\\n\\n
Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\\n\\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\\n\\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\\n\\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\\n\\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\\n\\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\\n\\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Preparation of Space Experiments edited by international leading expert Dr. Vladimir Pletser, Director of Space Training Operations at Blue Abyss is the 5,000th Open Access book published by IntechOpen and our milestone publication!
\n\n"This book presents some of the current trends in space microgravity research. The eleven chapters introduce various facets of space research in physical sciences, human physiology and technology developed using the microgravity environment not only to improve our fundamental understanding in these domains but also to adapt this new knowledge for application on earth." says the editor. Listen what else Dr. Pletser has to say...
\n\n\n\nDr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\n\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\n\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\n\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\n\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\n\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\n\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-partners-with-ehs-for-digital-advertising-representation-20210416",title:"IntechOpen Partners with EHS for Digital Advertising Representation"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-new-contract-with-cepiec-china-for-distribution-of-open-access-books-20210319",title:"IntechOpen Signs New Contract with CEPIEC, China for Distribution of Open Access Books"},{slug:"150-million-downloads-and-counting-20210316",title:"150 Million Downloads and Counting"},{slug:"intechopen-secures-indefinite-content-preservation-with-clockss-20210309",title:"IntechOpen Secures Indefinite Content Preservation with CLOCKSS"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-to-all-global-amazon-channels-with-full-catalog-of-books-20210308",title:"IntechOpen Expands to All Global Amazon Channels with Full Catalog of Books"},{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"2271",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Reliability and Safety in Railway",title:"Reliability and Safety in Railway",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"In railway applications, performance studies are fundamental to increase the lifetime of railway systems. One of their main goals is verifying whether their working conditions are reliable and safety. This task not only takes into account the analysis of the whole traction chain, but also requires ensuring that the railway infrastructure is properly working. Therefore, several tests for detecting any dysfunctions on their proper operation have been developed. This book covers this topic, introducing the reader to railway traction fundamentals, providing some ideas on safety and reliability issues, and experimental approaches to detect any of these dysfunctions. The objective of the book is to serve as a valuable reference for students, educators, scientists, faculty members, researchers, and engineers.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-0451-3",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6187-5",doi:"10.5772/2660",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"reliability-and-safety-in-railway",numberOfPages:432,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,hash:"dc878cf0bd0cccdb16386293622ba7de",bookSignature:"Xavier Perpinya",publishedDate:"March 30th 2012",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2271.jpg",numberOfDownloads:103739,numberOfWosCitations:90,numberOfCrossrefCitations:50,numberOfDimensionsCitations:97,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:237,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 9th 2011",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 6th 2011",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"October 11th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 10th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"March 9th 2012",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"111217",title:"Dr.",name:"Xavier",middleName:null,surname:"Perpinya",slug:"xavier-perpinya",fullName:"Xavier Perpinya",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/111217/images/system/111217.jpg",biography:"Xavier Perpiñà was born in Almenar, Spain, in 1976. He received the B.S. degree in physics, the M.Phil. degree in electronic engineering, and the Ph.D. degree from the Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Spain, in 1999, 2002, and 2005, respectively. In 1999, he was with the Institut de Microelectrònica de Barcelona-Centre Nacional de Microelectrònica (IMB-CNM), Spanish Research Council (CSIC), Bellaterra, Spain, where he worked in the clean room and, then until 2005, he began his research activity with the Power Devices and Systems Group, IMB-CNM. From 2005 to 2007, he was with Alstom Transport, where he developed studies on thermal management and power-converters reliability. He is currently a Contracted Researcher with IMB-CNM and his research deals with thermal investigations and reliability studies in power devices and packaging. He has authored and coauthored more than 60 research papers in international conferences and refereed journals. He also belongs to the scientific committee of EUROSIME conference and THERMINIC workshop.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"807",title:"Safety Engineering",slug:"safety-engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"34430",title:"Railway Traction",doi:"10.5772/36339",slug:"railway-traction",totalDownloads:21916,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,signatures:"José A. Lozano, Jesús Félez, Juan de Dios Sanz and José M. Mera",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/34430",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/34430",authors:[{id:"107892",title:"Prof.",name:"José Antonio",surname:"Lozano Ruiz",slug:"jose-antonio-lozano-ruiz",fullName:"José Antonio Lozano Ruiz"}],corrections:null},{id:"34431",title:"Train Braking",doi:"10.5772/37552",slug:"braking-systems-for-railway-vehicles",totalDownloads:23667,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:16,signatures:"Cătălin Cruceanu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/34431",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/34431",authors:[{id:"113226",title:"Dr.",name:"Catalin",surname:"Cruceanu",slug:"catalin-cruceanu",fullName:"Catalin Cruceanu"}],corrections:null},{id:"34432",title:"New Advances in Design of Railway Track System",doi:"10.5772/35903",slug:"new-advances-in-design-of-railway-track-system",totalDownloads:10035,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,signatures:"Javad Sadeghi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/34432",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/34432",authors:[{id:"106305",title:"Prof.",name:"Javad",surname:"Sadeghi",slug:"javad-sadeghi",fullName:"Javad Sadeghi"}],corrections:null},{id:"34433",title:"Research on Improving Quality of Electricity Energy in Train's Traction",doi:"10.5772/35893",slug:"research-on-improving-quality-of-electricity-energy-in-train-s-traction",totalDownloads:2380,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Huang Yuanliang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/34433",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/34433",authors:[{id:"106260",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuanliang",surname:"Huang",slug:"yuanliang-huang",fullName:"Yuanliang Huang"}],corrections:null},{id:"34434",title:"Improvement of Automatic Train Operation Using Enhanced Predictive Fuzzy Control Method",doi:"10.5772/37531",slug:"improvement-of-automatic-train-operation-using-enhanced-predictive-fuzzy-control-method",totalDownloads:2443,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:4,signatures:"Mohammad Ali Sandidzadeh and Babak Shamszadeh",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/34434",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/34434",authors:[{id:"105063",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad",surname:"Sandidzadeh",slug:"mohammad-sandidzadeh",fullName:"Mohammad Sandidzadeh"},{id:"113135",title:"MSc.",name:"Babak",surname:"Shamszadeh",slug:"babak-shamszadeh",fullName:"Babak Shamszadeh"}],corrections:null},{id:"34435",title:"System for Investigation of Railway Interfaces (SIRI)",doi:"10.5772/36982",slug:"railway-system-safety",totalDownloads:2454,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Sanjeev Kumar Appicharla",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/34435",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/34435",authors:[{id:"110711",title:"Mr.",name:"Sanjeev",surname:"Appicharla",slug:"sanjeev-appicharla",fullName:"Sanjeev Appicharla"}],corrections:null},{id:"34436",title:"Reliability and Lifetime Prediction for IGBT Modules in Railway Traction Chains",doi:"10.5772/38268",slug:"reliability-and-lifetime-prediction-for-igbt-modules-in-railway-traction-chains",totalDownloads:6669,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:17,signatures:"X. Perpiñà, L. Navarro, X. Jordà, M. Vellvehi, Jean-François Serviere and M. Mermet-Guyennet",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/34436",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/34436",authors:[{id:"113434",title:"Dr.",name:"Michel",surname:"Mermet Guyennet",slug:"michel-mermet-guyennet",fullName:"Michel Mermet Guyennet"},{id:"116315",title:"Dr.",name:"Xavier",surname:"Perpinya",slug:"xavier-perpinya",fullName:"Xavier Perpinya"},{id:"116333",title:"MSc.",name:"Luis",surname:"Navarro",slug:"luis-navarro",fullName:"Luis Navarro"},{id:"116334",title:"Dr.",name:"Miquel",surname:"Vellvehi",slug:"miquel-vellvehi",fullName:"Miquel Vellvehi"},{id:"116335",title:"Dr.",name:"Xavier",surname:"Jordà",slug:"xavier-jorda",fullName:"Xavier Jordà"},{id:"116336",title:"MSc.",name:"Michel",surname:"Piton",slug:"michel-piton",fullName:"Michel Piton"},{id:"116337",title:"BSc.",name:"Jean-François",surname:"Serviere",slug:"jean-francois-serviere",fullName:"Jean-François Serviere"}],corrections:null},{id:"34437",title:"The Compatibility and Preparation of the Key Components for Cement and Asphalt Mortar in High-Speed Railway",doi:"10.5772/35722",slug:"the-compatibility-and-preparation-of-the-key-components-for-cement-and-asphalt-mortar-in-high-speed-",totalDownloads:6856,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,signatures:"Fazhou Wang and Yunpeng Liu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/34437",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/34437",authors:[{id:"105609",title:"Prof.",name:"Fazhou",surname:"Wang",slug:"fazhou-wang",fullName:"Fazhou Wang"},{id:"147534",title:"Dr.",name:"Yunpeng",surname:"Liu",slug:"yunpeng-liu",fullName:"Yunpeng Liu"}],corrections:null},{id:"34438",title:"A Systems Approach to Assurance of Safety, Security and Sustainability in Railways",doi:"10.5772/36426",slug:"a-systems-approach-to-assurance-of-safety-security-and-sustainability-in-railways",totalDownloads:2206,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"A.G. Hessami",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/34438",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/34438",authors:[{id:"108303",title:"Prof.",name:"Ali G.",surname:"Hessami",slug:"ali-g.-hessami",fullName:"Ali G. Hessami"}],corrections:null},{id:"34439",title:"Icing and Anti-Icing of Railway Contact Wires",doi:"10.5772/37141",slug:"icing-and-anti-icing-of-railway-contact-wires",totalDownloads:6445,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,signatures:"Liu Heyun, Gu Xiaosong and Tang Wenbin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/34439",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/34439",authors:[{id:"111438",title:"Prof.",name:"Heyun",surname:"Liu",slug:"heyun-liu",fullName:"Heyun Liu"}],corrections:null},{id:"34440",title:"Multifunction Portals for Train Monitoring: Recent Advances and Innovative Optoelectronic Instrumentation",doi:"10.5772/37626",slug:"multifunction-portals-for-train-monitoring-recent-advances-and-innovative-optoelectronic-instrumenta",totalDownloads:2063,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,signatures:"Luca Fumagalli, Paolo Tomassini, Marco Zanatta, Giorgio Libretti, Marco Trebeschi, Giovanna Sansoni and Franco Docchio",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/34440",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/34440",authors:[{id:"43273",title:"Prof.",name:"Giovanna",surname:"Sansoni",slug:"giovanna-sansoni",fullName:"Giovanna Sansoni"},{id:"52632",title:"Prof.",name:"Franco",surname:"Docchio",slug:"franco-docchio",fullName:"Franco Docchio"},{id:"113566",title:"Dr.",name:"Luca",surname:"Fumagalli",slug:"luca-fumagalli",fullName:"Luca Fumagalli"},{id:"113589",title:"Dr.",name:"Paolo",surname:"Tomassini",slug:"paolo-tomassini",fullName:"Paolo Tomassini"},{id:"113590",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",surname:"Zanatta",slug:"marco-zanatta",fullName:"Marco Zanatta"},{id:"113591",title:"Dr.",name:"Giorgio",surname:"Libretti",slug:"giorgio-libretti",fullName:"Giorgio Libretti"},{id:"113593",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",surname:"Trebeschi",slug:"marco-trebeschi",fullName:"Marco Trebeschi"}],corrections:null},{id:"34441",title:"Condition Monitoring of Railway Track Using In-Service Vehicle",doi:"10.5772/35205",slug:"condition-monitoring-of-railway-track-using-in-service-vehicle",totalDownloads:4674,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:34,signatures:"Hitoshi Tsunashima, Yasukuni Naganuma, Akira Matsumoto, Takeshi Mizuma and Hirotaka Mori",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/34441",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/34441",authors:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",surname:"Tsunashima",slug:"hitoshi-tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima"},{id:"113419",title:"Prof.",name:"Akira",surname:"Matsumoto",slug:"akira-matsumoto",fullName:"Akira Matsumoto"},{id:"113420",title:"Dr.",name:"Takeshi",surname:"Mizuma",slug:"takeshi-mizuma",fullName:"Takeshi Mizuma"},{id:"113422",title:"Mr.",name:"Hirotaka",surname:"Mori",slug:"hirotaka-mori",fullName:"Hirotaka Mori"},{id:"113423",title:"MSc.",name:"Yasukuni",surname:"Naganuma",slug:"yasukuni-naganuma",fullName:"Yasukuni Naganuma"}],corrections:null},{id:"34442",title:"Lateral Resistance of Railway Track",doi:"10.5772/35421",slug:"lateral-resistance-of-railway-track",totalDownloads:5856,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:11,signatures:"Jabbar Ali Zakeri",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/34442",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/34442",authors:[{id:"104326",title:"Prof.",name:"Jabbar-Ali",surname:"Zakeri",slug:"jabbar-ali-zakeri",fullName:"Jabbar-Ali Zakeri"}],corrections:null},{id:"34443",title:"Speed Sensorless Control of Motor for Railway Vehicles",doi:"10.5772/36514",slug:"speed-sensorless-control-of-tracton-motor-for-railway-vehicles",totalDownloads:2911,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Ding Rongjun",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/34443",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/34443",authors:[{id:"108612",title:"Mr.",name:"Rongjun",surname:"Ding",slug:"rongjun-ding",fullName:"Rongjun Ding"}],corrections:null},{id:"34444",title:"New Ultrasonic Techniques for Detecting and Quantifying Railway Wheel-Flats",doi:"10.5772/35236",slug:"ultrasonic-dynamic-technique-for-detecting-and-quantifying-railway-wheel-flats-",totalDownloads:3172,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Jose Brizuela, Carlos Fritsch and Alberto Ibáñez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/34444",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/34444",authors:[{id:"103568",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose",surname:"Brizuela",slug:"jose-brizuela",fullName:"Jose Brizuela"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1991",title:"Infrastructure Design, Signalling and Security in Railway",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2151ad71a0cc7423ed852ab93d8c70f8",slug:"infrastructure-design-signalling-and-security-in-railway",bookSignature:"Xavier Perpinya",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1991.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111217",title:"Dr.",name:"Xavier",surname:"Perpinya",slug:"xavier-perpinya",fullName:"Xavier Perpinya"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3673",title:"Advances in Risk Management",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"advances-in-risk-management",bookSignature:"Giancarlo Nota",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3673.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"10232",title:"Prof.",name:"Giancarlo",surname:"Nota",slug:"giancarlo-nota",fullName:"Giancarlo Nota"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"73132",slug:"corrigendum-to-soil-erosion-influencing-factors-in-the-semiarid-area-of-northern-shaanxi-province-ch",title:"Corrigendum to: Soil Erosion Influencing Factors in the Semiarid Area of Northern Shaanxi Province, China",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/73132.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73132",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73132",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/73132",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/73132",chapter:{id:"72647",slug:"soil-erosion-influencing-factors-in-the-semiarid-area-of-northern-shaanxi-province-china",signatures:"Ning Ai, Qingke Zhu, Guangquan Liu and Tianxing Wei",dateSubmitted:"February 25th 2020",dateReviewed:"May 22nd 2020",datePrePublished:"June 29th 2020",datePublished:"March 24th 2021",book:{id:"8937",title:"Soil Moisture Importance",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Soil Moisture Importance",slug:"soil-moisture-importance",publishedDate:"March 24th 2021",bookSignature:"Ram Swaroop Meena and Rahul Datta",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8937.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"313528",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ram Swaroop",middleName:null,surname:"Meena",slug:"ram-swaroop-meena",fullName:"Ram Swaroop Meena"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"319114",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ning",middleName:null,surname:"Ai",fullName:"Ning Ai",slug:"ning-ai",email:"aining_office@126.com",position:null,institution:{name:"China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"319299",title:"Prof.",name:"Tianxing",middleName:null,surname:"Wei",fullName:"Tianxing Wei",slug:"tianxing-wei",email:"weitianxing925@126.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Beijing Forestry University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"319300",title:"Prof.",name:"Qingke",middleName:null,surname:"Zhu",fullName:"Qingke Zhu",slug:"qingke-zhu",email:"xiangmub@126.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Beijing Forestry University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"319301",title:"Prof.",name:"Guangquan",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",fullName:"Guangquan Liu",slug:"guangquan-liu",email:"gqliu@iwhr.com",position:null,institution:{name:"China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}}]}},chapter:{id:"72647",slug:"soil-erosion-influencing-factors-in-the-semiarid-area-of-northern-shaanxi-province-china",signatures:"Ning Ai, Qingke Zhu, Guangquan Liu and Tianxing Wei",dateSubmitted:"February 25th 2020",dateReviewed:"May 22nd 2020",datePrePublished:"June 29th 2020",datePublished:"March 24th 2021",book:{id:"8937",title:"Soil Moisture Importance",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Soil Moisture Importance",slug:"soil-moisture-importance",publishedDate:"March 24th 2021",bookSignature:"Ram Swaroop Meena and Rahul Datta",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8937.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"313528",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ram Swaroop",middleName:null,surname:"Meena",slug:"ram-swaroop-meena",fullName:"Ram Swaroop Meena"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"319114",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ning",middleName:null,surname:"Ai",fullName:"Ning Ai",slug:"ning-ai",email:"aining_office@126.com",position:null,institution:{name:"China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"319299",title:"Prof.",name:"Tianxing",middleName:null,surname:"Wei",fullName:"Tianxing Wei",slug:"tianxing-wei",email:"weitianxing925@126.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Beijing Forestry University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"319300",title:"Prof.",name:"Qingke",middleName:null,surname:"Zhu",fullName:"Qingke Zhu",slug:"qingke-zhu",email:"xiangmub@126.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Beijing Forestry University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"319301",title:"Prof.",name:"Guangquan",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",fullName:"Guangquan Liu",slug:"guangquan-liu",email:"gqliu@iwhr.com",position:null,institution:{name:"China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}}]},book:{id:"8937",title:"Soil Moisture Importance",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Soil Moisture Importance",slug:"soil-moisture-importance",publishedDate:"March 24th 2021",bookSignature:"Ram Swaroop Meena and Rahul Datta",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8937.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"313528",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ram Swaroop",middleName:null,surname:"Meena",slug:"ram-swaroop-meena",fullName:"Ram Swaroop Meena"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"8661",leadTitle:null,title:"Statistical Machine Learning",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tStatistical machine learning merges statistics with machine learning which falls in the field of computer science, systems science and optimization. Much of the agenda in statistical machine learning is driven by applied problems in science and technology, where data streams are increasingly large-scale, dynamical and heterogeneous, and where mathematical and algorithmic creativity are required to bring statistical methodology to bear. Fields such as bioinformatics, artificial intelligence, signal processing, communications, networking, and information are all intervened here.
\r\n\tStatistical machine learning specifically poses some of the most challenging theoretical problems in modern statistics, the crucial among them being the general problem of understanding the link between inference and computation. This book intends to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of linear method for regression, non linear method for regression, deep learning, unsupervised learning, artificial neural network, and support vector machine (SVM).
The chapter addresses the problem by presenting an analytical model for a 3-dimensional single folded loop antenna with detection coverage in space. Based on the antenna theory, the inductance and impedance of the loop antenna is investigated. Design issues including antenna topology, read range, tag orientations, proximity of metal and other antennas are addressed to determine proper antenna for optimal performance. The proposed design is verified by field distribution measurement and implemented as a RFID reader antenna for a smart shelf application.
\n\t\t\tRadio Frequency Identification (RFID) is an automatic identification technology that transmits the identity of an object wirelessly using radio waves. It is evolving as a major technology enabler for items tracking and inventory management [1]. The great appeal of RFID technology is that it allows information to be stored and read without requiring either contact or a line of sight between the tag and the reader [2]. Because such technology conveniently dispenses with manual counting of items, it greatly reduces man-made errors and thus improves the accuracy of information.
\n\t\t\t\tThe RFID system consists of readers (also known as interrogators), tags (also known as transponders), and an information managing host computer [4] shown in Figure 1. In a typical communication sequence, the reader emits a continuous radio frequency (RF) carrier sine wave. When a tag enters the RF field of the reader, the tag receives energy from the field. The tag is composed of an antenna coil and a silicon chip that includes basic modulation circuitry and nonvolatile memory. When the RF field passes through an antenna coil, there is an AC voltage generated across the coil. This voltage is rectified to result in DC voltage for the device operation. The tag becomes functional when the DC voltage reaches a certain level. After the tag has received sufficient energy, it modulates the carrier signal according to the data stored on the tag. Finally, the information is relayed to a host computer.
\n\t\t\tRFID system
As part of an inventory management in the context of factory, the RFID smart shelf system is extremely useful for tracking of materials. By mounting a RFID reader antenna on each shelf and by placing a passive RFID tag with a unique serial number at each item, it would be possible to detect the presence of the individual item based on the unique serial number associated to it. Users can then query the database to determine the current location of the desired items.
\n\t\t\t\tSuch a RFID smart shelf system will help to enable a fast, accurate and reliable inventory-checking and eliminates the need for manual stocktaking. Further, the information extracted from the item movements can be used to study usage patterns and detect missing items quickly.
\n\t\t\t\tThe most common RFID smart shelf application is based on the high frequency (HF) band, which has an As one of RFID applications, the smart shelf system can be useful in maintaining the factory inventory in real time. The system is based on the inductive coupling at 13.56MHz. The read and write range at this frequency is usually not more than 1.5m, and most appropriate for the bookshelf.
\n\t\t\t\tRFID smart shelf system
Figure 2 illustrates the components of a RFID smart shelf system. The middleware in the host manages the reader and issues commands. The reader and tag communicate via RF signal. The tag receives and modifies the carrier signal generated through the reader antenna. The reader receives the modulated signal from the antenna and returns to the middleware. The application reads data from the middleware, stores in the database and updates the user interface within the application (Figure 2).
\n\t\t\t\tAnother feature is associated with the built-in sensor for detecting book movement and thus eliminating the need of constant manual monitoring on the application. The sensor is powered from the energy harvested from the radio wave of a reader. It is integrated with RFID system through Analog Digital Converter (ADC). Figure 7 shows the system implementation.
\n\t\t\t\tIn order for the RFID system to operate effectively, the antenna plays a very crucial role. The design of the antenna determines the amount of coupling effect, which in turn determines the communication between the reader and the tag. If the antennas of the reader and the tag are not designed correctly, inductive coupling will not occur and the desired tag will not be activated and the whole RFID application to fail.
\n\t\t\t\tAmong various RFID frequency bands for item level tracking, the most widely used frequency is 13.56 MHz in the high frequency (HF) band. Considering the fact that the wavelength is proportional to the antenna dimensions, designing electrically small antennas in this frequency with a wavelength of 22.12 meters is a very challenging task. To overcome this limitation, a practical and solid RFID reader antenna is proposed with appropriate dimensions as a practical and cheaper alternative [3]. A copper wire single loop antenna was chosen for its ductility, solidity and performance.
\n\t\t\t\tMost of the commercially available RFID smart shelf systems can only detect objects (containing RFID tag) effectively in the two-dimensional (2D) field. This requires the reader antennas and tag antennas to be in parallel planes. If they were in other orientations, the reader antenna may not be able to detect the presence of the tag antenna and this will greatly reduce the readability. This restricts the way tagged items can be placed on the shelf and requires multiple antennas to cover a three dimensional region.
\n\t\t\t\tThe efficiency and performance of the antenna are greatly dependent on its design topology. The structure must be designed such that it can deliver maximum amount of energy to the desired destination in order to achieve efficient antenna performance.
\n\t\t\t\tThe chapter is divided into four parts.
\n\t\t\t\tPart one gives a brief discussion on RFID technology and points out the design limitation for further improvement.
\n\t\t\t\tPart two describes the RFID operating principle and antenna design.
\n\t\t\t\tPart three details the design methodology of the reader antenna.
\n\t\t\t\tPart four concludes the paper and proposes future research.
\n\t\t\tOf all the antennas that can be used to excite a magnetic field, loop antennas are recommended as the most suitable for generating the magnetic field that is required to transfer energy to the HF passive tag. But a number of issues have to be taken into consideration before the design of an antenna can begin.
\n\t\t\tThe presence of metal close to an antenna will reduce its performance to some extent. As the antenna is placed close to metal plate,, the metal will detune the parameters and also generate eddy current to cancel the EM wave generated by reader [14]. As a result, the read distance will drop. To overcome this, the antenna must be placed a certain amount of distance from the metal.
\n\t\t\tThe performance of an antenna is related with its Quality (Q) factor. In general, the higher the Q, the higher the power output for a particular sized antenna. However, the bandwidth is inversely proportional to the Q [15]. Hence, there should be a maximum value of Q. In the test bed, since the tag operates with a data rate of 70 kHz, the reader antenna circuit needs a bandwidth of at least twice of the data rate. Therefore, it needs:
\n\t\t\t\tThe Q can be can be determined by:
\n\t\t\t\tThus, the maximum attainable Q is obtained from formula (2),
\n\t\t\t\tThe presence of other antennas will alter the way a system performs because of coupling between the antennas. In this test bed where there are multiple shelves standing together, each embedded with one antenna, there would be interference among these closely placed antennas.
\n\t\t\tThe parameters of the loop antenna that can be chosen are shape, dimension, number of turns and wire diameter. These will be discussed in the following sections and will lead to a design methodology.
\n\t\t\t\tA novel 3-dimensional folded rectangular loop antenna is proposed to generate a magnetic field of at least certain strength within interrogation region. Figure 3 illustrates the schematic of designed antenna topology. The feed-point is located at the base where the electrical current enters and leaves the antenna. The two folded parts of the antenna helps to enhance the magnetic field to detect tags places in different orientations. After entering the feed-point, the current branches into two identical streams which flow through the rest part of the antenna and meet at the exit point. Since the currents flowing through two parallel folded parts are in the same direction, the mutual inductance is positive. Therefore, the magnetic field in x direction is strengthened.
\n\t\t\t\tAntenna topology
For reading a loner ranger, one way is to achieve a larger\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
where
\n\t\t\t\t\tHence, to maximize the magnetic field strength\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Figure 4. illustrates the structure of loop antenna topology.
\n\t\t\t\t\tInductance of rectangular loop
If reader antenna is made of a rectangular loop composed of a thin wire, its inductance can be calculated by the following formula [16]
\n\t\t\t\t\tWhere the units are all in cm
\n\t\t\t\t\ta = radius of wire
\n\t\t\t\t\tHence, using a wire with a large diameter helps to reduce\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
The antenna and the generator can be represented by an equivalent circuit [17] as shown in Figure 5. The impedance of the antenna is
\n\t\t\t\tWhere
\n\t\t\t\tIn general the resistive part of (6) consists of two components; that is
\n\t\t\t\twhere
\n\t\t\t\tAntenna equivalent circuit
To find the amount of power delivered to\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t
And its magnitude by
\n\t\t\t\twhere\n\t\t\t\t\t
and the dissipated as heat by
\n\t\t\t\tThe remaining power is dissipated as heat on the internal resistance\n\t\t\t\t\t
The maximum power delivered to the antenna occurs when we have conjugate matching; that is when
\n\t\t\t\tFor this case
\n\t\t\t\tThe power supplied by the generator during conjugate matching is
\n\t\t\t\tOf the power that is provided by the generator, half is dissipated as heat in the internal resistance (\n\t\t\t\t\t
Figure 6. displays the antenna impedance, which is\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Antenna impedance without matching network
The two-component network [18], also know as L-type due to the element arrangement, is used to transform the load impedance (\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Eight possible configurations of the two-component matching networks
There are two broad approaches in designing a matching network.
\n\t\t\t\t\tTo derive the values of the elements analytically
To rely on the Smith Chart as a graphical design tool
The first approach yields very precise results. Alternatively, the second approach is more intuitive, easier to verify, and faster for an initial design, since it does not require complicated computations. Both approaches are applied as a cross-checking.
\n\t\t\t\tL-type matching network design
As shown in Figure 8, the small loop antenna is primarily inductive and it can be represented by a lumped element equivalent circuit [17].
\n\t\t\t\t\twhere
\n\t\t\t\t\tThe capacitors\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
The real part is
\n\t\t\t\t\tThe imaginary part cancels out
\n\t\t\t\t\tGiven\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
The Smith Chart is used for rapid and relatively precise designs of the matching circuits. The appeal of this approach is that its complexity remains almost the same independent of the number of components in the network. Moreover, the parameter choice and its value assignment can be instantaneously displayed at part of the Smith Chart on the computer screen.
\n\t\t\t\t\tFigure 9. illustrates the steps of L-type matching network design by using the Smith Chart as a graphical tool. The initial data point \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Matching network design with Smith Chart
The intersection of two circles in the Smith Chart determines the impedance formed by the shunt connection of antenna and capacitor. Reading from the Smith Chart, it is found that this impedance is approximately
\n\t\t\t\t\tThe corresponding admittance is
\n\t\t\t\t\tThe admittance of antenna is
\n\t\t\t\t\tTherefore, the susceptance of the shunt capacitor is\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
The results of both analytical and graphical approaches were found to correlate quite well.
\n\t\t\t\tThe 3-dimensional single-loop antenna is built using coated copper wire as shown in Figure 10. The diameter of electrical wire is expressed as the American Wire Gauge (AWG) number. The gauge number is inversely proportional to diameter, and the diameter is roughly doubled every six wire gauges. Since there is no coated wire for AWG 1-7, AWG 8 is the best choice available with largest diameter.
\n\t\t\tThe antenna is then attached to a piece of foam base to give the antenna rigidity and mechanical support. Without the foam base, the structure of the antenna may not be uniform throughout the testing process (bending of wire etc) and this will have an undesirable impact on the inductance of the antenna and in turn may cause the antenna to be unreliable. Foam is chosen as it is a non-metallic material therefore it will not have any magnetic effect on the antenna. The feed point is made in the middle of the antenna and it will be used to provide interface with the RFID reader/writer.
\n\t\t\tPrototype of RFID reader antenna
The theoretical derivation provides a good guide to implement the matching network. In practice, a variable capacitor with a large range e.g.\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t
L-type matching network
The antenna performance is assessed by measuring following parameters.
\n\t\t\t\tAfter the antenna is connected to the matching circuit and fine tuned and matched to 50 ohms, we measured the impendence and SWR value of the antenna. Figure 12 displays the impedance is around 50\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Antenna impedance with matching network
Antenna SWR
Both results indicate that maximum amount of energy are transmitted to the antenna and this will ensure that data loss are reduced to the minimum.
\n\t\t\t\tThe Q factor represents the amount of AC resistance of a system at resonance and it can be determined by measuring the 3-dB bandwidth of the antennas’ near field response, frequency sweep between 13 MHz and 14 MHz.
\n\t\t\t\t\tFigure 14. displays the measurement of Q factor. At 13.56MHz labeled by marker 2, the antenna exhibits the resonance. At 13.46MHz and 13.66MHz, the lower and upper -3dB points are found and recorded.
\n\t\t\t\t\tThe three frequencies can be used in the formula (2):
\n\t\t\t\t\tThe Q value is smaller than the upper limit 96.8.
\n\t\t\t\tQ factor measurement
The antenna model must be able to produce an electromagnetic field having a magnitude of at least an interrogation threshold of a tag for the entire interrogation region.
\n\t\t\t\t\tThe magnetic field strength of the loop antenna at a specified distance determines the reading range of an RFID system with prior selected RFID reader and tag. The stronger the magnetic field, the larger the detection range. Strength of the measured field is represented by the induced voltage. The tag utilized in the experiment is activated only when the induced voltage is greater than 200mV. Magnetic field intensity of the loop antennas is measured at varying test points [19]. The measurement is conducted by using oscilloscope as shown in Figure 15.
\n\t\t\t\t\tSetup for field distribution measurement
Figure 16. shows that at the mid cross section x = 44 cm of the antenna, the field distribution in X-direction varies significantly with the z coordinate. The loop antenna generates strong magnetic field in the region closer to the antenna (z ≤ 20 cm), while the field decreases as distance from the antenna increases. The antenna is able to detect the tag within 30 cm height of the antenna.
\n\t\t\t\t\tMagnetic field distribution in x direction
Figure 17. presents that across the mid plane y = 20 cm of the antenna, the magnetic field in Y-direction slightly achieves the peak values at both edges of and slightly drops in the middle of the antenna for the same height. As distance from the antenna increases, the field decreases. There is a black region between x = 33 cm and x = 55 cm as z ≥ 15 cm.
\n\t\t\t\t\tMagnetic Fielddistribution in y direction
Figure 18. illustrates the magnetic field distribution in Z-direction across the plane z = 18 cm above the antenna. The antenna produces strong magnetic field at both edges. There is a black region in the middle of the antenna.
\n\t\t\t\tThree-dimensional field distribution in z direction
Figure 19. illustrates the magnetic field intensity in x direction measured by moving the tag along three different lines, starting from points (y = 10, z = 5), (y = 10, z = 15), (y = 10, z = 25). These three lines are representative of all positions where the books are placed vertically. The magnetic field intensity is strong at both sides but drops rapidly as moving towards the center. In the middle of the antenna, the field becomes strong again.
\n\t\t\t\t\tMagnetic field intensity along different lines in x direction
\n\t\t\t\t\t\tFigure 20 shows the magnetic field intensity in y direction measured by moving the tag along three different lines, starting from points (x = 22, z = 15), (x = 44, z = 15), (x = 66, z = 15). These three lines are representative of typical positions where books are placed perpendicularly. The two lines in the upper region of the diagram differ in the trace of the line in the lower region.
\n\t\t\t\t\tMagnetic field intensity along different lines in y direction
Figure 21. presents the magnetic field intensity in z direction measured by moving the tag along three different lines, starting from points (x = 22, y = 10), (x = 44, z = 10), (x = 66, z = 10). These three lines are representative of typical positions where books are placed horizontally. The further away from the antenna, the weaker the field becomes.
\n\t\t\t\tMagnetic field intensity along different lines in z direction
The results from the above sections were then used to develop a prototype for RFID book shelf application. The prototype was able to detect books in a number of different orientations within the 3D region with a range of 44 cm from the vertical antenna as shown in Figure 22.
\n\t\t\t\t\tprototype of smart book shelf
This chapter has presented and investigated loop antenna and sensor circuit for HF RFID smart shelf application.
\n\t\t\tThe issues including tag orientations, read range, proximity of metal and other antennas are approached during the antenna design. A 3-dimensional shape of single turn loop antenna is proposed. The optimum antenna size was determined as a trade-off between the magnetic field strength and mechanical constraint. The antenna model has been successfully used to configure an HF RFID smart shelf prototype. The performance test has shown that the antenna is capable of achieving the desired results.
\n\t\t\tThe further research following this project would involve integrating more than one bookshelf into the smart shelf application.
\n\t\tAge-related macular degeneration (AMD) is a multifactorial disease that results from interplay among genetic, environmental, and epidemiologic factors. It is the leading cause of irreversible blindness in people over 60 years of age, with numbers projected to increase over time. Animal models have been integral for understanding pathophysiology of and to develop treatments for AMD. This chapter reviews the basics of AMD including pathophysiology and classification. We then highlight specific examples of animal models and the insight they provide. We discuss both current FDA-approved treatments and those in development. Lastly, we conclude with a summary of the important role of pre-clinical studies in the development of therapeutics for AMD.
The retina plays an integral role in vision by converting light to an electrical stimulus, which is ultimately processed as an image in the occipital lobe of the visual cortex. The macula, located in the posterior pole of the retina, contains the highest concentration of cone photoreceptors across the retina and is responsible for central, high-resolution, and color vision [1]. AMD is a multifactorial disease of the elderly that progressively affects vision through pathological changes to the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) and loss of photoreceptors in the macula [2]. AMD is classified as non-exudative or exudative. Non-exudative AMD is defined by the presence of drusen — aggregates of lipid, protein, and immune complexes — underneath the RPE with subsequent thickening of Bruch’s membrane [3, 4]. AMD is responsible for about 8.7% of blindness and remains as a leading cause of blindness in people over 60 years of age in the developed world [5, 6]. The disease burden will increase as the population ages with longer life expectancies. The global estimate of AMD cases was 196 million in 2020 and is expected to be 288 million by 2040. [6].
Although age is the most impactful risk factor, others include obesity, hypercholesterolemia, hypertension, lighter iris colors, lack of exercise, cigarette smoking, Western diet, elevated C-reactive protein, and family history [7, 8, 9, 10]. Cigarette smoking is the most influential modifiable risk factor [11].
In addition to the above risk factors, genetics plays an important role in this multifactorial disease. The International Age-Related Macular Degeneration Genomics Consortium conducted a genome-wide association study of 43,566 subjects that revealed 52 genetic variants of AMD shared between 34 loci. Some of these include genes encoding for collagen type IV (
Although incompletely understood, AMD is a complex disease that results from a mix of genetic predisposition, environmental factors, and age. There are many models that attempt to explain the pathophysiology of AMD, the underlying disease mechanisms of which are multifaceted and not mutually exclusive. These can be categorized as oxidative stress, inflammation, dysregulated antioxidants, lipid metabolism, and angiogenesis [13]. This chapter highlights the multifactorial etiology of RPE damage and dysfunction, a key event in AMD pathogenesis and briefly touches on other aspects of AMD pathophysiology [3].
A properly functioning RPE is important for retinal homeostasis because of the multiple roles it plays including: transportation of nutrients from the choroidal vasculature; absorption of stray photons of light; phagocytosis of photoreceptor outer segments; metabolism of fatty acids; formation of the blood-retinal barrier; regulation of subretinal water transport; and regeneration of visual pigments during the visual transduction cascade [14]. Some retinal changes that are characteristic of AMD include dysfunction of the RPE, sub-RPE deposition of lipids and proteins, neovascularization of the choroid or retina, and disciform scar formation [13]. Most people develop asymptomatic extracellular lipid deposition underneath the RPE. However, as these lesions enlarge they can cause dysfunction of the RPE [15]. Although an exact stepwise development of disease is not clear, early AMD is defined by the appearance of drusen under the RPE with thickening of Bruch’s membrane (BrM). Consequently, this impairs the ability of the RPE to efflux fluids across BrM and to deliver nutrients such as glucose, vitamin A (all-
Moreover, the RPE is susceptible to oxidative stress from high oxygen utilization, prolonged exposure to visible light, lipid oxidation by photoreceptors and drusen, and cigarette smoking [4, 13]. During phototransduction, visual pigments called opsins use the chromophore 11-
Identification of SNPs in several complement factor components sheds light on its role in AMD pathogenesis. The complement system is beneficial for its role in innate immunity and encouraging phagocytosis and removal of unwanted cellular material; however, dysregulation of this system can cause damage and inflammation in surrounding tissue [4]. Similarly, inflammation is a cascade of events that is beneficial in the short term in response to foreign and damaged material, yet chronic inflammation can be harmful and may contribute to the development of AMD [16]. There are many genetic variants of complement genes associated with AMD and one example is the Y402H polymorphism in the
Antioxidants scavenge reactive oxygen species (ROS) thereby attenuating oxidative stress. Nuclear factor erythyroid 2-related factor 2 (NRF2) is a transcription factor that upregulates antioxidants when signaled by oxidative stress. Studies of
In humans, the inner and outer retina are supplied by the retinal artery and choroidal circulation, respectively. The choroidal circulation is located beneath BrM, which acts as a physical barrier. Drusen accumulation may disrupt this barrier and when conditions favor angiogenesis, permeable blood vessels lacking endothelial tight junctions and pericytes can develop between the retina and choroidal blood vessels. These vessels can grow into the central retina, a process called choroidal neovascularization (CNV) as seen in exudative AMD [15, 18, 19]. Neovascularization may also originate from the retina in a process called retinal angiomatous proliferation (RAP) [17]. Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) plays a major role in angiogenesis. There is sufficient evidence that points to the role of VEGF in exudative AMD pathogenesis, given the higher VEGF levels in AMD patients and the successful decrease in neovascularization with anti-VEGF agents [13]. Pigment epithelium-derived growth factor (PEDF) is an antiangiogenic molecule whose expression is reduced in eyes with AMD. This imbalance between angiogenic VEGF and antiangiogenic PEDF suggests that homeostasis of vascular factors is disrupted in exudative AMD [15]. In summary, AMD is a multifaceted disease with genetic and environmental risk factors that likely progresses due to a combination of oxidative stress and inflammation, combined with dysregulated antioxidants, lipid metabolism, and increased angiogenesis.
Disease classification can elucidate pathophysiological processes, prognosis, and guide in clinical decision-making. Drusen, the hallmark lesion of AMD, is visible by fundoscopy and can be classified by their size and border characteristics [15]. Specifically, drusen can be small (< 63 mm), intermediate (63–124 mm), or large (>124 mm). They can also be stratified as hard (well demarcated), soft (poorly demarcated), or confluent (contiguous) [20, 21]. Higher number and larger size of drusen portends greater likelihood of progression in AMD. Moreover, compared to hard drusen, soft drusen tend to be located in the macula and increase risk of progression [21].
AMD is categorized as non-exudative or exudative. There are many ways to stratify AMD, but this chapter uses the classification of the Age-Related Eye Disease Study (AREDS) as follows: no AMD (no or few small drusen), early AMD (multiple small drusen, few intermediate drusen, or mild RPE abnormalities), intermediate AMD (numerous intermediate drusen, at least one large drusen, or geographic atrophy without center foveal involvement), and advanced AMD (geographic atrophy with center foveal involvement or neovascular maculopathy) [22].
Each stage has defining characteristics. The advanced non-exudative form of AMD is known as geographic atrophy (GA) and is defined by slow progressive atrophy of the photoreceptors, RPE, and the choriocapillaris that form sharply demarcated lesions [23]. Advanced exudative AMD represents 10–15% of all AMD and is characterized by growth of choroidal blood vessels through BrM and into the retina, consequently causing intraretinal or subretinal leakage, hemorrhage, and RPE detachment. These changes can cause acute vision loss [15, 18, 24]. Follow-up data from the AREDS found that progression to advanced AMD is associated with the following retinal risk factors: increased baseline drusen severity, the presence of a large drusen within 1 disc diameter of the fovea, the presence of bilateral medium drusen, the presence of advanced AMD in the fellow eye, and the simultaneous presence of AMD RPE abnormalities and large drusen [25].
Animal models have been generated by multiple laboratories by reconstructing specific features of AMD. These models have become integral for providing insight into the pathophysiology of this disease, as well as to develop proof-of-principle studies to support the advancement of new therapies [26]. In general, an optimal animal model is inexpensive and mimics the features of the human disease in a timely manner to allow for efficient studies [17]. In studies focused on AMD, these changes include a thickened BrM, sub-RPE deposits, RPE atrophy and hyperplasia, accumulation of immune cells or complement, photoreceptor atrophy, CNV, and fibrosis [17]. However, when trying to recapitulate AMD, animal models can be challenging because AMD is a complex disease with multiple polymorphisms able to be influenced by environmental and epidemiologic factors [15]. Furthermore, there are inherent differences in the eyes of animals and humans, such that no single model perfectly captures all features of AMD. Although space limits inclusion of all animal models, this review highlights the weaknesses and strengths of specific animal models and how they have been useful for understanding aspects of AMD development, progression, and treatment.
Rodents have been the “go-to” model for retinal disease for decades. There are many advantages to the rodent model. Economically, rodents are small animals that require little space and resources, are easy to breed and handle, have short gestation times while producing many offspring, and have short life spans. Diseases can also progress relatively quickly allowing for efficient studies [17, 27]. Mouse, rat, and human genomes have been sequenced, and each were found to have around 30,000 genes, 95% of which are shared among all three species. Further, advances in molecular genetic techniques allow for ease of genetic manipulation [27]. Anatomically, mice have key retinal structures — RPE, BrM, and choriocapillaris — that are affected in human AMD [15]. The economic, genetic, and anatomic benefits of rodents make them invaluable animal models for studying human disease and testing treatments. Clinicians and scientists alike have been working to recapitulate the human AMD phenotype in mice by taking what is known about the human condition and applying it to mice. This may come in the form of genetic manipulation to induce SNPs in known AMD-associated genes or applying risk factors for AMD to mice such as exposure to cigarette smoke or inducing obesity. Several of these manipulations will be discussed below.
It is important to highlight that there are some structural differences in the retinas of humans and rodents. Unlike humans, rodents do not have a macula, defined anatomically as having at least two layers of ganglion cells with a mixture of rod and cone cells [26]. Rodents also lack an area of the retina with high density of cones similar to the fovea. Moreover, interpretation of findings from early murine AMD models was confounded by a spontaneous point mutation in Crumbs homolog 1 (
The retina is susceptible to oxidative stress due to its high metabolic demand, lipid oxidation by photoreceptors, and the presence of molecules that form ROS mentioned in section 1.2. Below we present several mouse models that mimic AMD pathology induced by the lack of antioxidants or the addition of oxidative stress.
There are two isoforms of SOD, the primary antioxidant enzyme in the retina that catalyzes the breakdown of potentially harmful ROS [28]. After 7 months of age, knockout mice lacking SOD1 (
Oxidized DHA forms CEP-adducted proteins that are present in drusen at higher concentrations in AMD eyes compared to eyes without AMD. In studies performed to test the effects of adding oxidative stress, two groups of mice — 3-month-old mice given a strong inoculation (short-term) and 1-year-old mice given a weaker inoculation (long-term) — were immunized with CEP-adducted proteins. The short-term group developed complement deposition in BrM, sub-RPE deposits, RPE lysis, and the presence of macrophages. The long-term group developed a thickening of BrM [17]. However, neither group developed CNV, making this a potential model for non-exudative AMD. A benefit of this model is that there is no genetic manipulation of the mice, so this model can be combined with other genetically modified models, a condition that may be beneficial for a multifaceted disease such as AMD [17].
NRF2 is a transcription factor that encodes for detoxifying and antioxidant enzymes such as SOD.
Iron can be a source of oxidative stress and its transport is mediated by ceruloplasmin, transferrin, and hephaestin [15, 17]. Humans lacking ceruloplasmin can develop AMD in middle age. Ceruloplasmin/hephaestin DKO mice by 6–9 months of age developed focal RPE hypertrophy, increased lipofuscin, photoreceptor atrophy, and subretinal deposits and neovascularization [15, 17]. Retinal changes peak by about 12 months of age, showing signs of oxidative damage and complement deposition [15]. Studying the retinal changes in older mice of this DKO strain is limited, however, due to a movement-related premature death caused by the DKO of ceruloplasmin/hephaestin [17]. Hadziahmetovic
Cigarette smoke contains many toxins and oxidants, the most abundant of which is hydroquinone (HQ). C57BL/6 J mice at 16 months of age were fed a high-fat diet (HFD) for 4.5 months causing the mice to develop sub-RPE deposits when exposed to oxidative stress. The mice were then divided into two groups to examine the additive effects of cigarette smoke and HQ on a HFD. The mice were exposed to a combination of HFD with blue light (positive control), cigarette smoke, or oral HQ. Espinosa-Heidmann
Inflammation is associated with AMD onset and progression with complement being a major component. Inflammatory components found in drusen further support inflammation taking a role in AMD pathogenesis [15]. Below are a few example models of inflammation and the complement pathway.
CFH is a regulatory protein that prevents C3b from binding to complement factor B and ultimately prevents the formation of C3 convertase. Loss of regulation of this pathway causes deposition of C3 in the kidneys and ultimately membranoproliferative glomerulonephritis (MPGN) Type II. These patients also develop drusen similar to those in AMD [17].
The CFH Y402H polymorphism causes chronic inflammation by disrupting the binding of CFH to C-reactive protein and heparan sulfate [26]. At one year of age, transgenic mice with this polymorphism were found to have more drusen-like deposits compared to wild-type or
Implied by the regulation of C3b through CFH, C3 plays an important activating role in complement pathways. Transgenic mice transduced using adenovirus expressing C3 have higher levels of C3 and a pathology similar to AMD including loss of photoreceptor outer segments and RPE, along with the accumulation of complement. Another finding in these mice was the migration and proliferation of endothelial cells in the retina which may correspond to RAP documented in patients with exudative AMD. However, this model is limited because these mice also exhibit retinal detachments, which are not seen in AMD. It is possible that the injected adenovirus may contribute to some of the unexpected retinal changes [17].
Like CFH regulating C3b, CD46 is a regulatory cofactor that aids in inactivating C3b and C4b.
Inflammasomes are multiprotein complexes that respond to pathogen-associated molecular patterns or other cellular stresses. Inflammasome activation leads to secretion of proinflammatory substances such as caspase-1, interleukin-1β (IL-1β), and interleukin-18 (IL-18). The NOD-, LRR- and pyrin domain-containing protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome has been implicated in many inflammatory conditions such as gout, autoimmune diseases, atherosclerosis, and AMD [32]. Eyes with GA have lower levels of Double-Stranded RNA-Specific Endoribonuclease (DICER1), a micro-RNA, which leads to increased levels of Arthrobacter luteus (Alu) RNA. Alu RNA activates the NLRP3 inflammasome leading to increased levels of myeloid differentiation primary response 88 (MYD88) and IL-18 and ultimately causing RPE atrophy [26]. However, in
As discussed, AMD is a multifactorial disease resulting from a mixture of multiple genetic and environmental factors. Because monogenic animal models do not represent the complexity of human AMD, combining multiple SNPs with nongenetic factors to create a polygenic animal model may prove beneficial for studying AMD pathogenesis as well as providing platforms on which to test new therapeutics that are being developed in laboratories across the world. Mice make excellent candidates for polygenic models of AMD due to the relative ease of manipulating their genomes and simplicity of affecting their environment [17, 34].
As stated previously, NRF2 is a transcription factor that regulates the expression of detoxifying and antioxidant enzymes. PGC-1α regulates angiogenesis and oxidative stress, among other functions. Single
In recent years, the use of systems genetics to uncover genes underlying the pathological mechanisms of retinal diseases has become an invaluable tool in the study of multiple human diseases. Specifically, applying this approach to the BXD family of mice has elucidated novel genes associated with ocular hypertension and optic nerve necrosis in glaucoma [35, 36]. As a brief background, the BXD family of mice were generated by breeding the standard C57B/6 J mouse with the DBA/2 J strain from the Jackson Labs. Offspring were then inbred for 20 or more generations to allow for a homologous recombination-induced variety of genetic backgrounds [37]. Currently, studies are underway to use the BXD family of mice to generate a more accurate model of AMD in the mouse. This is being done by delving into the genomes of each strain of BXD mouse to find different combinations of haplotypes in AMD-associated genes which contain SNPs similar to those found in humans, or that result in an altered protein function as observed in humans. Currently, multiple strains have shown promise for not just AMD, but other retinal diseases as well.
Although rodents are the most studied, the larger eye size of rabbits make them advantageous for certain pharmacological and pathological studies. While rabbits are more expensive than rodents, they are less expensive than non-human primates (NHP). Rabbits are also relatively easy to handle and breed. Furthermore, the size of the rabbits allow for easy administration of subretinal injections and vectors for gene therapy [38]. Rabbits possess a visual streak where rods and cones are dense, but they do not have a macula which, like mice, can present a caveat for direct translation to human AMD [38, 39].
Promoting a wet AMD phenotype using conventional methods of inducing CNV in rodents and primates, such as laser-induced damage of BrM and injection of proangiogenic factors, have not worked for rabbit models; however, Qui
Although primates and humans have the most similar anatomy, primates are disadvantageous as models because they are difficult to genetically manipulate, expensive, and their disease course is relatively long [17]. Furthermore, they are difficult to handle and breed [38]. Historically, there were limitations to exudative AMD models, however new techniques have generated some exudative AMD models, discussed below.
Because AMD affects the cone dense macula, a major limitation of animal models such as rodents, canines, and felines is the lack of a macula [40]. NHPs are the only pre-clinical animals that have a macula and a similar organization of photoreceptors within the macula like humans [17, 41]. Another advantage of NHP models is their shared similarity in organization of the visual pathway. The macula only receives nutrients and removes waste from the choroidal circulation. Furthermore, since the macula is responsible for high acuity central vision, copious amounts of light are focused on the macula subjecting it to high levels of ROS. These details may explain why the macula is affected in AMD in both humans and NHP [17].
Genetic risk factors are also suspected in NHPs with AMD. Polymorphisms in age-related maculopathy susceptibility 2 (
Another shared risk factor between humans and NHPs is diet. Rhesus monkeys with a diet without lutein or zeaxanthin formed drusen earlier than monkeys fed a standard diet. In another study, monkeys without carotenoids and omega-3 fatty acids developed some RPE atrophy [17]. In fact, the AREDS2 study found that human subjects in the bottom quartile of nutrition benefited the most from vitamin supplementation [42].
Some NHP species such as rhesus macaque monkeys spontaneously develop drusen and early to intermediate AMD. The amount of drusen increased with age [43]. Drusen analyzed in these monkeys were found by immunohistochemical analysis to have similar location and composition as human drusen, sharing compounds such as apolipoprotein E, amyloid P component, complement components, immunoglobulins, vitronectin, membrane cofactor protein, annexins, and crystallins [17, 28].
Interestingly, a group of cynomolgus macaques and Japanese macaques were found to have early-onset drusen in the macula and periphery at around 1–2 years of age. The drusen in these groups of monkeys were also similar in composition to human drusen. This syndrome exhibited a dominant inheritance which along with early onset drusen may serve as a useful animal model for future studies [17].
NHP models do not spontaneously develop advanced forms of AMD. Laser induced NHP models of exudative AMD only provide vascular leakage for about 2–3 weeks. However, Patel
Lifestyle modifications are thought to delay progression of AMD. The American Academy of Ophthalmology recommends smoking cessation, an antioxidant-rich diet with healthy unsaturated fats or omega-3 supplements, management of other medical conditions, routine exercise, and regular eye examinations for all AMD patients [44]. Additionally, antioxidant vitamins and minerals have been demonstrated to slow progression to advanced AMD according to the AREDS [45]. The original formulation consisted of: 500 mg vitamin C, 400 international units (IU) vitamin E, 15 mg beta carotene, 80 mg of zinc (zinc oxide), and 2 mg of copper (cupric oxide) [45]. Copper was added to the formulation as zinc supplementation can cause copper-deficiency anemia. Smoking cessation is specifically recommended because the high dose of beta-carotene supplementation is subject to a small increased risk of lung cancer [46]. The subsequent AREDS 2 investigation evaluated adding lutein + zeaxanthin and DHA + eicosapentaenoic acid [EPA], or lutein + zeaxanthin + DHA + EPA to the original AREDS preparation. It also explored removal of beta carotene and decreased the original dose of zinc. It adapted the formula to include: 10 mg of lutein and 2 mg of zeaxanthin, 350 mg DHA and 650 mg EPA, no beta-carotene, and 25 mg zinc [47]. They found that lutein + zeaxanthin or DHA/EPA did not further halt the progression of AMD; however, removal of beta-carotene from the lutein + zeaxanthin formulation proved to be protective against AMD and better for patients due to the decreased risk of lung cancer in patients using the beta carotene poor formulation. Additionally, the decreased quantity of zinc was deemed less protective than the higher doses administered in AREDS. In short, AREDS 2 concluded administration of 500 mg vitamin C, 400 IU vitamin E, 10 mg of lutein and 2 mg of zeaxanthin, 80 mg of zinc (zinc oxide), and 2 mg of copper (cupric oxide), without beta carotene was beneficial in decreasing the progression to advanced AMD in patients with intermediate and advanced AMD in at least once eye [47].
Past therapies for AMD include photodynamic therapy, photocoagulation, low vision rehabilitation, and radiation therapy [44, 46]. First introduced in the 1990’s, photodynamic therapy (PDT) involved injecting verteporfin (Visudyne) into an arm vein. The injected medication collects in pathologic neovascular membranes in the central macula. The verteporfin is light activated by using a 690 nm laser over the affected area, causing the formation of ROS. Unfortunately, new models of the PDT laser are no longer available for sale in the United States, although a single model is available in Europe. PDT has become obsolete for AMD treatment with the rise of anti-VEGF therapeutics, although it is still used for other retinal conditions [46]. A second method, photocoagulation treatment, uses a laser to accomplish the same goal. This may also require retreatment; however, the laser can produce scarring, which can cause blind spots. For this reason, it is no longer used to treat pathology within the macula. Moreover, increased damage to the macula lowers the success rate of treatment.
Studies in the 1980s examined the use of photocoagulative therapies in minimizing the progression of disease due to CNV lesions. These assessed laser therapy of the extrafoveal, juxtafoveal, and subfoveal neovascular membranes [46]. It was determined that laser therapy of extrafoveal or juxtafoveal sites was more effective than subfoveal sites. Subfoveal photocoagulation was associated with increased risk of vision loss [46]. However, with increased anti-VEGF therapies, the use of photocoagulation is also declining [46]. A third treatment is low vision rehabilitation, which is used as supplemental therapy to accommodate the central vision changes that may ensue from AMD. This can include implementation of reading glasses, magnifiers, additional lighting, among others [44]. New advances in wearable technology use individualized deficit mapping and artificial intelligence to assist users in navigating their environment and common activities of daily living. The fourth form, radiotherapy, has been used to inhibit neovascularization, but the effectiveness of this method is unclear [46].
Although there is no current treatment to delay the onset of non-exudative AMD, once the disease progresses to the exudative form, there are treatments to delay its progression, preserve remaining vision, and sometimes recover lost vision [44]. Most of these therapies target the neovascularization and associated fluid leakage and hemorrhage. These drugs inhibit VEGF, the main proangiogenic factor that contributes to neovascularization. Current treatments include bevacizumab (Avastin, Genetech), ranibizumab (Lucentis, Genentech), aflibercept (Eylea, Regeneron Pharmaceuticals), and brolucizumab (Beovu, Novartis).
Pegaptanib (Macugen, Pfizer) was the first anti-VEGF therapy approved by the FDA in 2004 and is an oligonucleic aptamer specifically targeting VEGF-165. Ranibizumab is a monoclonal antibody fragment to all VEGF-A that was approved by the FDA in 2006 based on the results of the phase III MARINA and ANCHOR trials [48, 49]. Aflibercept is a receptor-antibody fusion protein of VEGF receptors 1 and 2 fused to the Fc portion of IgG1 that blocks VEGF-A and B. Aflibercept was approved by the FDA in 2011 based on the VIEW-1 and 2 phase III trials [18, 46]. Brolucizumab is a single-chain antibody fragment approved by the FDA in October 2019 based on the phase III HAWK and HARRIER trials [46, 50]. Ranibizumab, aflibercept, and brolucizumab were created specifically for the treatment of exudative AMD, while bevacizumab was approved for colon cancer and is used off-label. Bevacizumab is considerably less expensive at an average of $50 per treatment versus $1,800 or $2,000 for the other three available treatments and has been shown to be equally efficacious in the Comparison of Age-Related Macular Degeneration Treatments Trials (CATT) studies [51].
In any of the treatment trials that are evaluating the efficacy of the anti-VEGF family of therapies, patients are monitored for exudation and treatment response using optical coherence tomography after intravitreal injection [45]. Frequency of injections varies, but most patients require multiple doses and repeat treatments. Brolucizumab is groundbreaking as it is the first anti-VEFG therapy that has demonstrated similar efficacy from a single injection, 4 times a year [46]. Unfortunately, adoption of Brolucizumab has been limited by intraocular inflammation, vasculitis, and vascular occlusion causing visual decline that was seen in 4.6% of trial participants [52]. Potential adverse effects of anti-VEGF therapies include conjunctival hemorrhage, vitreous hemorrhage, increased intraocular pressure, cataract progression, and, rarely, retinal detachment, infection, and intraocular inflammation [44].
There are many studies that have evaluated potential therapies for non-exudative and exudative AMD. Along with vitamin supplementation, there are three main classes of therapies being investigated: antibody, gene, and cell-based therapies.
Aside from the successful anti-VEGF therapies, antibodies targeting the complement pathway show some promise. Because activation of the alternative complement pathway contributes to AMD pathology, antibodies targeting components of this pathway, such as C3 and C5, may attenuate inflammation and damage to the retina by reducing complement mediated cell lysis [53, 54].
Gene therapy involves introducing genetic material, typically a viral vector, into tissues of interest to replace the blueprint of a protein product. The most used viral vectors are adeno-associated viral vectors due to their lower immunogenicity and extended duration of gene expression [54].
Another way to treat AMD is through cellular therapy which works by replacing a protein product, like gene therapy; however, instead of replacing the genetic code, the cells that produce the protein of interest are replaced or supplemented. Cellular therapy allows for the replacement of dead or diseased tissue with healthy tissue. For AMD, this typically involves replacement of the RPE. Replacement of neural retinal tissue is challenging as it relies on the re-establishment of neural connections. In contrast, the RPE does not have neural connections, but serves to maintain healthy photoreceptors by providing nutrients and removing waste products. For these reasons, the RPE is currently the primary target of cell-based therapy for AMD [54]. Another promising cellular therapy for exudative AMD is replacement of the choroidal endothelial layer as this may prevent neovascularization [55]. However, there are many challenges associated with the delivery of cell-based therapy such as immune rejection, high rates of tumor formation, and differentiation into unintended cell types. Previous studies have shown the dangers of using stem cell therapy in the treatment of AMD citing complications like IVT fibrosis and tractional retinal detachment [56]. Furthermore, the timing of RPE transplant is critical to its success. It must be performed early enough so that the underlying retinal cells can still be salvaged; however, performing the therapy too early runs the risk of complications from prepathological intervention [54].
Lampalizumab, a fragment antigen binding portion of a humanized monoclonal antibody that selectively binds and inhibits complement factor D [57], showed success early on as it passed both Phase I and II clinical trials. Unfortunately, it failed to show superior effects to sham treatment in treating non-exudative AMD with GA in Phase III trials [58]. Eculizumab is another antibody, which targets complement component C5. It was investigated in the COMPLETE trial to assess the progression of GA in patients with non-exudative AMD. While it demonstrated safety, it did not prove to be efficacious in slowing the rate of GA progression [59]. Much like eculizumab, LFG316, another C5 inhibitor, failed to progress past Phase II when it did not show success in stunting the growth of GA [60].
A study evaluating the safety of transplanting subretinal RPE cells derived from human umbilical tissue showed complications associated with the method of delivery. This study reported high rates of retinal perforations and detachments [61].
A unique technique of delivering cell therapy to a tissue of interest is through encapsulated cell technology (ECT). A study utilizing this technology with the NT-501 ECT implant showed promising results. A capsule containing a mass of RPE cells engineered to produce and release ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF) was implanted into the eye. CNTF can diffuse across the capsule and act on retinal cells to induce differentiation and promote survival of retinal cells. The exact mechanism of CNTF remains to be elucidated [62]. Studies proved this method is safe, but visual acuity (VA) did not show significant improvement. There was, however, significant improvement in the thickness of the macular region, which has been shown to be associated with increased stabilization of VA regardless of baseline best corrected visual acuity (BCVA) [63, 64]. Despite a lack of significant improvement in VA in AMD patients, this technology has since been repurposed for use in macular telangiectasia type 2 and is effective at improving BCVA and slowing progression of retinal degeneration [65].
There is hope that an IVT formulation of Zimura, a C5 inhibiting RNA aptamer, will show more promising results than eculizumab and LFG316 [66]. A C3 inhibitor called APL-2 passed Phase II clinical trials in the FILLY study when it demonstrated the ability to impede progression of GA [67]. Two Phase III trials of this drug are underway with the Oaks and Derby trials (Apellis). These are multicenter, randomized, double blind, sham-controlled studies that are estimated to complete around December 2022 [68].
There are studies evaluating the utility of combination antibody therapy. This concept involves inhibition of two separate pathogenic mechanisms contributing to disease progression to elicit compounding effects. A Phase I trial evaluating the combination of LFG316 and CLG561, an inhibitor of complement regulator properdin, is underway for GA [69].
Bone marrow stem cells (BMSCs) have shown safety and efficacy in patients affected by non-exudative AMD. The Stem Cell Ophthalmology Treatment Study (SCOTS) trial showed improvement in BCVA and demonstrated both safety and tolerability [70]. The trial consisted of 32 eyes affected by non-exudative AMD that were treated with autologous BMSC transplant by a variety of methods. Over a one-year period, 63% of eyes showed improvement in VA while 34% maintained a stable VA. There were no complications, and as these were autologous transplants, no immunosuppression was required.
Current gene therapy in development for non-exudative AMD works to target the complement pathway. Gene supplementation of CD59 inhibits formation of the membrane attack complex (MAC) and is being investigated with the drug AAVCAGsCD59 [71]. By preventing formation of the MAC, inhibition of complement-mediated cell lysis reduces retinal cell death, thus slowing progression of GA. Results from the recently finished Phase 1 clinical trials for AAVCAGsCD59 are being evaluated. Another promising drug, GT005, holds genetic information coding for complement factor I. It will be delivered using a recombinant, non-replicating adeno-associated viral vector. Phase I/IIa clinical trials are underway [72].
The use of a port delivery system involves implanting a device into the eye that slowly releases drug over an extended period. With this device in place, the patient can have fewer office appointments and less injections. The Phase 2 Ladder study has already shown promise with this type of drug administration [73]. Bifunctional antibodies, antibodies that can bind two or more targets, are being investigated for use in exudative AMD. By targeting both the VEGF and the complement pathway it is hypothesized that patients may require fewer injections and/or show improved outcomes, similarly to the non-exudative AMD combined therapy. IBI302 is an antibody with domains for both VEGF and complement. It is undergoing dose escalation Phase I clinical trials [74]. Another drug being developed for exudative AMD is abicipar pegols, a designed ankyrin repeat protein that is part of the designed ankyrin repeat proteins (DARPin) class that inhibits all isoforms of VEGF-A. While it showed similar efficacy to ranibizumab, the FDA currently denied its approval because of reports of associated intraocular inflammation [75].
A Phase I clinical trial involving only two patients with severe exudative AMD and no control group showed successful implantation of fully differentiated human ESC-derived RPE cells that were grown on a synthetic basement membrane. VA at 12 months showed improvement in 29 and 21 letters. The patch of RPE cells appeared intact and healthy when visualized through biomicroscopy and optical coherence tomography (OCT) [76].
There are documented cases of successful autologous and allogenic transplants of induced pluripotent stem cells. However, the cost of these studies and unexpected genetic changes have been discouraging [78, 79]. Further endeavors in cell-based treatment of AMD are aimed at generating a layer of multipotent stem cells from RPE cells. Proliferation and differentiation of these stem cells may restore function to diseased retina [77].
Exudative AMD gene therapy mainly targets the VEGF pathway, but other areas of intervention include PEDF, angiostatin, and endostatin. Phase II clinical trials of rAAV.sFLT-1, which codes for a soluble, full length version of the VEGFR-1 protein, are currently underway [78]. A Phase I clinical trial evaluating safety and tolerability is currently underway for a recombinant, replication-deficient adeno-associated virus (AAV.7 m8-aflibercept) IVT injection gene therapy carrying an aflibercept coding sequence [79]. A Phase I clinical trial demonstrated safety for using an adeno-associated virus vector carrying genetic information for human PEDF (AdPEDF.11) [80]. Endostatin and angiostatin, are proteins that inhibits angiogenesis. A combination drug of endostatin and angiostatin (RetinoStat) demonstrated safety and tolerability [81]. There are many promising therapies in different stages of clinical trials for the treatment of AMD.
In summary, the “virtuous cycle” of bidirectional translation allows the examination of the outcome of experimental modulation in normal and pathological phenotypic animal models to discover novel regulators with the potential to evade, delay, or overturn human disease [82]. This cycle demonstrates that breakthroughs in human and experimental models facilitate a recurring sequence of human observation, pre-clinical model experimentation, followed by verification in humans (Figure 1). Animal models are fundamental to this discipline, as they advance the progression of understanding of the genetic framework that produces the pathological condition of interest and is a potentially vital target for novel therapeutics. It is proven that this series of bidirectional translation efficiently drives the investigation of diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of congenital, progressive, and adult conditions alike [82].
Model of the “virtuous cycle” of bidirectional translation. (A) Bidirectional translation begins with the discovery of a human disease phenotype. (B) After observing a phenotype, animal models are generated to mimic the human condition as accurately as possible. This allows for a deeper understanding of the pathophysiology as well as a model on which to test therapeutics. (C) With the knowledge gained from animal models, treatments are carried back into human patients to test clinically the efficacy and tolerability of the therapeutics. The cycle then repeats allowing for a better understanding of both the disease itself and how to treat it more efficaciously.
At baseline, this methodology is possible due to advanced genetic and molecular technologies, as well as the Human Genome Project, which propelled the identification of complex traits and pathways causing disease. Those resources alone, however, do not account for the complex interplay between inherited and environmental factors. Animal models provide a degree of experimental control, not possible in humans, to explore just that [82]. Both phenotype-based (forward genetics) and gene-based (reverse genetics) approaches permit linkage of genes and phenotypes in experimental animal models. Traditionally, genetic variants are accepted to relate in an additive fashion with functions that are stationary. Yet, there are many complexities in understanding these relationships, specifically in multigenic traits, with factors such as modifier genes, gene–gene interactions, gene–environment and gene-age interactions, and unconventional genetic complexities [82]. This is precisely where the beauty of animal models shines. They are the solution, the medium capable of exploring these intricacies. Puzzle pieces necessary to address gene–gene interactions, modifier genes, gene–environment interactions, and gene-age interactions can be tried and tested in pre-clinical models.
Although animal models cannot entirely replicate the human biological environment, they can reveal information that has been used to formulate hypotheses about the human manifestation of disease. This step has led to the discovery of genetic regulators and therapeutic modulators of disease, as part of the virtuous cycle of bidirectional translation. For example, the studies performed in mice undergoing oxidative stress (
Nadeau and Auwerx recapitulate that the virtuous cycle pairs the trajectory of observations in humans with the potential of experimental animal models and confirmation in human cases. Human limitations are apparent, while animal models house the biological tools to foster disease onset and progression. They expose pathophysiology that illuminates related disease mechanisms in humans and are deemed vital for the prosperity of molecular, cellular, developmental, and physiological experimentation.
AMD is a complex, multifaceted disease that is becoming more prevalent in the aging population. Animal models provide insight into our current understanding of disease pathophysiology including an interplay of oxidative stress, inflammation, dysregulated antioxidants, lipid metabolism, and angiogenesis juxtaposed with genetic and environmental risk factors, the greatest of which are aging and cigarette smoking. Mice are the most used animal models and have provided information such as the roles of antioxidants and inflammation in AMD pathophysiology. Mice also provide excellent polygenic models which may better represent the complex pathology of AMD. Although other animal models, such as rabbits, have been helpful, NHP eyes are the most like human eyes making them an invaluable resource; however cost and ethical issues limit their widespread use.
After disease progresses to exudative AMD, there are several FDA-approved treatments such as bevacizumab, ranibizumab, aflibercept, and most recently brolucizumab that block members of the VEGF family of proteins. Through the AREDS 2 study, vitamin supplementation consisting of 500 mg vitamin C, 400 IU vitamin E, 10 mg of lutein and 2 mg of zeaxanthin, 80 mg of zinc (zinc oxide), and 2 mg of copper (cupric oxide) can slow the progression to advanced AMD. Although treatment options are currently limited, there are studies in various clinical phases evaluating potential therapies for both non-exudative and exudative AMD. Three main classes under investigation are antibodies, genes, and cell-based therapies. The virtuous cycle of bidirectional translation, along with the use of improved animal models, enhances our understanding of AMD pathophysiology and opens the doors to innovative treatment options.
We would like to acknowledge the following funding sources: a Challenge Award from Research to Prevent Blindness (New York, NY) to the Department of Ophthalmology at the Hamilton Eye Institute; and a Catalyst Award for Innovative Research Approaches for Age-Related Macular Degeneration to MMJ from Research to Prevent Blindness (New York, NY) and the International Retinal Research Foundation (Birmingham, AL).
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
We believe financial barriers should not prevent researchers from publishing their findings. With the need to make scientific research more publicly available and support the benefits of Open Access, more and more institutions and funders are dedicating resources to assist faculty members and researchers cover Open Access Publishing Fees (OAPFs). In addition, IntechOpen provides several further options presented below, all of which are available to researchers, and could secure the financing of your Open Access publication.
",metaTitle:"Waiver Policy",metaDescription:"We feel that financial barriers should never prevent researchers from publishing their research. With the need to make scientific research more publically available and support the benefits of Open Access, more institutions and funders have dedicated funds to assist their faculty members and researchers cover the APCs associated with publishing in Open Access. Below we have outlined several options available to secure financing for your Open Access publication.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/waiver-policy",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"At IntechOpen, the majority of OAPFs are paid by an Author’s institution or funding agency - Institutions (73%) vs. Authors (23%).
\\n\\nThe first step in obtaining funds for your Open Access publication begins with your institution or library. IntechOpen’s publishing standards align with most institutional funding programs. Our advice is to petition your institution for help in financing your Open Access publication.
\\n\\nHowever, as Open Access becomes a more commonly used publishing option for the dissemination of scientific and scholarly content, in addition to institutions, there are a growing number of funders who allow the use of grants for covering OA publication costs, or have established separate funds for the same purpose.
\\n\\nPlease consult our Open Access Funding page to explore some of these funding opportunities and learn more about how you could finance your IntechOpen publication. Keep in mind that this list is not definitive, and while we are constantly updating and informing our Authors of new funding opportunities, we recommend that you always check with your institution first.
\\n\\nFor Authors who are unable to obtain funding from their institution or research funding bodies and still need help in covering publication costs, IntechOpen offers the possibility of applying for a Waiver.
\\n\\nOur mission is to support Authors in publishing their research and making an impact within the scientific community. Currently, 14% of Authors receive full waivers and 6% receive partial waivers.
\\n\\nWhile providing support and advice to all our international Authors, waiver priority will be given to those Authors who reside in countries that are classified by the World Bank as low-income economies. In this way, we can help ensure that the scientific work being carried out can make an impact within the worldwide scientific community, no matter where an Author might live.
\\n\\nThe application process is open after your submitted manuscript has been accepted for publication. To apply, please fill out a Waiver Request Form and send it to your Author Service Manager. If you have an official letter from your university or institution showing that funds for your OA publication are unavailable, please attach that as well. The Waiver Request will normally be addressed within one week from the application date. All chapters that receive waivers or partial waivers will be designated as such online.
\\n\\nDownload Waiver Request Form
\\n\\nFeel free to contact us at oapf@intechopen.com if you have any questions about Funding options or our Waiver program. If you have already begun the process and require further assistance, please contact your Author Service Manager, who is there to assist you!
\\n\\nNote: All data represented above was collected by IntechOpen from 2013 to 2017.
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'At IntechOpen, the majority of OAPFs are paid by an Author’s institution or funding agency - Institutions (73%) vs. Authors (23%).
\n\nThe first step in obtaining funds for your Open Access publication begins with your institution or library. IntechOpen’s publishing standards align with most institutional funding programs. Our advice is to petition your institution for help in financing your Open Access publication.
\n\nHowever, as Open Access becomes a more commonly used publishing option for the dissemination of scientific and scholarly content, in addition to institutions, there are a growing number of funders who allow the use of grants for covering OA publication costs, or have established separate funds for the same purpose.
\n\nPlease consult our Open Access Funding page to explore some of these funding opportunities and learn more about how you could finance your IntechOpen publication. Keep in mind that this list is not definitive, and while we are constantly updating and informing our Authors of new funding opportunities, we recommend that you always check with your institution first.
\n\nFor Authors who are unable to obtain funding from their institution or research funding bodies and still need help in covering publication costs, IntechOpen offers the possibility of applying for a Waiver.
\n\nOur mission is to support Authors in publishing their research and making an impact within the scientific community. Currently, 14% of Authors receive full waivers and 6% receive partial waivers.
\n\nWhile providing support and advice to all our international Authors, waiver priority will be given to those Authors who reside in countries that are classified by the World Bank as low-income economies. In this way, we can help ensure that the scientific work being carried out can make an impact within the worldwide scientific community, no matter where an Author might live.
\n\nThe application process is open after your submitted manuscript has been accepted for publication. To apply, please fill out a Waiver Request Form and send it to your Author Service Manager. If you have an official letter from your university or institution showing that funds for your OA publication are unavailable, please attach that as well. The Waiver Request will normally be addressed within one week from the application date. All chapters that receive waivers or partial waivers will be designated as such online.
\n\nDownload Waiver Request Form
\n\nFeel free to contact us at oapf@intechopen.com if you have any questions about Funding options or our Waiver program. If you have already begun the process and require further assistance, please contact your Author Service Manager, who is there to assist you!
\n\nNote: All data represented above was collected by IntechOpen from 2013 to 2017.
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5822},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5289},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1761},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10546},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:909},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15938}],offset:12,limit:12,total:119319},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{topicId:"300"},books:[],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:28},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:26},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:49},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:2}],offset:12,limit:12,total:0},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9154",title:"Spinal Deformities in Adolescents, Adults and Older Adults",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"313f1dffa803b60a14ff1e6966e93d91",slug:"spinal-deformities-in-adolescents-adults-and-older-adults",bookSignature:"Josette Bettany-Saltikov and Gokulakannan Kandasamy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9154.jpg",editors:[{id:"94802",title:"Dr.",name:"Josette",middleName:null,surname:"Bettany-Saltikov",slug:"josette-bettany-saltikov",fullName:"Josette Bettany-Saltikov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7030",title:"Satellite Systems",subtitle:"Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b9db6d2645ef248ceb1b33ea75f38e88",slug:"satellite-systems-design-modeling-simulation-and-analysis",bookSignature:"Tien Nguyen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7030.jpg",editors:[{id:"210657",title:"Dr.",name:"Tien M.",middleName:"Manh",surname:"Nguyen",slug:"tien-m.-nguyen",fullName:"Tien M. Nguyen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10201",title:"Post-Transition Metals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"cc7f53ff5269916e3ce29f65a51a87ae",slug:"post-transition-metals",bookSignature:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman, Abdullah Mohammed Asiri, Anish Khan, Inamuddin and Thamer Tabbakh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10201.jpg",editors:[{id:"24438",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed Muzibur",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",slug:"mohammed-muzibur-rahman",fullName:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10413",title:"A Collection of Papers on Chaos Theory and Its Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"900b71b164948830fec3d6254b7881f7",slug:"a-collection-of-papers-on-chaos-theory-and-its-applications",bookSignature:"Paul Bracken and Dimo I. Uzunov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10413.jpg",editors:[{id:"92883",title:"Prof.",name:"Paul",middleName:null,surname:"Bracken",slug:"paul-bracken",fullName:"Paul Bracken"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8472",title:"Bioactive Compounds in Nutraceutical and Functional Food for Good Human Health",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8855452919b8495810ef8e88641feb20",slug:"bioactive-compounds-in-nutraceutical-and-functional-food-for-good-human-health",bookSignature:"Kavita Sharma, Kanchan Mishra, Kula Kamal Senapati and Corina Danciu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8472.jpg",editors:[{id:"197731",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavita",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"kavita-sharma",fullName:"Kavita Sharma"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9515",title:"Update in Geriatrics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"913e16c0ae977474b283bbd4269564c8",slug:"update-in-geriatrics",bookSignature:"Somchai Amornyotin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9515.jpg",editors:[{id:"185484",title:"Prof.",name:"Somchai",middleName:null,surname:"Amornyotin",slug:"somchai-amornyotin",fullName:"Somchai Amornyotin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8148",title:"Investment Strategies in Emerging New Trends in Finance",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3b714d96a68d2acdfbd7b50aba6504ca",slug:"investment-strategies-in-emerging-new-trends-in-finance",bookSignature:"Reza Gharoie Ahangar and Asma Salman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8148.jpg",editors:[{id:"91081",title:"Dr.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Gharoie Ahangar",slug:"reza-gharoie-ahangar",fullName:"Reza Gharoie Ahangar"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"206443",title:"Prof.",name:"Asma",middleName:null,surname:"Salman",slug:"asma-salman",fullName:"Asma Salman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/206443/images/system/206443.png",biography:"Professor Asma Salman is a blockchain developer and Professor of Finance at the American University in the Emirates, UAE. An Honorary Global Advisor at the Global Academy of Finance and Management, USA, she completed her MBA in Finance and Accounting and earned a Ph.D. in Finance from an AACSB member, AMBA accredited, School of Management at Harbin Institute of Technology, China. Her research credentials include a one-year residency at the Brunel Business School, Brunel University, UK. Prof. Salman also served as the Dubai Cohort supervisor for DBA students under the Nottingham Business School, UK, for seven years and is currently a Ph.D. supervisor at the University of Northampton, UK, where she is a visiting fellow. She also served on the Board of Etihad Airlines during 2019–2020. One of her recent articles on “Bitcoin and Blockchain” gained wide visibility and she is an active speaker on Fintech, blockchain, and crypto events around the GCC. She holds various professional certifications including Chartered Fintech Professional (USA), Certified Financial Manager (USA), Women in Leadership and Management in Higher Education, (UK), and Taxation GCC VAT Compliance, (UK). She recently won an award for “Blockchain Trainer of the Year” from Berkeley Middle East. Other recognitions include the Women Leadership Impact Award by H.E First Lady of Armenia, Research Excellence Award, and the Global Inspirational Women Leadership Award by H.H Sheikh Juma Bin Maktoum Juma Al Maktoum.",institutionString:"American University in the Emirates",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"American University in the Emirates",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9959",title:"Biomedical Signal and Image Processing",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"22b87a09bd6df065d78c175235d367c8",slug:"biomedical-signal-and-image-processing",bookSignature:"Yongxia Zhou",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9959.jpg",editors:[{id:"259308",title:"Dr.",name:"Yongxia",middleName:null,surname:"Zhou",slug:"yongxia-zhou",fullName:"Yongxia Zhou"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9685",title:"Agroecosystems",subtitle:"Very Complex Environmental Systems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c44f7b43a9f9610c243dc32300d37df6",slug:"agroecosystems-very-complex-environmental-systems",bookSignature:"Marcelo L. Larramendy and Sonia Soloneski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9685.jpg",editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",middleName:null,surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. Larramendy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"2160",title:"MATLAB",subtitle:"A Fundamental Tool for Scientific Computing and Engineering Applications - Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dd9c658341fbd264ed4f8d9e6aa8ca29",slug:"matlab-a-fundamental-tool-for-scientific-computing-and-engineering-applications-volume-1",bookSignature:"Vasilios N. Katsikis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2160.jpg",editors:[{id:"12289",title:"Prof.",name:"Vasilios",middleName:"N.",surname:"Katsikis",slug:"vasilios-katsikis",fullName:"Vasilios Katsikis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9161",title:"Frailty in the Elderly",subtitle:"Understanding and Managing Complexity",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a4f0f2fade8fb8ba35c405f5ad31a823",slug:"frailty-in-the-elderly-understanding-and-managing-complexity",bookSignature:"Sara Palermo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9161.jpg",editors:[{id:"233998",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Palermo",slug:"sara-palermo",fullName:"Sara Palermo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5330},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9154",title:"Spinal Deformities in Adolescents, Adults and Older Adults",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"313f1dffa803b60a14ff1e6966e93d91",slug:"spinal-deformities-in-adolescents-adults-and-older-adults",bookSignature:"Josette Bettany-Saltikov and Gokulakannan Kandasamy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9154.jpg",editors:[{id:"94802",title:"Dr.",name:"Josette",middleName:null,surname:"Bettany-Saltikov",slug:"josette-bettany-saltikov",fullName:"Josette Bettany-Saltikov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7030",title:"Satellite Systems",subtitle:"Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b9db6d2645ef248ceb1b33ea75f38e88",slug:"satellite-systems-design-modeling-simulation-and-analysis",bookSignature:"Tien Nguyen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7030.jpg",editors:[{id:"210657",title:"Dr.",name:"Tien M.",middleName:"Manh",surname:"Nguyen",slug:"tien-m.-nguyen",fullName:"Tien M. Nguyen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10201",title:"Post-Transition Metals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"cc7f53ff5269916e3ce29f65a51a87ae",slug:"post-transition-metals",bookSignature:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman, Abdullah Mohammed Asiri, Anish Khan, Inamuddin and Thamer Tabbakh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10201.jpg",editors:[{id:"24438",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed Muzibur",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",slug:"mohammed-muzibur-rahman",fullName:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10413",title:"A Collection of Papers on Chaos Theory and Its Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"900b71b164948830fec3d6254b7881f7",slug:"a-collection-of-papers-on-chaos-theory-and-its-applications",bookSignature:"Paul Bracken and Dimo I. Uzunov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10413.jpg",editors:[{id:"92883",title:"Prof.",name:"Paul",middleName:null,surname:"Bracken",slug:"paul-bracken",fullName:"Paul Bracken"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9515",title:"Update in Geriatrics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"913e16c0ae977474b283bbd4269564c8",slug:"update-in-geriatrics",bookSignature:"Somchai Amornyotin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9515.jpg",editors:[{id:"185484",title:"Prof.",name:"Somchai",middleName:null,surname:"Amornyotin",slug:"somchai-amornyotin",fullName:"Somchai Amornyotin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8148",title:"Investment Strategies in Emerging New Trends in Finance",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3b714d96a68d2acdfbd7b50aba6504ca",slug:"investment-strategies-in-emerging-new-trends-in-finance",bookSignature:"Reza Gharoie Ahangar and Asma Salman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8148.jpg",editors:[{id:"91081",title:"Dr.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Gharoie Ahangar",slug:"reza-gharoie-ahangar",fullName:"Reza Gharoie Ahangar"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"206443",title:"Prof.",name:"Asma",middleName:null,surname:"Salman",slug:"asma-salman",fullName:"Asma Salman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/206443/images/system/206443.png",biography:"Professor Asma Salman is a blockchain developer and Professor of Finance at the American University in the Emirates, UAE. An Honorary Global Advisor at the Global Academy of Finance and Management, USA, she completed her MBA in Finance and Accounting and earned a Ph.D. in Finance from an AACSB member, AMBA accredited, School of Management at Harbin Institute of Technology, China. Her research credentials include a one-year residency at the Brunel Business School, Brunel University, UK. Prof. Salman also served as the Dubai Cohort supervisor for DBA students under the Nottingham Business School, UK, for seven years and is currently a Ph.D. supervisor at the University of Northampton, UK, where she is a visiting fellow. She also served on the Board of Etihad Airlines during 2019–2020. One of her recent articles on “Bitcoin and Blockchain” gained wide visibility and she is an active speaker on Fintech, blockchain, and crypto events around the GCC. She holds various professional certifications including Chartered Fintech Professional (USA), Certified Financial Manager (USA), Women in Leadership and Management in Higher Education, (UK), and Taxation GCC VAT Compliance, (UK). She recently won an award for “Blockchain Trainer of the Year” from Berkeley Middle East. Other recognitions include the Women Leadership Impact Award by H.E First Lady of Armenia, Research Excellence Award, and the Global Inspirational Women Leadership Award by H.H Sheikh Juma Bin Maktoum Juma Al Maktoum.",institutionString:"American University in the Emirates",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"American University in the Emirates",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8472",title:"Bioactive Compounds in Nutraceutical and Functional Food for Good Human Health",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8855452919b8495810ef8e88641feb20",slug:"bioactive-compounds-in-nutraceutical-and-functional-food-for-good-human-health",bookSignature:"Kavita Sharma, Kanchan Mishra, Kula Kamal Senapati and Corina Danciu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8472.jpg",editors:[{id:"197731",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavita",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"kavita-sharma",fullName:"Kavita Sharma"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9959",title:"Biomedical Signal and Image Processing",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"22b87a09bd6df065d78c175235d367c8",slug:"biomedical-signal-and-image-processing",bookSignature:"Yongxia Zhou",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9959.jpg",editors:[{id:"259308",title:"Dr.",name:"Yongxia",middleName:null,surname:"Zhou",slug:"yongxia-zhou",fullName:"Yongxia Zhou"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9685",title:"Agroecosystems",subtitle:"Very Complex Environmental Systems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c44f7b43a9f9610c243dc32300d37df6",slug:"agroecosystems-very-complex-environmental-systems",bookSignature:"Marcelo L. Larramendy and Sonia Soloneski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9685.jpg",editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",middleName:null,surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. Larramendy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8564",title:"Cell Interaction",subtitle:"Molecular and Immunological Basis for Disease Management",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"98d7f080d80524285f091e72a8e92a6d",slug:"cell-interaction-molecular-and-immunological-basis-for-disease-management",bookSignature:"Bhawana Singh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8564.jpg",editors:[{id:"315192",title:"Dr.",name:"Bhawana",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"bhawana-singh",fullName:"Bhawana Singh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9515",title:"Update in Geriatrics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"913e16c0ae977474b283bbd4269564c8",slug:"update-in-geriatrics",bookSignature:"Somchai Amornyotin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9515.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"185484",title:"Prof.",name:"Somchai",middleName:null,surname:"Amornyotin",slug:"somchai-amornyotin",fullName:"Somchai Amornyotin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9021",title:"Novel Perspectives of Stem Cell Manufacturing and Therapies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"522c6db871783d2a11c17b83f1fd4e18",slug:"novel-perspectives-of-stem-cell-manufacturing-and-therapies",bookSignature:"Diana Kitala and Ana Colette Maurício",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9021.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"203598",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Diana",middleName:null,surname:"Kitala",slug:"diana-kitala",fullName:"Diana Kitala"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7030",title:"Satellite Systems",subtitle:"Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b9db6d2645ef248ceb1b33ea75f38e88",slug:"satellite-systems-design-modeling-simulation-and-analysis",bookSignature:"Tien Nguyen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7030.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"210657",title:"Dr.",name:"Tien M.",middleName:"Manh",surname:"Nguyen",slug:"tien-m.-nguyen",fullName:"Tien M. Nguyen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10413",title:"A Collection of Papers on Chaos Theory and Its Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"900b71b164948830fec3d6254b7881f7",slug:"a-collection-of-papers-on-chaos-theory-and-its-applications",bookSignature:"Paul Bracken and Dimo I. Uzunov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10413.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"92883",title:"Prof.",name:"Paul",middleName:null,surname:"Bracken",slug:"paul-bracken",fullName:"Paul Bracken"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9154",title:"Spinal Deformities in Adolescents, Adults and Older Adults",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"313f1dffa803b60a14ff1e6966e93d91",slug:"spinal-deformities-in-adolescents-adults-and-older-adults",bookSignature:"Josette Bettany-Saltikov and Gokulakannan Kandasamy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9154.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"94802",title:"Dr.",name:"Josette",middleName:null,surname:"Bettany-Saltikov",slug:"josette-bettany-saltikov",fullName:"Josette Bettany-Saltikov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8148",title:"Investment Strategies in Emerging New Trends in Finance",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3b714d96a68d2acdfbd7b50aba6504ca",slug:"investment-strategies-in-emerging-new-trends-in-finance",bookSignature:"Reza Gharoie Ahangar and Asma Salman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8148.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"91081",title:"Dr.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Gharoie Ahangar",slug:"reza-gharoie-ahangar",fullName:"Reza Gharoie Ahangar"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"206443",title:"Prof.",name:"Asma",middleName:null,surname:"Salman",slug:"asma-salman",fullName:"Asma Salman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/206443/images/system/206443.png",biography:"Professor Asma Salman is a blockchain developer and Professor of Finance at the American University in the Emirates, UAE. An Honorary Global Advisor at the Global Academy of Finance and Management, USA, she completed her MBA in Finance and Accounting and earned a Ph.D. in Finance from an AACSB member, AMBA accredited, School of Management at Harbin Institute of Technology, China. Her research credentials include a one-year residency at the Brunel Business School, Brunel University, UK. Prof. Salman also served as the Dubai Cohort supervisor for DBA students under the Nottingham Business School, UK, for seven years and is currently a Ph.D. supervisor at the University of Northampton, UK, where she is a visiting fellow. She also served on the Board of Etihad Airlines during 2019–2020. One of her recent articles on “Bitcoin and Blockchain” gained wide visibility and she is an active speaker on Fintech, blockchain, and crypto events around the GCC. She holds various professional certifications including Chartered Fintech Professional (USA), Certified Financial Manager (USA), Women in Leadership and Management in Higher Education, (UK), and Taxation GCC VAT Compliance, (UK). She recently won an award for “Blockchain Trainer of the Year” from Berkeley Middle East. Other recognitions include the Women Leadership Impact Award by H.E First Lady of Armenia, Research Excellence Award, and the Global Inspirational Women Leadership Award by H.H Sheikh Juma Bin Maktoum Juma Al Maktoum.",institutionString:"American University in the Emirates",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"American University in the Emirates",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10201",title:"Post-Transition Metals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"cc7f53ff5269916e3ce29f65a51a87ae",slug:"post-transition-metals",bookSignature:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman, Abdullah Mohammed Asiri, Anish Khan, Inamuddin and Thamer Tabbakh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10201.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"24438",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed Muzibur",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",slug:"mohammed-muzibur-rahman",fullName:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9959",title:"Biomedical Signal and Image Processing",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"22b87a09bd6df065d78c175235d367c8",slug:"biomedical-signal-and-image-processing",bookSignature:"Yongxia Zhou",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9959.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"259308",title:"Dr.",name:"Yongxia",middleName:null,surname:"Zhou",slug:"yongxia-zhou",fullName:"Yongxia Zhou"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8472",title:"Bioactive Compounds in Nutraceutical and Functional Food for Good Human Health",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8855452919b8495810ef8e88641feb20",slug:"bioactive-compounds-in-nutraceutical-and-functional-food-for-good-human-health",bookSignature:"Kavita Sharma, Kanchan Mishra, Kula Kamal Senapati and Corina Danciu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8472.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"197731",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavita",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"kavita-sharma",fullName:"Kavita Sharma"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8760",title:"Structure Topology and Symplectic Geometry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8974840985ec3652492c83e20233bf02",slug:"structure-topology-and-symplectic-geometry",bookSignature:"Kamal Shah and Min Lei",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8760.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"231748",title:"Dr.",name:"Kamal",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"kamal-shah",fullName:"Kamal Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"797",title:"Design Engineering",slug:"industrial-engineering-and-management-design-engineering",parent:{title:"Industrial Engineering and Management",slug:"industrial-engineering-and-management"},numberOfBooks:5,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:128,numberOfWosCitations:141,numberOfCrossrefCitations:98,numberOfDimensionsCitations:192,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"industrial-engineering-and-management-design-engineering",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"9174",title:"Product Design",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3510bacbbf4d365e97510bf962652de1",slug:"product-design",bookSignature:"Cătălin Alexandru, Codruta Jaliu and Mihai Comşit",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9174.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"2767",title:"Prof.",name:"Catalin",middleName:null,surname:"Alexandru",slug:"catalin-alexandru",fullName:"Catalin Alexandru"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3116",title:"Advances in Industrial Design Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9cb2d954a2f9ea36c3d0f915a7fcd8ad",slug:"advances-in-industrial-design-engineering",bookSignature:"Denis A. Coelho",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3116.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"38427",title:"Prof.",name:"Denis",middleName:null,surname:"Coelho",slug:"denis-coelho",fullName:"Denis Coelho"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1802",title:"Manufacturing System",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4db5cd5587e7ab1fe6e34507c103ee13",slug:"manufacturing-system",bookSignature:"Faieza Abdul Aziz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1802.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109136",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Faieza",middleName:null,surname:"Abdul Aziz",slug:"faieza-abdul-aziz",fullName:"Faieza Abdul Aziz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1991",title:"Infrastructure Design, Signalling and Security in Railway",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2151ad71a0cc7423ed852ab93d8c70f8",slug:"infrastructure-design-signalling-and-security-in-railway",bookSignature:"Xavier Perpinya",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1991.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111217",title:"Dr.",name:"Xavier",middleName:null,surname:"Perpinya",slug:"xavier-perpinya",fullName:"Xavier Perpinya"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"323",title:"Industrial Design",subtitle:"New Frontiers",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6712ef0cc1fdf610d17e8aa70170f773",slug:"industrial-design-new-frontiers",bookSignature:"Denis A. Coelho",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/323.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"38427",title:"Prof.",name:"Denis",middleName:null,surname:"Coelho",slug:"denis-coelho",fullName:"Denis Coelho"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:5,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"43375",doi:"10.5772/55274",title:"Product Sound Design: Intentional and Consequential Sounds",slug:"product-sound-design-intentional-and-consequential-sounds",totalDownloads:2943,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:25,book:{slug:"advances-in-industrial-design-engineering",title:"Advances in Industrial Design Engineering",fullTitle:"Advances in Industrial Design Engineering"},signatures:"Lau Langeveld, René van Egmond, Reinier Jansen and Elif Özcan",authors:[{id:"39586",title:"MSc.",name:"Lau",middleName:null,surname:"Langeveld",slug:"lau-langeveld",fullName:"Lau Langeveld"},{id:"156849",title:"MSc.",name:"Reinier",middleName:null,surname:"Jansen",slug:"reinier-jansen",fullName:"Reinier Jansen"},{id:"156854",title:"Dr.",name:"Rene",middleName:null,surname:"Van Egmond",slug:"rene-van-egmond",fullName:"Rene Van Egmond"},{id:"156855",title:"Dr.",name:"Elif",middleName:null,surname:"Ozcan",slug:"elif-ozcan",fullName:"Elif Ozcan"}]},{id:"34792",doi:"10.5772/35864",title:"Gaming Simulations for Railways: Lessons Learned from Modeling Six Games for the Dutch Infrastructure Management",slug:"gaming-simulations-for-railways-lessons-learned-from-modeling-six-games-for-the-dutch-infrastructure",totalDownloads:1899,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:19,book:{slug:"infrastructure-design-signalling-and-security-in-railway",title:"Infrastructure Design, Signalling and Security in Railway",fullTitle:"Infrastructure Design, Signalling and Security in Railway"},signatures:"Sebastiaan Meijer",authors:[{id:"106139",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastiaan",middleName:null,surname:"Meijer",slug:"sebastiaan-meijer",fullName:"Sebastiaan Meijer"}]},{id:"36413",doi:"10.5772/35991",title:"Environmental Burden Analyzer for Machine Tool Operations and Its Application",slug:"environmental-burden-analyzer-for-machine-tool-operations-and-its-application",totalDownloads:2247,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:15,book:{slug:"manufacturing-system",title:"Manufacturing System",fullTitle:"Manufacturing System"},signatures:"Hirohisa Narita",authors:[{id:"106662",title:"Dr.",name:"Hirohisa",middleName:null,surname:"Narita",slug:"hirohisa-narita",fullName:"Hirohisa Narita"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"43375",title:"Product Sound Design: Intentional and Consequential Sounds",slug:"product-sound-design-intentional-and-consequential-sounds",totalDownloads:2946,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:25,book:{slug:"advances-in-industrial-design-engineering",title:"Advances in Industrial Design Engineering",fullTitle:"Advances in Industrial Design Engineering"},signatures:"Lau Langeveld, René van Egmond, Reinier Jansen and Elif Özcan",authors:[{id:"39586",title:"MSc.",name:"Lau",middleName:null,surname:"Langeveld",slug:"lau-langeveld",fullName:"Lau Langeveld"},{id:"156849",title:"MSc.",name:"Reinier",middleName:null,surname:"Jansen",slug:"reinier-jansen",fullName:"Reinier Jansen"},{id:"156854",title:"Dr.",name:"Rene",middleName:null,surname:"Van Egmond",slug:"rene-van-egmond",fullName:"Rene Van Egmond"},{id:"156855",title:"Dr.",name:"Elif",middleName:null,surname:"Ozcan",slug:"elif-ozcan",fullName:"Elif Ozcan"}]},{id:"43362",title:"Design Thinking in Conceptual Design Processes: A Comparison Between Industrial and Engineering Design Students",slug:"design-thinking-in-conceptual-design-processes-a-comparison-between-industrial-and-engineering-desig",totalDownloads:2988,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"advances-in-industrial-design-engineering",title:"Advances in Industrial Design Engineering",fullTitle:"Advances in Industrial Design Engineering"},signatures:"Hao Jiang and Ching-Chiuan Yen",authors:[{id:"38998",title:"Dr.",name:"Hao",middleName:null,surname:"Jiang",slug:"hao-jiang",fullName:"Hao Jiang"},{id:"154802",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ching-Chiuan",middleName:null,surname:"Yen",slug:"ching-chiuan-yen",fullName:"Ching-Chiuan Yen"}]},{id:"43458",title:"Visual and Material Culture in the Context of Industrial Design: The Contemporary Nigerian Experience",slug:"visual-and-material-culture-in-the-context-of-industrial-design-the-contemporary-nigerian-experience",totalDownloads:3777,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"advances-in-industrial-design-engineering",title:"Advances in Industrial Design Engineering",fullTitle:"Advances in Industrial Design Engineering"},signatures:"I.B. Kashim",authors:[{id:"39941",title:"Dr.",name:"Isah Bolaji",middleName:null,surname:"Kashim",slug:"isah-bolaji-kashim",fullName:"Isah Bolaji Kashim"}]},{id:"43577",title:"The Design of Product Instructions",slug:"the-design-of-product-instructions",totalDownloads:2459,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"advances-in-industrial-design-engineering",title:"Advances in Industrial Design Engineering",fullTitle:"Advances in Industrial Design Engineering"},signatures:"Dian Li, Tom Cassidy and David Bromilow",authors:[{id:"39208",title:"Prof.",name:"Tom",middleName:null,surname:"Cassidy",slug:"tom-cassidy",fullName:"Tom Cassidy"}]},{id:"43555",title:"Sustainable Product Innovation: The Importance of the Front- End Stage in the Innovation Process",slug:"sustainable-product-innovation-the-importance-of-the-front-end-stage-in-the-innovation-process",totalDownloads:3974,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:15,book:{slug:"advances-in-industrial-design-engineering",title:"Advances in Industrial Design Engineering",fullTitle:"Advances in Industrial Design Engineering"},signatures:"Kristel Dewulf",authors:[{id:"154290",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Kristel",middleName:null,surname:"Dewulf",slug:"kristel-dewulf",fullName:"Kristel Dewulf"}]},{id:"34782",title:"The Role of Light Railway in Sugarcane Transport in Egypt",slug:"the-role-of-light-railway-in-cane-transport-in-egypt-",totalDownloads:3176,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"infrastructure-design-signalling-and-security-in-railway",title:"Infrastructure Design, Signalling and Security in Railway",fullTitle:"Infrastructure Design, Signalling and Security in Railway"},signatures:"Hassan A. Abdel-Mawla",authors:[{id:"110356",title:"Prof.",name:"Hassan",middleName:null,surname:"Abdel-Mawla",slug:"hassan-abdel-mawla",fullName:"Hassan Abdel-Mawla"}]},{id:"34791",title:"Cellular Automaton Modeling of Passenger Transport Systems",slug:"cellular-automaton-modeling-of-passenger-transport-system-and-applications",totalDownloads:1759,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"infrastructure-design-signalling-and-security-in-railway",title:"Infrastructure Design, Signalling and Security in Railway",fullTitle:"Infrastructure Design, Signalling and Security in Railway"},signatures:"Akiyasu Tomoeda",authors:[{id:"105626",title:"Dr.",name:"Akiyasu",middleName:null,surname:"Tomoeda",slug:"akiyasu-tomoeda",fullName:"Akiyasu Tomoeda"}]},{id:"43556",title:"Measuring Design Simplicity",slug:"measuring-design-simplicity",totalDownloads:1812,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"advances-in-industrial-design-engineering",title:"Advances in Industrial Design Engineering",fullTitle:"Advances in Industrial Design Engineering"},signatures:"Carlos A.M. Duarte",authors:[{id:"154479",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"A. M.",surname:"Duarte",slug:"carlos-duarte",fullName:"Carlos Duarte"}]},{id:"22851",title:"Designing Disruptive Innovative Systems, Products and Services: RTD Process",slug:"designing-disruptive-innovative-systems-products-and-services-rtd-process",totalDownloads:2331,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"industrial-design-new-frontiers",title:"Industrial Design",fullTitle:"Industrial Design - New Frontiers"},signatures:"Caroline Hummels and Joep Frens",authors:[{id:"48290",title:"Dr.",name:"Caroline",middleName:null,surname:"Hummels",slug:"caroline-hummels",fullName:"Caroline Hummels"},{id:"61124",title:"Dr.",name:"Joep",middleName:null,surname:"Frens",slug:"joep-frens",fullName:"Joep Frens"}]},{id:"36412",title:"Hybrid Manufacturing System Design and Development",slug:"hybrid-manufacturing-system-design-and-development",totalDownloads:2628,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"manufacturing-system",title:"Manufacturing System",fullTitle:"Manufacturing System"},signatures:"Jacquelyn K. S. Nagel and Frank W. Liou",authors:[{id:"101869",title:"Prof.",name:"Frank",middleName:null,surname:"Liou",slug:"frank-liou",fullName:"Frank Liou"},{id:"105106",title:"Dr.",name:"Jacquelyn",middleName:"Kay",surname:"Nagel",slug:"jacquelyn-nagel",fullName:"Jacquelyn Nagel"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"industrial-engineering-and-management-design-engineering",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/211008/jose-luis-yague-blanco",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"211008",slug:"jose-luis-yague-blanco"},fullPath:"/profiles/211008/jose-luis-yague-blanco",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var t;(t=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(t)}()