50 mL/L). A HMW calibration stained kit was used to estimate the molecular weight (MW) of the different proteins. In order to monitor protein composition, each line was loaded with 50 mg of proteins, and with 120 mg for isolation purposes. Gels were stained with 1 g/L Coomassie Brilliant Blue R-250 solution. Images were captured with a Bio-Rad GS-800 Imaging Calibrated Densitometer and processed by Quantity One 1-D Analysis software (Bio-Rad, version 4.4.1) to determine relative front (Rf), MW and relative amount of each protein. When a protein was not accurately identified in the electrophoretic gel by staining, the Western blot technique was utilized as a tool to reveal the presence of this protein. This analysis was applied to nebulin. For this purpose, a non-stained SDS-PAGE gel was transferred overnight onto a nitrocellulose membrane (0.45-mm pore size) at 90 mA using Mini Trans-Blot Cell (Bio-Rad). Then, the presence of nebulin was detected with the commercial mouse monoclonal anti-nebulin clone NB2 antibody (diluted 1:400), followed by the secondary antibody anti-mouse IgG raised in goat and conjugated to alkaline phosphatase (dilution 1:1,000). Once the protein of interest was located on the nitrocellulose membrane, its position on an electrophoretic gel could be established by comparison.
Once MHC, actin, nebulin and titin were identified, they were excised from a non-stained gel, and individually eluted in an Electro-Eluter model 422 (Bio-Rad, MWCO: 12–15 kDa) as detailed in Pighin & Gonzalez (2008). Finally, each protein was collected in a volume of approximately 500 mL, dialyzed overnight, lyophilized and stored at -80 C. The purity of the isolated extracts was finally monitored by discontinuous SDS-PAGE as previously described.
Brines containing NaCl and/or TPP were incorporated into the selected muscles (10% w/w) with an automatic multi-needle injector (36 needles, Fricor, Buenos Aires, Argentina) to give the final concentrations (g/100 g injected muscle) of 0.70 NaCl; 0.25 TPP; 0.70 NaCl + 0.25 TPP, and 1.20 NaCl + 0.25 TPP. Non injected (NI) muscles were used as control. Injected and NI muscles were vacuum packaged (Cryovac CN510, Sealed Air Co., Buenos Aires, Argentina) and submitted to continuous tumbling at 5.0 rpm, 8 h, 2-4 C (Lance Industries tumbler, model LT-15, Allenton, USA) in order to improve brine sorption and protein extraction. Two slices (2.0 cm wide) of each muscle were frozen at -80 C until thermal analysis and the rest of the muscles were kept at 2-4 C until protein extraction.
Myofibrillar proteins extraction was conducted as mentioned in 3.2.1.1. After centrifugation, the supernatant containing sarcoplasmic proteins was separated and stored at -80 C until electrophoretic analysis. The precipitate was suspended in SDS buffer and filtered through a home-made nylon strainer to remove connective tissue. An aliquot of the filtrate, which included proteins of the myofibrillar system, was subjected to SDS-PAGE analysis. Protein concentration of both sarcoplasmic and myofibrillar extracts was measured according to Lowry et al. (1951).
Myofibrils isolation from minced meat of the different saline treatments was conducted according to Culler et al. (1978), and as detailed in Pighin et al. (2008). The filtered myofibrils collected were used for DSC analysis. Protein concentration of isolated myofibrils and of whole muscles was determined by a macro-Kjeldahl method (Foss Tecator equipment, Sweden), with a conversion factor of N = 6.25.
Electrophoretic profile of protein extracts was monitored by discontinuous SDS-PAGE (Laemmli, 1970), carried out under the same conditions previously described in 3.2.1.2.
A Perkin-Elmer Pyris-1 differential scanning calorimeter (DSC) was employed to study the thermal properties of proteins of the whole muscle and of the isolated myofibrils. For temperature and heat flow calibration, Indium was used as standard (melting point 156.6 C, enthalpy 28.46 J/g). Five to fifteen milligrams of each sample, accurately weighed, were placed into an aluminum pan, which was hermetically sealed and equilibrated for 2 min at the initial scanning temperature. During the study, a heating rate of 10 C /min was applied over a 20-90 C temperature range. All samples were re-scanned (submission to a second thermal analysis) to check for the irreversibility of the denaturation process. Endotherm (mW vs. temperature), denaturation enthalpy (DH) and endothermic peak (Td) were obtained using the software Pyris-7 (Perkin-Elmer). The total enthalpy change (DHT) was estimated by the algebraic sum of the individual denaturation enthalpies.
The experiments described were conducted in duplicate. The study of saline incorporation included 5 treatments (NI; 0.70% NaCl; 0.25% TPP; 0.70% NaCl + 0.25% TPP; 1.20% NaCl + 0.25% TPP). A set of five muscles were assigned at random to each treatment. SDS-PAGE analysis and DSC measurements were performed in all muscles included in the treatments. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) for DSC measurements was conducted using the statistical package SAS (version 8, SAS Institute Inc., 2004, Cary, NC). Duncan´s Multiple Range Test (with a significance of a = 0.05) was used to determine differences among treatments.
Figure 1 shows the electrophoretic pattern of supernatant and precipitate fractions obtained after the extraction of myofibrillar proteins. It can be seen (lane 2) that most of the soluble proteins (28–70 kDa) remained in the supernatant fraction. Instead, proteins of the precipitate (lane 3) have a wider MW range (25–2,500 kDa). The precipitate included almost exclusively myofibrillar proteins, yielding 64 g of extracted protein per kilogram of muscular tissue. It can also be observed that the most intense band is MHC (MW: 220 kDa, Rf: 0.47), which represents approximately 35 % of total myofibrillar proteins extracted. Actin (MW: 43 kDa) is the second most intense (20 %) having one of the largest Rf (0.92). Titin band represents approximately 4 % of the proteins extracted. It has the lowest Rf (0.06) in the SDS-PAGE analysis with an estimated MW of 2,500 kDa. A similar MW for titin was found by Kellermayer & Grama (2002) and Kurzban & Wang (1988). A comparable electrophoretic pattern of myofibrillar proteins has been reported previously by Chen et al. (2005).
Nebulin could not be precisely identified on the present SDS-PAGE due to the presence of a set of several proteins in the range of 600–800 kDa. Therefore, the use of monoclonal antibodies appeared to be a useful tool to corroborate nebulin localization in the gel. Figure 2 shows the Western blot analysis of protein extract (precipitate fraction). Only one band was detected by the commercial kit against nebulin, with an Rf of 0.20 and an estimated MW of 710 kDa. It is important to denote that the MW of titin and nebulin were calculated in approximation because of the absence of suitable HMW standards for SDS-PAGE. Nevertheless, the MW found for nebulin is consistent with previous published data reporting a value of 600– 900 kDa for this protein (Locker & Wild, 1986; Wang, 1982).
Myofibrillar protein isolation and SDS-PAGE (3–12%) analysis of protein fractions Lane 1 = HMW standard. Lane 2 = supernatant. Lane 3 = precipitate. (
Western blot analysis of myofibrillar protein extract Lane 1 = HMW standard. Lane 2 = myofibrillar protein extract. (
It is important to remark that the use of gradients is usually recommended when SDS-PAGE analysis is applied to high-MW proteins, in order to improve separation and resolution of bands. The addition of glycerol has been reported to facilitate gradient formation and also to improve resolution of the SDS-PAGE technique (Sobieszek, 1994). However, Chen et al. (2005) did not find a great improvement of the gel system with the use of this reagent. Present research supports the first statement, given the fact that the addition of glycerol both to the resolving and the stacking gel solutions has successfully improved band resolution (comparison data not shown).
The isolation of myofibrillar proteins requires time-consuming procedures that usually separate them individually. Thus, myosin isolation generally involves the removal of sarcoplasmic proteins by means of washings with diluted phosphate buffer and subsequent protein extraction with specific solutions containing elevated amounts of KCl (Dudziak & Foegeding, 1988; Hermanson et al., 1986). Actin isolation requires a prior separation of G-actin by breaking intermolecular linkages of F-actin. One of the most commonly used agents is acetone, which can break the linkages without denaturing the protein (Syrovy, 1984). After that, a second isolation stage involves several steps including washing, filtration, centrifugation, polymerization/depolymerization cycles, dialysis and centrifugation (Pardee & Spudich, 1982; Spudich & Watt, 1971). Gel filtration chromatography can also be employed for further actin purification (Kuroda, 1982). More recently, Perez-Juan et al. (2007) have succeeded in the isolation of actomyosin and actin in an interesting attempt to amalgamate myofibrillar protein isolations in a single extraction process.
High-molecular weight proteins (i.e. titin and nebulin) extraction specifically involves the addition of protease inhibitors to avoid degradation during processing. The isolation methodology initiates with myofibrils extraction and posterior protein–SDS solubilization, followed by the precipitation of titin/nebulin–SDS complex by salt fractionation. For further purification, the use of gel filtration is recommended because of the great size of these proteins (Wang, 1982). A more exhaustive extraction of titin was proposed by Pospiech et al. (2002), which demanded several centrifugation steps followed by suspension/ homogenization of the sediments in specific solutions, dialysis, and hydroxyapatite and ion-exchange chromatography. Previous description shows the requirement of time and effort to achieve the isolation of one or another myofibrillar protein. For that reason, the present research was focused on looking for a more simple methodological strategy.
Salting out fractionation is believed to be a useful step for protein isolation because the procedure is inexpensive and relatively easy to apply. Sodium chloride had been proposed for the precipitation of the giant proteins, titin and nebulin (Wang, 1982; Wang & Wright, 1988). However, in the present research, the use of ammonium sulfate as precipitating agent produced a proper isolation of these two proteins and also of myosin and actin. In order to select the appropriate saturation range, different ammonium sulfate ranges were assayed: 0–20, 20–40, 40–60 and 60–100 g/L. After each centrifugation step, the protein profile of the precipitated fractions was monitored by SDS-PAGE. The different saturation ranges showed the following protein pattern (Fig. 3): the band corresponding to MHC (MW: 220 kDa) was the most noticeable one, showing similar concentrations in all saline ranges (see numbers between brackets). Actin (MW: 43 kDa) was also detected in all fractions, being its intensity higher in the saline ranges of 40–60 g/L and 60–100 g/L. Protein profiles of the ranges 0–20 g/L and 20–40 g/L were similar, except for the amount of the titin band (2,500 kDa), which is about four times higher in the second saline range. A saturation range of 40–60 g/L showed that the amount of titin and nebulin extracted is the highest. A higher saturation range (60–100 g/L) did not include the giant proteins in the precipitated fraction.
SDS-PAGE analysis of the different ammonium sulfate precipitatesLane 1 = HMW standard. Lane 2 = range 0–20 g/L. Lane 3 = range 20–40 g/L. Lane 4 = range 40–60 g/L. Lane 5 = range 60–100 g/L. T, titin; N, nebulin; MHC, myosin heavy chain; A, actin. *Numbers between brackets mean times increment. (
If this protein profile (Fig. 3) is densitometrically compared to the myofibrillar protein extract (Fig. 1), it becomes evident that titin and nebulin have been greatly enriched in the saline range of 40–60 g/L, having 3.6 and 4.0 times increment, respectively.
Even though the analysis of the gel in Fig. 3 indicates that the saline ranges of 20–40 g/L and 40–60 g/L were appropriate for isolation and enrichment of titin, and 40–60 g/L was so for the enrichment of nebulin, the unified range of 20–60 g/L appeared to be an interesting option to increase the amount of these proteins in subsequent experiments. Instead, the saline range of 60–100 g/L was suggested to isolate actin and MHC. Once the saline precipitation ranges were selected, SDS-PAGE was chosen to continue the purification protocol. For this purpose, each ammonium sulfate precipitate was resuspended and electrophoretically developed in an SDS-PAGE gel (3–12%). After the identification of the proteins on the gel by means of its Rf´s, they were first excised, and then submitted to electroelution.
Figure 4 shows the SDS-PAGE of each electroeluted protein (lanes 1–4) and the Western blot analysis of nebulin (lane 5). It can be seen that MHC (lane 2) was obtained in an almost pure state. Actin and titin (lanes 3 and 4) were obtained enriched but not in a pure state. The reason for this result is that actin and titin concentrations obtained after the salt precipitation and the electrophoresis steps were low and made difficult the removal of a thinner band from the electrophoretic gel to improve their isolation by electroelution. Nebulin band -stained with Coomassie Brilliant Blue dye- was not accompanied by any other protein band (data not shown). However, the band was vaguely stained and it required the identification and confirmation by the previously mentioned immunoblotting technique (lane 5).
SDS-PAGE and Western blot analysis of the electroeluated proteinsLane 1 = HMW standard. Lane 2 = myosin heavy chain extract (SDS-PAGE analysis). Lane 3 = actin (A) extract (SDS-PAGE analysis). Lane 4 = titin (T) extract (SDS-PAGE analysis). Lane 5 = nebulin (N) extract (Western blot analysis).(
The electrophoretic analysis of sarcoplasmic proteins extracts belonging to saline treated muscles are shown in Fig. 5. As can be seen, proteins bands ranged between 30 and 75 kDa. It is worth noting that the intensity of the band with an estimated MW of 70 kDa was increased about 2.5 times in samples of muscles containing NaCl alone or combined with TPP (see arrows, lanes 3-A, 3-B and 4-B) with respect to NI. Even more, an additional band with an estimated MW of 65 kDa was revealed in these saline treated muscles (see dashed arrows, lanes 3-A, 3-B and 4-B). On the contrary, the presence of TPP alone did not modify the protein pattern found in NI muscles (lanes 2-A and 2-B). These findings suggest that the presence of NaCl collaborates in the solubilization of myofibrillar proteins, releasing them to the soluble fraction.
Myofibrillar proteins were separated by SDS-PAGE into a broad range of molecular weight (Fig. 6). Bands corresponding to MHC (MW 220 kDa, see arrow) and actin (MW 46 kDa, see dashed arrow) were the most noticeable ones. No differences among treatments were verified by means of densitometric analysis. This result does not agree with the one previously shown in Fig. 5, which had suggested an augmented solubilization of myofibrillar proteins as a consequence of the application of NaCl into muscles. Hence, an attenuated intensity of any of the bands in Fig. 6 was expected. It is probable that the increment of 70 kDa or the appearance of 65 kDa band found in Fig. 5 is a result of the degradation of myofibrillar proteins.
SDS-PAGE analysis of sarcoplasmic proteins obtained from muscles treated with NaCl and/or TPPGel A: Lane 1, HMW-SDS; Lane 2, NI; Lane 3, 0.70 % NaCl; Lane 4, 0.25 % TPP. Gel B: Lane 1, HMW-SDS; Lane 2, NI; Lane 3, 0.70 % NaCl + 0.25 % TPP; Lane 4, 1.20 % NaCl + 0.25 % TPP. (
SDS-PAGE analysis of myofibrillar proteins extracted from muscles treated with NaCl and/or TPPGel A: Lane 1, HMW-SDS; Lane 2, NI; Lane 3, 0.70 % NaCl; Lane 4, 0.25 % TPP.Gel B: Lane 1, HMW-SDS; Lane 2, NI; Lane 3, 0.70 % NaCl + 0.25 % TPP; Lane 4, 1.20 % NaCl + 0.25 % TPP.(
Thermal analysis of NI whole muscles (Fig. 7) showed three characteristic endothermic peaks. Published data allowed to relate them to myosin and its subunits denaturation (I; 57.0 C), sarcoplasmic proteins and collagen denaturation (II; 67.4 C) and actin denaturation (III; 80.3 C) (Graiver et al., 2006; Kijowski & Mast, 1988; Stabursvik & Martens, 1980). Enthalpies involved in each thermal transition were 1.32, 0.65 y 1.74 J/g protein, respectively. Re-scanned samples did not show any thermal response, corroborating the irreversibility of the transitions. The calculated DHT of NI muscles was 3.71 J/g protein. It can be seen in Table 1 that NaCl treatment (0.70 %) significantly reduced myosin DH and actin Td. Only slight decreases were found in myosin Td and actin DH. These results make evident that actin was destabilized by NaCl, becoming the more susceptible protein to thermal denaturation (decreased Td). Instead, the effect of NaCl upon myosin could be seen on the DH, which reduction could be related to the decrease of hydrogen bonds and/or to the increment of protein aggregation (exothermic event) exerted by the salt. Total enthalpy (DHT) for NaCl-treated muscles (calculated by adding DH of individual values related to transitions I, II, and III) decreased from 3.71 J/g protein (NI muscle) to 3.04 J/g protein, demonstrating system instability.
Thermal analysis of NI whole muscles(
Endothermic peaks (Td) and denaturation enthalpies (DH) of whole muscles treated with NaCl and/or TPPa-c Means within a column having different letters are significantly different (p < 0.05).(Pighin et al., 2008)
The described findings reveal an important effect of the salt in decreasing the thermal stability of proteins. In order to support this fact, it was proposed that addition of neutral salt causes anions to compete with water molecules for specific sites of proteins, altering its hydration properties, and consequently requiring lower denaturation energies (Von Hippel & Wong, 1965). Treatment with TTP (0.25 %) significantly increased sarcoplasmic proteins/collagen Td. Also, Td of myosin and DH of actin were slightly increased. Whole muscle treated with 0.25 % TPP increased the DHT from 3.71 (NI muscles) to 4.28 J/g protein. These findings show an important stabilizing effect exerted by TPP, probably by altering hydrophobic interactions rather than affecting pH or ionic strength (Trout & Schmidt, 1986). With regard to the effect of phosphates on meat, Kijowski & Mast (1988) studied the effect of different phosphates (sodium pyrophosphate or sodium tripolyphosphate) on chicken breast muscles and its isolated myofibrils. They stated that low levels of sodium pyrophosphate or sodium tripolyphosphate (0.25 % or 0.50 %) caused the maximum stabilization (DHT) of chicken muscle and isolated myofibrils by means of myosin stabilization (increased DH). These results agree with present ones, even they were obtained in beef muscles.
When both additives were used together (0.70 % NaCl + 0.25 % TPP), Td corresponding to sarcoplasmic proteins/collagen was significantly increased in comparison to NI muscles, suggesting stabilization of the related proteins. This stabilization went along with a significant decreased of the DH, probably associated to an increment of the exothermic protein aggregation. On the contrary, actin Td showed a significant reduction in comparison to NI. Destabilization of actin in the presence of NaCl and phosphates was also described by Kijowski & Mast (1988) in chicken breast muscles treated with 2 % NaCl and 0.25/0.50 % pyrophosphate. When the effect of this combination of salts is compared to the one previously described, 0.70 % NaCl effect, it can be speculated that two effects appear to coexist: the same stabilizing effect of TPP on sarcoplasmic proteins/collagen and the destabilizing effect of NaCl on actin. Even though, the last effect is smaller in magnitude than the one produced by NaCl alone. It is important to denote that DHT of the muscle treated with the combination of salts (0.70 % NaCl + 0.25 % TPP) was slightly higher than the NI one (3.83 vs. 3.71 J/g protein, respectively). Comparing the DHT obtained individually for NaCl and TPP treatments, it can be seen that the effect of the addition of both salts is contrary to the effect of NaCl alone and in the same direction as TPP. Hence, the final increase could be assigned to the increase (even non significant) of myosin DH induced by TPP. Even more, when NaCl was raised to 1.20%, a maximal drop in actin stability was achieved (higher reduction of Td and DH). This event was accompanied by a maximal drop in DHT (from 3.71 to 2.75 J/g protein). It becomes evident that the increased amount of NaCl in the brine produced a destabilizing effect similar to the one found for NaCl alone, which also turned to be predominant to expenses of the effect of TPP.
Regarding this issue, Findlay & Barbut (1992) had stated that the addition of NaCl (0.5-2.0 %) reduced myosin Td and conversely TPP (0.2-0.6 %) increased its stability. Additionally, DHT varied depending on salts concentration. At low NaCl levels (less than 1.00 %) the effect of TTP on the increment of DHT was predominant. Instead, as NaCl increased the phosphate effect was minimized. In accordance with such observations, present results indicate that NaCl exerts a destabilizing effect in the presence of TPP (0.25 %) that becomes stronger as NaCl level raises.
Thermal analysis of isolated myofibrils from NI muscle showed only two endothermic peaks (Fig. 8), corresponding to denaturation enthalpies of myosin and its subunits (I: 58.1 C) and actin (II: 73.5 C). Data obtained from Table 2 showed a significant decrease of myosin and actin DH in myofibrils isolated from 0.70 % NaCl-treated muscles and washed in the same brine solution. No changes in Td of these proteins were found. The destabilizing effect of NaCl was in agreement with data obtained from the whole muscle. TPP (0.25 %) treatment produced a significant increase of both, myosin and actin Td. In contrast, DH of myosin was strongly reduced (p < 0.05) by the treatment. These findings indicate that the salt is capable of stabilizing actin and myosin structures. However, the smaller energy required to denature myosin (lower DH) suggests a small amount of protein available in the myofibril fraction. Supporting this comment, it had been proposed that phosphates can induce myosin solubilization by promoting both, thick filament depolymerisation and actomyosin dissociation (Granicher & Portzehl, 1964; Xiong, 2005). Even though, an increased protein aggregation (exothermic event) taking place immediately after myosin denaturation, might not be discarded. In the case of whole muscle treated with TPP, myosin and actin Td did not suffer any change and their DH were only slightly increased. Therefore, it can be affirmed that the effect of TPP on the whole muscle and myofibrils is almost alike.
Thermal analysis of myofibrils isolated from NI muscles(
When NaCl and TPP were used together (0.70 % NaCl + 0.25 % TPP) both, myosin and actin Td of isolated myofibrils significantly decreased (p < 0.05). Enthalpy of the proteins was also decreased, being the myosin DH reduced in almost 2.60 J/g protein with respect to NI muscles (NI: 3.87 vs. 1.27 J/g protein; p < 0.05). These findings confirm the destabilizing effect of NaCl previously described for actin in the whole muscle. Even more, this effect seems to be stronger in the myofibril fraction since myosin transition was also affected. Further increments of NaCl (1.20 %) -in the presence of TPP- produced similar effects on both proteins, with the exception of an intensified effect on actin DH. It is important to remark that the effect of both additives together was definitively higher than the effect of any of the additives individually. Offer & Knight (1998) proposed that polyphosphates -at the concentrations used in the industry- may assist NaCl in causing depolymerisation of thick filaments and dissociation of actomyosin, facilitating in consequence the myosin extraction. The action of NaCl as a mild structure-breaker aided by the presence of TPP could be the reason of the significant reduction of protein stability found.
Endothermic peaks (Td) and denaturation enthalpies (DH) of myofibrils isolated from muscles treated with NaCl and/or TPPa-d Means within a column having different letters are significantly different (p < 0.05).(Pighin et al., 2008)
As it was mentioned, the physicochemical mechanisms involved in water binding and retention in the protein matrix of cooked meat were not completely elucidated. These results showed that the combined presence of NaCl (0.70 % or 1.20 %) and TPP (0.25 %) changes the heat susceptibility of muscle proteins (especially actin) so that they denature and coagulate at a lower cooking temperature. These modifications suggest the occurrence of protein conformational changes due to the salts, probably by altering hydrophobic and electrostatic interactions that stabilize the protein structure (Franks & Eagland, 1975). Evidently, these changes collaborate in the binding and posterior retention of water inside the tissue by any of the mechanisms proposed for the action of NaCl and polyphosphates (Offer & Knight, 1998). Increased solubilization of proteins found in whole muscles treated with NaCl (alone or in combination with TPP) could be related to the removal of transverse myofibrillar proteins which may act as structural constrains to myosin extraction. Also, some other low molecular weight myofibrillar proteins could be removed. The softening of the structure together with conformational modifications of myofibrillar proteins would allow entrapping water inside the tissue. This event would be the reason of the increased WHC of
The isolation protocol previously described in this chapter has been demonstrated to be a successful methodology for individually isolating four of the main myofibrillar proteins. Despite the proteins were not isolated in a complete pure state, this approach seems to be useful for using them for further analysis. The estimation of proteins’ Rf by means of an immunological method looks like an interesting tool to complement the identification of proteins in unclear electrophoretic patterns.
The thermal behavior of the myofibrillar proteins is quite involved in the thermal behavior of whole muscle. NaCl incorporation into meat leads to an important protein destabilizing effect upon myofibrillar proteins, even at relative low doses when compared to industrial usage. The use of NaCl in combination with TPP produces a destabilizing global effect, suggesting that TPP may assist NaCl in acting as structure-breaker. The increase of WHC of
Taken together, the use of gel electrophoresis demonstrated to be a useful tool not only in isolating major muscle proteins but also in contributing to study the effect of saline additives in meat, in order to improve sensorial properties. Its combination with advanced technologies like DSC represents an interesting issue to look forward in the meat science approach.
Special thanks are given to the Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA), Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Tecnológicas (CONICET) and Universidad de Morón (UM) for their financial support in the studies carried out and compiled in the present chapter.
The adoption of digitised technologies as tools for enhancing reliability in the conduct of elections is becoming more widely embraced globally, as countries across the world are opening up to the electoral digitalisation processes in enriching their democratic profiles, and adding some positive values to the changing civic space. The digital revolution has not also left the African countries behind, as most elections recently conducted in some countries on the continent have taken the path of digital technologies with the adoption of such innovative measures as biometric voter registration, smart card readers, optimal mark recognition, direct electronic recording, and electronic result transmission. The rationale behind the technological revolution in the conduct of elections could be premised on the need to mitigate electoral malpractices and promote the desired credibility in the electoral management as a whole.
This study sought to examine election and democracy in a digital age, with the view to highlighting the status, challenges and trends in the context of the Nigeria’s experience. This study is predicated on the pervasive desire of the majority of the Nigerian population to move away from the years of do or die, thuggery-laden election experience, a result of selfish interest as against a patriotic interest, to a robust, acceptable and scientific way of managing the process. It is a statement of fact that electioneering processes in Nigeria, as in other countries in Africa, had been marred with needless orgy of violence and destructions, just for the purposes of acquiring political power, and its associated benefit of economic power. As a measure of safeguard, and to tinker with the existing process, the legal framework to actualise the aspirations for a digitisation electoral process began in 2010, when the lawmakers engaged in the process of amending the hitherto electoral law, thus culminating into the new electoral law that has come to be. By an enabling constitutional provision therefore, Nigeria’s electoral system can unreservedly be argued to have assumed a digitised status, with the signing of the electoral bill into law (called Electoral Law 2022) by the President, Muhammadu Buhari. Expectedly, this development was greeted with palpable euphoria by a majority of Nigerians, and particularly the elite. The reasons for this pervasive and seeming of expression of acceptance can be understood in the context of the yearnings for a credible and transparent electoral process, much of which this study sought to highlight.
Undoubtedly, agitations and rumblings for an electoral law for the purposes of conducting, managing and regulating elections in the country had been in the wheels for over a decade. According to [1] Charles, Chris, and Udefuna, quoting Nwogu, the challenges associated with manual voting systems in Nigeria had led to the search for a better, efficient, reliable and effective voting system that will reduce electoral malpractices. Unfortunately, the efforts to synchronise a widely accepted body of legal provisions in that regard had consistently suffered one hiccup or another, as a result of divergent perspectives among the lawmakers, and which supposedly had to do with insinuations of their selfish interests and other non-altruistic agenda of the politicians who aligned with the move. Insinuations and commentaries point to the argument that the veiled intentions of suspect politicians, who will do anything to ensure that the status-quo remained. The ultimate motive is for the manipulation of the electoral process, seize power and ensure their continued perpetuation in office. Buoyed by the interest to contribute insights into the emerging discourses and commentaries on how to create and manage an acceptable electoral system, which will address the concerns of manipulated elections and the attendant consequences, this study became worthwhile and inevitable.
Against the authors’ concerns and interest as expressed in the introductory section above, this study sought to provide objective, but somewhat provocative responses to the following questions which include:
What are the challenges of the conduct of election in Nigeria prior to the new Electoral Law?
What does a digitised electoral system entail, in terms of components?
How much of impact will a digitised electoral system have on the practice of democracy in plural society like Nigeria?
What challenges could impede the smooth operation of a digitised electoral system, and how can these be minimised?
It must be noted that these questions are delimited to the Nigeria’s environment, and does not extend the scope of this study beyond the context.
The study is literature based, and this involves engaging relevant sources from which to draw a basis and strength for its eventual outcomes, particularly from previous related publications and write-ups. This is inevitable since the information to be deployed is essentially from secondary sources, but will be critically examined. In doing this, the author will consider a literature survey method to establish the relevant issues at stake in the context of this paper, and will accordingly do so in the course of the write-up. Furthermore, identified themes and findings there from will be critically examined with a view to arriving at fresh perspectives on how the Nigeria’s electoral system, in relation to the digital conduct of election and management can be maintained and sustained. This paper considered the identification of a relevant theoretical framework for the study, and follows with a rehash, albeit briefly, of the nature and manner of election in Nigeria from independence till the contemporary times of electoral system digitisation. The paper set to provide insights into the character of a typical Nigerian politician, whose pursuit of political power is imbued with desperation and selfish interest, regardless of the resulting consequences.
Whilst there exist a considerable number of studies on the theories of elections, the authors of this project seek to apply the Behavioural Theory of Elections as the theoretical framework, among the other relevant theories such as the Voting theory; Altruism theory; Duverger’s theory, etc., to underpin the study. The theory focuses on highlighting the intricate and inseparable nexus between elections and democracy. According to [2] Bendor, Siegel, and Ting, “Behavioural Theory of elections is based on the notion that all actors - politicians as well as voters - are only boundedly rational”. The theory posits learning via trial and error: actions that surpass an actor’s aspiration level are more likely to be used in the future, while those that fall short are less likely to be tried later. This theory could be attributed to the rise of behavioural economics, which has tended to pose new challenges to the premise of rationality. Premised on the idea of adaptation, the authors construct formal models of party competition, turnout, and voters’ choices of candidates. These models predict substantial turnout levels, voters sorting into parties, and winning parties adopting centrist platforms. By this, the authors believed that in multiparty elections, voters are able to coordinate vote choices on majority-preferred candidates, while all candidates garner significant vote shares. Overall, the behavioural theory and its models produce macro-implications consistent with the data on elections, and they use plausible micro-assumptions about the cognitive capacities of politicians and voters. A computational model accompanies the book and can be used as a tool for further research. In a simple sense, this theory suggests that voters are guided by rationality. This implies that the tendency to cast a vote for a preferred candidate in an election by a voter is based on the candidate’s rational decision to do so, and not by any form of compulsive instinct. However, this study is genuinely aware of the shenanigans that often play out in the conduct of elections in the Nigeria’s environment, which tended to exhibit unethical manipulations, usually through bribery, cajoling, intimidations, etc. However, the relevance of this theory derives from the role of theoretical construction in research which, in the view of [3] Badejo, serves to observe, understand, explain, predict and control events or phenomena. For [4] Fajana, theory “helps in our understanding of events and problems in the practical world”. Therefore, the behavioural theory would be most appropriate to underpin this study. However, it needs be underscored that this study is not oblivious of the weakness associated with this theory, in terms of the claim of near-absolute rationality of the voter in how choices are made. The study admits that, the phenomenon of rationality may be subjective after all, as the decision to vote in any election is discretionary.
As indicated in the background/introduction section of this study, scholars including [1] Charles; Chris; and Udefuna, have succinctly alluded to the characteristics of elections in Nigeria as involving electoral brigandage, thuggery, violence and warfare. In corroborating this view, [5] Iyayi opines that elections in Nigeria being hitherto manually inclined, had been laden with massive frauds, the intimidation of political opponents, the brazen, subversion of the ‘sovereignty of the vote’ and needless but violent controversies. This presupposes that the history of election in Nigeria is replete with manipulations of varying proportions, characterised by fraud, bribery, massive rigging by violence and thuggery, which in most cases had resulted in chaos, destruction and killings by opposing contestants and opponents. In some cases, the involvement of security personnel has been occasioned, especially when incumbent public officials are bent on winning their elections, regardless of how they are perceived or adjudged by the electorate. In a historical context, the country called Nigeria was amalgamated in 1914 under the administration of Sir Frederick Lugard. According to [6] Akerele, the first election took place in 1922 under Sir Hugh Clifford, though of a restricted nature, as it was only to occupy certain legislative seats in both Lagos and Calabar, where legislative seats had been created after some level of agitations by a few elites, who had resisted the unelected nature of members of councils earlier. Between 1922 and 1959, there were series of elections, conducted not by Nigerians themselves but by the colonial authorities. By 1964, a year after acquiring a Republican Status in 1963, Nigerians conducted elections which were entire regionally based, and expectedly, were fraught with one form of violence or the other, as opponents engaged in what could be described as a do-or-die affair. In Western region based party called the Action Group (AG) for instance, bitter divisions arose among the gladiators of the party, most probably out of supremacy squabbles and related issues, and all these subsequently led to splinter groups that eventually led to the politics of bitterness that subsisted till 1965, when another round of elections was carried out. Unfortunately, the “carry-overs” of the unresolved political differences resulted into intrusion of the military in Nigeria’s political space. The coup and counter coup in 1966 ignited the civil war that lasted about three years in the country, and thus paved way for further military stranglehold of the leadership of the country, until 1979 when there was a return to civil rule. The 1983 general elections which has the trappings of ethno-religious sentiments led to another military coup and leadership until 1999, when the Fourth Republic was birthed. It must be stated that all the while, the manner of elections had always been manually conducted, and characterised unavoidably with all manners of malpractices, including thuggery, snatching of ballot boxes, falsification of results, destruction of voting material, and in most cases, violence resulting in killings [5] Iyayi argues that every government in power has always had their own designs, and in order to protect their interest, had often used the instruments of the state in penetrating electoral malpractices. According to him, while there has been continuity in violence and warfare, there has been lack of continuity in the political organisations, through which both violence and warfare have been conducted. The implications being that “each period has thus produced new political formations reflecting not only the penchant for lack of principle and shifting allegiance among members of the political class but also the total de-ideologisation of the issues on which members of the class were divided ‘into antagonistic camps”.
By hindsight, the authors can recall with nostalgia, the general elections of 1983; 2007; and 2015, which were characterised with condemnable magnitude of brigandage which led to the destruction of election materials and loss of lives. The election of 1983 was a “landmark” in the sense that, the aftermath confusion and the general sense of insecurity all over the country, coupled with the culture of corruption alleged of the government in power, resulted into the military coup that happened on 30 December 1983, and the emerging government headed by Major General Muhammadu Buhari. A notable feature of all these elections was that they were manually conducted, and therefore susceptible to fraud and manipulations of unimaginable proportions. This has persisted until hitherto, when the move to transit into a digitised process began way of calls, debates and eventual parliamentary consideration towards giving a legal backing to the innovation. A momentous stage was reached when the Electoral Amendment Bill was amended in 2010, and it made provision for the use and deployment of the Card Reader, and it meant that for the first time in Nigeria’s electoral history, electronic voter authentication system, with the aid of smart card readers, is being deployed for the 2015 general elections. As clarified by [7] Jega, the Card Reader is not a voting machine and is not used for voting, but it is used only for accreditation of voters, and only accreditation (and not voting) data is transmitted by it. This could be said to be the first bold move towards the digitisation of the Nigeria’s electoral system. As a result, the tendency to commit fraud at the point of casting votes became impossible, as accreditation could be authenticated by the machine, contrary to the old method of checking through manually written and printed lists, which were vulnerable to manipulations.
While this study is not concerned about the effect of the military in Nigeria’s politics and government, it is a common narrative that such incursions had, in one way or the other impacted how the country is structured, in addition to the militarisation of the process, such that the use of force in the way government operates and functions is the order of the day. Another feature of the Nigeria’s democratic system is that, several former military officers have now and continued to be active participants in the struggle for public offices. As a result, they have tended to always get their way through, having amassed stupendous wealth that can be deployed to wrest political power at all cost. Since the beginning of the 4th Republic in 1999, two former Heads of States have become civilian Presidents, and their administrations have not failed to reflect the orientation of the use of force associated with the military, in terms of the running of government, of which the electoral system is a part.
It is in this context that the agitations and moves towards digitising the electoral process began, and have gained momentum. But this ultimately would require an enabling legal framework which can only be actualised by the legislature as the appropriate arm of government for such responsibility. No doubt, the newly signed Electoral Law 2022 is a culmination of these aspirations, with the expectations that the implementation will be pursued with the requisite level of commitment and urgency, and in the most transparent manner. However, the authors are not inclined to suggest with finality, that the digitisation of an electoral system represents a perfect panacea to the challenges. It is important to underscore the fact there exists a need to integrate some level of manual operational procedure, most probably to serve as a double check mechanism. This position aligns with the spirit of a conference report by the European Centre for Electoral Support [8] ECES, on the need for the deployment of technological devices, such as the Electric Voting Machines (EVMs) that will include a Voter Verifiable Paper Audit Trail (VVPAT. The Report, which was the outcome of a Conference organised in collaboration with the Independent National Electoral Commission (a Nigeria’s Electoral Body), suggests that such innovation is a further step in promoting electoral integrity and transparency of the process, consistent with similar trends in countries reviewed. A part of the Report recommended that “technological driven electoral systems must be able to manage and create the necessary synergy between the People, Process and Technology (PPT)”.
Though, the digitisation of the electoral system has continued to attract more concerns and attentions in Nigeria. The growing advocacy for its adoption has not been restricted to the determined efforts of the nation’s electoral management body of the Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC). The Nigeria’s civil society community has also not relented in its persistent advocacy for the positive overhaul of the nation’s civic space. The civic society organisations have been in the forefront of promoting the ideals of transparent electoral system and enlightened mass mobilisation of the Nigerian citizenry. The calls for digitisation of the Nigerian electoral system with the support of the civil society for electronic voting, and electronic transmission of election results represent a part of the measures towards mitigating the operational flaws associated with the conduct of elections, and the path to credible electoral system in Nigeria.
Nigeria’s foray into the digital electoral system began in 2011 general elections, when the Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC) introduced the automated fingerprint identification mechanism as a preventive measure against multiple registrations which were more prevalent in the conducts of previous elections in Nigeria. The Nigeria’s electoral commission (INEC), further to that, deployed the use of permanent voter’s card and smart card readers during the 2015 general elections, as part of the revolutionary measures towards ridding the electoral management environment, off the usual malpractices which have marred all the successive elections in Nigeria. The permanent voter’s card enables the biometric identification of eligible voter at the polling station, through the smart card reader devices before casting of voting, while votes are subsequently counted manually at the ends of the voting exercises. The INEC had however, articulated the rationale behind the proposed adoption of the electronic transmission of election results on the principles of trust, efficiency and safety [9] INEC. As a response to the vulnerabilities of the manual method of conducting elections in the country, and its attendants negative consequences and abuse, the calls for a credible process, where votes will count, paved way for the introduction of electronic method, otherwise described as digitisation process. Proponents of this digitised process are of the view that such will bring about some sanity in the process of conducting elections, thereby either reducing or obviating the concerns of rigging and other forms of manipulations [10] Iwuoha describes the process as the applications of Information and Communications Technology (ICT)-driven innovations, to strengthen the quality of the electoral process [10] Iwuoha quoting Golden; Kramon and Ofosu (2014), supports the view that these technological solutions, such as “the electronic voting machines, polling station webcams, and biometric identification equipment offer the promise of rapid, accurate, and ostensibly tamper-proof innovations that are expected to reduce fraud in the processes of registration, voting, or vote count aggregation”.
Corroborating this standpoint, Professor Attahiru Jega, former Chairman of the Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC), unto whom the introduction of biometric accreditation technology of the Card Reader machine in Nigeria is attributed, asserts that by these innovations, rigging has been made impossible for electoral fraudsters, because, there is no way the total number of votes cast at the polling unit could exceed the number of accredited persons. According to him, issues of discrepancy in figures will be immediately spotted and remedial action taken. This technology made it impossible for any corrupt electoral officer to connive with any politician to pad-up results. The card reader machines will help us to address all those irregularities, starting from the stage of accreditation of voters at all the polling units [7] Jega argues that the information stored in both the card readers and the result sheets taken to the ward levels would be retrieved once there is evidence of manipulation. We believe that this is an added value to our process; it is something that we have not been able to do in the past, when elections were strictly conducted manually.
It is interesting to note that, included in the recently signed Electoral Law in Nigeria, is one of the basic components of a digitised electoral process, called the Card Reader device, the introduction of which is considered to have the potential to considerably improve the transparency and accountability of the process. The deployment of the device for the purpose of voter identification helps to obviate the fraud associated with the voters’ register, whereby vote-counts are usually greater than actual registered voters. Unfortunately, this had been the trend until now that the process is to be ICT-enabled. Given the unquantifiable benefits arising from the attempts to digitise the Nigerian electoral process, scholars such as [11] Omezue-Nnali (2020) have recommended that “a practical implementation of the usage of Card Reader machine and even the E-Voting machine and then immediate uploading of each polling unit result to the Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC) Database”.
In their view, this process would facilitate and further aid the transparency of INEC, and ease the stress of paper collation of results at their headquarters office. According to [11] Omezue-Nnali, there should be a “Central WhatsApp Platform (also ICT-enabled) where each polling unit should upload their results to immediately after announcing it at the Polling Unit. Subsequently, the hard copy of the election result would be brought to the collation centres as may have been designed, and this would be cross checked with the soft copy already uploaded”. It is believed that this process, among other things, would minimise the threats on the lives of Electoral Body’s State Resident officers by desperate politicians who have the tendency to manipulate election results, and would do any harm against resistance to such motives and intentions.
As indicated earlier above, a digitised electoral system is simply a process of conducting and managing election, beginning from registration (re-registration) of voters; voting procedure; collation/sorting; transmission of results to the declaration of same. To achieve this, the following essentials are required to be in place:
A relatively stable electricity supply;
A country-wide internet coverage service;
Biometric machines/Card Reader for voter identification/accreditation;
An enabling legislation, such as the Electoral Law in Nigeria.
However, it must be stated that while all these accompaniments are essential and required, the character of the personnel of the agency of government in charge of the process is of importance. The issue of fidelity and integrity to ensure a guaranteed electoral system cannot be over-emphasised. On the other hand, the political actors seeking elective offices must be people of unquestionable character, and should be individuals with the highest sense of responsibility, who will provide responsive representation for the service of the people. Unfortunately, in Nigeria as in other third world countries, particularly in Africa, the values of good conduct and the character of discipline require substantial improvement to ensure a sound electoral system and responsible governance.
It is an incontrovertible fact that the Nigeria’s civic space has witnessed some controversies which trailed the deployment of digital technologies in the conduct of elections in the country. The adoption of digital technologies during the 2015 and 2019 General Elections has however, placed some legitimacies on the Nigeria’s electoral process. Based on some of the concerns generated around the adoption of digital technology in the conduct of elections in Nigeria, the Nigerian Senate had, in July, 2021, initially opposed the provision for the adoption of electronic voting system and the transmission of results in the Electoral Act. However, the parliament’s position was reversed, following widespread agitations and protests, and these irretrievably led to the adoption of the electronic voting and the electronic transmission of results provisions, and therefore proposed as a part of the measures towards minimising electoral malpractices, which normally arose from manipulations and other negative vices peculiar to the electoral management of the past.
The Nigeria’s Senate had equally predicated its rejection of the proposed electronic and the electronic transmission of results on some flaws and technical hitches observed during 2015 and 2019 general elections with the widespread reported cases of malfunctioning card reader machine devices in some polling stations across Nigeria. The rejection had also been corroborated by the National Communication Commission’s report on the possible low coverage network area for the electronic transmission of election results in country. Invariably, the contention of the Nigeria’s Senate as regard the rejection of the electronic voting system and the electronic transmission of results, as partly enunciated above, could be better explained by the low internet access in Nigeria based on the available data indicating that only 473 out of the 774 local government areas in Nigeria have access to the internet coverage network [11] Fatai. This is as more revealing too, as evidential with the nature of the epileptic supply of the electricity power situation in Nigeria.
While the benefits that are associated with a technologically-powered electoral system are many and considerable, there are also remote and substantial challenges that exist, regardless of the circumstances, and those that are human-induced. In the efforts to identify the hindrances to achieving a workable electoral system that will help advance democratic practices or how government is organised, it is relevant to mention that, every society has its peculiarities in term of how political power is sought and appropriated.
In the context of Nigeria for instance, as an emerging democratic society, the substantial challenges militating against the adoption and implementation of a digitised electoral process include among other things:
Infrastructural deficit—This relates to power supply, which is clearly insufficient and inadequate; poor road network, which makes movement from one location to another very difficult.
Poor technological base—This is a common feature of the developing economies, of which Nigeria is a part. The reason for this is not far-fetched given the un-organised nature, and the absence of strategic planning of the society. Interestingly, the twenty-first century is driven by high-tech, necessary for industrial growth. A measure of a country’s strength is a function of its level of advancement in technology, coupled with innovations and inventions. No doubt, this situation can be attributed to the absence of effective leadership, with the requisite vision for growth and development.
Closely related to this, is the weak educational orientation and the lack of appropriate curricula required for transformation of the society, as well as, low public awareness on the part of the electoral commission and other relevant agencies saddled with the responsibilities of voter education. However, no country can afford to be in isolation while the wave of technological breakthroughs is blowing across the world.
However, efforts at the digitization of the Nigerian electoral system, as earlier reiterated, have not also endured without some of the perceived ecological challenges much prevalent within the developing democratic milieu as highlighted above. The challenge of the systemic operational and financial limitations could be further added, most especially, as part of the burdens faced by the electoral management in Nigeria. The Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC) has not been adequately empowered with the necessary wherewithal and the required independence to midwife effective electoral system. Inadequate funding and other operational limitations have become recurring bottlenecks to the actualization of the digitalisation efforts of INEC [11] Fatai affirms that, all of these identified operational limitations have cast doubts on the integrity of elections and raised other concerns about the reliability of digitalisation of electoral process within the Nigerian electoral system.
Besides the foregoing factors, a major challenge of a digitised electoral system in Nigeria, as in several other countries in Africa, is behavioural and the attitude of resistance to change. Experience has shown that, a vast majority of the people, particularly those in the country-side, have the tendency to resist transitions from a deep-seated way of life to a new pattern of doing things, regardless of ease, and would require a great deal of time for re-orientation and acclimatisation. Added to the above, the operational limitations faced by the Nigerian government agencies like the National Orientation Agency (NOA) in carrying out effective value-reorientation and mass mobilisation of Nigerian society, especially at the grassroots level have equally raised some concerns around the resistance to positive behavioural and attitudinal change. In the opinion of [12] Obinne Obiefuna-Oguejiofor, in order to address the technological concerns in Electronic Voting (E-Voting), the integrity of the applicable machine for the process is essential for public acceptance. According to him, given Nigerian citizens’ cyber habits, which border on fear and suspicions, the integrity of electoral data may be at risk [12] Obinne therefore suggests that concerns around technology-inclined process should be given priority, in order to protect the integrity of data and the veracity of same. This implies that every stakeholder involved in the operation and management of a process, and particularly which has to be tech-enabled, is expected to be efficient, diligent and committed. It must be understood that the phenomenon of election is about the people and how they are governed. It revolves around values of trust, transparency and selflessness. Unfortunately, all these are clearly absent in the era when elections were manually conducted and managed, thereby creating avenues for manipulations, which are usually executed in crude manners resulting unavoidably in chaos, destructions and fatalities.
As part of the identified operational challenges with the digitalisation of the electoral process in Nigeria, much were particularly also noted as during the 2019 general elections, with several reported cases of malfunctioning smart card readers in some polling stations nationwide, which interfered and caused hitches in the accreditation of voters. Though, the ad-hoc measures such as resort to manual voting and filling of incident forms on behalf of eligible voters by INEC officials were permitted, in the event of the inability of the smart card readers to authenticate voter’s card for accreditation. These ad-hoc measures were however, without their implications, as they cause some delays, thus leading to the extension of accreditation and voting periods in many polling stations across Nigeria, as several of such cases were recorded during the March, 2015 Presidential and National Assembly elections as noted and reported by [12] Fatai.
It is noteworthy to remark that, despite the plethora of challenges associated with the application of digital technology in Nigeria’s electoral system, there has been some significant, though, modest improvement since 2015, in the integrity of the entire electoral management system. Incidences of multiple registrations, as mostly occasioned through the complicity of the electoral officials, pre and post elections’ manipulations among other fraudulent tendencies have largely reduced, thereby restoring the integrity of the country’s electoral system.
The authors note that, following a critical review of the literature accessed and experience from hindsight in relation to the Nigeria’s electoral process till date, the following themes can be identified and posited:
That post-independence electoral system had been manual, hence vulnerable to manipulations by the emergent politicians;
That there exists a need to improve the country’s electoral system in line with evolving realties of technological advancements;
That the adoption of an ICT-enabled electoral system requires considerable infrastructural facilities for sustenance; and finally,
That the human-dimension, in terms of willingness to change; exhibition of sound moral values of transparency, accountability, selflessness, to ensure effective operation and implementation of a robust electoral system, be seen as a sine qua non.
This study is inclined to observe and admit that elections, as the dominant element in the practice of democracy, are of utmost importance, and require careful and strategic planning for its conduct and management. It is interesting to note that an improved electoral system, which is based on technology, tends to stimulate citizens’ participation, whereby the wishes of the people can be expressed to determine how their representatives are elected. Fundamentally, the citizens’ participation in the electoral system is of utmost importance, and this should be achieved through effective orientation and mobilisation, using appropriate communication channels.
In this section, the authors proceed to relate the identified themes which emerged in the course of literature survey on what the status and challenges of electoral system are in a digitised era, and what speculations are possible in the foreseeable future.
In response to research question a, which borders on the challenges of the conduct of election in Nigeria prior to the new Electoral Law, it is the view of the authors that, all that is required to mitigate against the challenges identified in the context of Nigeria’s electoral experience, is the commitment to do right. This implies that, once a system has been acceptably put in place, every attempt to subvert its full implementation should be resisted, and violators of the principles governing the process should be made to face the full wrath of the law. The culture of impunity, nepotism, favouritism and related misdemeanours should not only be frowned at, but attract strict punitive measures. Every member of the public is expected to be a part owner of the Nigerian enterprise, and all the country aspires to do and achieve for the benefit of all.
Regarding research question b, on what does a digitised electoral system entail, in terms of components? While the authors acknowledge the challenge of infrastructural facilities, and particularly the absence of stable power supply, they are of the view that concerted efforts be made to address this concern, not necessarily for the purpose of elections, but for the smooth functioning of society, as in other developed societies. Besides, technological facilities such as the internet and its enabling devices should be of priority concern for the government, such that its agencies responsible for Science and Technology should be up and doing, to formulate the requisite policy framework and the enabling environment to ensure both local innovations and external support in this regard.
In response to research c, which relates to how much of impact will a digitised electoral system have on the practice of democracy in plural society like Nigeria, the authors align with the view that, except otherwise proved, a digitised electoral system, particularly for the Third World countries, of which Nigeria is one, and under consideration, is inevitable. If only to mitigate the issues of brigandage, thuggery, ballot box snatching and other forms of violent practices associated with elections. In a more fundamental sense, a digitised electoral system will not only make voting easy and less cumbersome, it will enable storage of all electoral data, facilitate processing of data into information, and ensure speedy transmission of results. In the Nigeria’s case, there had always been issues around transmission of results, as desperate politicians had always targeted that stage to execute their nefarious intentions of manipulations. However, this does not rule out the possibility of a concomitant use of the manual procedure for some electoral activities, perhaps for the purpose of comparisons, double-check and audit.
Regarding research question d, which has to do with what challenges could impede the smooth operation of a digitised electoral system, and how can these be minimised? The authors strongly believe that, the existence of an enabling law for the conduct and management of electoral system in Nigeria is sine qua non, the absence of which only implies a return to the operation of the manual method of the past and its attendant consequences. In addition, the authors refuse to be content that the mere acquisition and deployment of technological devices for the conduct of elections is enough. As a matter of fact, the more important consideration has to do with the values of integrity and character of the personnel to operate and manage the devices for the purpose of realising the objectives for which they are meant. In other word, government agency saddled with the responsibility of managing the electoral process should ensure that its entire personnel exhibit the highest level of trustworthiness and willingness to do the right thing all the time. Closely related to this view, is the need for enthusiastic expression of patriotism by the population, and particularly the voting public to be willing to show commitment in upholding and preserving the integrity of the electoral process.
Worldwide, and particularly in the societies committed to democratic practices, technology-enabled electoral system is now the vogue. Whether in the developed or developing world, the resort to e-electoral system is gaining momentum, and efforts are being made to come to terms with the phenomenon. This much has been amplified by discourses at conference and studies reports bordering on the nexus between election management and technology. However, the level of a country’s technological development determines, among other factors, the process by which its government is run or operated. In the context of electoral system, given the growth of advancement in technology, and the deployment of internet-based facility, it can safely be speculated that elections and its associated processes, could be over 80% electronically executed in the foreseeable future. Perhaps, a reference to how speedily but without any inkling, the world reacted to the challenges of the outbreak of Covid-19, which resulted into limited interactions among the people, could be worthwhile. The ability to conduct activities and transactions between and among people far apart was no doubt, facilitated by innovative deployment of technology. Meetings can now be held online, just as information can be transmitted electronically, and with the fastest speed. The Zoom application and related devices in this regard, have suddenly become fashionable, for conducting online meetings and conferences with as much ease as possible. It can also be speculated that the role of technology in all facets of life, including but not limited to the conduct and management of electoral process, has come to stay, and will continue to be so, and with greater sophistication in deployment.
However, the role of hackers and people with nefarious intentions, aiming to break into the data storage facilities of individuals, organisations and even government, has become a source of concern, and thus poses a serious security threat to victims. In the opinion of [13] Obinne, “hackers will always attempt to hijack electoral results to favour a candidate, either for financial gain or for fun. According to him, given Nigeria’s reputation with cybercrime, its peculiar problem with idle youth, it is predictable that when Nigeria transits to e-voting, unscrupulous people will still attempt to hijack the process”. The authors of this study find this situation very disturbing and distressing, and therefore call for urgent and calculated approach by concerned stakeholders to mitigate against this scourge, by engaging in proactive measures as may be deemed appropriate.
So far, attempts have been made in this study to reflect on the status, challenges and trends of electoral system in a digitised era in Nigeria. The study sought to X-ray how the electoral law recently signed by the President Muhammadu Buhari, serves to enable and or facilitate the digitisation of the electoral system in the country. The study suggested the applicable theoretical framework deployed to underpin the research, and carried out considerable survey of relevant literature from which information needed to contextualise the focus as envisaged.
From the foregoing information and analysis of same, the authors align with the reality of ICT-enabled electoral system in Nigeria, and find the enactment of an enabling law for the regulation of the country’s electoral system very salutary, expected, laudable and encouraging. It is relevant that the euphoria that greeted the enactment of the law across the country suggests a widespread acceptance of same. In recalling the Behavioural Theory of elections as enunciated earlier in the study, which posits the rationality of the voter at any election even though it is a discretionary act, the study is of the view that an appropriate legal framework, such as the Nigeria’s Electoral Law, 2022, is a welcome development, for the smooth conduct and management of the Electoral System in the country. As noted by [13] Obinne Obiefuna-Oguejiofor, democracy relies on voters having well-founded trust in the processes used to collect and count their votes. Obinne agrees that while no system is perfect, some are clearly more vulnerable than others. E-voting is Nigeria best chance of securing a credible, fraud-free election system for Africa’s largest democracy. In line with the position of [14] Boix, it is recommendable that all the institutions or bodies involved in the Electoral process (such as the Independent National Electoral Commission, the Political parties, the Judiciary and the Executives) should ensure that the votes of the people count. This no doubt, will guarantee and sustain the deployment and implementation of a digitised electoral system, with implications for orderly transition in government.
For the purposes of emphasis, the authors will restate that, while an enabling law to legitimise the technological configuration of the Nigeria’s electoral system, in addition to other requisite considerations is laudable and welcome, it does not guarantee a perfect system. This much has been pinpointed as a part of the recommendations of the [7] ECES earlier mentioned. According to the report “it is important to bear in mind that technology even at its best, does not provide a full proof end-to-end solution to electoral challenges, as there are other aspects including the human interface with technology that needs to be carefully handled. Technological driven electoral systems must be able to manage and create the necessary synergy between the People, Process and Technology (PPT)”.
Conclusively, this study recommends the following:
While the adoption of a digitised electoral process is suitable in Nigeria, and in line with the dynamics of the times, its application should pay attention to the level of infrastructural development of the country, in terms of power supply and availability, and the need to ensure nationwide internet connectivity to drive the process.
The government agency saddled with the responsibility for the conduct and management of elections should appreciate the need to engage in extensive voter education, as majority of the voters reside in the countryside, where the level of literacy is considerably low, to achieve effective participation of qualified electorate.
The level of patriotism of both public officers at all levels and the citizens in general must be seen to reflect the abiding commitment to a credible, transparent, equitable and reliable electoral system, to justify the use and deployment of technology and its associated cost implications.
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All published Book Chapters are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. Monographs are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others. Our Copyright Policy aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. IntechOpen upholds a flexible Copyright Policy meaning that there is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors hold exclusive copyright to their work.
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It is a cofactor for enzymes involved in regulating photosynthesis, hormone biosynthesis, and regenerating other antioxidants; which also regulates cell division and growth, is involved in signal transduction, and has roles in several physiological processes, such as immune stimulation, synthesis of collagen, hormones, neurotransmitters, and iron absorption, has also roles in detoxifying the body of heavy metals. Severe deficiency of vitamin C causes scurvy, whereas limited vitamin C intake causes symptoms, such as increased susceptibility to infections, loosening of teeth, dryness of the mouth and eyes, loss of hair, dry itchy skin, fatigue, and insomnia. In contrast, vitamin C can also act as a prooxidant, especially in the presence of transition metals, such as iron and copper, starting different hazardous radical reactions. Vitamin C can both act as a strong, efficient, and cheap antioxidant agent and, at the same time, behave as a radical promoter. Further investigations are needed to illuminate the dual roles of vitamin C",book:{id:"5940",slug:"vitamin-c",title:"Vitamin C",fullTitle:"Vitamin C"},signatures:"Fadime Eryılmaz Pehlivan",authors:[{id:"200567",title:"Dr.",name:"Fadime",middleName:null,surname:"Eryılmaz Pehlivan",slug:"fadime-eryilmaz-pehlivan",fullName:"Fadime Eryılmaz Pehlivan"}]},{id:"56440",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70162",title:"Vitamin C: Sources, Functions, Sensing and Analysis",slug:"vitamin-c-sources-functions-sensing-and-analysis",totalDownloads:6438,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:"Vitamin C is a water-soluble compound found in living organisms. It is an essential nutrient for various metabolism in our body and also serves as a reagent for the preparation of many materials in the pharmaceutical and food industry. In this perspective, this chapter can develop interest and curiosity among all practicing scientists and technologists by expounding the details of its sources, chemistry, multifunctional properties and applications.",book:{id:"5940",slug:"vitamin-c",title:"Vitamin C",fullTitle:"Vitamin C"},signatures:"Sudha J. Devaki and Reshma Lali Raveendran",authors:[{id:"187911",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sudha",middleName:null,surname:"J Devaki",slug:"sudha-j-devaki",fullName:"Sudha J Devaki"},{id:"204937",title:"Mrs.",name:"Reshma",middleName:null,surname:"Laly Ravindran",slug:"reshma-laly-ravindran",fullName:"Reshma Laly Ravindran"}]},{id:"50921",doi:"10.5772/63712",title:"Menaquinones, Bacteria, and Foods: Vitamin K2 in the Diet",slug:"menaquinones-bacteria-and-foods-vitamin-k2-in-the-diet",totalDownloads:3328,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:"Vitamin K2 is a collection of isoprenologues that mostly originate from bacterial synthesis, also called menaquinones (MKs). Multiple bacterial species used as starter cultures for food fermentation are known to synthesize MK. Therefore, fermented food is the best source of vitamin K2. In the Western diet, dairy products are one of the best known and most commonly consumed group of fermented products.",book:{id:"5169",slug:"vitamin-k2-vital-for-health-and-wellbeing",title:"Vitamin K2",fullTitle:"Vitamin K2 - Vital for Health and Wellbeing"},signatures:"Barbara Walther and Magali Chollet",authors:[{id:"184784",title:"Dr.",name:"Barbara",middleName:null,surname:"Walther",slug:"barbara-walther",fullName:"Barbara Walther"},{id:"188194",title:"Mrs.",name:"Magali",middleName:null,surname:"Chollet",slug:"magali-chollet",fullName:"Magali Chollet"}]},{id:"66098",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84445",title:"Golden Rice: To Combat Vitamin A Deficiency for Public Health",slug:"golden-rice-to-combat-vitamin-a-deficiency-for-public-health",totalDownloads:3386,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"Vitamin A deficiency (VAD) has been recognised as a significant public health problem continuously for more than 30 years, despite current interventions. The problem is particularly severe in populations where rice is the staple food and diversity of diet is limited, as white rice contains no micronutrients. Golden Rice is a public-sector product designed as an additional intervention for VAD. There will be no charge for the nutritional trait, which has been donated by its inventors for use in public-sector rice varieties to assist the resource poor, and no limitations on what small farmers can do with the crop—saving and replanting seed, selling seed and selling grain are all possible. Because Golden Rice had to be created by introducing two new genes—one from maize and the other from a very commonly ingested soil bacterium—it has taken a long time to get from the laboratory to the field. Now it has been formally registered as safe as food, feed, or in processed form by four industrialised counties, and applications are pending in developing countries. The data are summarised here, and criticisms addressed, for a public health professional audience: is it needed, will it work, is it safe and is it economic? Adoption of Golden Rice, the next step after in-country registration, requires strategic and tactical cooperation across professions, non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and government departments often not used to working together. Public health professionals need to play a prominent role.",book:{id:"7978",slug:"vitamin-a",title:"Vitamin A",fullTitle:"Vitamin A"},signatures:"Adrian Dubock",authors:[{id:"273220",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Adrian",middleName:null,surname:"Dubock",slug:"adrian-dubock",fullName:"Adrian Dubock"}]},{id:"62836",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79350",title:"The Role of Thiamine in Plants and Current Perspectives in Crop Improvement",slug:"the-role-of-thiamine-in-plants-and-current-perspectives-in-crop-improvement",totalDownloads:1566,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Current research is focusing on selecting potential genes that can alleviate stress and produce disease-tolerant crop variety. The novel paradigm is to investigate the potential of thiamine as a crop protection molecule in plants. Thiamine or vitamin B1 is important for primary metabolism for all living organisms. The active form, thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP), is a cofactor for the enzymes involved in the synthesis of amino acids, tricarboxylic acid cycle and pentose phosphate pathway. Recently, thiamine is shown to have a role in the processes underlying protection of plants against biotic and abiotic stresses. The aim of this chapter is to review the role of thiamine in plant growth and disease protection and also to highlight that TPP and its intermediates are involved in management of stress. The perspectives on its potential for manipulating the biosynthesis pathway in crop improvement will also be discussed.",book:{id:"6709",slug:"b-group-vitamins-current-uses-and-perspectives",title:"B Group Vitamins",fullTitle:"B Group Vitamins - Current Uses and Perspectives"},signatures:"Atiqah Subki, Aisamuddin Ardi Zainal Abidin and Zetty Norhana\nBalia Yusof",authors:[{id:"240031",title:"Dr.",name:"Zetty-Norhana Balia",middleName:null,surname:"Yusof",slug:"zetty-norhana-balia-yusof",fullName:"Zetty-Norhana Balia Yusof"},{id:"261167",title:"Mr.",name:"Aisamuddin Ardi",middleName:null,surname:"Zainal Abidin",slug:"aisamuddin-ardi-zainal-abidin",fullName:"Aisamuddin Ardi Zainal Abidin"},{id:"261169",title:"Ms.",name:"Atiqah",middleName:null,surname:"Subki",slug:"atiqah-subki",fullName:"Atiqah Subki"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"56440",title:"Vitamin C: Sources, Functions, Sensing and Analysis",slug:"vitamin-c-sources-functions-sensing-and-analysis",totalDownloads:6429,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:"Vitamin C is a water-soluble compound found in living organisms. It is an essential nutrient for various metabolism in our body and also serves as a reagent for the preparation of many materials in the pharmaceutical and food industry. In this perspective, this chapter can develop interest and curiosity among all practicing scientists and technologists by expounding the details of its sources, chemistry, multifunctional properties and applications.",book:{id:"5940",slug:"vitamin-c",title:"Vitamin C",fullTitle:"Vitamin C"},signatures:"Sudha J. Devaki and Reshma Lali Raveendran",authors:[{id:"187911",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sudha",middleName:null,surname:"J Devaki",slug:"sudha-j-devaki",fullName:"Sudha J Devaki"},{id:"204937",title:"Mrs.",name:"Reshma",middleName:null,surname:"Laly Ravindran",slug:"reshma-laly-ravindran",fullName:"Reshma Laly Ravindran"}]},{id:"56013",title:"Vitamin C: An Antioxidant Agent",slug:"vitamin-c-an-antioxidant-agent",totalDownloads:7817,totalCrossrefCites:27,totalDimensionsCites:60,abstract:"Vitamin C or ascorbic acid (AsA) is a naturally occurring organic compound with antioxidant properties, found in both animals and plants. It functions as a redox buffer which can reduce, and thereby neutralize, reactive oxygen species. It is a cofactor for enzymes involved in regulating photosynthesis, hormone biosynthesis, and regenerating other antioxidants; which also regulates cell division and growth, is involved in signal transduction, and has roles in several physiological processes, such as immune stimulation, synthesis of collagen, hormones, neurotransmitters, and iron absorption, has also roles in detoxifying the body of heavy metals. Severe deficiency of vitamin C causes scurvy, whereas limited vitamin C intake causes symptoms, such as increased susceptibility to infections, loosening of teeth, dryness of the mouth and eyes, loss of hair, dry itchy skin, fatigue, and insomnia. In contrast, vitamin C can also act as a prooxidant, especially in the presence of transition metals, such as iron and copper, starting different hazardous radical reactions. Vitamin C can both act as a strong, efficient, and cheap antioxidant agent and, at the same time, behave as a radical promoter. Further investigations are needed to illuminate the dual roles of vitamin C",book:{id:"5940",slug:"vitamin-c",title:"Vitamin C",fullTitle:"Vitamin C"},signatures:"Fadime Eryılmaz Pehlivan",authors:[{id:"200567",title:"Dr.",name:"Fadime",middleName:null,surname:"Eryılmaz Pehlivan",slug:"fadime-eryilmaz-pehlivan",fullName:"Fadime Eryılmaz Pehlivan"}]},{id:"69402",title:"Vitamin D Deficiency and Diabetes Mellitus",slug:"vitamin-d-deficiency-and-diabetes-mellitus",totalDownloads:1604,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Vitamin D (VD) is a molecule that can be synthesized directly in the humans’ body or enter the organism with food in the form of inactive precursors. To exert its biological action, VD undergoes two-stage hydroxylation (at the 25th and 1st position) catalyzed by cytochromes P450, the presence of which has already been shown in almost all tissues of the human body. The product of hydroxylation is hormone-active form of vitamin D–1,25(OH)2D. 1,25(OH)2D binds to specific vitamin D receptor (VDR) and regulates the expression of genes involved in bone remodeling (classical function) and genes that control immune response, hormone secretion, cell proliferation, and differentiation (nonclassical functions). VD deficiency is prevalent around the globe and may be one of the key factors for diabetes development. The direct association between vitamin D deficiency and type 1 (T1D) and type 2 (T2D) diabetes has been proven. Detection of VDR in pancreas and adipose tissue, skeletal muscles, and immune cells allowed implying the antidiabetic role of vitamin D by enhancing insulin synthesis and exocytosis, increasing the expression of the insulin receptor, and modulating immune cells’ functions. This chapter summarizes data about relationship between VD insufficiency/deficiency and development of T1D and T2D, and their complications.",book:{id:"7038",slug:"vitamin-d-deficiency",title:"Vitamin D Deficiency",fullTitle:"Vitamin D Deficiency"},signatures:"Ihor Shymanskyi, Olha Lisakovska, Anna Mazanova and Mykola Veliky",authors:null},{id:"76108",title:"Vitamin D Metabolism",slug:"vitamin-d-metabolism",totalDownloads:498,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Vitamin D plays an important role in bone metabolism. Vitamin D is a group of biologically inactive, fat-soluble prohormones that exist in two major forms: ergocalciferol (vitamin D2) produced by plants in response to ultraviolet irradiation and cholecalciferol (vitamin D3) derived from animal tissues or 7-dehydrocholesterol in human skin by the action of ultraviolet rays present in sunlight. Vitamin D, which is biologically inactive, needs two-step hydroxylation for activation. All of these steps are of crucial for Vitamin D to show its effect properly. In this section, we will present vitamin D synthesis and its action steps in detail.",book:{id:"10631",slug:"vitamin-d",title:"Vitamin D",fullTitle:"Vitamin D"},signatures:"Sezer Acar and Behzat Özkan",authors:[{id:"29878",title:"Dr.",name:"Behzat",middleName:null,surname:"Özkan",slug:"behzat-ozkan",fullName:"Behzat Özkan"},{id:"348287",title:"Dr.",name:"Sezer",middleName:null,surname:"Acar",slug:"sezer-acar",fullName:"Sezer Acar"}]},{id:"50754",title:"Medicinal Chemistry of Vitamin K Derivatives and Metabolites",slug:"medicinal-chemistry-of-vitamin-k-derivatives-and-metabolites",totalDownloads:1917,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Vitamin K acts as a cofactor for γ‐glutamyl carboxylase. Recently, various biological activities of vitamin K have been reported. Anti‐proliferative activities of vitamin K, especially in vitamin K3, are well known. In addition, various physiological and pharmacological functions of vitamin K2, such as transcription modulators as nuclear steroid and xenobiotic receptor (SXR) ligands and anti‐inflammatory effects, have been revealed in the past decade. Characterization of vitamin K metabolites is also important for clinical application of vitamin K and its derivatives. In this chapter, recent progress on the medicinal chemistry of vitamin K derivatives and metabolites is discussed.",book:{id:"5169",slug:"vitamin-k2-vital-for-health-and-wellbeing",title:"Vitamin K2",fullTitle:"Vitamin K2 - Vital for Health and Wellbeing"},signatures:"Shinya Fujii and Hiroyuki Kagechika",authors:[{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika"},{id:"180529",title:"Dr.",name:"Shinya",middleName:null,surname:"Fujii",slug:"shinya-fujii",fullName:"Shinya Fujii"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"42",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:124,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 2nd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:33,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:42,paginationItems:[{id:"82914",title:"Glance on the Critical Role of IL-23 Receptor Gene Variations in Inflammation-Induced Carcinogenesis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105049",signatures:"Mohammed El-Gedamy",slug:"glance-on-the-critical-role-of-il-23-receptor-gene-variations-in-inflammation-induced-carcinogenesis",totalDownloads:15,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Chemokines Updates",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11672.jpg",subseries:{id:"18",title:"Proteomics"}}},{id:"82875",title:"Lipidomics as a Tool in the Diagnosis and Clinical Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105857",signatures:"María Elizbeth Alvarez Sánchez, Erick Nolasco Ontiveros, Rodrigo Arreola, Adriana Montserrat Espinosa González, Ana María García Bores, Roberto Eduardo López Urrutia, Ignacio Peñalosa Castro, María del Socorro Sánchez Correa and Edgar Antonio Estrella Parra",slug:"lipidomics-as-a-tool-in-the-diagnosis-and-clinical-therapy",totalDownloads:9,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82440",title:"Lipid Metabolism and Associated Molecular Signaling Events in Autoimmune Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105746",signatures:"Mohan Vanditha, Sonu Das and Mathew John",slug:"lipid-metabolism-and-associated-molecular-signaling-events-in-autoimmune-disease",totalDownloads:17,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82483",title:"Oxidative Stress in Cardiovascular Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105891",signatures:"Laura Mourino-Alvarez, Tamara Sastre-Oliva, Nerea Corbacho-Alonso and Maria G. Barderas",slug:"oxidative-stress-in-cardiovascular-diseases",totalDownloads:10,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Importance of Oxidative Stress and Antioxidant System in Health and Disease",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11671.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:33,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7006",title:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7006.jpg",slug:"biochemistry-and-health-benefits-of-fatty-acids",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Viduranga Waisundara",hash:"c93a00abd68b5eba67e5e719f67fd20b",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",editors:[{id:"194281",title:"Dr.",name:"Viduranga Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Waisundara",slug:"viduranga-y.-waisundara",fullName:"Viduranga Y. Waisundara",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194281/images/system/194281.jpg",biography:"Dr. Viduranga Waisundara obtained her Ph.D. in Food Science\nand Technology from the Department of Chemistry, National\nUniversity of Singapore, in 2010. She was a lecturer at Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore from July 2009 to March 2013.\nShe relocated to her motherland of Sri Lanka and spearheaded the Functional Food Product Development Project at the\nNational Institute of Fundamental Studies from April 2013 to\nOctober 2016. She was a senior lecturer on a temporary basis at the Department of\nFood Technology, Faculty of Technology, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. She is\ncurrently Deputy Principal of the Australian College of Business and Technology –\nKandy Campus, Sri Lanka. She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI)",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:{name:"Kobe College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. 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He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:{name:"Association for Computing Machinery",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:"Manufacturing and Technology Integrated Campus – SENAI CIMATEC",institution:null},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"426586",title:"Dr.",name:"Oladunni A.",middleName:null,surname:"Daramola",slug:"oladunni-a.-daramola",fullName:"Oladunni A. Daramola",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Technology",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"357014",title:"Prof.",name:"Leon",middleName:null,surname:"Bobrowski",slug:"leon-bobrowski",fullName:"Leon Bobrowski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bialystok University of Technology",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"302698",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Shan",slug:"yao-shan",fullName:"Yao Shan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"354126",title:"Dr.",name:"Setiawan",middleName:null,surname:"Hadi",slug:"setiawan-hadi",fullName:"Setiawan Hadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Padjadjaran University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"125911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jia-Ching",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jia-ching-wang",fullName:"Jia-Ching Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"332603",title:"Prof.",name:"Kumar S.",middleName:null,surname:"Ray",slug:"kumar-s.-ray",fullName:"Kumar S. Ray",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Statistical Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"415409",title:"Prof.",name:"Maghsoud",middleName:null,surname:"Amiri",slug:"maghsoud-amiri",fullName:"Maghsoud Amiri",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Allameh Tabataba'i University",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"357085",title:"Mr.",name:"P. Mohan",middleName:null,surname:"Anand",slug:"p.-mohan-anand",fullName:"P. Mohan Anand",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356696",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"P.V.",middleName:null,surname:"Sai Charan",slug:"p.v.-sai-charan",fullName:"P.V. Sai Charan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"357086",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandeep K.",middleName:null,surname:"Shukla",slug:"sandeep-k.-shukla",fullName:"Sandeep K. Shukla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"17",type:"subseries",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11413,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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